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Which Welsh 12 year old sang at Michael Jackson's memorial concert in the USA?	Remember Shaheen Jafargholi on Britain's Got Talent? Five years after he shot to fame, the Swansea teenager still dreams of a singing career - Wales Online Remember Shaheen Jafargholi on Britain's Got Talent? Five years after he shot to fame, the Swansea teenager still dreams of a singing career Shaeen Jafargholi who sang at Michael Jackson's globally televised memorial service is planning a new album Share Shaheen Jafargholi as he looks today Share Get daily updates directly to your inbox + Subscribe Thank you for subscribing! Could not subscribe, try again laterInvalid Email His extraordinary voice propelled him to international fame and a performance at Michael Jackson’s funeral after he appeared on Britain’s Got Talent. Now, five years after he sang at the pop star’s globally televised funeral, Swansea teenager Shaheen Jafargholi has revealed he is still hoping to build a singing career. Shaheen, now 17, says he plans to move to London from Swansea next year and aims to release a new album after taking a break for two years to concentrate on his GCSEs at Swansea’s Dylan Thomas School. Shaheen Jafargholi - then and now View gallery He said: “I eventually got seventeen and a half GCSEs. I think the half is something to do with computer technology. “Ever since I’ve been concentrating on writing and recording songs and travel to London every week. I can be in a recording studio, a booth or a warehouse but as long as I’m putting down songs I don’t care where it is being done. Beyonce wowed by 12-year-old singing star Shaheen “I’ve written over 40 songs and I plan to market a finished album next year when I’m 18 when I move to London, the heart of the music business. This time I want my music to reflect me, my experiences over the past five years or so and not want people want me to be. It’s going to be more Shaheen.” Shaheen Jafargholi performing on Britain's Got Talent 2009 Video Loading Share this video Watch Next The young singer won over the nation’s hearts on Britain’s Got Talent in 2009 with his audition song, a cover of the Amy Winehouse version of The Zutons song, Valerie, initially being stopped after two lines by Simon Cowell who remarked: “You got this really wrong.” Unusually, Cowell requested Jafargholi sing another tune, as he felt the first song did not suit him and after only a moment’s hesitation he belted out Michael Jackson’s Who’s Lovin’ You, the performance being highly rated by the audience and the judges, earning a standing ovation. Although he only reached seventh place in the show he was invited to sing at a public memorial service for Michael Jackson on July 7, 2009 at the Staples Centre in Los Angeles. The service was watched the world over and included stars such as Stevie Wonder, Mariah Carey, Queen Latifah, Smokey Robinson, Lionel Richie, Janet Jackson and Jermaine Jackson. Soon after, Shaheen flew to Chicago to tape an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show performing “Who’s Lovin’ You”, which aired on 14 October. He later produced an album made up mainly of covers and a double A-side single and also took part in a reality documentary about his life and appeared in shows and had parts in TV progammes including Casualty, Torchwood and Grandpa in My Pocket. He said: “Now I’ve got my school work out of the way I want to continue creating original songs. Looking back at the memorial concert it was so wonderful to be even with those big stars let alone singing on stage with them. “Five years on Michael Jackson still has a big influence as an artist. He 100% inspired me to sing and his volume of work still inspires me today.” Like us on Facebook	Shaheen Jafargholi
In which fictional Cornish village is the television series 'Doc Martin' set?	Liveblogging Michael Jackson's funeral and memorial service \| News \| The Guardian Liveblogging Michael Jackson's funeral and memorial service Real-time dispatches from today's events in Los Angeles, including updates from inside the Staples Centre Tuesday 7 July 2009 10.24 EDT First published on Tuesday 7 July 2009 10.24 EDT Close Photograph: AP 7.24am (10.24am eastern, 3.24pm UK time): The crowds are gathering in downtown Los Angeles, and the Jackson family have left for the Forest Lawn Cemetery in the Hollywood Hills... so a little earlier than scheduled, let's begin today's live coverage of the most-hyped wake of the decade. Andrew Gumbel will be inside the Staples Centre later, where he'll be joined, we learn this morning, by Michael Jackson's casket . Your insightful comments, memories, observations and impeccably tasteful remarks are actively encouraged! The public service proper is scheduled to begin at 10am PDT/6pm UK time. Fans arrive at the Staples Center in Los Angeles for today's memorial service. Photograph: AP 7.40am (3.40pm): A nice click-and-drag panorama from the LA Times gives a good sense of the venue for the main event later today. 7.46am (3.46pm): The Jackson family motorcade is being sponsored by Range Rover , according to website-that-we-apparently-all-now-trust, TMZ. The stage is set for today's Michael Jackson memorial service. Photograph: AP 7.55am (3.55pm): Above: the stage setting inside the arena. Drumkits, basically. Not visible in this photograph are the enormous screens on which the performances will be carried — there are others outside the venue, too — and really rather copious branding for Staples. Why not honour one of the greatest musical talents in living memory by purchasing some office products? 8.03am (4.03pm): So, to clarify, the 16-vehicle motorcade has now left the fan-surrounded Jackson family home in Encino, California, and is en route... uh, somewhere, because at least some of the family seem to have paid their respects at the cemetery last night . Perhaps they're making a second visit. Mystery still surrounds how Jackson's body is going to make it to downtown LA: there were reportedly problems with a plan to helicopter it there. Photograph: Getty 8.12am (4.12pm): Insert ponderous metaphor about the worldwide media CIRCUS surrounding Michael Jackson's death! Actual circus company Ringling Bros is due to start performing at the same venue tomorrow, so in the small hours of this morning, 11 Asian elephants were duly escorted inside by police. 8.15am (4.15pm): The Jackson family motorcade arrives at the Forest Lawn cemetery. In response to commenter mackat, the confusion is because a) there's a private family funeral followed by a public memorial service at a different venue, b) Jackson's body will be at the public memorial service — and also at the private funeral? — in which case, when and where will he actually be buried?, and c) more generally, nobody has a damn clue what's going on. The Jackson family motorcade leaves Encino earlier today. Photograph: AP 8.21am (4.21pm): The front steps of Forest Lawn are a mass of mourners in dark suits and dresses, greeting and hugging each other. If "private family funeral" makes you think of 20 or 30 people, be assured there are, by my estimate, a minimum of 200 people there. Meanwhile, in downtown LA, 3,200 police officers are on duty . 8.29am (4.29pm): The front doors of the cemetery complex close after the last arrivals, leaving the motorcade parked up outside, and the private service begins. You're going to have to imagine this part. 8.43am (4.43pm): Be it known that Geraldo Rivera will NOT be attending today's memorial. He is doing this as a protest against the exploitation of Michael Jackson's memory, by bloodsuckers. What on earth will happen when this news reaches the thousands of onlookers gathered on the streets of LA? 8.56am (4.56pm): And in other important news, you'll maybe be surprised to learn that that wasn't Michael Jackson's ghost at the Neverland Ranch after all. Remarkably, it was a shadow from a member of a TV crew. In the linked video, Larry King (who actually is a paranormal phenomenon) explains all. 9.01am (5.01pm): At Forest Lawn, the private ceremony's now over, and the mourners are returning to their vehicles. A hearse is waiting to carry Jackson's body to the Staples Centre -- a journey of about 20-25 minutes, apparently. We seem to be on schedule, except that it's now being reported that the public service will begin half an hour late, at 10.30am. ...Aaand there's the casket, now in the hearse and ready for the journey to begin. 9.14am (5.14pm): Andrew Gumbel calls in from the heart of the throng. He'll be in the Staples Centre for the ceremony, and got a look inside just now. Behind the stage, a huge screen reads "Michael Jackson: In Loving Memory," while the front of the stage is knee-deep in bouquets of flowers — just one more Dianaesque aspect of today's frenzy. The atmosphere among the fans is calm and happy, he says, while the specially printed memorial programme features photographs of Jackson with Nelson Mandela, Bill Clinton and Ronald Reagan. Inside, family members offer their thoughts. "I watched the light in Michael's eyes fade as he faced trials and tribulations for being misunderstood," observes his brother Tito. The programme does not appear to have been created using a special lenticular process . 9.24am (5.24pm): An exclusive investigation by my colleague Andrew Clark elicits the following information from the British consulate in Los Angeles: according to a spokeswoman, there is no official British government presence at the King of Pop's memorial — even though he was, like, a king — "unless you count the number of British cars the Jackson family arrived in: Range Rovers and Bentleys." Today is, it seems, all about car company sponsorship. And UK plc! Well done chaps. 9.28am (5.28pm): A non-exclusive investigation by myself reveals that the ceremony, now due to begin in an hour, is going to conclude with a star-packed rendition of We Are The World , led by Lionel Richie. So now you know. Meanwhile, the Staples Centre's filling up. 9.40am (5.40pm): The funeral cortege is still en route... 9.47am (5.47pm): While we're waiting, a real development: Moon Crater To Be Designated In Memoriam Of Legendary Entertainer Michael Jackson ! Apparently, Jackson "was among the largest private owners of lunar property claims. In addition to his significant parcel in the Lake of Dreams, which he obtained in 2005, he also owned a smaller property in the Sea of Vapours." I never knew this, and yet I am not altogether surprised. Also, here are hundreds of people moonwalking in Jackson's honour, mainly in Belgium, for a reason that isn't made clear. Man, those Belgians can dance though. Apart from the ones who can't. 9.50am (5.50pm): The Jackson family motorcade arrives at the Staples Centre. Photograph: Pool 10.01am (6.01pm): Here's that commemorative programme. The venue is pretty full now, as we hit the originally scheduled start time for today's service. 10.12am (6.12pm): Some action at the Staples Centre — sometime ahead of the rescheduled start time — as Smokey Robinson reads tribute messages first from Diana Ross and then from Nelson Mandela, who says Michael Jackson became a close friend. Jackson's casket, apparently, has now arrived at the building. 10.25am (6.25pm): Apologies for the technology-induced delay. Still nothing happening on stage, though. Offstage, though, reports Andrew Gumbel: "A big welcome cheer and standing ovation for Kobe Bryant, who owns the Staples crowd because the Lakers play here. No cheers for the others, such as Al Sharpton." 10.32am (6.32pm): And the service begins. A gospel choir sings Soon And Very Soon against a backdrop projection of stained-glass church windows, with lurid pink and purple clouds behind them as Jackson's coffin, covered with roses, is wheeled out to the front and centre of the blue stage. The crowd is mainly respectfully quiet, with occasional outbreaks of cheering. 10.38am (6.38pm): Jackson family pastor Lucious Smith opens the proceedings. "We remember this man by celebrating all of the love he brought to all of our lives for half a century. Our hearts are heavy today because [he] is gone far too soon, but as long as we remember our time with him, the truth is he is never really gone at all." Through his words and music, Smith says, "Michael did so much to try and heal our world." 10.40am (6.40pm): Mariah Carey takes to the stage with Trey Lorenz to sing a slightly thin version I'll Be There, accompanied by a montage of photographs of the young Michael Jackson and the Jackson 5. Plenty of moist eyes in the audience already. The layout of the stage is such that they're literally singing at Jackson, whose casket lies immediately in front of them. 10.45am (6.45pm): Queen Latifah, close to tears from the start, steps up to the rostrum to speak, she says, on behalf of fans everywhere. "Michael was the biggest star on earth. He let me know that as an African-American, you could travel the world — there was a world outside of America, other people." She reads a poem by Maya Angelou. "Sing our songs among the stars, and walk our dances across the face of the moon. In the instant we learned that Michael was gone, we know nothing... with the abrupt absence of our treasure, though we are many, each of us is achingly alone, piercingly alone. Only when we confess our confusion can we remember that he was a gift to us, and we did have him." 10.49am (6.49pm): "In Birmingham, Alabama and Birmingham, England, we are missing Michael Jackson. But we do know that we had him." Lionel Richie now, with a fetching yellow rose in his buttonhole, gets things going with a properly impassioned rendition of Jesus Is Love . 10.54am (6.54pm): Here's Berry Gordy, the founder of Motown, who's looking exceedingly vigorous and healthy for 79. "Today the world mourns the death of a friend and brother, Michael Jackson, who was like a son to me... Michael Jackson was 10 years old when he and his brothers auditioned for me in Motown in Detroit that July day in 1968, and blew us all away. The Jackson 5 were just amazing, and little Michael's performance was way beyond his years. This little kid had an incredible knowingness about him... he sung a Smokey Robinson song called Who's Lovin' You. He sang it with the sadness and passion of a man who'd been living the blues and heartbreak his whole life. And as great as Smokey sang it, I thought Michael was better." Robinson, in the audience, chuckles in agreement. 10.59am (6.59pm): "From the first beat of Billie Jean, I was mesmerised. And when he did his iconic moonwalk, I was shocked. It was magic. Michael Jackson went into orbit, and never came down. Though it ended way too soon, Michael's life was beautiful. Sure, there were some sad, sad times, and maybe some questionable decisions on his part, but Michael Jackson accomplished everything he dreamed of." That's the first reference to anything negative in Jackson's life and career so far during this service, though Gordy soon passes over it. 11.02am (7.02pm): And Gordy finishes up, to the loudest cheers and applause so far: "The more I think about Michael Jackson, the more I think The King of Pop is not big enough for him. I think he is simply the greatest entertainer that ever lived... Michael, thank you." 11.04am (7.04pm): Now we're watching a fast-moving compilation of Jackson music videos and concert footage — from the old dance moves in black-and-white, via Thriller and Bad, to the stadium ballads of more recent years. (I think I saw a clip of Bubbles the chimpanzee in there...) And plenty of shots of Jackson, arms outstretched, Messiah-like. 11.08am (7.08pm): Stevie Wonder. "This is a moment that I wished that I didn't have to see coming... but I do know that God is good, and I do know that as much as we may feel that we need Michael here with us, God must have needed him far more," he says, then effortlessly segues into his song Never Dreamed You'd Leave In Summer. Maybe I'm just biased in Stevie Wonder's favour, but this strikes me as easily the high point of the event so far, performance-wise. 11.15am (7.15pm): Words from Kobe Bryant — "Michael was a true humanitarian" — and Magic Johnson, who recalls being invited to dinner at Jackson's house, where the chef prepared grilled chicken for Johnson but then brought out Kentucky Fried Chicken for Jackson. "Michael? You eat Kentucky Fried Chicken?" (Johnson describes this chicken incident as "the greatest moment of his life.") "His three children will have the most incredible grandmother that God has put on this earth... so may God continue to bless this incredible family. We're praying for you. Remain strong." 11.21am (7.21pm): Jennifer Hudson sings Jackson's song Will You Be There, accompanied, I think, by Jackson's spoken voice from the original recording. 11.26am (7.26pm): Al Sharpton steps up to the podium, addressing the audience in his usual stentorian tones. "He never gave up dreaming. It was that dream that changed culture all over the world... Because Michael kept going, because... he refused to let people decide his boundaries... it was Michael Jackson who brought blacks and whites and Latinos and Asians together... Because Michael Jackson kept going, he created a comfort level... so that later it wasn't strange to us to watch Oprah on television, it wasn't strange to watch Tiger Woods golf. Those kids grew up from being kids who were comfortable with Michael Jackson, to being 40 year olds [who were] comfortable to vote for a person of colour as president of the United States." 11.32am (7.32pm): Sharpton works towards a conclusion with this rather striking claim: "I want his children to know: wasn't nothing strange about your Daddy. It was strange what your Daddy had to deal with. But he dealt with it anyway." 11.35am (7.35pm): A rather lengthy pause in proceedings. Turns out we've been waiting for... John Mayer. Oh. He's performing a largely instrumental version of Jackson's song Human Nature. As he greets members of the family in the audience, I note for the first time that the members of the funeral party are all each wearing a single sequinned glove. 11.40am (7.40pm): Brooke Shields is crying so much she can barely speak. But she does eventually manage. Whenever they were photographed together, she says, the caption would read "The Odd Couple", or something similar. But "to us it was the most natural and easiest of friendships... maybe it was because we both understood what it was like to be in the spotlight from a very young age... Both of us needed to be adults very early. But when we were together, we were two little kids having fun." Hmmm, this tribute is thus far somewhat more about Brooke Shields than Michael Jackson. Then again, it is also the most personal and heartfelt set of anecdotes we've heard about Jackson's offstage personality so far. Now she's quoting from The Little Prince. 11.49am (7.49pm): Jermaine Jackson now sings Smile, from the Charlie Chaplin film Modern Times, which Shields had just been quoting. 11.53am (7.53pm): We hear now from Martin Luther King III and Bernice King, children of MLK. Martin Luther King III begins with his father's famous words about the importance of stewarding your talents and doing your job as well as you can, whether you're an artist or a street-sweeper. "On June 25, because he was the best, I believe heaven and earth did pause to say, 'here lived a great entertainer, who did his job well,'" he says, before his sister takes up an even more religious theme. "At the end of the day, it is only God's love that will sustain you and move you to a higher ground, far above the noise of life..." 11.58am (7.58pm): Texan congresswoman Sheila Jackson Lee speaks now, and quickly makes a markedly overt reference to the child molestation charges against Jackson: "We understand laws, and we know that people are innocent until proven otherwise. That is what the Constitution stands for." Applause. The rest of her speech focuses on Jackson-as-humanitarian. 12.05pm (8.05pm): Jackson Lee brings out a framed document, explaining that she has introduced into the House of Representatives "a resolution, to be debated on the floor of the House, that claims Michael Jackson as an American legend, a musical icon, and a world humanitarian." Among those who won't be voting in favour: New York congressman Pete King . 12.10pm (8.10pm): And now Usher, singing Gone Too Soon. 12.12pm (8.12pm): Footage of the Jackson 5 singing Smokey Robinson's Who's Loving You serves as a reminder of what a bizarrely talented stage performer the 10-year-old Jackson was. It serves as a prologue to Robinson's own spoken tribute. When he heard Jackson's version of the song, Robinson says, he thought: "This boy cannot possibly be 10 years old. This song is about somebody who had somebody who loved him, but they treated him bad... and now they are paying the price... How could he possibly know these things? I quickly went over to him because I wanted to see his birth certificate. I did not believe that someone that young could have that much feeling and soul and knowing... My brother is in a place now where he is most certainly going to live forever. But he's going to live forever twice, because he's going to live forever right here: the world will never, ever forget Michael Jackson." 12.18pm (8.18pm): And now, somewhat incongruously if you ask me, 12-year-old Swansea singing sensation Shaheen Jafargholi, from Britain's Got Talent, who picks up Who's Lovin' You again. Apparently Jackson had been impressed by Jafargholi's performance after seeing it on YouTube, prompting the Jackson family to invite him to sing today. 12.24pm (8.24pm): We're moving towards a denoument here now, as Kenny Ortega, director of the O2 Centre concerts that Jackson never gave, introduces a sequence he says was prepared for those concerts — it's We Are The World. The singers are rapidly joined by many of the musicians who performed today, making for a classic stage-packed-full-of-celebrities finale. Although it's actually not quite the finale... 12.29pm (8.29pm): The singers are joined by a large number of children. I'm not clear which children. Maybe this will become clear. The song is Heal The World. 12.31pm (8.31pm): "The atmosphere has really been very subdued," says Andrew Gumbel, as he hastens off to write his piece for the newspaper. "Only a few people jumped up to dance." Occasionally people shouted "Michael we love you!" or "See you in heaven" — but the prevailing sense was one of quiet. 12.35pm (8.35pm): ...Aaaand I believe that probably just about wraps things up here. As Janet Jackson, in beret and dark glasses, grips Berry Gordy in a hug just behind him, Jermaine Jackson thanks the crowd. "I stand here trying to find words of comfort... trying to find why the Lord has taken our brother after such a short time on earth," brother Marlon Jackson adds. All his life, he says, his brother was unable to move without a crowd gathering. "Maybe now, Michael, they will leave you alone... you have finished your work here on earth, and the Lord has called for you to come home with him... I have one request, Michael, one request. I would like for your to give our brother, my twin brother, Brandon, a hug from me." (Brandon Jackson, Marlon's twin, died in childhood.) 12.40pm (8.40pm): Janet Jackson brings Jackson's daughter Paris Katherine Jackson to the podium, where the 11-year-old tries to talk through tears. ("Ever since I was born, Daddy has been the best father you could ever imagine... I just wanted to say I love him so much.") Pretty hard to watch actually — a rare moment of truly unstaged emotion. 12.45pm (8.45pm): The casket is wheeled off stage. But where to? Forest Lawn, presumably, although we still have no definite confirmation, as far as I'm aware, of where Jackson is to be buried. A prayer brings the proceedings to a close. 1.15pm (9.15pm): So, as we take stock of today, it's worth asking: just how big a deal was "interplanetary phenomenon" Michael Jackson? Gawker has a video compilation of US newscasters' judgments. 1.25pm (9.25pm): Hey, how's this for meta: I note that the Wall Street Journal, of all publications, has been liveblogging the Jackson funeral liveblogs , including this one. I'm not sure why. 1.36pm (9.36pm): An observation based on watching CNN: monotonous politics host Wolf Blitzer should not comment on subjects such as Michael Jackson's influence on modern dance. Then again, neither should I. Still no clarity on exactly what's happening to the casket right now. 1.40pm (9.40pm): OK. That's enough Jackson memorial frenzy. Here's my colleague Ed Pilkington's take on the day, and watch out for Andrew Gumbel's soon. Thanks for reading and commenting. The initials MJ, skywritten in remembrance of Michael Jackson outside the public memorial service in Los Angeles. Photograph: Kristian Dowling/Getty Images	i don't know
In the Bible, King David had three sons. Solomon, Nathan, and who else?	1 Chronicles 3 GNT - King David's Children - The - Bible Gateway 1 Chronicles 3Good News Translation (GNT) King David's Children 3 1-3 The following, in order of age, are David's sons who were born while he was in Hebron: Amnon, whose mother was Ahinoam from Jezreel Daniel, whose mother was Abigail from Carmel Absalom, whose mother was Maacah, daughter of King Talmai of Geshur Adonijah, whose mother was Haggith Shephatiah, whose mother was Abital Ithream, whose mother was Eglah 4 All six were born in Hebron during the seven and a half years that David ruled there. In Jerusalem he ruled as king for thirty-three years, 5 and many sons were born to him there. His wife Bathsheba, daughter of Ammiel, bore him four sons: Shimea, Shobab, Nathan, and Solomon. 6 He had nine other sons: Ibhar, Elishua, Elpelet, 7 Nogah, Nepheg, Japhia, 8 Elishama, Eliada, and Eliphelet. 9 In addition to all these sons, David had sons by his concubines. He also had a daughter, Tamar. The Descendants of King Solomon 10 This is the line of King Solomon's descendants from father to son: Solomon, Rehoboam, Abijah, Asa, Jehoshaphat, 11 Jehoram, Ahaziah, Joash, 12 Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham, 13 Ahaz, Hezekiah, Manasseh, 14 Amon, and Josiah. 15 Josiah had four sons: Johanan, Jehoiakim, Zedekiah, and Joahaz. 16 Jehoiakim had two sons: Jehoiachin and Zedekiah. The Descendants of King Jehoiachin 17 These are the descendants of King Jehoiachin, who was taken prisoner by the Babylonians. Jehoiachin had seven sons: Shealtiel, 18 Malchiram, Pedaiah, Shenazzar, Jekamiah, Hoshama, and Nedabiah. 19 Pedaiah had two sons, Zerubbabel and Shimei. Zerubbabel was the father of two sons, Meshullam and Hananiah, and one daughter, Shelomith. 20 He had five other sons: Hashubah, Ohel, Berechiah, Hasadiah, and Jushab Hesed. 21 Hananiah had two sons, Pelatiah and Jeshaiah. Jeshaiah was the father of Rephaiah, who was the father of Arnan, the father of Obadiah, the father of Shecaniah.[ a ] 22 Shecaniah had one son, Shemaiah, and five grandsons: Hattush, Igal, Bariah, Neariah, and Shaphat. 23 Neariah had three sons: Elioenai, Hizkiah, and Azrikam. 24 Elioenai had seven sons: Hodaviah, Eliashib, Pelaiah, Akkub, Johanan, Delaiah, and Anani. Footnotes:	Absalom
Which 2009/10 Premiership soccer club, who have never won the FA Cup, were losing finalists in 1931 when they were beaten by West Brom., and 1956 when they lost to Manchester City?	11. David and God (Nathan) (2 Samuel 12) \| Bible.org 11. David and God (Nathan) (2 Samuel 12) Introduction A couple of years ago, my wife Jeannette and I went to England and Scotland with my parents. Each night we stayed at a “bed and breakfast” as we drove through Wales. There were a number of farms, but not so many towns in which to find a place to stay for the night. We saw a “bed and breakfast” sign and traveled along the country road until we found the place -- a very quaint farm. We saw several hundred sheep in a pasture, a stone trestle, and stone barns. It looked like the perfect place, and in many ways it was. What we did not realize was that the stone trestle was a railroad trestle for a train that came by late at night, a few feet from the house where we slept. Two cows also calved that night. I have spent my share of time around farms, but I have never heard the bellow of a cow that was calving echo throughout a stone barn. In addition to the hundreds of sheep in a nearby pasture, there was a small lamb in a pen, very close to the house. It was a frisky, friendly little fellow, and we loved to play with it. We were somewhat perplexed as to why this fellow was kept by himself, away from the rest of the flock. The farmer's nephew came by, and I asked him. It took a while to understand his strong accent, but finally I realized he was telling me this was a “pet lamb.” The problem was that he said it as though it were one word, “petlamb.” This was obviously a separate category, distinct from the category of mere “sheep” or a “lamb.” This “pet lamb” was given a special pen, right by the house, and a lot more attention and care than the rest. Now this little fellow was one lamb among a great many. Nevertheless, he enjoyed the distinction of being regarded as a “pet lamb.” In the story which Nathan tells David, it is not quite the same. Nathan tells David of a “pet lamb” who is the only sheep of a poor farmer. This lamb does not live in a pen outside the house; it lives inside the house, often in the arms of its master, and eats the same food he eats. This is the story Nathan tells David, which God uses to expose the wretchedness of David's sin. It is our text for this message, and once again, it has much to teach us, as well as David. Let us give careful heed to the inspired words of Nathan, and learn from a lamb. Background David has become king of both Judah and Israel. He has, in large measure, consolidated his kingdom. He has taken Jebus and made it his capital city, renaming it Jerusalem. He has built his palace and given thought to building a temple (a plan God significantly revises). He has subjected most of Israel's neighboring nations. He has done battle with the Ammonites and prevailed, but he has not yet completely defeated them. The Ammonites have retreated to the royal city of Rabbah, and as the time for war (spring) approaches, David sends all Israel, led by Joab, to besiege the city and to bring about its surrender. David has chosen not to endure the rigors of camping in the open field, outside the city. He has chosen rather to remain in Jerusalem. Sleeping late, David rises from his bed as others prepare to go to bed for the night. David strolls about the rooftop of his palace and happens to steal a look at a beautiful young woman bathing herself, perhaps ceremonially, in fulfillment of the law. It is not due to any intent on her part, nor even any indiscretion. She is bathing herself as darkness falls, and being poor (see 12:1-4), she does not have the privilege of complete privacy, especially when the king can look down from the lofty heights of his rooftop vantage point. David is struck with her beauty and sends messengers to inquire about her identity. They inform David of her identity, and that she is married to Uriah, the Hittite. That should have ended his interest, but it does not. David sends messengers who take her, bringing her to his palace, and there he sleeps with her. When she cleanses herself, she goes home. It all seems to be over. David is not looking for another wife; he is not even looking for an affair. He is looking for a conquest. That should have happened on the battlefield, not in the bedroom! Things take a very different turn when Bathsheba sends word to David that she is pregnant. David first seeks to cover up his sin by ordering Joab to send Uriah home on furlough, ostensibly to give David a report on the war. David's efforts to get Uriah into bed with Bathsheba begin as subtle hints, then change to veiled orders, and then turn crass as David seeks to get Uriah to do drunk what he will not do sober. When these efforts fail (due to Uriah's noble character), David sends Uriah back to Joab, with written orders to Joab to put him to death in a way that makes it seem like a casualty of war. Joab does as he is told and sends word to David: “Mission accomplished.” It is here that our story resumes. Responses To Uriah's Death (11:26-27) Bathsheba's response to the death of her husband is as we would expect, as we would also hope. From what the text tells us, she has absolutely no part in David's plot to deceive her husband, let alone to put him to death. Undoubtedly, she learns of Uriah's death in much the same way every war widow does, then or now. When she is officially informed of Uriah's death in battle, she mourns for her husband. We cannot be certain just how long this period of mourning is. We know, for example, that if a virgin of some distant (i.e., not Canaanite) nation was captured by an Israelite during a raid on her town, the Israelite could take her for a wife after she had mourned for her parents (who would have been killed in the raid) for a full month (Deuteronomy 21:10-13). As I will seek to show in a moment, I believe Bathsheba's mourning is genuine, and not hypocritical. I believe she mourns her husband's death because she loves him. David, on the other hand, does not even bother to go through the pretense of mourning. He does not even try to be hypocritical. When other mighty men of Israel died, David led the nation in mourning their loss. David mourned for Saul and his sons, killed in the battle with the Philistines (2 Samuel 1). David mourned the death of Abner, wickedly put to death by Joab (2 Samuel 3:28ff.). He even sent a delegation to officially mourn the death of Nahash, king of the Ammonites (2 Samuel 10). But when Uriah is killed “in battle,” not a word of mourning comes from David's lips. He is not sorry; he is relieved. Instead of instructing others to mourn for Uriah, he sends word to Joab not to take his death too seriously. When Bathsheba's mourning is complete, David sends for her and brings her to himself as his wife. I do not see him bending down on his knees, proposing. I do not see him courting her, sending her roses. I see him “taking” her once again. The question in my mind is, “Why?” Why does David take Bathsheba into his house as one of his wives? I do not think he is any longer trying to “cover up” his sin; it is far too late for that. She must be “showing” her pregnancy by now, and it is hard to imagine how all Israel cannot know what has been going on. It appears that at this point, David is not trying to conceal his sin, but to legitimize it. Whatever David's reasons may be, they are hardly spiritual, and they are most certainly self-serving. Nathan has a response to the death of Uriah too, which is taken up in the first part of chapter 12. But let us save that until after drawing your attention to something which has been going on in David's life that we have not seen from our text, and which the author of Samuel has not recorded. But David himself discloses this to us in one of his psalms, written in reflection of this incident in our text. David is Divinely Prepared for Repentance (Psalm 32:3-4) 3 When I kept silent about my sin, my body wasted away Through my groaning all day long. 4 For day and night Your hand was heavy upon me; My vitality was drained away as with the fever heat of summer. Psalm 32 is one of two psalms (the other is Psalm 51) in which David himself reflects on his sin, his repentance, and his recovery. Verses 3 and 4 of Psalm 32 are the focus of my attention at this point in time. These verses fit between chapters 11 and 12 of 2 Samuel. The confrontation of David by Nathan the prophet, described in 2 Samuel 12, results in David's repentance and confession. But this repentance is not just the fruit of Nathan's rebuke; it is also David's response to the work God has been doing in David's heart before he confesses, while he is still attempting to conceal his sin. In these verses, David makes it clear that God is at work even when it does not appear to be so. During the time David tries to cover up his sin, God is at work exposing it in his heart. These are not times of pleasure and joy, as Satan would like us to conclude; they are days of misery. David is plagued with guilt. He cannot sleep, and it seems he cannot eat. He is not sleeping nights, and he is losing weight. Whether or not David recognizes it as God who is at work in him, he does know he is miserable. It is this misery which tenderizes David, preparing him for the rebuke Nathan is to bring, preparing him for repentance. David's repentance is not the result of David's assessment of his situation; it is the result of divine intervention. He has gone so far in sin that he cannot think straight. God is at work in David's life to break him, so that he will once again cast himself upon God for grace. Nathan Tells a Shepherd a Sheep Story (12:1-6) 1 Then the LORD sent Nathan to David. And he came to him and said, “There were two men in one city, the one rich and the other poor. 2 “The rich man had a great many flocks and herds. 3 “But the poor man had nothing except one little ewe lamb Which he bought and nourished; And it grew up together with him and his children. It would eat of his bread and drink of his cup and lie in his bosom, And was like a daughter to him. 4 “Now a traveler came to the rich man, And he was unwilling to take from his own flock or his own herd, To prepare for the wayfarer who had come to him; Rather he took the poor man's ewe lamb and prepared it for the man who had come to him.” 5 Then David's anger burned greatly against the man, and he said to Nathan, “As the LORD lives, surely the man who has done this deserves to die. 6 “He must make restitution for the lamb fourfold, because he did this thing and had no compassion.” There are several important things to note about this meeting between Nathan and King David. First, note that Nathan is sent to David. Nathan is, of course, a prophet. However it comes about, he knows what David has done. If you will pardon the pun, David cannot pull the wool over his eyes. His words are, in the final analysis, the very word of God (see 12:11). If Nathan is a prophet, he is also a man who seems to be a friend to David. One of David's sons is named Nathan (2 Samuel 5:14). David informs Nathan of his desire to build a temple (chapter 7). Nathan will name Bathsheba and David's second son (12:25). He will remain loyal to the king and to Solomon when Adonijah seeks to usurp the throne (1 Kings 2). Nathan does not come to David only as God's spokesman, he comes to David as his friend. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, But deceitful are the kisses of an enemy (Proverbs 27:6). Second, note that Nathan is sent to David. Twelve times in the last chapter the word “sent” is employed by the author. A number of these instances refer to David “sending” someone or “sending” for someone. David is a man of power and authority, and so he can “send out” for whatever he wants, including the death of Uriah. Now, it is God who does the “sending.” Is David impressed with his power and authority? Has he gotten used to “sending” people to do his work for him (like sending Joab and all Israel to fight the Ammonites)? Let David take note that God is sending Nathan. Third, Nathan comes to David with a story. In the New American Standard Bible, this is not just a story, but a kind of poetic story. In my copy of the NASB, the words of the story are formatted in such a way as to look like one of the Psalms. 43 It took me a while to take note of this, but if this is so, it means that Nathan comes to David prepared. Under divine inspiration, I am sure God could inspire a prophet to utter poetry without working at it in advance, but this does not seem to be the norm. Nathan comes to David well prepared. He is not just “spinning a yarn;” Nathan is telling a story, a very important story with a very important message for David. Fourth, Nathan's story is a “sheep story,” one that a shepherd can easily grasp and with which he can readily identify. David was a shepherd boy in his younger days, as we know from the Book(s) of Samuel (see 1 Samuel 16:11; 17:15, 28). I wonder if in those lonely days and nights David does not make a “pet lamb” of one or more of his sheep? Did this sheep eat of his food and drink from his cup? Possibly so. Fifth, the story Nathan tells David does not “walk on all fours” -- that is, there is no “one to one correspondence” with the story of David's sin with Bathsheba and Uriah. The sheep (which we would liken to Bathsheba) is put to death, not the owner (whom we would liken to the sheep's poor owner). I think it is important to take note of this fact, lest we press the story beyond its intent. Why a story? Why not just let David have it head-on, with both barrels? Many will point out that this is a skillfully employed tactic, which gets David to pronounce judgment on the crime before he realizes that he is the criminal. I think this is true. David is angry at this “rich man's” lack of compassion. If he could, he would have this fellow put to death (!). But as it is, justice requires a four-fold restitution. But having already committed himself in principle, Nathan can now apply the principle to David, in particular. As I understand the Bible, there is more to the story than this, however. Our Lord frequently told stories. Why was this? Was it because He was trying to “put the cookies on the lowest shelf”? Was He accommodating His teaching to those who might have difficulty understanding it? Sometimes our Lord told stories to the religious experts, who should have been able to follow a more technical argument. I am thinking in particular of the story of the Good Samaritan, as recorded in Luke 10. A religious lawyer stood up and asked Jesus a question, not to sincerely learn, but with the hope of making our Lord look bad before the people. He asked, “What shall I do to inherit eternal life?” Jesus turned the question around. This man was the expert in the Law of Moses, what did it teach? The man answered, “YOU SHALL LOVE THE LORD YOUR GOD WITH ALL YOUR HEART, AND WITH ALL YOUR SOUL, AND WITH ALL YOUR STRENGTH, AND WITH ALL YOUR MIND; AND YOUR NEIGHBOR AS YOURSELF” (Luke 10:27). In effect, Jesus responded, “Right. Now do it.” That was the problem with the law, no one could do it without failing, and so no one could earn their way to heaven by good works. The lawyer knew he was in trouble and tried to dig himself out (bad choice). He (like many lawyers then and now) thought he could get himself off the hook by arguing in terms of technicalities. And so he had a follow-up question for Jesus: “And who is my neighbor?” Jesus did not debate this man on his own terms. He was not willing to get into a word study in the original text. Instead, Jesus told a simple story, the story of the Good Samaritan. At the end of the story, Jesus asked a simple question, 36 “Which of these three do you think proved to be a neighbor to the man who fell into the robbers' hands?” 37 And he said, “The one who showed mercy toward him.” Then Jesus said to him, “Go and do the same” (Luke 10:36-37). The lawyer was in trouble; the story had no technicalities over which to argue. It brought the issue home, with little ground for quibbling over details. When push came to shove, the lawyer knew our Lord's functional definition of “neighbor” was absolutely right. He had nowhere to hide. The story did the trick; it cut to the heart of the matter, while avoiding trivial details to quibble over for hours. It was not the lawyer who made Jesus look bad with all his minutia but Jesus who made the lawyer look bad with a simple story. That is part of the reason Nathan told David this story. It was never meant to be a makeover of David's sin; it is meant to expose David's sin in principle, in a way that cannot be denied. Having done this very well, Nathan then presses on to deal with David's sin specifically. The story Nathan tells David is very simple. Two men lived in the same city; one was very rich and the other was very poor. The rich man had flocks and herds. 44 The rich man did not just have a large flock and a large herd; he had many flocks and many herds. We would say this man was “filthy rich.” The poor man had but one ewe lamb; this was his “pet lamb.” He purchased it and then raised it in his own home. The lamb spent much time in the man's lap and being carried about. It lived inside the house, not outside, being hand fed with food from the table and even drinking from its master's cup. Some of you cannot even imagine what this is like. It is a horrifying thought to you. How could anyone treat an animal that way? I have only one response: Obviously you haven't been to our house lately to be greeted by two cats (who, to the dismay of my wife, can be found around -- and sometimes on -- the table) and four dogs (none of them are ours, technically). The rich man had a guest drop in for a visit, and as the host he was obliged to provide him with a meal. The rich man decided upon lamb, and yet he was not willing to sacrifice one lamb from all those he owned. Instead, he took the poor man's lamb, slaughtered and served it to his guest, so as not to suffer any losses personally. He not only let (i.e., forced) the poor man to pick up the tab for the meal, he deprived this man of his only lamb, and one that was like a member of the family. I hope I am not guilty of attempting to make this story “walk on all fours” when I stress the same thing the story does -- that there is a very warm and loving relationship between the poor man and his “pet lamb.” Considered along with everything else we read about Uriah and Bathsheba and David, I must conclude that the author is making it very clear that Uriah and Bathsheba dearly loved each other. When David “took” this woman to his bedroom that fateful night, and then as his wife after the murder of Uriah, he took her from the man she loved. Bathsheba and Uriah were devoted to each other, which adds further weight to the arguments for her not being a willing participant in David's sins. It also emphasizes the character of Uriah, who is so near to his wife, who is being urged by the king to go to her, and yet who refuses to do so out of principle. David does not see what is coming. The story Nathan tells makes David furious. The David who was once ready to do in Nabal and all the male members of his household (1 Samuel 25) is now angry enough to do in the villain of Nathan's story. In some ways, David's response is a bit overdone. He reminds me a bit of Judah in Genesis 38, when he learns that Tamar, his daughter-in-law is pregnant out of wedlock. Not realizing that he is the father of the child in her womb, Judah is ready to have Tamar burned to death. How ironic that those who are guilty of a particular sin are intolerant of this sin in the life of others. David identifies two evils that have been committed by this fictional rich man. First, the man has stolen a lamb, for which the law prescribed a fourfold restitution (Exodus 22:1). Second, David recognizes what he views as the greater sin, and that is the rich man's total lack of compassion. David is furious because a rich man stole and slaughtered a poor man's pet. He does not yet see the connection to his lack of compassion for stealing a poor man's beloved companion, Uriah's wife, Bathsheba. The slaughtering of Uriah is most certainly an act which lacks compassion. The crowning touch in David's display of righteous indignation is the religious flavoring he gives it by the words, “as the Lord lives” (verse 5). Nathan's Indictment (12:7-12) 7 Nathan then said to David, “You are the man! Thus says the LORD God of Israel, 'It is I who anointed you king over Israel and it is I who delivered you from the hand of Saul. 8 'I also gave you your master's house and your master's wives into your care, and I gave you the house of Israel and Judah; and if that had been too little, I would have added to you many more things like these! 9 'Why have you despised the word of the LORD by doing evil in His sight? You have struck down Uriah the Hittite with the sword, have taken his wife to be your wife, and have killed him with the sword of the sons of Ammon. 10 'Now therefore, the sword shall never depart from your house, because you have despised Me and have taken the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be your wife.' 11 “Thus says the LORD, 'Behold, I will raise up evil against you from your own household; I will even take your wives before your eyes and give them to your companion, and he will lie with your wives in broad daylight. 12 'Indeed you did it secretly, but I will do this thing before all Israel, and under the sun.”' David has just sprung the trap on himself, and Nathan is about to let him know about it. The first thing Nathan does is to dramatically indict David as the culprit: “You are the man!” In stunned silence, David now listens to the charges against him. David thinks only in terms of the evils the rich man committed against his neighbor, stealing a man's sheep and depriving him of his companion. Put another way, David thinks only in terms of crime and socially unacceptable behavior, not in terms of sin. In verses 7-12, Nathan draws David's attention to his sin against God and the consequences God has pronounced for his sin. Note the repetition of the pronoun “I” in verses 7 and 8: “It was I who. . . . . . anointed you king . . . delivered you from the hand of Saul . . . gave you your master's house and your master's wives . . . gave you the house of Israel and Judah God speaks to David as though he has forgotten these things, or rather as though he has come to take credit for them himself. Everything David possesses has been given to him by God. Has it been so long since David was a lowly shepherd boy that he has forgotten? David is a “rich” man because God has made him rich. And if he does not think he is rich enough, God will give more to him. David has begun to cling to his “riches,” rather than to cling to the God who made him rich. I fear some of us tend to miss the point here. We read Nathan's story and we hear Nathan's rebuke as though David's sin is all about sex. David does commit a sexual sin when he takes Bathsheba and sleeps with her, knowing she is a married woman. But this sexual sin is symptomatic, according to Nathan, and thus according to God. God is not just saying, “Shame on you, David. Look at all the wives and concubines you had to sleep with. And if none of these women pleased you, you could have obtained another woman, just one that was not already married.” Nathan tells David the story of a rich man and a poor man. God tells David through Nathan that all that he possesses (his riches) He has given to him. God will even add to David's riches (and not just to his harem). David's problem is that his possessions have come to own him. He is so “possessed” with his riches that he is unwilling to spend any of them. He wants “more” and “more,” and so he begins to take what isn’t his to take, rather than to ask the divine Giver of all he has. We can see now why David wrote these words in Psalm 51:4: “Against Thee, Thee only, I have sinned.” First and foremost, David's sin is against God. He has ceased to humbly acknowledge God as the Giver of all he possesses. He has ceased to look to God to provide him with all his needs -- and his desires. David has not only ceased to ask God to supply his needs, he has disobeyed God's commands by committing adultery and murder. David's sin against God manifests itself by the evils he commits against others. Nathan outlines these, employing a repetitive “you:” You despised the Word of the Lord by doing evil in His sight. You have struck down Uriah the Hittite with the sword. (You) have taken his wife to be your wife. (You) have killed him with the sword of the sons of Ammon. Nathan now proclaims the irreversible consequences to come upon David and his family due to his sin: Therefore the sword shall never depart from your house, because you have despised Me and have taken the wife of Uriah the Hittite to be your wife I will raise up evil from your own household I will even take your wives before your eyes, and give them to your companion He will lay with your wives in broad daylight You did this secretly I will do this openly, before all Israel, and under the sun. The evil David commits against others is clear disobedience to the revealed Word of God. David is a “man after God's own heart,” and yet in this instance, David “despised the Word of the Lord.” While David does repent and the guilt of his sin is forgiven, these consequences will not be reversed. These consequences are just; they fit the crime David committed. He used the sword of the Ammonites to kill Uriah, and so the sword will not depart from his house. He took the wife of another man, and so his own wives will be taken by another, another from his own house. The consequences are not only appropriate, but intensified. David took one man's wife; another will take several of his wives. This happens when Absalom rebels against his father's rule and temporarily takes over the throne. Following the advice of Ahithophel, Absolom pitches a tent on the roof of David's palace (the place from which David first looked upon Bathsheba) and there, in the sight of all Israel, sleeps with David's concubines as a declaration that he has taken over his father's throne and all that goes with it (2 Samuel 16:20-22). While David seeks to commit his sins in private, God sees to it that the consequences are very public. Conclusion The story goes on as you well know, but we shall stop here, having focused on Nathan's divinely directed rebuke of David. In our next lesson we will give thought to David's repentance and to the immediate consequences of his sin. But let us close this message by considering some very important lessons for us to learn from David's sin and Nathan's rebuke. (1) Nathan is a prophet, but he is also an example of a faithful friend. Proverbs puts it this way: Faithful are the wounds of a friend, But deceitful are the kisses of an enemy (Proverbs 27:6). I do not know how many people I have known who refused to rebuke or even caution someone close to them, thinking that they are being a friend by being non-condemning. A good friend does not let us continue on the path to our own destruction. Nathan was acting as a prophet, but he was also acting like a friend. Would that we had more prophet-friends. Would that we were a prophet-friend to one on the path of destruction. Deliver those who are being taken away to death, And those who are staggering to slaughter, Oh hold them back (Proverbs 24:11). (2) God sees our sin, even when men do not. Our sins never slip past God unnoticed. The wicked refuse to believe that God sees their sin, or that if He does, that He will deal with it: And they say, “How does God know? And is there knowledge with the Most High?” (Psalm 73:11; see 2 Peter 3:3ff.) God may delay judgment or discipline, but He will never ignore our sin. 20 So Moses said to them, “If you will do this, if you will arm yourselves before the LORD for the war, 21 and all of you armed men cross over the Jordan before the LORD until He has driven His enemies out from before Him, 22 and the land is subdued before the LORD, then afterward you shall return and be free of obligation toward the LORD and toward Israel, and this land shall be yours for a possession before the LORD. 23 “But if you will not do so, behold, you have sinned against the LORD, and be sure your sin will find you out (Numbers 32:20-23, emphasis mine). (3) God is under no obligation to stop us from sinning. Sometimes people justify their sin by saying something like: “I've prayed about it and asked God to stop me if it is wrong. . . .” When God does not stop them, they somehow assume it must be right. God could have stopped David after he chose to stay home from the war, or after he began to covet Uriah's wife, or after he committed adultery, but instead He allowed David to persist in his sin for some time. God even allowed David to get away with murder, for a time. God's Word forbade David's sins of coveting, adultery, and murder. God's Word commanded David to stop, and he did not. God allowed David to persist in his sin for a season, but not indefinitely. God allowed David's sin to go full circle, to reach full bloom, so that he (and we) could see how sin grows (compare Genesis 15:12-16). (4) David's sin was not intended as an excuse for us to sin, but as a warning to all of us how capable we are of sin. I have heard it said more times than I wish to recall, “Well, even David sinned. . . .” What they mean is, “How can you expect me not to sin? If David, as spiritual as he was, sinned as he did, then how can you expect me to do any better?” If we look very carefully at the Bible, we will see why stories like that of our text were written. They were not written to encourage us to sin, but to warn us of the danger of sin, and thus to encourage us to avoid sin at all costs. After outlining the major sins of the nation Israel in the wilderness in 1 Corinthians 10:1-10, Paul then applies the lesson of history to the Corinthians, and thus to us: 11 Now these things happened to them as an example, and they were written for our instruction, upon whom the ends of the ages have come. 12 Therefore let him who thinks he stands take heed that he does not fall. 13 No temptation has overtaken you but such as is common to man; and God is faithful, who will not allow you to be tempted beyond what you are able, but with the temptation will provide the way of escape also, so that you will be able to endure it (1 Corinthians 10:11-13; see also Romans 15:4-6). Let me press this matter even further. David did not plan to sin, as many who try to use his sin as an excuse do. David “fell” into sin; those who would use his sin for an excuse “plunge headlong” into sin. There is a very important difference. In addition, David's sin was the exception, not the rule: Because David did what was right in the sight of the LORD, and had not turned aside from anything that He commanded him all the days of his life, except in the case of Uriah the Hittite (1 Kings 15:5, emphasis mine). (5) David's sin, like all sin, is never worth the price. I have actually had people ask me what the penalty for a certain sin would be, planning to do it and then be forgiven. There are those who toy with sin, thinking that if they sin, they may suffer some consequences, but that God is obliged to forgive them, and thus their eternal future is certain and secure, no matter what they do, even if intentionally. I know of one situation in which a church leader left his wife and ran off with the wife of another, planning to later repent, and then expecting to be welcomed back into the fellowship of that church. This is presumptuous sin, sin of the most serious and dangerous kind. Rather than open a “can of worms” at this point in this message, let me simply say this: “No one ever chooses to sin, and then comes out of it with a smile on their face.” I used to teach school. From time to time the principal would call a misbehaving student to his office. I will never forget when one of my students was called to his office, and then returned with a smirk on his face. One of my students protested publicly, “Will you look at that? He went to the principal's office and came back with a smile on his face!” My young student was absolutely right. Being called to the principal's office for correction should produce repentance and respect, not a smile. In those few times when I found it necessary to use the “rod” of correction, I purposed that no student would come back into the room with a smile, and none did (including the principal's own son, I might add, who was not even in my class). I have never met a Christian who chose to sin, and after it was all over felt that it was worth the price. David's sin and its consequences should not encourage us to sin, but should motivate us to avoid sin at all costs. The negative consequences of sin far outweigh the momentary pleasures of sin. Sin is never worth the price, even for those whose sin is forgiven. (6) It was the story of the slaughter of a lamb which exposed the immensity of David's sin. It is the story of the slaughter of The Lamb of God which exposes the immensity of our sins. Isn't it amazing that David was so blinded by his own sin that he could not see it? It was by means of the story of the slaughter of a poor man's pet lamb that David was gripped with the immensity of the sin which was his own. David could see his own sin when he heard the story of what appeared to be the sin of another. That is precisely what the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ does for us. We were dead in our trespasses and sins (Ephesians 2:1-3). We were blinded to the immensity of our sins (2 Corinthians 4:4). The coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, His perfect life, His innocent and sacrificial death, His literal and physical resurrection are all historical events. But the gospel is also a story, a true story. When we read the New Testament Gospels, we read a story that is even more dramatic, more amazing, more disturbing than the story Nathan told David. When we see the way unbelieving men treated our Lord, we should be shocked, horrified, and angered. We should cry out, “They deserve to die!” And that they do. But the Gospel is not written only to show us their sins -- those who actually heard Jesus and cried, “Crucify Him, Crucify Him” -- it is written so that the Spirit of God can cry out in our hearts, “Thou art the man!” When we see the way men treated Jesus, we see the way we would have treated Him, if we were there. We see how we treat Him today. And that, my friend, reveals the immensity of our sin, and the immensity of our need for repentance and forgiveness. The Gospel of Jesus Christ is “Good News.” The “Good News” is that the death of our Lord, which reveals the immensity of our sin, is the immense work of God by which He can and will forgive us of our sin. By His innocent and sacrificial death, Jesus died in our place, paid the penalty for our sins. He bore ours sins on the cross! And by trusting in His death, burial, and resurrection, we die to sin and are raised to newness of eternal life, in Christ. The Gospel must first bring us to a recognition of the magnitude of our sin, and of our guilt, and then it takes us to the magnitude of God's grace in Jesus Christ, by which our sins can be forgiven. Have you come to see how great your sins are before a holy God? Then I urge you to experience how great a salvation is yours, brought about by this same God, through the death, burial, and resurrection of the Lord Jesus Christ. What a Savior! His own iniquities will capture the wicked, And he will be held with the cords of his sin (Proverbs 5:22). “But he who sins against me injures himself; All those who hate me love death” (Proverbs 8:36). Who can say, “I have cleansed my heart, I am pure from my sin”? (Proverbs 20:9) He who conceals his transgressions will not prosper, But he who confesses and forsakes them will find compassion (Proverbs 28:13). 43 I should also say that other translations don’t seem to follow the NASB in dealing with these words as poetry. 44 The expression “flocks and herds” occurs rather frequently in the Bible. The term “flock” refers to smaller animals, like sheep and goats. “Herd” refers to larger animals, like oxen and cows.	i don't know
Which is the smallest plant of the onion family?	Plants in the Onion Family \| Home Guides \| SF Gate Plants in the Onion Family Plants in the Onion Family Most members of the onion family produce pink, purple or white flowers. Pungent and odorous, onions and their family members sometimes get an undeserved bad rap. These earthy, humble roots are easy to grow, store well and provide flavor to almost any cooked dish, as well as salads. They're also known to repel insects and pests in the garden and have attractive flowers. Members of the onion family, especially garlic, have long been used for their medicinal qualities. Garlic is said to have antibacterial and antiviral qualities, making it a favorite old-time remedy for coughs and colds. While members of the onion family have slightly different characteristics, they prefer similar growing conditions--light, sandy soil, even moisture and full sun. Onions Onions need a long growing season to mature from seed and most gardeners prefer to plant onion sets, which are dried, immature onions ready for planting. Long-storing, pungent onions include yellow, white or red onions. You can also grow pearl or pickling onions, or sweet onions, such as Bermuda or Spanish. In the north, gardeners usually grow storing onions, while southern climates favor sweet onions. Ask your local nursery which onion varieties grow best in your region. Short-day onions are suited for the south, while long-day onions grow best in the north. Try "Candy" or "Stockton Sweet Red." Bunching Onions In the grocery store, bunching onions are known as scallions or green onions. These mild, flavorful onions are typically used raw in salads to accentuate their crunchy texture. Bunching onions have tender, green foliage and don't produce bulbs. Plant them from seed in early spring or in the fall in mild climates. Popular cultivars for mild climates include "Evergreen Bunching" and "Beltsville Bunching." Chives Chives are one of the most rewarding onion types to grow because they're perennial, meaning they come back year after year. Their bright green leaves are among the first plants to appear in early spring, followed by bright purple flowers. Cut them back after a few weeks and trim away dead leaves. Divide chives every three or four years to stimulate new growth. Use the leaves in salads, soups, egg dishes and casseroles. Start chives from seed, nursery transplants or divisions. Popular varieties include "Forescate" and "Corsica." Shallots Shallots are costly to buy in the grocery store and are often considered a gourmet food, but they're very simple to grow in the home garden. Buy a few shallots from the grocery store and pull the clusters apart. Plant and care for them as you would onions. In mild climates, plant them in the fall. Shallots don't store as well as onions, but they add a delicate, distinctive flavor to salads and cooked dishes. Look for "Red Sun" or "Olympus." Leeks Like shallots, leeks are easy to grow, yet inexplicably expensive to buy at the grocery store. Plant them thickly from seed and harvest them when small to use like green onions, or plant started ones in a trench and slowly mound the soil around them as they grow. This "blanching" creates tender, snowy white leeks in around 120 days. Keep the soil evenly moist and harvest leeks when they're one inch or more in diameter. Use a shovel to carefully dig them from the earth and store them in the refrigerator. A good variety to try is "Arkansas." Garlic Zesty, aromatic and pungent, garlic adds zip to almost any cooked dish. Plant garlic in the fall in warm, mild climates because the plant stops producing leaves once warm spring days arrive. Break apart a cluster of garlic from the grocery store and plant the cloves, pointed end up. Plant 1 inch deep in warm climates and spaced 3 to 4 inches apart. Dig the heads when the tops have died down and allow them to dry out for a few days prior to storage. Try "Ajo Roho" or "Early Red Italian."	Chives
Who is the mother of actress Melanie Griffith?	Plants in the Onion Family (with Pictures) \| eHow Plants in the Onion Family  Email Save Allium cepa L., or the garden onion, is not the sweetest smelling flower in the lily family, and has been accused of bringing some of us to tears. The allium genus of the liliaceae family, however, contains some very tasty members that are staples in many cuisines the world over. Onions are part of the mirepiox (celery, carrots and onions) in traditional French cuisine, as well as the “holy trinity” (bell peppers, onions, celery) in Cajun cuisine. Used raw and cooked, onions and their relatives lend their flavors to many popular dishes. (PhotoObjects.net/PhotoObjects.net/Getty Images) Chives (Allium schoenoprasum L.) are like other plants in this family, a bulb plant. However, they are most known for their tender green tops. The tapered delicate leaves have a mild onion flavor used in salads, as a topping on potatoes and even for garnishes. They can grow in the wild and are native to the lower 48 states as well as Alaska and Canada. Hemera Technologies/PhotoObjects.net/Getty Images Looking like overgrown spring onions (or scallions), leeks (Allium porrum L.) have the traditional onion flavor, but are somewhat milder. Grown best in somewhat sandy soils, leeks usually need thorough cleaning to remove the sandy grit before using. Typically used cooked, they are occasionally used in salads, though they tend to be dryer than other members of the onion family are. Zedcor Wholly Owned/PhotoObjects.net/Getty Images Shallots (Allium cepa var. aggregatum) look like a small version of the common onion, but technically they are different; they grow in clusters, unlike onions which produce single bulbs. They have a mild onion taste, and they are often used in sauces, salad dressings or raw in salads. John Foxx/Stockbyte/Getty Images As widely known as the onion, garlic (Allium sativum L.) is used in cuisine all over the world. Garlic grows somewhat like the shallot, in tightly grouped clusters. An entire cluster of garlic bulbs is called a “head” of garlic, with each individual piece being a “clove”. The taste is more distinctive than other allium family members and is much stronger. It is generally used in smaller proportion, especially when used raw. When roasted and cooked, garlic mellows significantly, lending a somewhat sweeter taste to this pungent bulb. Jupiterimages/Photos.com/Getty Images Scallions (Allium fistulosum) are also known as green onions, spring onions or Welsh onions, depending on where you are from. They have a similar design to leeks; however, the green leaves are hollow. This particular variety will not develop a bulb. Scallions have a taste that is very similar to garden onions, but a little milder. They are most commonly used raw, as their more delicate composition and taste does not hold up as well when cooked. Hemera Technologies/AbleStock.com/Getty Images	i don't know
In Greek mythology, which Cyclops had his only eye blinded by Odysseus?	Odysseus and the Cyclops After 10 years of fighting against Troy , Odysseus, one of the victorious Greek leaders and known for his cleverness, sailed for home with his men and ships.ï¿½ After many adventures, they came to an island.ï¿½ Unbeknownst to them, the island was inhabited by the Cylops people, a race of giants with only one eye in the middle of their forehead. The Cylops were lawless, without culture, and ate humans when available. The Story: On finding a large cave, Odysseus and his men entered the cave, where they helped themselves to the food and drink they found there, and fell asleep.ï¿½ After a time, a Cyclops, whose name was Polyphemus, returned to the cave.ï¿½ Leading his flock of giant sheep into the cave, he rolled a huge stone against the mouth of the cave to close the entrance.ï¿½ On finding Odysseus and his men in the cave, the Cyclops became enraged, grabbed two of the men, smashed their heads against the rocks, ate them, and fell asleep.ï¿½ Odysseus dared do nothing to the Cyclops, since only the Cyclops was strong enough to move the stone away from the mouth of the cave. The next morning, the Cyclops grabbed two more men, smashed their heads against the rocks, and ate them for his breakfast.ï¿½ He then rolled away the stone, led out his herd of sheep, and rolled the stone back to close the cave.ï¿½ Odysseus devised a plan.ï¿½ He and his men took a large timber, carved the end to a sharp point, and hid it. When the Cyclops returned in the evening, he again led his sheep in, rolled the stone to close the mouth of the cave, and proceeded to bash in the heads of two more men and eat them.ï¿½ This time Odysseus spoke up, and offered the Cyclops some strong wine he had brought with him.ï¿½ Polyphemus, who had never drunk wine before, drank his fill and became very drunk.ï¿½ Thanking Odyssesus, Polyphemus asked him his name.ï¿½ Odysseus told him his name was ï¿½No manï¿½.ï¿½ The Cyclops then fell fast asleep in a drunken sleep. Odysseus and his men then took the timber and heated the sharpened end in the fire until it glowed red.ï¿½ Then, with all their strength, they pushed the red-hot point into the eye of Polyphemus.ï¿½ The Cyclops howled and woke up flailing, but he was now blind.ï¿½ The other Cyclops who lived on the island came running, but when they asked Polyphemus who had done this to him, he replied ï¿½No man!ï¿½ and the other Cyclops all returned home laughing. Early the next morning, Odysseus tied each of his men to the belly of one of the giant sheep. When Polyphemus awoke and led the sheep out of the cave, he felt the back of each sheep to make sure no one was on them.ï¿½ Feeling nothing, Polyphemus allowed each sheep to pass out of the cave, carrying with it one of Odysseusï¿½ crew tied to its belly.ï¿½ Odysseus himself grabbed onto the fleece of the last sheepï¿½s belly, and escaped through the mouth of the cave. Odysseus and his men ran back to their ship and hurriedlyï¿½ pushed out to sea.ï¿½ As they sailed away from the harbor, Odysseus called out to Polyphemus, laughing at him and telling him that it was not "No Man", but he, Odysseus, who had blinded him and fooled him.	Polyphemus
The songs 'How To Handle A Woman' and 'If Ever I Would Leave You' came from which show and film?	Greek Mythology/Beasts/Cyclops/Polyphemus - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Greek Mythology/Beasts/Cyclops/Polyphemus Jump to: navigation , search Polyphemus (In Greek: Πολύφημος) was a cyclops portrayed in the Odyssey and the Aeneid. After capturing Odysseus and several of his men, Polyphemus held them capture in a cave, along with the cyclops' sheep and goats. He sealed the cave shut with a massive stone. During the ordeal, Polyphemus killed and ate six of the sailors. On the second day, Odysseus made the cyclops drunk, claiming his name was "Noman", before five men drove a large sharpened stake into Polyphemus' only eye, blinding him. The cyclops called for help and other cyclops came to his aid; but when he said Noman had hurt him, the cyclops took it to mean that no man had hurt him, so they left him alone. The next day, when Polyphemus rolled away the stone to let out his flock, Odysseus and his men clung to the fur of the flocks underbelly. Checking the animals backs with his hands, Polyphemus did not find the men. Yet after they have escaped and were on their ship, Odysseus called to the blind cyclops and told him who he really was. Polyphemus, in rage, hurled a great stone into the sea, nearly sending Odysseus' ship onto land. They sailed further out and again Odysseus mocked the cyclops. Yet Odysseus did not know that Polyphemus was the child of Poseidon , who would torment Odysseus' voyage. In the Aeneid, it tells of Aeneas' encounter with the cyclops, seeing his wounds: Polyphemus, lived on berries and roots, walked with a cane. He went to the sea often to wash out his eye-socket. One time, he heard the sounds of Aeneas' ships oars as they rowed nearby; but in fear, they hurriedly rowed away.	i don't know
Similarly, the songs 'Younger Than Springtime' and 'I'm In Love With A Wonderful Guy' came from which show and film?	Frigatezine- Reviews/Critique: Film/Videos: Happy Talk: Ethnic Stereotypes in "South Pacific" Gail Cain Nellie and Emile, sans passion, 2001 I have a confession to make: I watched a recent television production of "South Pacific" starring Glenn Close. And I meant to do it. I tuned in because a local TV critic had seen a preview and blasted the production's racial stereotypes. Well, Glenn Close warbling "I'm Going to Wash that Man Right Out of My Hair" seemed about as bad as musical comedy can get. But then Close admits that she can't continue her romance with a handsome French planter because he has two children who are "colored." That really made me squirm. Click here to download PDF Reader. Granted the musical takes place during World War II, and the dialogue was probably true to its time and place. But why would anyone revive a production with that dialogue? Did the director clean it up a bit? Was the l958 movie even worse? To answer these questions, I rented the film "South Pacific." If you haven't seen it, here's a synopsis. "South Pacific" involves a mission to spy on Japanese troop movements and two love stories: Ensign Nellie Forbush (Mitzi Gaynor), a nurse from Little Rock, Arkansas, and Emile de Becque (Rossano Brazzi), a French planter who has been living on the islands some sixteen years; Lieutenant Joe Cable (John Kerr), a handsome Marine from a proper Philadelphia family, and Liat (France Nuyen), a beautiful Tonkinese/Tonganese islander. Nuyen plays one of just five Asian characters in the film with more than a walk-on role. This movie about the Pacific seems to employ very few Pacific Islanders (I read the credits closely and saw few Asian or Polynesian names). One of the Asian roles is actually played by an African-American (Juanita Hall as Bloody Mary). These are clues that "South Pacific" isn't going to be smooth sailing. The movie opens with Technicolor shots of a torchlit beach, a huge waterfall, palm trees, thatched roof huts, rafts hurtling through the waves, and a magnificent sunset while the soundtrack plays the overture: bits of "Some Enchanted Evening," "Younger than Springtime," "I'm in Love with a Wonderful Guy," "Bali Ha'i," and "Happy Talk." Nellie and Emile in a clinch, l958. The beauty of the scenery and the overture is soon replaced by the ugliness of the first musical number, sung by a group of seamen to the first Asian character we see: the Tonkinese trader known as Bloody Mary. While the seamen sing, Juanita Hall laughs merrily. Apparently Bloody Mary doesn't mind her odious nickname or the equally odious lyrics to the song named after her ("Bloody Mary is the girl I love...Her skin is tender as a baseball glove...Bloody Mary's chewing betel nuts/and she don't use Pepsodent.") The stereotype gets worse as we get a fuller picture of an unscrupulous Asian merchant out to cheat innocent Caucasians. Bloody Mary's vocation is buying low and selling high specifically grass skirts and other cheap souvenirs to the enlisted men on the island. You can see dollar signs in her eyes as she whines "You like?" every time she hawks her wares. Before you can say "boar's-tooth bracelet," Lieutenant Cable appears on the scene; Bloody Mary stops wheeling and dealing to gaze at him in amazement. Now John Kerr was a fine-looking young man, but Bloody Mary's reaction to him is puzzling. Is she scheming to sell him a boar's-tooth bracelet? Or does she have a bigger sale in mind? Bloody Mary introduces herself to Cable and asks if he is a "crummy Captain." Cable assures her that he is just a "crummy Lieutenant." After mispronouncing "Lieutenant" (Asians may be wily in business but can only speak pidgin English), Bloody Mary announces that Cable is a "sexy man" and tries to give him a shrunken head, which she says she found on Bali Ha'i, a nearby island. All the young women have been moved to Bali Ha'i for the duration of the war, and the island is off limits to enlisted men. I guess the Navy felt the women were more dangerous to gullible GIs than to sophisticated officers. Meanwhile, Nellie and Emile meet and moon over each other, while Emile sings "Some Enchanted Evening." Nellie doesn't seem to notice the two young island children hiding in the bushes, watching. Once Nellie leaves, the children rush to Emile, calling "Papa, Papa." Since Nellie has already been introduced to Henry, Emile's servant, viewers may wonder why the children are being kept hidden. Does Emile suspect that Nellie isn't prepared to be a stepmother to half-Polynesian kids? In short order, Cable insists that Emile be his guide for the spy mission to the neighboring islands. Why Emile, who has lived on the islands for just sixteen years, when Cable is surrounded by Polynesians who've grown up on these islands? Perhaps Pacific Islanders can be trusted with jobs like doing laundry or hustling souvenirs but not with secret missions. Even the aristocratic French Emile, however, doesn't quite measure up. The commanding officer explains to Cable that Emile was married to a Polynesian woman and had two children with her before she died. So the c.o. cautions Cable that they need to learn more before approving Emile. They ask Nellie what she knows. She says Emile is all alone in the world, without a wife or children. When Nellie leaves, the c.o. says to Cable, "Well, you don't spring a couple of Polynesian kids on a woman right away, do you?" Gee, now we know why those poor kids were hiding in the bushes. Before embarking on his mission, Cable decides to visit Bali Ha'i. Hundreds of singing and dancing Polynesians welcome him. Suddenly, it's as if we're watching two different movies. The men wear grass skirts, have bones in their noses, and sport Afros, like refugees from a Tarzan movie. The women wear what appear to be gaily colored prom dresses. And what is Bloody Mary doing here? Certainly losing money since she can't sell souvenirs to the Polynesians. She leads Cable through a lush landscape of greenery, waterfalls, and swinging bridges to a small house where she introduces him to her half-Polynesian daughter Liat by saying, "You like? We are a pretty people, no? She is nice daughter and she will make a nice wife." Bloody Mary giggles and leaves; Liat embraces Cable as if her mother's offering her to a G.I. like a cheap trinket is perfectly normal. I guess those island women just don't have the morals of us continental hussies. Back at the plantation, Emile finally introduces Nellie to his children. He explains that his wife was Polynesian and says, "I have no apologies. I came here as a young man and I lived as I could." Apparently Emile married a Polynesian because there were no Caucasians available. So much for true love. His explanation certainly doesn't convince Nellie, who runs off sobbing. Cable makes another visit to Bali Ha'i. Bloody Mary joins him and Liat at a waterfall and sings "Happy Talk": Talk about a boy saying to the girl, Golly, baby, I'm a lucky cuss. Talk about the girl saying to the boy, You an' me is lucky to be us. Happy talk, keep talking happy talk, Talk about things you like to do. You got to have a dream, if you don't have a dream, How you gonna have a dream come true?" Liat merely mimes the words. While Bloody Mary speaks Pidgin English, Liat apparently doesn't speak at all. Is she mute, or is it her character's purpose to show that young Asian-Pacific women are beautiful but dumb in a very literal sense? How Cable and Liat can engage in any talk--let alone happy talk--is a puzzle since Cable speaks English and Liat doesn't speak at all. Bloody Mary urges Cable to marry Liat and offers to support the couple with profits from her souvenir sales, but Bloody Mary just doesn't know when to shut up. She leers at Cable and says, "First time I saw you, I knew you were right man for Liat. You have special good babies." Cable recoils and declares he can't marry Liat. Bloody Mary storms off, dragging Liat behind her, yelling that she'll marry Liat to a French planter instead. When Cable tells Nellie about Liat, Nellie sympathizes by saying "We have to go where we belong." I guess that means where everyone is white. Soon Emile appears and questions Nellie about her sudden request for a transfer to another base. "Is it because of my children? Because of my Polynesian wife?" asks Emile. Nellie says she can't give him a reason. "It's something born in me. I can't help it." She asks Cable to explain to Emile and then rushes off as Cable sings "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught": "You've got to be taught to be afraid Of people whose eyes are oddly made, And people whose skin is a different shade, You've got to be carefully taught." This song purports to explain that the prejudice Cable and Nellie have is not innate but learned. Suddenly Cable vows to stay on the islands with Liat. There isn't any explanation for this sudden flip-flop in attitude. Surely a man who only the day before has recoiled at the thought of having children with Liat would need more than the lyrics of a song to help him change his attitude toward Pacific Islanders. In the next scene, Cable convinces Emile to join him on the mission. They manage to send back several reports on Japanese movements before they are discovered and Cable is killed. When Nellie learns of Cable's death, she rushes to the beach and gazes intently toward the chain of islands where Emile is hiding. "I know what counts now," she says. "Not the woman you had before or her color. What a pinhead I was. Don't die before I can tell you: all that matters is us." But why does Nellie refer to Emile's dead wife as "the woman"? Then again, why does she rush to Emile's plantation to care for his children? Another sudden change of heart and Nellie didn't even hear Cable sing "You've Got to be Taught." What does "South Pacific" say about the Pacific? Well, Asian women are ugly and unscrupulous while Polynesian women are beautiful and dumb; the Polynesian men, for their part, are happy-go-lucky guys who care only about hanging out on Bali Ha'i. Did the TV production clean up any of the movie's racist language or stereotypes? No. In fact, in the movie version, Nellie doesn't ever refer to Emile's children as "colored." So why revive "South Pacific" for TV and make it worse by adding racist dialogue? For that matter, why rent the movie other than for its music? Hey, if you want to hear the score, and I don't blame you, get the soundtrack. DRAWN ON FOR THIS ESSAY "South Pacific," Josh Logan, director. Starring Mitzi Gaynor, Rossano Brazzi, John Kerr. Run time: 150 minutes. CBS/Fox Video, l984 (theatrical release l958). "South Pacific," Richard Pearce, director. Starring Glenn Close, Rade Sherbedgia, Harry Connick, Jr., Robert Pastorelli, Lori Tan Chinn, and Natalie Mendoza. ABC production, March 26, 2001. AUDIO RELEASES "South Pacific," Original Broadway Cast. Starring Mary Martin and Ezio Pinza. Columbia Records, l998 (original release l949). "South Pacific," Original Soundtrack. Starring Mitzi Gaynor and Giorgio Tozzi. RCA Records, 2000 (original release l958). ©2000-2002 Frigate: The Transverse Review of Books www.frigatezine.com All rights reserved on behalf of the authors. We welcome your comments and suggestions on our site. Please email <[email protected]>.	South Pacific
The cartoon character 'Flook' appeared in which national newspaper from 1949 to 1984?	Busy Joanna \| Entertainment, News, The Philippine Star \| philstar.com The Philippine Star Philippine News for the Filipino Global Community Masthead, pagematch: 1, sectionmatch: 1 Fri \| 01/20/2017 01:02pm \| Forex: $1:49.980 Search form Entertainment ( Leaderboard Top ), pagematch: 1, sectionmatch: 1 Busy Joanna SOUNDS FAMILIAR By Baby A. Gil (The Philippine Star) \| Updated September 11, 2015 - 12:00am Joanna Ampil is playing Nellie Forbush, the nurse who fell in love with a French plantation owner with bi-racial children in South Pacific in Concert to be held on Sept. 12 and 19 at Resorts World Manila “Be careful what you ask for,” is probably what Joanna Ampil is saying to herself these days, “You might just get it.” And she did. In fact, she is still getting it. Two years ago, she came home to resume her career in the Philippines after many years spent in London. Used to the regimented life of a professional actor in the West End, I recall Joanna groaning over not doing anything. She was not used to taking things easy and wanted work, lots of it. Fast forward to today and how things have changed. Joanna, nowadays, is everywhere. She has become that rarity in the local entertainment scene. A busy theater actress. She is busy shooting a film. She is all over radio and television promoting a new single from her latest album. And amidst all that, she is of course, also doing what she does best, that is, starring in some musicals on stage. First off, Joanna is playing Nellie Forbush, the nurse who fell in love with a French plantation owner with bi-racial children in South Pacific in Concert. Although, this is not her first Rodgers and Hammerstein musical, remember, she was Maria in a local production of The Sound of Music a few years ago. This is the first time that Joanna is playing an American girl and with a Southern accent at that. The show plays at the Newport Performing Arts Theater in Resorts World Manila on Saturdays, Sept. 12 and 19. It also stars Jon Meer Vera Perez, Mark Bautista and Ima Castro. Catch it and enjoy songs like Some Enchanted Evening, Bali Hai, Younger Than Springtime, I’m In Love With A Wonderful Guy, There Is Nothing Like A Dame and many others. Next on tap for her onstage is what may well be the most romantic musical of the year. This is the Atlantis Theatrical Entertainment Group production of the Tony Award-winning The Bridges of Madison County. This is based on the bestselling novel by Robert James Waller which later became a successful motion picture, starring Meryl Streep and Clint Eastwood. Entertainment ( Article MRec ), pagematch: 1, sectionmatch: 1 And Joanna gets to play the part of the housewife Francesca Johnson who had a chance, life-changing encounter with a traveling photographer. For this one, she will put on a little Italian accent. Set to play her lover is rocker and actor MiG Ayesa. Bridges opens on Nov. 20 at the Carlos P. Romulo Auditorium of RCBC Plaza in Makati. It would be really interesting to see Joanna and MiG, who are both known for strong, over-the-top characters, in something as sexy and intimate as this one. Then there is Larawan that Joanna has been shooting these past weeks. This is the motion picture rendition of the play Portrait of the Filipino as an Artist by National Artist Nick Joaquin. This was later adapted into a play and a movie, which in turn became the basis for the opera by Ryan Cayabyab with a libretto by another National Artist, Rolando Tinio. This opera has now become a big screen musical produced by Celeste Legaspi and Girlie Rodis, directed by Loy Arcenas and with Ryan’s music. Set in Manila during the 1930s, Portrait or Larawan tells the story of two sisters, Candida and Paula Marasigan, who are unable to cope with the prospect of impoverished old age and their changing surroundings. Joanna is Candida, while Rachel Alejandro is Paula. Expect an aural and visual feast with Joanna and the rest of the cast singing in true Tagalog. Amidst all these, Joanna finds the time to promote the second single from her eponymous album. A soaring statement of happiness, The Only Place To Be was composed by Ed Fox, arranged by Ralf Stenman and produced by Christian de Walden. It is a most fitting description of where Joanna is today as far as her career in the Philippines is concerned. So, in between film shoots and rehearsals, she appears in TV shows and visits radio station to plug her song. Joanna Ampil album also includes Fragments Of Forever, Init Sa Magdamag, Won’t You Love Me Again, Kung Maari, Old Souls and Smile. The first single release was Hanggang Saan, which was composed by Vehnee Saturno. Also in the album are three notable duets: Kumusta Ka with Mark Bautista, Kailangan Kita with the British boy group Blake and Never Thought I’d Ever Love This Way with Martin Nievera. The latter is a composition by Italian music great Tony Renis, who also wrote The Prayer and Volare. Joanna was only 17 years old when she bagged the role of Kim in Miss Saigon. She has since then worked extensively on the London stage. She has been in Les Miserablés, both as Eponine and Fantine, in Jesus Christ Superstar and Avenue Q. Her most recent appearance, which by the way generated a lot of rave reviews, was in the touring company of Cats as Grizabella behind the showstopping song, Memory. Entertainment ( Article MRec ), pagematch: 1, sectionmatch: 1	i don't know
Which English racecourse offers outstanding views of the Blackdown Hills?	And they're off! Racecourses with a view And they're off! Racecourses with a view Updated 1558 GMT (2358 HKT) June 29, 2016 Chat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds. Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Goodwood describes itself as "the world's most beautiful racecourse." Hide Caption 1 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing It's one of Britain 59 racecourses, which offer a unique perspective of Britain's countryside and cities. Hide Caption 2 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Britain's Grand National is one of the world's most famous races. Held at Liverpool's Aintree racecourse, the steeplechase was first run in 1839 and was won by Red Rum a record three times. Hide Caption 3 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Chepstow, South Wales hosts the Welsh Grand National, with the Wye Valley providing a picturesque backdrop to the course. Hide Caption 4 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Located in East Sussex in southern England, Plumpton racecourse recently hosted the Shetland Pony Gold Cup. Hide Caption 5 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Steam rises from a runner after finishing at Kempton Park racecourse. One of the most prestigious races of the jump season -- the King George VI Chase is staged at Kempton on Boxing Day. The racecourse is a short train ride from central London. Hide Caption 6 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing As well as staging flat and jump races, Newbury also hosts live music events. Simply Red will play there on July 16 2016. Hide Caption 7 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing In Britain, racing is so much more than just jockeys and horses competing. Where would Ascot be without its hats? Founded by Queen Anne in 1711, Ascot is arguably the world's most famous racecourse with June's Royal Ascot week combining racing along with style and fashion over five days. Hide Caption 8 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Racing great Lester Piggott poses at Doncaster racecourse in September 2014. Tthe world's oldest Classic race -- the St. Leger -- is run at Doncaster, with the course on Town Moor dating back to 1776. Hide Caption 9 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Silvestre De Sousa riding Montsarrat (second left, green) wins the Ashbrittle Stud EBF Stallions Blagrave Maiden Stakes at Salisbury racecourse in June 2015. Racing has taken place at Salisbury since the sixteenth century. The Brazilian jockey won this year's 2015 flat jockeys' championship. Hide Caption 10 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Newmarket is often referred to as the headquarters of British horse racing, while it also stages the first two British Classic races of the season -- the 1,000 and 2,000 Guineas. Hide Caption Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing The grandstands sit high on Sussex's South Downs at Goodwood racecourse. Hide Caption Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Each year in March, the Cheltenham Festival draws huge crowds. Hide Caption 13 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing A general view of the course at Cheltenham racecourse in March 2015. Dubbed jumping's answer to the "Olympics," attendances peak at 70,000 on Gold Cup Day during the Festival. Hide Caption 14 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Rain falls during Gold Cup day at the Cheltenham Festival in March 2015. It's estimated that as much as $232 million is bet at the Festival. Hide Caption 15 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing A general view as runners finish The 888sport Stakes at York racecourse in May 2015 in York. The course is located on the Knavesmire in the heart of the city and it's where highwayman Dick Turpin was hanged in 1739. Hide Caption 16 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Runners kick up the Polytrack surface as they round the bend at Lingfield racecourse in April 2015. As well as its all-weather course, Lingfield has a turf track, enabling it to provide both flat and jump action throughout the year. Hide Caption 17 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Chelmsford City racecourse is another all-weather track, which opened in January 2015. It was formerly known as Great Leighs Racecourse, which went into administration in 2009. When Great Leighs opened in 2008 it became the first new British racecourse since 1927. Hide Caption 18 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing A horses eye at Fontwell racecourse in February 2015. Located in West Sussex, Fontwell is the only figure of eight jumps track in Britain. Hide Caption 19 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing With racing dating back to 1539, Chester is the oldest racecourse in Britain, according to the British Horseracing Authority. Hide Caption 20 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Ryan Moore riding Grand Inquisitor wins The winner.co.uk Casino Handicap Stakes at Sandown racecourse in June 2015 in Esher, Surrey. The course's famous hill finishes often leads to exciting conclusions to races. Hide Caption 21 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Runners make their way down the side of the track at Towcester racecourse. Towcester is the only British racecourse which offers free racing for most of its fixtures. Hide Caption 22 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Epsom is home to the most famous of Britain's five Classic races -- The Derby -- which dates back to 1780. Hide Caption 23 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Donal Fahy riding Dark Spirit (left) wins The Green Taveners Juvenile Maiden Hurdle Race at Newton Abbot racecourse in September, 2011. Newton Abbot is now a summer jump course only, with its season starting in March running through to the end of August/early September. Hide Caption 24 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing Its not just horses you get to watch at Brighton racecourse -- you also get to see the English Channel. Hide Caption 25 of 27 Photos: Britain viewed through the prism of horse racing A general view as runners make their way down the back straight at Taunton racecourse, which is another one of Britain's countryside courses. Taunton offers outstanding views of the Blackdown Hills. Hide Caption	Taunton
Which month is mentioned in the first line of Robert Browning's poem 'Home Thoughts From Abroad'?	Blackdown Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty - Visit Somerset Visit Somerset My Itinerary My Itinerary Welcome to the Itinerary Planner. Use this tool to build your own journey or choose from an exciting range of specially selected tours. To build your own Itinerary, click to add an item to your Itinerary basket. You are here: Explore Somerset > Blackdown Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Blackdown Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Countryside St Ivel House, Station Road Hemyock Video The Blackdown Hills are a nationally important landscape and were designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) in recognition of the special qualities of their natural and built environment. Being relatively unspoilt, the Hills offer a rare sense of timelessness. A network of hedges, mature hedgerow trees and small copses link a rich mosaic of semi-natural habitats. The area is perfect for walks, cycling and horse riding where the quiet bridleways and byways offer many opportunities to explore and enjoy the locally distinctive buildings, archaeological remains and natural flora and fauna. The Hills have a variety of tourist accommodation providers ranging from bed & breakfast establishments, beautiful country houses, converted barns, farmhouses and cottages. There are a number of self-catering cottages and a small range of family run hotels and guesthouses. This area is renowned for its fantastic range of welcoming country inns, many of which offer terrific menus of home cooked food, sourced from local produce. The Blackdown Hills are perfect destination for short break holidays, where visitors can join in with organized activities such as guided walks, hedgerow skills workshops, fishing, arts and crafts, writing courses... the list is endless! Location Self catering bungalow near Exmoor, Somerset, suitable for families. 4.23 miles away Glamping in Somerset near Wellington. Weekly and short breaks available at Kittisford... 6.92 miles away Located in the very heart of Taunton, The Castle offers the perfect base from which to... 8.48 miles away Dimpsey Glamping offers 5* glamping in a luxury Shepherd's Hut in the Blackdown Hills. An... 8.54 miles away The Royal Ashton Hotel provides the only hotel accommodation in Taunton within a short 5... 8.9 miles away Farming in a sustainable way is key at Wambrook Farm in the Blackdown Hills, a mixed... 10.02 miles away Located in Taunton, our rural guest house is approximately a mile from the train station.... 10.1 miles away Farmhouse B&B on the edge of Taunton, Somerset. Businessmen welcome. 10.13 miles away The Mount Somerset Hotel and Spa in Taunton, Somerset is a stunning Regency country house... 10.17 miles away A self contained 2 bedroomed self catering apartment in Somerset in an idyllic setting... 10.51 miles away Spend your holidays with a clear carbon conscience in one of the Luxury Carbon Neutral... 10.71 miles away Independent luxury B&B near Taunton in a Manor House & Coach House. TripAdvisor... 11.23 miles away Frog Street Farmhouse, Hatch Beauchamp, Taunton, Somerset, TA3 6AF 11.55 miles away Converted 18th Century farmhouse, now a delightful country Hotel renowned for good food... 12.41 miles away Somerset self catering barns converted to high standard with indoor pool, hot tub, games... 14.33 miles away Oldway Garden Annexe is a beautiful stand alone ensuite bedroom located in one acre of... 14.7 miles away	i don't know
Which motorway runs from Coventry to Leicester?	Hotels, Pubs, Restaurants & Guest Houses just off the M69 Motorway The M69 motorway runs for 16 miles from Coventry to Leicester The M69 starts in Coventy from the M6 motorway at junction 2 and passes through Nuneaton and Hinkley for 16 miles until it reaches the M1 motorway at Leicester. Click image to enlarge	M69
The Linden Tree is also called what?	Leicester Jobs, Recruitment - Meridian Meridian Refer a Friend Leicester Welcome to Meridian Business Support Leicester. If you are a candidate looking for your next permanent career move or your next temporary job, Meridian Business Support can assist you. Our recruitment specialists have the knowledge and expertise to place you in a job that best meets your requirements. Our multi-award winning recruitment specialist services ensure that we deliver exceptional customer service and job-matching expertise. We offer jobs in the Office & Professional, Industrial, Health & Nursing, Education and Built Environment sectors. Sector [email protected] Why work in Leicester? Leicester is a city in the heart of the Leicestershire, at the edge of the National Forest. It is the largest city in the East Midlands and second only to Birmingham in all the Midlands. In 2008 Leicester was positioned thirteenth in the retail shopping league of England (CACI Retail Footprint 2008). East Midlands Trains are the InterCity operator running 'fast' and 'semi-fast' services to and from London to northern England, and provide local services throughout the East Midlands, regional services to the West Midlands and East Anglia are provided by CrossCountry. Rail routes run north–south through Leicester along the route known as the Midland Main Line, going south to Bedford, Luton and London; and north to Lincoln, Sheffield, Leeds and York. Junctions north and south of the station link the east–west cross country route, going east to Cambridge, Stansted Airport and Norwich; and west to Nuneaton and Birmingham.Leicester is close to the heart of the M1 motorway at Junction 21. The M69 motorway also starts near Leicester, and runs to the M6 Motorway and is contiguous with Coventry's eastern bypass. What is Meridian up to?	i don't know
Name any year in Picasso's 'Blue Period'?	www.mykidsart.com.au - Pablo Picasso Famous Artists My Kids Art Pablo Picasso 1881 - 1973 Pablo Picasso was born more than 120 years ago (1881) in Malaga, Spain. He is famous for being the co-founder of Cubism which is a style of painting where objects of the painting subject are broken up and re-painted in an abstract form. When Pablo was age 7 his father (who was also a painter) gave him artistic training in figure drawing and oil painting. Later on Pablo studied art in Madrid and then went to Paris when he was about 19. In 1900 Paris was considered the art capital of Europe. Picasso's work is divided into periods - The Blue Period (1901-1904), which were sad looking paintings using blue and blue-green colours. The Rose Period (1905-1907), which was a more happy style with orange and pink colours. The African-influenced Period (1908-1909) and The Cubism Period (1909- 1919) Through-out his life Picasso also did ceramic and bronze sculptures, drawings, etchings and poetry. He also did paintings of other famous artist's paintings but in his own style. He died (heart attack) in 1973 Age 91 - His final words were "Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can’t drink any more." Self Portrait 1901 Old Guitarist 1903 Three Musicians 1921 Still Life with Guitar 1922 Marie-Therese The Doves 1937 Walter 1937 Unusual Facts About Picasso Pablo's real name is Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Clito Ruiz Picasso. A lot of the names are of saints and relatives. According to his mother, Pablo's first words were "piz, piz", which is short for lapiz - Spanish for 'pencil' Some of his paintings are amongst the most expensive in the world. _____________________________________________________ If you want to make your own Picasso visit Mr Picasso Head	1901 1904
Which European flag consists of three horizontal stripes. red at the top, white in the centre, green at the bottom?	www.mykidsart.com.au - Pablo Picasso Famous Artists My Kids Art Pablo Picasso 1881 - 1973 Pablo Picasso was born more than 120 years ago (1881) in Malaga, Spain. He is famous for being the co-founder of Cubism which is a style of painting where objects of the painting subject are broken up and re-painted in an abstract form. When Pablo was age 7 his father (who was also a painter) gave him artistic training in figure drawing and oil painting. Later on Pablo studied art in Madrid and then went to Paris when he was about 19. In 1900 Paris was considered the art capital of Europe. Picasso's work is divided into periods - The Blue Period (1901-1904), which were sad looking paintings using blue and blue-green colours. The Rose Period (1905-1907), which was a more happy style with orange and pink colours. The African-influenced Period (1908-1909) and The Cubism Period (1909- 1919) Through-out his life Picasso also did ceramic and bronze sculptures, drawings, etchings and poetry. He also did paintings of other famous artist's paintings but in his own style. He died (heart attack) in 1973 Age 91 - His final words were "Drink to me, drink to my health, you know I can’t drink any more." Self Portrait 1901 Old Guitarist 1903 Three Musicians 1921 Still Life with Guitar 1922 Marie-Therese The Doves 1937 Walter 1937 Unusual Facts About Picasso Pablo's real name is Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Clito Ruiz Picasso. A lot of the names are of saints and relatives. According to his mother, Pablo's first words were "piz, piz", which is short for lapiz - Spanish for 'pencil' Some of his paintings are amongst the most expensive in the world. _____________________________________________________ If you want to make your own Picasso visit Mr Picasso Head	i don't know
What is the more common name of the Chile Pine?	Araucaria araucana (monkey puzzle) \| Plants & Fungi At Kew Discover plants and fungi Araucaria araucana (monkey puzzle) The monkey puzzle was given its name by an observer who thought that monkeys wouldn't be able to climb the spiky branches. Araucaria araucana in Chile (Photo: Martin Gardner) Species information Araucaria araucana (Molina) K. Koch Common name: monkey puzzle, Chile pine (English); araucaria, pino araucana, pino Chileno, piñonero (Spanish) Conservation status: Vulnerable (VU) according to IUCN Red List criteria. Declared a Natural Monument in Chile in 1990. Habitat: Mixed deciduous and evergreen forest, or growing as pure stands; in moist loamy soil or in stabilised volcanic ash; on the lower slopes of mountains. Key Uses: Ornamental; edible seeds; a valuable timber tree, but logging of wild trees now strictly prohibited; a sacred tree in indigenous culture. Known hazards: The rigid spines on the trunk and leaf tips are potentially hazardous. This is a tree to avoid climbing! Taxonomy Genus: Araucaria About this species The monkey puzzle or Chile pine (Araucaria araucana) is an evergreen conifer native to Argentina and Chile. It was discovered in about 1780 by a Spanish explorer and introduced to England by Archibald Menzies in 1795. Menzies was a plant collector and naval surgeon on Captain George Vancouver's circumnavigation of the globe, travelling in Captain James Cook's old ship, HMS Discovery. He was served the seeds of this conifer as dessert while dining with the governor of Chile and later sowed them in a frame on the quarter deck, returning home to England with five healthy plants. One of these monkey puzzles could be seen at Kew until it died in 1892. The common name alludes to the fact that the task of climbing the tree, with its sharp branches tightly clothed with spiny leaves, would puzzle even a monkey. Synonym: Discover more Geography and distribution Native to southwest Argentina and southern and central Chile, where it grows at 600 to 1,800 m above sea level. Description Araucaria araucana pollen cones at Kew An evergreen, pyramid-shaped tree, the monkey puzzle grows up to 50 m high with a trunk circumference of up to 2.5 m. The tree's most distinguishing feature is its leaves. They are stiff, dark green and glossy with a spiny tip and completely cover each branch, closely overlapping each other. The visual effect is wholly unusual and while many consider the appearance of the tree majestic, others find its scaly, almost reptilian foliage somewhat scary. The horizontal branches are produced in tiers and have few side branches. The female cone is globular and up to 20 cm in diameter; the male cone is cylindrical and up to 15 cm long. Trees normally have cones of only one sex, rarely both. Threats and conservation The monkey puzzle is well-adapted to fire, volcanic activity having long caused wildfires in its natural habitat, so this is not a threat under natural circumstances. However, fires resulting from human activities (especially agricultural clearances) cause severe damage to remaining populations of the tree. Research in Chile, carried out under the auspices of the Flagship Species Fund of the U.K.’s Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) and Flora & Fauna International (FFI), found at least 80% of the trees remaining in one study area had suffered fire damage. Monkey puzzle stem Despite being officially declared a Natural Monument in 1990 (making it an offence to cut down wild trees), forests outside of protected areas are still subject to high levels of damage due to burning, grazing and conversion to commercial plantations. The majority of the forests occur in a relatively small area of the Chilean and Argentinean Andes; the most threatened populations are in the coastal cordillera in southern Chile. Araucaria araucana is listed in CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) Appendix 1, which includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances. Monkey puzzle is one of the iconic threatened trees included in The Global Trees Campaign – an international initiative of Fauna & Flora International (FFI) and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), aimed at saving threatened trees. Uses The name Araucaria araucana comes from the Araucanos, a group of Amerindian tribes of the Araucana linguistic family, some of whom still live in Chile and Argentina. The Araucanos consider monkey puzzles to be sacred. They traditionally ate the seeds (piñones), which although edible, taste better roasted than raw. Piñones continue to be an important part of the diet of Araucanos living close to monkey puzzle populations. The dried seeds are made into a flour, which the Araucanos then use to make a fermented beverage (muday). The seeds are also fed to livestock, especially during the winter. Local people used to cut trees for fuelwood and construction, but large-scale logging of Araucaria forests followed the arrival of Europeans in the region in the 19th century. Monkey puzzle was at one time considered to be the most valuable timber in the southern Andes, being used for railway sleepers, pit props in mines, ship masts, and for paper pulp. In the 1940s, it was even reported as being used in the construction of aeroplanes. A recent study indicates that local communities have begun to replant degraded areas of logged forest with Araucaria araucana and other useful native plant species. Indigenous knowledge and the involvement of local communities could play a role in developing sustainable use strategies in the future. Monkey puzzles in Bicton Gardens, Devon (Photo: Derek Spicer) The monkey puzzle is often planted as an ornamental in parks and gardens, where its unusual appearance is admired. In the UK, it was most widely planted in the Victorian era. However, because it grows to a great height and gardens have become smaller, its popularity has waned. Nevertheless, the sight of a monkey puzzle tree (especially a mature specimen bearing cones) will often arouse curiosity and comments from passers-by. The planting of Araucaria araucana was a popular means of creating impressive avenues on large estates in the UK and other countries in the 19th century, such as this example in Bicton Gardens, Devon (image, right). Younger trees have since been planted to replace those damaged in the 1987 storm. Millennium Seed Bank: Seed storage Kew's Millennium Seed Bank Partnership aims to save plant life world wide, focusing on plants under threat and those of most use in the future. Seeds are dried, packaged and stored at a sub-zero temperature in our seed bank vault. Description of seeds: Average 1,000 seed weight = 4,235 g. Seeds are dispersed by animals. Number of seed collections stored in the Millennium Seed Bank: None. Seed storage behaviour: Recalcitrant. Sensitive to desiccation. Composition values: Average oil content = 5.45%. Araucaria araucana seed cones Monkey puzzle at Kew One monkey puzzle, which stands beside the Orangery, was planted in 1978. There are other specimens planted in the Pinetum by the Lake, including two recently collected on a Kew expedition to the tree’s native homeland of Chile. Other Araucaria species can be seen in the Temperate House. A grove of monkey puzzles can be seen in Bloomer’s Valley at Kew’s sister garden Wakehurst. The Economic Botany Collection contains 23 specimens of Araucaria araucana, including cones, seeds and samples of the wood. Dried and spirit-preserved specimens of monkey puzzle are held in the behind-the-scenes Herbarium, where they are made available by appointment to researchers. References and credits Aagesen, D.L. (1998). Indigenous resource rights and conservation of the monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana, Araucariaceae): a case study from southern Chile. Econ. Bot. 52(2): 146-160. Conifer Specialist Group (2000). Araucaria araucana. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. < www.iucnredlist.org> . Downloaded on 15 November 2010. Echeverria, C., Zamorano, C. & Cortés, M. (2004). Conservation and Restoration of Monkey Puzzle (Araucaria araucana) Forests in Chile. Final Report. Global Trees Campaign. 16 pp. Farjon, A. (2010). A Handbook of the World’s Conifers (Vol 1). E.J. Brill, Leiden & Boston. Herrmann, T.M. (2006). Indigenous knowledge and management of Araucaria araucana forest in the Chilean Andes: implications for native forest management. Biodiversity and Conservation 15(2): 647-662. World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (2010). The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Available online (accessed 15 November 2010). Kew Science Editor: Aljos Farjon Kew contributors: Steve Davis (Sustainable Uses Group) Copyediting: Emma Tredwell While every effort has been taken to ensure that the information contained in these pages is reliable and complete, the notes on hazards, edibility and suchlike included here are recorded information and do not constitute recommendations. No responsibility will be taken for readers’ own actions.	Araucaria araucana
The adjective 'Crural' refers to which part of the body?	pine facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about pine The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright The Columbia University Press pine, common name for members of the Pinaceae, a family of resinous woody trees with needlelike, usually evergreen leaves. The Pinaceae reproduce by means of cones (see cone ) rather than flowers and many have winged seeds, suitable for wind distribution. They are found chiefly in north temperate regions, where they form vast forests. The family was apparently more abundant in the mid-Cenozoic era, but it has maintained its population better than other gymnosperms because the trees are more adaptable to cold, dry climates; the reduced leaf surface and deep-set stomata minimize loss of water by transpiration. The family is the largest and most important of the conifers, providing naval stores, paper pulp, and more lumber by far than any other family. In some localities almost pure stands occur, permitting economical lumbering of large numbers of a given type of tree. Of the family's nine genera four are widely dispersed throughout North America and the Old World. Members of all nine genera are represented in horticulture as introduced timber trees or ornamentals. The so-called kauri pine, although pinelike in appearance, belongs to another family (see monkey-puzzle tree ). The True Pines Pinus (the true pines) is the largest and most widespread genus, characteristic of many north temperate regions (except the plains), especially at lower altitudes, and in a few tropical regions, notably on mountain slopes. Species of Pinus can often be identified by the leaf arrangement, one needle or clusters of from two to five (in all cases enclosed in a sheath at the base) being consistently produced by each type. Many of the pines are economically valuable; from them come the naval stores: pitch (see tar and pitch ), turpentine , and rosin . Drying and nondrying oils are also made from the seeds of some pines. Several Mediterranean and American species yield edible seeds (see pine nut ). The ponderosa pine or western yellow pine (P. ponderosa), is a hard pine second only to the Douglas fir as a commercial timber tree in North America. The white pine (P. strobus) has straight-grained soft wood with little resin, used especially for interior trim and cabinetwork. It once grew densely from Newfoundland to Manitoba and over much of the E United States westward to Minnesota, but constant felling and attacks of white-pine blister rust have greatly depleted the stands, especially in the NE United States. The Norway pine, or red pine, (P. resinosa) has a similar range and has also suffered from overcutting. Its wood is somewhat heavier and is suitable for general construction. The Norway pine is frequently used in reforestation programs. The jack pine (P. banksiana), the most northern of the American species, thrives on poor and sandy soils and is much used to colonize areas where more valuable species may later be introduced. Although the trunk is often gnarled, making it unsuitable for good lumber, it supplies much pulpwood and is used locally for rough lumber, fuel, and crating. The Virginia pine (P. virginiana) of the Appalachians and the Piedmont is popular regionally as a Christmas tree. The longleaf pine, or Southern yellow pine (P. palustris) has highly resinous wood used for heavy construction and as a major source of naval stores and pulpwood. It and the faster growing slash pine (P. caribaea) of the same region have gained importance as northern pine stands have been depleted. The latter is widely cultivated in tropical areas with sandy soils. The Scotch pine (P. sylvestris), ranging from Scotland to Siberia and popular as a Christmas tree in the United States, is one of the most valuable timber trees of Europe. The cluster pine (P. pinaster), widespread in S France and in Spain, is the chief European source of turpentine. The Monterey pine (P. radiata) of California has been widely planted in New Zealand and Chile for reforestation. Other Species in the Pine Family Abies ( fir ) species are usually of more northern distribution and found at higher altitudes. Sap-filled "blisters" on the trunks of some species provide balsam . Larix ( larch ) and Pseudolarix (golden larch, of China) are the only two deciduous genera. Picea ( spruce ) is the world's most important source of paper. Cedrus ( cedar ) ranges from the Mediterranean area to the Himalayas; Keteleeria is restricted to E and SE Asia. Tsuga ( hemlock ) and Pseudotsuga are native only to North America and E Asia. Pseudotsuga menziesii (the Douglas fir) of W North America, one of the tallest trees known (up to 385 ft/117 m) and the leading timber-producing tree of the continent, is carefully controlled by forestry measures. Its wood, usually hard and strong, is of great commercial importance for construction; it is also commonly used as a Christmas tree in the United States. Named for David Douglas, the tree has many local names, e.g., Douglas spruce, Oregon pine, red fir, and yellow fir. Classification The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English © The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English 2009, originally published by Oxford University Press 2009. pine1 / pīn/ • n. 1. (also pine tree) an evergreen coniferous tree (genus Pinus, family Pinaceae) that has clusters of long needle-shaped leaves. Many kinds are grown for their soft timber, which is widely used for furniture and pulp, or for tar and turpentine. ∎ used in names of coniferous trees of other families, e.g., Norfolk Island pine. ∎ used in names of unrelated plants that resemble the pines in some way, e.g., ground pine. ∎ [as adj.] having the scent of pine needles. 2. inf. a pineapple. pine2 • v. [intr.] suffer a mental and physical decline, esp. because of a broken heart: she thinks I am pining away from love. ∎ (pine for) miss and long for the return of: I was pining for my boyfriend. Cite this article A Dictionary of Plant Sciences © A Dictionary of Plant Sciences 1998, originally published by Oxford University Press 1998. Pinus (true pines; family Pinaceae ) A genus of resinous, evergreen conifers in which the leaves (needles) are borne in groups of twos, threes, or fives on short shoots borne along the twigs. There are separate male and female cones, the latter with woody scales; the seeds are winged. Many pines are important for timber, also yielding resin and turpentine. There are 93 species, all in the northern hemisphere, occurring mainly in northern temperate regions, extending in America and eastern Asia to the seasonal tropics. The common name ‘pine’ is sometimes used to describe other pine-like trees of different genera (e.g. Araucaria araucana. Chile pine or monkey-puzzle tree), or, loosely, to include all conifers. Cite this article	i don't know
"Which poem by John Masefield begins with the words ""I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky. And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by""?"	Sea Fever by John Masefield - Famous poems, famous poets. - All Poetry I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by, And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking, And a grey mist on the sea's face, and a grey dawn breaking. I must go down to the seas again, for the call of the running tide Is a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied; And all I ask is a windy day with the white clouds flying, And the flung spray and the blown spume, and the sea-gulls crying. I must go down to the seas again, to the vagrant gypsy life, To the gull's way and the whale's way, where the wind's like a whetted knife; And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover, And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over. From SALT-WATER POEMS AND BALLADS, by John Masefield, published by the Maxmillan Co., NY, © 1913, p. 55; the poem was first published in SALT-WATER BALLADS, © 1902. There has been much debate over the first line and it is indeed "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky;" "go down to the seas" was a poetic way of saying going sailing and did not refer to any specific body of water, similarly "the lonely sea" was simply talking about open water rather than a specific sea. Masefield's use of the word "trick" indicates a period of duty on a specific task such as handling the wheel or lookout. The header graphic by Charles Pears was used to illustrate this poem in Salt-Water Poems and Ballads, by John Masefield, published by The Macmillan Co., New York, US, © 1944, facing p. 72. Jim Saville	Salt-Water Poems and Ballads
Actress Fenella Fielding is often wrongly credited with having a famous brother. Who is he reputed to be?	Writing Model Analyzing A Poem: "Sea-Fever" "I must go down to the seas again, to the lonely sea and the sky, / And all I ask is a tall ship and a star to steer her by ..." John Masefield's poem "Sea-Fever" expresses a sailor's powerful longing to return to the sea. The poem's rhythm creates a sense of the sailor's experiences at sea. The imagery and sensory details create a mood of freedom and adventure. Personification, simile, and metaphor enhance the emotional tone and romanticize life at sea. The poem depicts life at sea as adventurous and mysterious. The poem also makes it clear that the sailor wants his return to the sea to be his final journey. The use of these literary elements in "Sea-Fever" reveals the inescapable lure of the ocean and a desire for a peaceful passing. [Note 1] Poet laureate of Great Britain from 1930 until his death in 1967, John Masefield was only twenty-two years old when he wrote the poem "Sea-Fever." As a boy, Masefield wanted to become a merchant marine officer. After more than two years of training, he apprenticed aboard a sailing ship that crossed commercial sea-lanes. After becoming ill on an overseas voyage, Masefield quit his job as a sailor and spent several years working in a carpet factory in the United States. He returned to England in 1897, determined to succeed as a writer. Through his writing, Masefield imaginatively returned to the sea. The rhythm and meter of "Sea-Fever" simulates the movement of a ship through the ocean swells, strong winds, and rough waters of the high seas. Natural rhythm gives the poem a song-like quality, similar to an old sea chantey. Alliteration adds to this effect. For example, lines three and ten contain the repeated consonant sound of the letter w: "And the wheel's kick and the wind's song and the white sail's shaking"; "To the gull's way and the whale's way where the wind's like a whetted knife." The "wheel's kick" refers to the force of the wheel against the helmsman's hand as he tries to steady it against the force of the sea. The repetition of the w sound underscores the rhythm of the poem, reflecting the rocking of the boat and the movement of the waves. The poem's repetitive use of the word and also creates a sense of waves ebbing and flowing. [Note 2] Masefield also uses vivid imagery to represent the sailor's experience at sea. The title of the poem, "Sea-Fever," and the poet's vivid imagery communicate the power of the sea—"a wild call and a clear call that may not be denied." At the mercy of the vast sea and sky, mariners depend upon a solid craft to protect them against "the flung spray and the brown spume." The "lonely sea and sky" articulate the sailor's feelings of insignificance before the awesome powers of nature. The speaker paints a picture of tumultuous conditions at sea, describing a "windy day with the white clouds flying." While most of the imagery creates a sense of the dangers involved in being a sailor, the speaker also describes the freedom associated with the sea. Phrases like "the vagrant gypsy life" and "a merry yarn from a laughing fellow rover," descriptions that evoke adventure and freedom, help the reader to understand the speaker's love of the sea. Figurative language, including personification, simile, and metaphor, add detail to Masefield's poem. As dawn breaks on the mist floating above the surface of the ocean, the poet describes the surface of the water as the "sea's face." One imagines shaking off sleep and slowly awakening to the morning light just as a "gray mist" on the surface of the ocean disappears when the sun rises. The speaker also personifies the wind, which sings, and the tide, which calls. By personifying these natural elements, the poet creates the sense that the sea is as alive as the sailor. The poet also uses simile to describe his experience of the sea. One can feel the chill of the wind "like a whetted knife." The last two lines are perhaps the most important, as they compare the sea voyage to life's journey: "And all I ask is a merry yarn from a laughing fellow-rover, / And quiet sleep and a sweet dream when the long trick's over." The "long trick" refers to a "trick" at the helm, the time a sailor spends at the wheel of the ship, a duty that usually lasts several hours. A metaphor for a peaceful death, the phrase "when the long trick's over" describes the end of life. The speaker hopes for a "quiet sleep and a sweet dream," or a peaceful passing. [Note 3] While the poem emphasizes the irresistible pull of the sea, the last two lines reveal that the poem has multiple meanings. The speaker looks forward to the end of his journey on the sea, just as he looks forward to the end of his life. Masefield uses the refrain "I must down to the seas again" to emphasize the pull that the sea—and death—exerts over him. The speaker seems to deny the sea's power. Masefield romanticizes death and the end of the sea voyage. Both bring stories from a fellow traveler, much-needed sleep, and a sweet dream. Through meter, imagery, and figurative language Masefield conveys his love of the sea and the intensity of its call to him. Imagery, personification, simile, metaphor, and repetition invite the reader to experience the movements, sights, and sounds of life at sea. Finally, at the end of the poem, the poet introduces a theme that makes the meaning of the poem more ambiguous. "Sea-Fever" invites readers to join the poet as joyful mariners on the long, tumultuous voyage of life. [Note 4] Summary: The writer shows how form, meter, language, and imagery contribute to meaning. In the introduction, the writer states an interpretation of the poem's meaning. In the conclusion, the writer summarizes the interpretation and its major points. The writer uses direct quotations and concrete examples from the poem to support the essay's argument. The writer organizes the discussion of literary elements logically, coherently. Note 5:	i don't know
Which king was on the throne at the time of 'Hereward the Wake's' resistance?	H E R E W A R D T H E W A K E Legendary Fenland Hero Most English know of Hereward the Wake (meaning 'wary'), the Fenland's most famous hero, who lead a revolt against Duke William the Bastard of Normandy, who had usurped the English throne after defeating the English army at the Battle of Hastings, and killing the last king of the English, Harold Godwinson, and the flower of the English nobility in the process. But what is fact and what is legend? The real Hereward held lands in Warwickshire and Lincolnshire at the time of Edward the Confessor, left England some time after 1062, and later reappeared to plunder the Abbey of Peterborough (1070) - the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (at this time being written at Peterborough) says simply that among those at the sack of Peterborough were 'Hereward and his crew'. At the time, or shortly after, he was holding the Isle of Ely, with its Camp of Refuge, against the Normans (1071). During this time Hereward sometimes he had Danish help. He also attracted many dissidents such as the Earl Morkar, and Siward Bain. The isle took a lot of Norman effort to capture. Hereward was one of those to escape. He continued the struggle for sometime, operating in and near the Fens. Eventually he made his peace with King William. From these sparse facts has grown the legend of Hereward, son of Leofric, Earl of Mercia (or Leofric of Bourne, Lincolnshire). In his youth he kept wild company, and when he was fourteen his father persuaded King Edward to make him an outlaw. He was brought back to England by the news that the Normans had seized his father's estates. On his return he found that the new Norman owners had not only taken the land, but also slain his brother, whose head was set above the door of the house. Like an avenging thunderbolt, he descended upon the killers and slew them all. Next day 14 Norman heads had replaced that of his brother above the door. News of Hereward's exploits spread and he became the leader of a mixed band of English and Danish warriors, who flocked to join him at his new base at the great Abbey of Ely. William the Conqueror led his army to Ely, then an island in the Fens, and was three times foiled by Hereward in the attempt to build a causeway across the marshes. The third time, while William was encamped at Brandon, Hereward rode there on his horse, a noble beast called Swallow, on the way meeting a potter, who agreed to exchange clothes with him and lend him his wares. In this disguise Hereward got into William's camp and overheard his plans (as according to legend King Alfred disguised himself as a harper to enter the camp of the Danes). When William built his third causeway, and proceeded to send his soldiers along it to attack Ely, Hereward's men, hidden in the reeds, set fire to the vegetation. The Normans were engulfed by the flames, and those who tried to escape were either drowned in the marsh or picked off by English arrows. But the monks of Ely grew tired of the siege and let the Normans in by a secret path. Hereward escaped with a handful of men and was soon leading a new resistance. Whilst mounting an attack on Stamford, Hereward and his men became hopelessly lost in Rockingham Forest. Then St Peter sent a wolf (St Peter animal) to show them the way, and as darkness fell, lighted candles appeared on every tree and on every man's shield, burning steadily no matter how the wind blew. This was a token of the apostle's gratitude for Hereward sparing the abbot and returning part of the treasure to the saint's own abbey of Peterborough. Eventually William made peace with him, but he still had other enemies. One day a chaplain, whom he had asked to keep watch while he slept, betrayed him and sixteen Normans broke into the house. Though he slew fifteen of his attackers with his lance or his famous sword Brainbiter, and a sixteenth with his shield, he fell when four more knights entered and stabbed him in the back with their spears. Like Edric the Wild, it was as a resistance leader that he first became famous, but soon frankly fabulous stories were attracted to his name. Within eighty years of the real Hereward's death, the Hereward of legend was in full cry, in the Estorie des Engles of Geoffrey Gaimar from around 1140, and the Gesta Herewardii Saxonis ('Deeds of Hereward the Saxon'). The author of the Gesta, writing no more than fifty years after William's assault on Ely, tells us on the one hand that he remembers seeing fishermen dredging Norman skeletons, still in their rusty armour, out of the fen; on the other, that Hereward once slew a Cornish giant! Songs were being sung about Hereward in taverns a hundred years after his death; and in the thirteenth century people still visited a ruined wooden castle in the Fens which was known as Hereward's Castle. But later he was supplanted by another outlaw-hero, Robin Hood, as a symbol of resistance to oppression. Geoff Boxell is author of the novel: "Woden's Wolf" that deals with the English resistance to the Norman Conquest. Britannia.com (T) 302.234.8904 (F) 302.234.9154 Copyright ©1999 Britannia.com, LLC	William the Conqueror
Similarly, which king was on the throne at the time of the 'Black Death' pandemic?	Who was Hereward? - History's HEROES from E2BN Things you may not know about Hereward Hereward was a Saxon with Danish ancestry More His uncle, the abbot of Peterborough, was called Brand, which is a Viking name. He was outlawed for his hot-tempered behaviour when in his teens More This meant he had to find means of supporting himself. As a member of a wealthy family, he would have been well trained as a fighter, so becoming a mercenary was the obvious choice. He fought in Scotland at the time of Macbeth More It is believed he fought for Malcolm, in the war for the throne between Macbeth and Malcolm. He gave the booty from the sacking of Peterborough Abbey to the Danish fighters in his band. More Like many abbeys at that time, there were great stores of wealth and treasure in Peterborough which Hereward used to pay King Sweins troops for their support Hereward eventually made his peace with William the Conqueror More Although he fought on for a while in the fens and forests, he decided in the end that further resistance to the rule of the Normans was pointless 'Wake' means watchful or wary but was added many years after he died, and reasons for the name have become part of the legend. More Wake also appears to be the name of the Normans who eventually took over Bourne, which is believed to be Hereward's inheritance, and the name may have been added to Hereward's by them to make it look as though they had a right to inherit. More Hereward in brief Hereward was born into turbulent times in England. He was a mercenary warrior who turned rebel against the injustices of the aftermath of the Norman invasion. William of Normandy was putting his own followers into the lands owned by Anglo-Saxon lords and thegns. Any resistance was brutally put down. Hereward found his own relatives massacred and in turn killed the Normans who did it, making himself outlaw. He joined forces with King Swein of Denmark on the Isle of Ely and raided Peterborough abbey, which had a Norman abbot. William was so incensed that he marched to Ely himself to deal with the 'outlaw' and his band. King Swein left, the nearby monks were blackmailed into changing sides but Hereward and his band fought on. Eventually the Norman might conquered Ely but Hereward, with a small band of followers, escaped and hid in the forests, continuing to thwart William for some time longer.	i don't know
Which two word French phrase describes small, sweet pastries, often with icing, generally eaten after a meal?	French Culinary-Baking Terms \| The Bakery Network French Culinary-Baking Terms Although many of the terms below do not relate specifically for baking, you may encounter from time to time, a collection of these terms used through professional kitchens around the world. A A la Literally means ‘in the style of.’ A la Translates from French as ‘in the fashion of’. A la Broche Meat roasted on a spit. A la Carte Menu items prepared fresh to order. A French term, A la carte translates as ‘by the menu’. A la Grecque Translates from the French as ‘in the Greek style’. A L’Espagnole Literally translates from French as, ‘in the Spanish style’. Al a Minuta A French term literally meaning cooked in a minuet; often applied to food cooked at the table, for example traditional stroganoff. Al Dente An Italian term which describes the consistency of pasta when cooked correctly. Al dente literally translates as “to the tooth”, i.e. the pasta should be slightly firm to the bite. Abatis Chicken giblets. Abats Offal. A French term indicating the head, heart, livers, kidney, tongue, feet, etc, of an animal. Aboyeur A person responsible for the calling of an order within a kitchen, making sure that each section is aware of any requirements. Agneau Lamb. See also ‘mouton’. Aiguille a Brider A trussing needle. Aiguille a Larder A larding needle. Aiguillettes Thin long strips, vertically cut, principally of duck breast and other poultry. From the French word aiguille meaning ‘little needle’. Aile The wing of poultry or game, also known as ‘aileron’. Airelles Cranberries. Akami Japanese term describing a cut from the lean loin of a tuna fish, used in sushi and sashimi. Akami Japanese term describing a cut from the lean loin of a tuna fish, used in sushi and sashimi. Alfresco Outdoors, in the open air. An Italian term meaning ‘in the fresh’. Aloyau A whole unboned sirloin of beef. Amandine A French term meaning cooked, filled or served with almonds. For example salmon amandine. From the French word amande meaning ‘almond’. Amuse-Bouches Cocktail canapés. Amuse-Gueule Translates from the French as to ‘entertain the mouth’. Anglaise Means plain in style. When applied to fish it means flour, egg washed and bread crumbed. In the case of vegetables it often means boiled. In French cooking it is egg beaten with oil and seasoning.. Animelles A French term indicating the delicate tender parts of a lamb, especially the fillet and loin. Also referred to as ’criadillas’. Annoncer To call out orders in a kitchen or restaurant. Antipasti Food served at the beginning of an Italian meal, either as a starter or as a snack. Antipasti translates from Italian as ‘before food’. Aperitif An alcoholic beverage drunk before the beginning of a meal. A French term derived from the Latin word aperire meaning ‘to open’. Apparell A culinary term for a prepared mixture ready for further processing. For example bombe apparell or croquette apparell. Apricoter To coat with strained and reduced apricot jam. Aretes Fish bones. Aromates Herbs used as a flavouring. Aromatic Having a distinctive and pleasant smell; fragrant. Derived from the Greek word aromatikos meaning ‘spice’. Assaisonner To season. Asseoir A French word meaning to ‘to seat’. Assiette A French word meaning to ‘place at table’. See also ashet. Assiette Anglaise A selection of sliced cold meats. Au Bleu A method of preparing and cooking trout in court-bouillon, a specific dish known as ‘truit au bleu’. Au Four Baked in an oven. Au Gratin Sprinkled with breadcrumbs, cheese or both and browned under a grill before serving. Translates as ‘with a crust’. Au Jus Describes a meat which is served in its own cooking juices. Translates as ‘with the juice‘. Au Naturel A food that is served plainly and simply, often uncooked unseasoned food. Translates as ‘in the natural state’. Au Vin Blanc Prepared with the addition of white wine. B Badam An Asian term, meaning an almond processed for cooking. Ballotine Fish, meat or poultry that has been boned, stuffed, rolled and tied in a bundle. Usually braised or poached. A term traditionally applied only to poultry. Barbue Brill. Bard To cover the breast of a bird with thin slices of fat prior to roasting. A French term, derived from the Arabic word bardaa meaning ‘padded saddle’. Barde De Lard A thin slice of salted and fatty bacon. Barista A person employed to operate an espresso machine in a coffee shop. An Italian word, barista translates as ‘worker in’ or ‘owner of’ a bar. Baron Legs with the loins attached. Baron D’agneau The saddle and legs of lamb or mutton left in one piece and roasted. Also a double loin of beef left in one piece and cooked whole. Barquette A boat shaped pastry case. Basting The spooning of melted fat over foods, usually over roasted or grilled meats, to prevent them becoming dry and enhance flavour. Batarde The French term for butter sauce. Batterie De Cuisine A set of cooking utensils, pots, pans, etc. A French phrase translating as ‘set of implements for cooking‘. Beard The removal of the beard from shell fish. Beat To mix or stir moist ingredients together vigorously in order to combine them, make smooth or to incorporate air. Beurre Manie An equal quantity of flour and butter, rubbed together and used for thickening sauces Bien Cuit Well cooked. Biscotto The Italian word for ‘biscuit’. Bisque The name given to certain shellfish soups that are thickened with rice, originally prepared using breadcrumbs. Bistro A Russian word meaning ‘quick’. Blanc A liquor of water, salt and lemon juice, which is slightly thickened with flour and used For cooking. Also the French term for white. Blanch The placing of root vegetables into cold water or green vegetables into boiling water, brining to the boil, draining off and then refreshing in cold water. To cook potatoes in oil without them taking any colour. To quickly plunge into boiling water to add the removal of a skin, e.g. tomatoes. Derived from the French word blanchir meaning to ‘whiten’. Blanchir A French word meaning to ‘whiten’. Blanquette A white stew cooked in a stock from which the sauce is to be made. Blin A Russian word meaning ‘pancake’. Blini A buckwheat pancake. Blonde The French term for pale yellow, derived from the Latin word blundus. Blue A term meaning extremely rare, almost without cooking; for example a blue steak. Boeuf Beef. Bolt To filter an ingredient, especially flour, through a sieve or muslin cloth. Also known by the French term buleter. Bombay Duck Canned, smoked and especially dried bummaloe fish, usually dried, salted and then grilled. Imported from India and served as a pungent relish with curry dishes. The name comes from Bombay in Indian, form where the fish was originally exported. Bombe An ice cream made in a dome shaped mould. Bonbon A sweet confection; something that is sweet. A French word translating as ‘good-good’ Bon Ton A French term meaning of good taste or style; literaly translates as ‘good tone’. Bonne A dated term for a female waitress. A French term translating as ‘good girl’. Bonne Bouche A small piece of tasty food. A French term literaly translating as ‘good mouth.’ Boteillier A butler, derived from the old French word boteillier meaning ‘cup-bearer’. Bouchee Small puff pastry cases. From the French word bouche meaning ‘mouth’. Bouillon Unqualified stock. Boulangerie The bakery section. Boult To filter an ingredient, especially flour, through a sieve or muslin cloth. Also known by the French term buleter. Bouquet Garni A collection of herbs placed inside a small muslin bag or into a metal infuser, to facilitate their removal after use. Traditionally they were tied inside two pieces of celery. Also known as a faggot. Braciola Thin slices of meat wrapped around a stuffing and poached in white wine. An Italian word meaning ‘cooked over coals’. Braiser A French term indicating the slow cooking of a food, usually covered and with only a small amount of liquid or stock. Braisiere A braising pan. Brasare An Italian word meaning to ‘cook slowly’. Brasserie A restaurant serving a wide range of both food and drink. Derived from the old French word bracier meaning ‘brew’. Brider To truss poultry of feathered game. Brin A sprig. Brine Water containing a significant amount of salt, used for curing and preserving meat, fish or vegetables. Briser To break bones. Broach A spit used for roasting meat over an open fire. Also a tool used for making holes in casks. Derived from the old French word broche meaning ‘long needle’. Brochettes A kebab skewer, taken from the French word broche meaning ‘long needle’. Any food, especially fish or meat that is cooked on a brochette. Also known as an attereaux. Broil To grill. Bruscare An Italian word meaning to ‘roast over coals’. Brun The French term for brown in colour. Brunoise Small neat dice, usually of vegetables. Also a garnish for consomme. Buffets A self-service meal of various dishes set out on a service table or counter. A selection of refreshments. A French word translating as ‘sideboard’. Buleter A French term meaning to filter an ingredient, especially flour, through a sieve or muslin cloth. Also known as bolting. C Caldi Italian term indicating that the food is served hot. Canapé A small cushion of toasted bread on which savoury foods are served Carte Du Jour A menu displaying the dishes available in a restaurant on a particular day. A French term literaly translating as ‘card of the day’. Cartoccio A cartouche, an Italian word meaning ‘paper coronet’. Cartouche A circle of greaseproof paper cut to size and placed on top of a sauce to prevent a skin forming as the liquid cools. A small hole in placed in the centre to allow steam to escape. From the French word carta meaning ‘paper’. Cassolette A small china container or pot, usually heatproof, used for serving one portion of fine ragouts, eggs etc. Chantilly Whipped cream flavoured with icing sugar and white wine or brandy. Chapelure A French term indicating brown bread crumbs. Charcuterie Cold cooked meats, usually cured. Derived from the old French char cuite meaning ‘cooked flesh’. Chateaubriand The head end of a fillet of beef. A thickly cut beefsteak obtained from the middle part of a prim fillet. Named after the 19th century French nobleman Francois Rene de Chateaubriand. Chaud-Froid A creamed veloute, béchamel or demi-glace with added gelatine or aspic that sets when cold and is used for masking cold savoury foods. A French term literaly translating as ‘hot-cold’. Chaufroiter A French term indicating a food that has been coated with chaud-froid sauce. Chef Translates from the French as the boss, top man, a chief. Sous Chef: Second in command, French for underling, one beneath. Chef de Partie: Known for many things, a bit chef able to cover many aspects of the kitchen. Head of a section. Chef de Cuisine: Speciality chef, also known as cuisinier. Commis Chef: An apprentice or assistant. Master chef: A chef demonstrating exceptional ability, knowledge and skill. Chemise The lining of a mould with a savoury jelly or fruit ice cream. Chiffon A term describing a food with a light fluffy texture, usually created by the addition of whipped egg white or gelatine. Derived from the French word chiffe meaning ‘flimsy stuff’. Chiffonade Coarsely shredded lettuce, spinach or other salad vegetable. Traditionally sautéed in butter and used as a garnish for soups. Chine A French term indicating the removal of the spine from a cut of meat. Also any cut of meat that includes a piece of the backbone. Chinois A fine-meshed conical sieve that requires the food to be pushed through with a ladle or spoon. Most often used to strain sauces. Choucroute A sauerkraut popular in the Alsace region of France. Cimier A saddle of venison, usually of stag. Ciseler To score both sides of a small fish to allow heat to penetrate quicker. Also to shred finely. Clarify To clear stocks, soups or cooking fats. Cloche A round silver, metal or glass cover designed to keep food hot. Glass is often used to cover cakes and cheeses, helping to keep them fresh and aid display. A very strong, saltless, chicken stock produced by sweating chicken trimmings in butter with mushrooms, covered with white stock, and reduced by boiled slowly for an hour. A French word meaning ‘bell’. Cloute An onion studded with cloves and used to flavour a white sauce. Derived from the French word clou meaning ‘clove’. Coat To cover a food with an outer coating such as breadcrumbs, icing or sauce. Cocotte A small dish used for the cooking and service of a single portion. Derived from the Latin word cucuma meaning ‘cooking pot’. Cocotte a Oeuf An individual porcelain egg dish. Column Cutters Long cylindrical cutters used in cold buffet work. Compote Fresh or dried fruit cooked in a light syrup. Condimenter To season with condiments. Derived from the Latin word condimentum meaning ‘to preserve’. Condire A French word meaning ‘to preserve’. Confit A method of cooking meat slowly in its own fat, then storing it in that fat. Usually applied to duck, goose and pork, with vegetables also then being cooked in the same fat. Derived from the Latin word conficere meaning ‘put or make together’. Consommé A basic clear soup. Derived from the Latin word consummare meaning ‘accomplish’. Consommer A French word meaning to ‘use up’. Contiser A French term indicating the insertion of thinly sliced truffle into meat or fish. Contrefilet A boned sirloin of beef. Coquere An old French word meaning ‘cook’. Corbeille de Fruit’s A basket of fresh fruit. Cordon A thin thread of sauce. Derived from the old French word corde meaning ‘small cord’. Coulis A thin puree of fruit or vegetables used as a garnish. Derived from the old French word coleis meaning ‘flowing’. Traditionally also an essence produced from shellfish, and used as a base for sauces. Coupe A silver cup or goblet. A combination ice cream with fruit and liqueur. Couronne To arrange and serve food in the shape of a crown. Court-Bouillon A liquor made from carrots, onions, wine, peppercorns and herbs. Often used for cooking fish. Crapandine Poultry and game split down the back and laid flat for roasting. Crèmeux A French term indicating ‘creamy’. Crepe A thin pancake usually served rolled or folded with a sweet or savoury filling. Derived from the old French word crespe meaning ’curled’. Croquant A French term indicating crisp crackling. Croquettes Cooked foods, often potatoes, moulded into cylinder shaped pieces, egg, breadcrumb and fried. Derived from the French word croquer meaning ‘to crunch’. Croustadines Small pieces of puff pastry cut into various shapes and used as ‘bouchees’. Croute A cushion of fried bread upon which foods are served. A pastry crust. Derived from the old French word crouste meaning ‘crust’. Croutes De Flute A French loaf cut into thin slices and toasted on both sides. Crouton A small cube of fried bread used to garnish soup. Bread cut into heat or other fancy shapes, fried and used to garnish various foods. A French word meaning ‘little crust’. Cru Raw. Crudités A selection of raw vegetables eaten as an appetizer or snack, often served with a dip or as a garnish. Celery, cucumber, baton carrots, young asparagus tips, small cauliflower florets, mangetout and baby sweet corn are some of the vegetables used. Derived from the Latin word cruditas meaning ‘raw’. Crustaces et Coquillages Indicates shellfish. Cuisine A style of cooking noted for its high quality. A range of food produced by a restaurant, individual or country. A French word meaning ‘kitchen’, and derived from the Latin word coquina meaning ‘to cook’. Cuisine Minceur A low-calorie form of French cooking. A French term translating as ‘slimness cooking’. Cuisson A liquid used for cooking. Cuissot A large leg of pork or venison. Cuit Cooked. Cutlet A cut of meat taken from the leg or rib sections; usually applied to lamb, pork or veal. Derived from the French word cotelette meaning ‘little rib’. D Darne A round cut of fish taken across the bone. The middle section of a salmon. Dariole A small flower pot shaped mould. A French word translating as ‘custard tart’. Deglacer The swilling out of a pan with wine or stock in order to use the sediment. Degorger The use of salt to draw water out of a food. The use of salt to draw out the bitter juices of some foods, for example aubergines. Degraiser To degrease, the removal of fat from the surface of sauces, soups, stocks, etc. Dejeuner Luncheon. Demi-Deuil A French term indicating poultry that has been studded with truffle. Demi-Glace Equal quantities of brown stock and brown sauce then reduced by half. Half glazed reduced espagnole. Denerver A French term indicating the removal of sinew. Denoyauter A French term indicating the removal of the stone from a fruit, for example an olive. Depouiller A French term indicating the slow, continuous, cooking of a food in order to remove any fat or scum as it rises to the surface. To skim. Desosser To bone, the removal of bones from meat, poultry, etc. Dessaler A French term indicating the removal of salt. Devilled The addition of hot condiments. Diable Devilled. Dice To cut food into small equal sized cubes. Dorer To cook a food until it is a golden-brown colour. Double De Mouton The two legs of mutton or lamb cooked whole and in one piece. Douilles Piping tubes. Dress The cleaning, trimming and garnishing of food ready for presentation. Duxelles Finely copped mushroom and shallots, sweated in half oil and butter then seasoned and garnished with fresh chopped parsley. Allowed to dry, then used for sauces, soups and stuffing. Named after the Marquis d’Uxelles, a 17th centaury French nobleman. Duxelles Stuffing Dry Duxelles simmered in white wine until completely reduced, then tomato is added along with crushed garlic and breadcrumbs. Used to stuff vegetables. E Eau De Vie Literaly translates as ‘water of life’, eau de vie is the French name given to any number of fruit brandies. Especially used to flavour sauces and sweets, they include examples such as kirsch (cherry) and framboise (raspberry). Ebarber A French term indicating the removal of the border from oysters, mussels or fish. Ecumer To skim. Emincer To slice thinly, or to cut into very small pieces. Empanadillas Small crescent shaped pastries traditionally served as tapas. Available with a variety of either sweet or savoury fillings. En Branche Vegetables cooked and served as whole leaves. Endive An edible plant with tightly packed curly leaves, used as a salad or garnish. A term used in North America to indicate chicory. Entrecote Steak from a boned sirloin. A French word translating as ‘between the rib’. Entrée A light dish or appetiser served before the main course during a formal dinner. Also a dish served as an accompaniment to a main meal. Traditionally a main course dish consisting of meat or poultry. See also under ‘appetiser’. Entremets Traditionally a light dish served between the main course and desert at a formal dinner. Also a sweet dessert served at the end of a meal, or after the cheese course of a formal meal. A French word translating as ‘between the course’. Epaule A French term indicating the ‘shoulder’. Eplucher A French term indicating to ‘peal’ or ‘skin’. Escalope A thin slice of boneless meat of fish, especially veal and poultry beaten flat prior to cooking. A French word meaning ‘shell’.Escarole Endive salad. Espagnole Brown sauce. Essence De Volaille A very strong, saltless, chicken stock produced by sweating chicken trimmings in butter with mushrooms, covered with a white stock, and boiled slowly for an hour. Estomac A French term indicating the stomach of an animal. Estouffade Traditionally a brown stock, but more commonly a beef stew. Etamine A muslin cloth used for straining sauces, soups and other liquids. Etuver To stew, braise or steam meat in its own juice. An old French word literaly meaning ‘steam bath’. F Farce A French stuffing, often made from sausage meat, also known as forcemeat. Derived from the Latin word farcire meaning ‘to stuff’. Farci A French term meaning to be stuffed with forcemeat; usually applied to fish, poultry and vegetables. Derived from the Latin word farcire meaning ‘to stuff’. Farinaceous Any food that contains or consists mainly of starch; potatoes, rice and noodles for example. Farinaceous is a term generally taken to mean any pasta dish. Farineux et Riz Indicates farinaceous and rice dishes. Faux-filet A boned-out sirloin. Feuillete A puff pastry case cut into a diamond, round, square or triangular shape. Derived from the French word feuille meaning ‘leaf’. Fines Herbs This is a traditional mixture of the fresh herbs chervil, chives, tarragon and parsley. Often referred to in many classical French recipes. Flambé Food covered in a warm spirit and then set alight in order to impart flavour. Derived from the old French word flamber meaning ‘to pass through flame’. Fleuron A small crescent shaped piece of puff pastry, used as a garnish for fish. Floured To cover or coat food, work surfaces or utensils with flour. Foie Gras Fat goose liver Fold The mixing of a light airy mixture with a heavier one. The two are blended together with a spatula or spoon in a gentle motion, combining the mixture without loosing any air. Fond A basic simplified stock. Fond De Volaille A white poultry stock. Fouette To whisk. Fourre Stuffed with a filing, for example an omelette. Frappe Chilled. A beverage chilled or poured over crushed ice. Also a dish consisting of fruit-flavoured water ice, served as a starter or cold dessert. Frapper A French word meaning to ‘chill’. Freddi Italian term indicating that the food is served cold. Friandises An alternative name for petits fours. Fricassee A white stew of meat or poultry in which the food is cooked in the sauce. Derived from French word fricasser meaning to ‘cut up and cook in sauce’. Frire A French word translating as ‘fry’. Fritto Misto An Italian term indicating a deep-fried mixture of meat or fish together with vegetables. Literaly translating as ‘fried mixture’. Friture Frying fat or oil, also a pan set-aside containing hot oil or fat and used for frying. Froth A mousse. Either a very light and fluffy forcemeat, or light iced cream. Fume Smoked. Derived from the Latin word fumus meaning ‘smoke’. Fume Negro Literally meaning black smoke. Fumet A strongly flavoured, concentrated stock prepared by cooking meat, fish or vegetables. An essence of fish or game. G Galantine A dish consisting of boned fish, meat or poultry which is shaped, usually stuffed and cooked in a stock, cooled, glazed with aspic and served. Garni A French term indicating garnished. Derived from the French word garnir meaning ‘adorn’. Garnish A decorative item, usually edible, used to decorate a dish. Gibier Indicates game dishes. Givre Frosted. Glace Iced. To glaze cakes or pastries with apricot jam, fondant or icing. Also to be dusted with icing sugar and browned under a salamander. Glace De Viande A meat glaze. Usually a brown stock reduced slowly to a glue-like consistency, although poultry and fish glazes may be produced in the same way. Glacer A French term meaning to colour a dish under a grill. Glacier An ice cream maker. A chef that specializes in pastry work and ice cream. Glaze To coat with melted butter, jelly or sauce. To colour a sauce or sugar coated dish under a grill. To baste a meat with its own juices, to brush meat etc. Gratinate Sprinkled with breadcrumbs or cheese and browned under a salamander. Gravlax Raw salmon cured with salt and fresh dill, usually served with a sweet mustard sauce. Also known in Sweden as ‘gravad lax’ and in Norway as ‘gravlaks’. Grease The coating of a tin or baking tray with butter, fat or oil in order to prevent sticking. Animal fat, especially from cooked meat. Derived from the Latin word crassus meaning ‘fat’. Grenouilles Frogs’ legs. Gros Sel Coarse salt. See also ‘migonette’. H Hache A French word meaning ‘minced’. Hacher To chop. Haute Cuisine Classic, high-quality French cooking. Translates into English as ‘high cooking’. Historier To decorate or embellish a dish. Hors D’Oeuvre Small starter dishes, served hot or cold, an appetizer. A French term that translates as ‘outside the work’. Hure The cooked head of a pig or boar. I Insalata Italian term for salads. J Jardinière To cut into thin baton shapes. Julienne To cut into very thin baton strips. Jus A basic thin gravy, consisting mainly of the natural juices of the food it is served with. Also the juice of a fruit. for example lemon. A French word translating as ‘juice’. See also brown stock. Jus de Citron Lemon juice. Jus de Veau A brown veal gravy, produced from blanched veal bones browned together with mirepoix. Covered with white stock and boiled for several hours, skimmed and strained. Jus de Viande A simple and basic gravy. Produced from the natural juices of roasted meat, deglazed with a little brown stock. Jus Lie Thickened gravy. Jus Roti Roast gravy. K Knock-Up The creation of ridges around the edge of a pie by pressing with the fingers. Knock Back To push back a yeast dough after it has risen. L Larding The insertion of small strips of fat through a piece of lean meat. Usually pork fat is used, as this helps keep the meat moist during cooking. Lardons Small strips of bacon. Le Buffet Froid The cold buffet. Le Chateaubriand The top end of a fillet of beef. Le Chaud-Froid A creamed veloute with added gelatine, used for masking cold dishes. Le Contrefilet A boned sirloin of beef. Le Court-Bouillon A blanc used for the cooking of oily fish, calf’s brain etc. Leaven To add yeast or other agent to a food in order to make it rise, especially a dough. To cause a bread or cake to rise by the addition of leaven. Derived from the Latin word levare meaning ‘to rise’. Legumes et Pommes de Terre Indicates vegetables and potatoes. Liaison A blend of egg yolk and cream used as a thickening agent. The addition of cream or butter to a soup or sauce. Derived from the French word lier meaning ‘bind’. Lier A French word meaning ‘bind’. Luter The sealing of a cocotte with pastry paste prior to cooking. M Macedoine A French term usually taken to mean mixed vegetables cut into 5mm dice, served hot or cold as a garnish or side dish; but traditionally it was also applied to assorted diced fruits. Macerate The marinating of fruits in wine or liqueur, usually over night, in order to impart flavour and moisture. Manche A Gigot Basically this is a handle that is attached to a cooked leg of lamb or mutton, used to give a firmer grip while carving. Mangier A French word meaning ‘food’. Marinade A blend of herbs, condiments, acids and oils used to impart flavour and improve the flavour of meat, poultry and game prior to cooking. Mariner A French term describing the process of marinating meats in order to improve flavour and tenderness. Mask The coating of an item with sauce. Masquer To mask. To cover any hot or cold food with a sauce or jelly. Also to cover the bottom of a dish or mould with a sauce or jelly. Matignon Equal amounts of thinly sliced carrots and onion, a third of the amount of raw ham and celery, simmered in butter with bay leaf and thyme, then deglaced with Madeira. Mecerer To macerate, also to pickle briefly. A French term traditionally describing the process of preserving fruits in liquor. Medallion The preparation of food into a flat round medallion shape. Melange The combination of two or more fruits or vegetables prepared together. A French word meaning ‘to mix’. Mesclun A mixture of young salad leaves, usually including dandelion, endive, radicchio and rocket. Literaly translates from the old French as ‘mixture’. Meze An assortment of snacks served either as a starter or as a complete light meal. Especially popular in Asia and usually served including stuffed vine leaves, savoury pastries and spiced dips. Derived from the Persian word meza translating as ‘taste,’ or ‘relish’. Mie-De-Pain Fresh white bread with the crusts removed, allowed to dry and rubbed through a course sieve to produce breadcrumbs. Used with flour and whisked egg to coat fish, meat, etc. Mignardises An alternative name for petits fours. Migonette Coarsely ground pepper. See also ‘gros sel’. Mijoter A French term describing the process of simmering a food slowly for a long period. Mille-Feuilles Translates as a thousand leaves, a puff pastry and cream slice. Translates from the French as a ‘thousand leaves’. Mirepoix A selection of roughly cut vegetables and herbs used for the flavouring of soups and sauces. Traditionally in French cookery carrots, onions celery, bacon, bay leaf and thyme are used. Named after the Duc de Mirepoix an 18th centaury French diplomat and general. Mirepoix-Bordelaise Carrots, onions, parsley stalks, bay leaf and thyme, stewed slowly in butter until moist. Used chiefly for hot lobster and shellfish dishes. Mis-En-Place Literally translates as in its place. Basic preparations prior to service. Literally translates from the French as ‘in its place’. Monter To whip egg, egg white or butter into a sauce, soup, etc. Mornay A food served in a cheese sauce, for example cauliflower mornay. Named after the 17th century French writer Philip de Mornay. Mortifer A French term meaning the hanging of meat, game or poultry. Mouiller A French term meaning to moisten ingredients with water or stock prior to cooking. Moule A mould. Mousseline A mixture of pureed raw fish or poultry, blended with egg whites and cream until light and fluffy. Usually poached or baked in small moulds using a bain marie, and served with a strongly flavoured sauce. Muslin A thin loosely woven cotton fabric, originally used to wrap butter, and traditionally used to strain soups, sauces, etc. N Napper A French term describing the coating of a prepared dish with sauce. Noisette A small round cut of meat, often lamb. Also to be shaped or coloured like a nut. A French word translating as ‘little nut‘. Noix A nut. Also the cushion piece of a leg of veal. O Oeuf Sur Le Plat Egg cooked in an egg dish. P Panache Mixed, multi coloured ice cream or jelly in a mould. Also mixed fruits or vegetables. Derived from the Italian word pennacchio meaning ‘plume of feathers’. Panade A thick paste produced using starchy ingredients such as flour, potato or rice blended together with water or stock. Used as a thickener for sauces, or as a binding agent for stuffing. There are five basic types of panade: 1) White bread crumbs soaked in milk, lightly seasoned with salt and white pepper, then gently heated until the liquid evaporates, allowed to cool before use. 2) Choux paste produced without the addition of eggs. 3) Flour blended with egg yolks, melted butter, grated nutmeg, salt and white pepper, then softened with boiled milk and allowed to cool before use. 4) Rice cooked in a white consomme and blended into a smooth paste when cooked. 5) Potatoes prepared and cooked in milk, minced and seasoned with salt, white pepper, nutmeg, then reduced and blended with butter. Derived from the Latin word panis meaning ‘bread’. Pane To pass fish, chicken, etc. through seasoned flour, beaten egg and white breadcrumbs. Pantry A highly ventilated cold room used for storing food. A small closed space connected to a kitchen, and used for storing food and utensils. Derived from the French word paneterie meaning a ‘cupboard for bread’. Papillote A term used to describe food that has been cooked and served inside a buttered paper bag to preserve flavour and moisture. Often grease proof paper or parchment is used, and a method traditionally reserved for the cooking of fish. A French word translating as ‘butterfly’. Parer A French term meaning the trimming of any food and remove all superfluous parts. Partie Any section of a kitchen that is responsible for a particular course. A French word translating as ‘divide’. Pass To push through a metal sieve, strainer or muslin. Passer To strain. Pate Savoury mixtures of animal livers, blended with other meats, vegetables and condiments. They may be either smooth or coarse in texture. Also the French term for a pastry or other dough, and translating as ‘paste’. Patisserie Indicates pastry. Also an establishment the specialises in the production and sale of cakes and pastries. Derived from the old French word pasticier meaning to ‘make pastry’. Patty A small flat individual cake, produced from minced meat, vegetables or other ingredients. Pauillac A milk fed lamb. Paupiette A French term meaning a thin strip of meat, poultry or fish rolled in a stuffing and then poached. Paysanne Literally means in a county style, usually vegetables cut into 15mm round or square shapes. Usually a combination of potatoes, carrots, turnips and cabbage. Pesce Italian term indicating the seafood selection on a menu. Petits Fours Very small bite size sweet biscuits or cakes, served at the end of a meal with coffee. See also ‘friandises’. A French term translating as ‘little oven’. Piccata An Italian term describing thin slices of meat sautéed, and served in a spicy lemon and butter sauce. Pincer A French term describing the browning of vegetables or bones in an oven. Piquant Having a flavour, taste or smell that is spicy or savoury, often with a slightly tart or bitter edge to it. Pipe The use of a piping bag for the ornamental decoration of food. Piquer The insertion of large lardoons of bacon, fat, ham or truffle into meat or poultry. A French term meaning to ‘attach ingredients’. Plier To fold over. Pluck The removal of feathers from poultry and game. Also the stomach of a sheep traditionally used when making ‘haggis’. Poach The cooking of a food by submerging it in a simmering liquid. Derived from the old French word pochier meaning to ‘enclose in a bag’. Poele A frying pan. Poissons et Coquillages Indicates fish dishes. Polpetta An Italian term meaning a thin strip of meat, poultry or fish rolled in a stuffing and then poached. Potages Indicates soups. A French word translating as ‘what is put in the pot’. Prick This is the piercing of the skin of fruit, meat, vegetables, etc, to allow the release of air, fat or moisture. Primeurs Early season fruit or vegetables, a term especially applied to spring vegetables. Derived from the Latin word primus meaning ‘first’. Printaniere Literally means springtime, generally a garnish of spring vegetables. Puree A smooth blend of food. Derived from the French word purer meaning to ‘squeeze out’. Q Qandi To candice. An Arabic word meaning ‘crystallized into sugar’. Quenelle Meat pounded, sieved and shaped like a brazil nut. Often poached. Derived from the German word knodel meaning ‘dumpling’. R Racines Root vegetables. Rafraichir To chill a food. Also the rapid cooling of a food by running it under cold water. Ragouts A rich slow-cooked Italian stew of meat and vegetables, often richly seasoned. Derived from the French word ragouter meaning ‘renew the appetite. Ramekins Small round moulds, made of porcelain, glass or earthenware. Used for cold desserts and hot puddings, or for the presentation of sauces and dips. Derived from the Dutch word rameken meaning ‘little cream’. Rape Grated. Reduce The concentration of a sauce, stock or other dish by boiling. Reduire To reduce a liquid to the desired consistency by gentle heating and evaporation. Rechauffer The reheating of leftover food, literaly translating from the French as ‘reheat’. Derived from the Latin word calere meaning ‘make or be warm’. Releve A braised or roasted joint of meat served with garnish. Remouillage Bones boiled up again with fresh water after the stock has been poured off. Render The heating of animal or poultry fat slowly until a liquid, before being strained and cooled. Beef dripping, for example, is extracted from beef fat. Derived from the Latin word reddere meaning ‘give back’. Renverser To demould, to turn a food out onto a dish. Repere A French term describing flour blended with water or egg whites, and used to seal the lids of cooking pots. Revenir A French term describing the process of quickly frying meat or vegetables in hot oil, so sealing in flavour and juices prior to cooking. Ribbon Long thin vegetable shavings produced using a peeler, typically of cucumber, carrot or courgette. Also a term describing the consistency of eggs beaten with sugar until stiff; when the whisk is removed the batter runs off in smooth, thick ribbons. Rissoler To bake or fry sharply to a brown colour. For example pommes rissolees, browned potatoes. Rocher A scoop of ice cream. Rondeau A large shallow pan. Rostir The act of roasting. Roux Plain flour and fat, usually butter, cooked together and used as a thickener for sauces, soups, etc. Roux Blonde: 10oz of flour cooked in 8oz of butter to a light yellow colour. Roux Brun: 10oz of flour browned slowly in 8oz of dripping, used for brown stocks. Roux Blanc: 10oz of flour cooked slowly in 8oz of butter, stirred continually and kept white. Used for white sauces and soups. S Sabayon Egg yolks and water cooked until creamy, may be used as a sweet sauce. Saignant Underdone. Saisir To seal meat over a moderate heat without browning. Salamander A cooking utensil consisting of a metal plate fitted with a handle, designed to be heated and used for browning food. When hot it is held over the food to produce a brown or caramelized surface. A term often applied to mean a grill. Salmagundis A French term literally meaning ‘seasoned salt meats’, but more generally used to indicate a mixture of different types of foods; often a mixed salad of various ingredients such as meat, poultry, fish and vegetables arranged in neat rows on a platter Salpicar A Spanish word meaning ‘sprinkled with salt.’ Salpicon Meat, poultry, fish, or game cut into very small cubes for use in ragouts. Also finely diced fruits for use in sweets. Derived from the Spanish word salpicar meaning ‘sprinkle with salt’. Sauté To cook quickly in shallow oil. The tossing of food in hot oil. Scorch To burn the surface of a food slightly, a superficial burn. Score Incisions made through meat, fish or vegetables to assist the cooking process. Often made to assist marinating. Derived from the old Norse word skor meaning to ‘notch’. Seal The application of intense heat to meat or vegetables causing the pores to seal, so keeping in flavour. Sear The browning of fish, poultry or meat quickly over a high heat, keeping the centre rare. Season The addition of condiments to food so enhancing flavour. Shred To cut into thin strips. Derived from the German word screade meaning ‘to cut’. Shuck A term describing the removal of oysters and clams from their shells. Also the removal of corn from its husk, and the shelling of beans and peas. Sift The working of ingredients through a sieve to form a fine powder; also used to aerate flour when baking. Derived from the old English word siftan. Singe The burning off of the down of a plucked bird by passing over a flame. Sippets A white loaf cut into 10mm slices with the crusts removed, then cut into small cubes and shallow fried until golden brown. Used as a garish for soups. Derived from the German word supan meaning to ‘take liquid’. Skillet Another term for a frying pan, now more often referring to a small shallow metal dish used for the table service of sizzling stir fries. Derived from the old French word escuelete meaning ‘small platter’. Skim The removal of fat or scum from the surface of a liquid, also known as skimming. Derived from the French word escumer meaning ‘scum’. Snail Butter Butter creamed, and mixed with finely chopped shallots, crushed garlic, parsley, salt and pepper. Snip The cutting of herbs or leaf vegetables into small pieces. Derived from the German word snippen, an imitation of the sound made by scissors. Sop A piece of food that is soaked, or dipped, in a liquid before being eaten. Derived from the German word supan meaning to ‘take liquid’. Sopp An English word meaning bread dipped into a liquid. Soufflé A sweet or savoury, hot or cold, dish. Very light in texture, with a high egg white content. Derived from the French word souffler meaning ‘puff-up’. Suer A French term indicating the slow cooking of meats, poultry, fish, etc in a pan with little fat. Supreme A delicate fillet cut from poultry or fish. T Table D’Hote A meal of several courses, of a limited choice and at a set price. Translates from the French as ‘host’s table’. Tamis An extremely fine sieve for straining food. Originally a piece of unbleached calico cloth. Tammy An extremely fine woollen strainer. Tenderize The breaking down of meat fibbers prier to cooking, so making it less chewy and more digestible. This is achieved by either pounding the meat, marinating or by sprinkling with a commercial tenderizer. Terrine A small round or oval earthenware mould, or the food contained within it; usually straight sided and with a fitted lid. A term often used to describe a coarse pate or similar cold food served in a small dish. Derived from the old French word terrin meaning ‘earthen’. The Pass The hot plate where food is plated and garnished ready for service in a restaurant. An interface between the kitchen and eatery where orders are placed and collected. Tina A French term describing a square or rectangular earthenware casserole dish, originally used to cook foods au gratin. Any food cooked in such a dish. Timbale A half conical shaped mould of various sizes. Also, a flat bottomed conical shaped silver serving dish. A type of hot meat loaf. Derived from the French word tamballe meaning ‘a drum’. Tomated A French term indicating the addition of tomato puree to a preparation, so adding colour and flavour. Tomber des Legumes A French term describing the cooking of prepared vegetables in water and butter, heated gently until the liquid is completely evaporated. Tourner A French term meaning vegetables prepared and cut into a regular barrel shape. Tranche A thin rectangular piece of puff pastry. Also to slice or cut foods. A French word meaning ‘slice’. Trancher To carve or slice meat, fish, game, etc. Troncon A French term meaning a cut of flat fish taken across the bone, sometimes also applied to a similar cut taken from an oxtail. Trousse A French word meaning ‘to truss’. Truss The tying of game or poultry with string to retain its shape during cooking. Derived from the French word trousser meaning ‘to tie’. Turn The cutting of potatoes and other vegetables into barrel or olive shapes. To cut a groove or channel in a mushroom. Derived from the Latin word tornare meaning ‘turn on a lathe’. V Vandyking An English method of preparing whole fish by cutting a “v” shape into its tail, named after the painter Anthony Van Dyck, famous for his v-shaped beard. Also a method of preparing fruits and vegetables by cutting “v” shapes along the circumference, for example tomatoes. Varak Ultra thin edible sheets of gold or silver used for cake and sweet decorations. Veau Veal. Veloute A basic sauce. The base of a creamy soup or sauce, the blend of fresh stock and a roux. An old French word meaning ‘velvety’. Velveting A method of marinating meats used in Oriental cookery; a blend of corn flour, soy sauce and seasoning used to coat food prior to cooking. Verjus The juice of an unripe fruit, especially sour grapes. Vesiga A jelly like substance obtained from the spinal marrow of the great sturgeon. Used in Russian cookery. Viandes Indicates meat dishes. Voiler A French term describing small pieces of confectionary coated with spun sugar. Vol-Au-Vent A puff pastry case. A French term translating as ‘flight in the wind’. Volaille Indicates poultry dishes. W Whites The name given to the protective clothing worn by a chef. Traditionally consisting of a white cotton tunic or jacket, blue checked cotton trousers, white apron and hat. Its is now common for almost any colour or pattern to be used as part of the kitchen uniform. Z Zabaione An Italian word for a ‘sabayon’. Zakuska A selection of blinis and breads served with various toppings, especially caviar, and vodka. Traditionally served as a starter, but now more often served as a pre theatre buffet. A Russian word translating as ‘hors d’oeuvres’. Zesting To grate the glossy rind from a citrus fruit. Zuppe Italian term indicating the soup section on a menu.	Petit four
Similarly, which two word Italian phrase used in cookery, means 'firm and bitter'?	Baking History - Joyofbaking.com baking history Printer Friendly Page Afternoon Tea - Afternoon Tea did not exist before the 19th century. At that time lunch was eaten quite early in the day and dinner wasn't served until 8 or 9 o'clock at night. But it wasn't until Anna, the seventh Duchess of Bedford, asked for tea and light refreshments in her room one afternoon, around 1830, that the ritual began. The Duchess enjoyed her 'taking of tea' so much that she started inviting her friends to join her. Before long having elegant tea parties was very fashionable. Demand for tea wares grew and soon there were tea services in silver and fine bone china, trays, cake stands, servers, tea caddies, tea strainers, teapots, and tea tables..... More on Afternoon Tea Amaretti Cookies - Pronounced am-ah-REHT-tee. Amaretti is the Italian name for macaroons, which means little bitter things. Crisp and crunchy on the outside and soft inside, these small domed shaped cookies originated in Venice Italy during the Renaissance period. Consisting of almonds or almond paste, sugar, and egg whites that can be flavored with chocolate or liqueurs and two baked cookies can be sandwiched together with ganache, buttercream or even jam. Often served with a sweet dessert wine , liqueurs or ice cream...... More on Amaretti Cookies Angel Food Cake - This cake is also called an Angel Cake, so named as its airy lightness is said to be the "food of the angels". You may be surprised at how many egg whites are in an angel food cake. But it really is not surprising given the liberal use of eggs in all cake recipes around the time of its invention (1870). Waverley Root in "Eating in America A History" tells how in Mrs. J. Chadwick's 1853 "Home Cookery" she calls for 32 egg yolks for just one cake. He also cites Mrs. Horace Mann's "Christianity in the Kitchen" (1861) as calling for 20 eggs in one cake that had to be beaten for about three hours. It is a good thing that at about the same time the angel food cake was invented the rotary egg beater came along which eliminated the long and laborious hand beating of batters. Angel food cakes use their own special pan which Greg Patent in "Baking in America" states was also invented in the late 1800s..... Recipe for Chocolate Angel Food Cake Banana Bread - Banana Bread recipes became very popular in the 1960s when hearty breads were all the rage. It has a thick batter and is a cross between a cake and a bread. It is baked in a rectangular baking pan until a toothpick inserted in the center comes out clean. Banana Bread is classified as a Quick Bread (used since 1918) which is a mainly North American term used to describe a light and moist baked good that is "quick" to make. The dry ingredients and liquid ingredients are mixed together separately, then combined and baked. Leavened using a chemical leavening agent (baking powder/soda not yeast ) that does not require fermentation and involves little or no kneading . Quick breads are made either from a batter ( muffins , coffee cakes, pancakes, popovers, loaves or breads) or a dough (scones and biscuits)..... Recipe for Banana Bread Bee Sting Cake (Bienenstich) - Originally a German yeast cake that is also known as Bee Sting. The story goes that a baker made the cake with a honey topping that attracted a bee which stung the baker. The original cake had a yeast base that was filled with a custard and frosted with honey, butter and almonds. Biscotti is said to have originated during Columbus's time and credited to an Italian baker who originally served them with Tuscan wines. They became so popular that every province developed their own flavored version. Because of their long storage ability they were an ideal food for sailors, soldiers, and fisherman. Traditionally biscotti were almond flavored as almonds were readily available in Italy and nearby countries..... More on Biscotti Boston Cream Pie - The name Boston Cream Pie is believed to be a misnomer as it's really a cake. The "pie" instead of "cake" may be due to the fact that colonists used to bake their cakes in pie tins as they did not own cake pans. The first reference to Boston Cream Pie was when a New York newspaper in 1855 ran a recipe for a 'pudding pie cake'. This recipe, however, had a powdered sugar topping not the chocolate glaze it now has. Then in 1856 a man named Harvey D. Parker opened a restaurant in Boston called the Parker House Restaurant. On the menu was a 'pudding pie cake' but it had a chocolate glaze not the powdered sugar topping of the original recipe. This is the cake we know today and the name 'Boston Cream Pie' is probably a combination of the first 'pudding pie cake' recipe and the fact that Boston is the place where the chocolate glazed version originated. Bread Pudding - Bread Pudding, first known as a "poor man's pudding", is an old fashioned dessert that has been popular in England since the 13th century. Unlike the bread puddings of today where breads are sometimes made specifically for making the puddings, it was once made as a way to use up any stale bread that was hanging about. The stale bread was moistened by soaking the bread in water and then squeezing out the excess water. Sugar, spices and other ingredients were then added. Today, bread puddings are made with either fresh or stale bread (brioche, challah, croissant, panettone, french, Italian) that is soaked in a rich mixture (custard) of milk (or cream), eggs, sugar, vanilla, and spices. Nuts, zests, candied or fresh fruit can also be added..... More on Bread Pudding Br eakfast - Defined as the first meal of the day and literally means, breaking the fast of the night. It was during the 15th century that certain foods were created and served only at breakfast and this tradition continues even today. It was reported back in the mid 1800s that a typical American breakfast consisted of at least six courses; tea, toast, eggs, beef, ham, fish, game, fruits, and breads. About the same time there were the American food reformers who advocated eating less meat and more grains. One such food reformer was John Henry Kellogg who headed the Seventh Day Adventist "Sanatorium" in Michigan for people with medical problems. One belief he had was that eating hard dry foods would keep your teeth healthy and recommended eating zwieback. Unfortunately, zwieback was very hard and brittle and when a patient broke a tooth eating one, Dr. Kellogg set out to invent a new healthy dry cereal. The cereal he produced was similar to a granola (now named Corn Flakes) and it sold very well. So well, in fact, that others began producing dry cereals. The foods eaten at home for breakfast have a lot to do with convenience as people do not have the time to make and eat a leisurely breakfast. Bread-like items are popular breakfast foods during the workweek: bagels, muffins, scones, or cereal, with a cup of tea or coffee. Weekends are when the so-called "big breakfast" or "English breakfast" is served where eggs take center stage as well as bacon, sausages, tomatoes, toast, jams and preserves. ..... More on Breakfast Br ownies - Brownies are classified as a bar cookie that tastes like a rich chocolate cake that has been cut into squares. Toasted and chopped nuts (walnuts, pecans, hazelnuts) can be added or even chunks or chips of white chocolate. The Brownie is definitely America's favorite bar cookie (square) and the name "brownie" refers to its dark brown color. John Mariani in "The Dictionary of American Food and Drink" states that the first recipe appeared in the 1897 Sears, Roebuck and Co. Catalog. ?/font>noise - G?/font> noise is named after its place of origin, Genoa Italy and is a type of light and airy sponge cake. Different from a sponge cake in that melted unsalted butter (sometimes clarified) is added to the batter which makes it a more tender and flavorful cake that is less sweet than a regular sponge cake..... More on Genoise Ganache is a French term referring to a smooth mixture of chopped chocolate and heavy cream. The origins of ganache are debatable but it is believed to have been invented around 1850. Some say it originated in Switzerland where it was used as a base for truffles. Others say it was invented in Paris at the Patisserie Siravdin.... More on Ganache Hot Chocolate - The drinking of chocolate in the New World was first discovered by Columbus in 1502 when he landed in what we now think was either Mexico or Nicaragua. He found the Aztecs drinking a chocolate beverage made with cocoa beans from the tropical tree Theobroma which translates to "Food of the Gods". The Aztec's emperor, Montezuma, loved the drink so much that he would drink upwards of 50 cups a day. To make this drink the Aztecs would first roast and grind the beans to a paste and then add the paste to water, along with chili peppers and vanilla. This produced a beverage that was very bitter tasting which the Spaniards didn't enjoy. Columbus did take some cocoa beans back to Spain but there was little interest in them. It wasn't until Hernando Cortez, around 1520, brought the cocoa beans back to Spain from his trip to the New World that the chocolate beverage became popular. To make this drink more palatable, the Spaniards processed the beans as the Aztecs did but then they added sugar and spices (vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, hazelnuts, almonds, orange flower water) to the chocolate paste. Once the paste was allowed to solidify it was added to water or milk. This drink immediately became popular with the Spaniards. So popular that aristocratic ladies would start each day with a cup and even went so far as having their servants bring them some during Mass. Eventually this chocolate beverage spread throughout Europe but chocolate was still very expensive so it was enjoyed primarily by the upper class. But everything changed in the 1820s when a Dutchman, by the name of Van Houten, came up with a way to remove most of the fat from the cocoa beans to produce what we now call cocoa powder. Almost overnight cocoa powder replaced chocolate in the making of hot chocolate and it lost its appeal with adults. It now became a drink served to children and remains that way to this day.... Recipe for Hot Chocolate Hot Cross Buns - This round, rich, sweet, yeast bun is traditionally served on Good Friday. The passing of a London by-law in the early 1500s forbidding the sale of hot cross buns except on Good Friday, Christmas, and at funerals seems to have permanently influenced when we eat these spiced buns. Made of milk, yeast, sugar, flour, spices (such as cinnamon, nutmeg, allspice, and cloves), eggs, butter, currants, raisins and/or candied fruit. John Ayto in "An A-Z of Food & Drink" states that the first record of the cross appearing on the top of the buns was in 'Poor Robin's Almanack' (1733) and the 'hot' was added to the name in the early 1800s. The cross (represents cross of Christ and the Crucifixion) on top that can be made by cutting into the dough, by strips of pastry, or with a paste of flour and water. Once baked, they can be iced with confectioners frosting or fondant. Superstition had it that hot cross buns baked on Good Friday never became moldy and one bun used to be kept as a charm until the next year's buns were made. There are various stories as to when they were first made, but the story I like is related to the Anglo Saxons. They are said to have baked the buns in honor of their goddess of Spring, Eostre, from whom the name Easter is derived... More on Hot Cross Buns Ice Cream - The United States is by far the world's largest consumer of ice cream followed by Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and Britain. Ice cream is such a big part of our culture that in the 1920s as immigrants arrived in the United States (Ellis Island) they were served ice cream as part of their first meal. Although we may have adopted it as our own ice cream is not an American invention. Paul Dickson tells us in his book 'The Great American Ice Cream Book' that the first record of it being eaten in the United States was in 1742 when ice cream was served at a dinner given by the then Governor of Maryland. But it wasn't until the latter part of the eighteenth century when ice cream houses started to appear in New York and Philadelphia that ice cream was not simply a dessert to be enjoyed by the wealthy . The first ice creams were really "iced cream" as they were made with cream, sugar and flavorings (no eggs) that were simply frozen. They were quite coarse in texture and contained large ice crystals. Although the French started to add eggs or egg yolks to their ice cream recipes around the early 1700s, the British didn't follow suit until the middle of the century. And it wasn't until the 1840s, and the invention of the first ice cream machine, that ice cream began to take on the smooth and creamy texture that we enjoy today.... Recipe for Ice Creams Ice Cream Cone - The ice cream cone turns 100 this year. It made its debut at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair and there are many conflicting stories of who should be given credit for its invention. Paul Dickson in his "The Great American Ice Cream Book" states that the International Association of Ice Cream Manufacturers (IAICM) has given Ernest A. Hamwi the credit for inventing the cone. Ice cream was very popular at the turn of the last century and so it is not surprising that there were over 50 ice cream vendors selling a total of 5000 gallons of ice cream per day at the Fair. Ernest Hamwi also had a booth at the fair but he was selling a type of waffle (zalabia), not ice cream. One day, the man (Arnold Fornachou) at the booth next to Hamwi ran out of small dishes to serve his ice cream. Hamwi got the idea to roll one of his hot Belgian waffles into a cornucopia and told Fornachou to put a scoop of his ice cream into the cornucopia's mouth. They were an instant hit with Fornachou's customers who lined up to have their ice cream served this new way. In fact, the cones were so popular at the Fair that St. Louis foundries started manufacturing molds for making the cornucopia shaped cones. The cones were first given the name "World's Fair Cornucopia" until about 1909 when they were renamed "ice cream cones". The cone obviously gained popularity across the United States because by 1924 Americans were consuming upwards of 245 million cones per year..... Recipe for Ice Cream Cones Ice Cream Sandwiches - By the end of the 19th century ice cream was firmly entrenched in American society and with its popularity came many new inventions. One of the first inventions to come along was the ice cream cone which made its debut at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair. By the 1920s we had the first chocolate-covered ice cream bar (Eskimo Pie), the banana split, ice cream cakes, the first chocolate covered ice cream bar on a stick (the Good Humor Ice Cream Sucker), and the ice cream sandwich. John Mariani in his 'The Dictionary of American Food and Drink' says the first ice cream sandwiches were made with cake like chocolate cookies followed in San Francisco by sandwiches made with oatmeal cookies. In the 1980s the 'Chipwich' became very popular which was made with the chocolate chip cookie.... Recipe for Ice Cream Sandwiches Ladyfingers - You may know them as Ladyfingers but these long finger- or oval-shaped cookies are also known around the world as Boudoir biscuits, sponge biscuits, sponge fingers, Naples biscuits, Savoy biscuits (Savoiardi) and biscuits. The first mention of these cookies was in John Keats' poem 'The Cap and Bells' (1820) "Fetch me that Ottoman, and prithee keep your voice low, said the Emperor; and steep some lady's-fingers nice in Candy wine". Ladyfingers are made from a sponge cake batter where the egg yolks and sugar are beaten together until thick, to which vanilla extract, sifted flour and beaten egg whites are folded in. The batter is then piped into long finger-shaped cookies which are dusted with sugar before baking to give them a crisp sweet crust. The batter contains more flour than most sponge recipes to make it thick enough to pipe. Although these delicate sponge cookies can be eaten on their own as a petit four or as an accompaniment to ice creams, they really shine when soaked in a syrup and used as part of more complex desserts such as Tiramisu , English Trifles , or Charlottes.... Recipe for Ladyfingers Linzertorte - Linzertorte which is one of Austria's most famous desserts. Believed to have originated from the City of Linz, written recipes began to appear in the early 1700s. Traditionally this torte consisted of a crust made with flour, ground nuts (traditionally almonds), sugar, egg yolks, spices and lemon zest that was filled with preserves (traditionally black currant) and then topped with a lattice crust. Linzer Cookies use the same ingredients as the Linzertorte but present them in a different way. Two cookies are sandwiched together with a layer of preserves. The top cookie, dusted with confectioners sugar, has a cutout so the preserves are visible. When cut into a round shape with a round cutout they are known as Linzer "Eyes" (Linzer Augen) as they are said to resemble an eye. Traditionally these cookies are filled with black currant preserves. However, in America as black currant preserves are expensive, we fill them with a variety of different flavored preserves, most notably seedless raspberry preserves. Variations now exist for this cookie using ground hazelnuts, pecans, or even walnuts in place of the traditional ground almonds.... Recipe for Linzer Cookies Madeleines - Dating back to the 18th century in the French town of Commercy, in the region of Lorraine, the story goes that a girl name Madeleine made them for Stanislaw Lezczynski, Duke of Lorraine, who loved them and subsequently gave some to his daughter, Marie, the wife of Louis XV. Their popularity grew after that. Made famous by Marcel Proust in his novel 'Remembrance of Things Past' in which he wrote: "She sent out for one of those short, plump little cakes called 'petites madeleines', which look as though they had been moulded in the fluted scallop of a pilgrim's shell. And soon, mechanically, weary after a dull day with the prospect of a depressing morrow, I raised to my lips a spoonful of tea in which I had soaked a morsel of the cake. No sooner had the warm liquid, and the crumbs with it, touched on my palate than a shudder ran through my whole body and I stopped, intent upon the extraordinary changes that were taking place. An exquisite pleasure had invaded my senses...."..... More on Madeleines Meringue Mushrooms - A recipe for Meringue Mushrooms can be found in Fannie Farmer's Original 1896 Boston Cooking School Cookbook. But Maida Heatter is the one who brought them to their level of popularity today. In her 1978 book "Book of Great Chocolate Desserts" she tells the story of entering them in an international cooking Olympics some 20 years before. Since then she says has seen recipes in newspapers and magazines that look just like the ones she made for the Olympics. There are many slightly different versions of this recipe but they all involve making a meringue from egg whites, cream of tartar, and sugar. The meringue is then placed in a pastry bag and piped into shapes of mushroom caps and stems. After baking in a slow oven the stems are attached to the caps in one of two ways. You can save a little meringue and use it as a 'glue' to attach the stems to the caps or you can use a little melted chocolate to 'glue' them together. Either way is delicious. The finishing touch is dusting the tops with a light sprinkling of cocoa powder..... Recipe for Meringue Mushrooms Muffins - The name 'Muffin' either comes from the French word 'moufflet', meaning a soft bread, or from the German word 'muffe' which is the name for a type of cake. There are two types of muffins: English and American. English Muffins are made from a yeast dough that is formed into rounds, cooked on a griddle, toasted, split and buttered. They are relatively flat with a golden-brown top and bottom and a light, spongy interior. Muffins began as a yeast bread but American muffins have evolved to be a cross between a bread and a cake and a chemical leavener (baking powder/soda) is now used instead of yeast. A basic muffin recipe contains flour, sugar, baking powder/soda, eggs, fat, and milk (buttermilk, yogurt, sour cream)... More on Muffins and Recipes Oats - Oats are a cereal grain that are rich and flavorful and come in many forms. The oat flakes (rolled oats) that we are most familiar with were first produced in 1877 by the The Quaker Mill Company. By 1884 they began selling their product, calling it "Quaker Oats", in the now famous cardboard canister with its distinctive red, white and blue label. An interesting fact is that Quaker Oats is said to have been not only the first packaged food in America but also the first product to be mass marketed in the U.S.. Oats were once thought of as a weed and weren't domesticated until after the Christian era began. Besides Northern Europe, Scotland, and Ireland, oats were used as animal feed. In fact, even today, over 90% of our U.S. crop is still used for this purpose. In retrospect you can see why Dr. Johnson in his 1755 'Dictionary of the English Language' defined 'oats' as "a grain which in England is generally given to horses but in Scotland supports the people". Northern Europe, Scotland, and Ireland have long enjoyed oats, mainly as porridge or in oat cakes..... Recipe for Oatmeal Cookies Parfaits - Parfait is French for perfect and is a frozen custard dessert made with eggs, sugar, whipped cream and flavorings such as a puree, liqueur, coffee, or chocolate that is placed in a mold, similar to a bombe. An American parfait has evolved to mean a dessert consisting of ice cream layered with flavored syrups or fruit and whipping cream that is topped with more whipping cream, nuts and a Maraschino cherry. It is served in a tall narrow glass so the layers are clearly visible... Recipe for Berry Parfaits Pavlova - or 'pav' is a meringue cake with a light, delicate, crisp crust and a soft sweet marshmallow center that is produced by folding a little vinegar and cornstarch (cornflour) into stiffly beaten egg whites and sugar. This dessert is served with softly whipped cream and fresh fruit (passion fruit, kiwi, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries or strawberries are favorites). The name for this dessert, Pavlova, was chosen in honor of the Russian ballerina, Anna Pavlova, who toured both New Zealand and Australia in 1926. There is a long standing debate about whether New Zealand or Australia invented this dessert, which has yet to be resolved. New Zealand claims that printed recipes for this meringue began to appear in New Zealand in the late 1920's. Australia tells the story of how, an Australian chef, Herbert Sachse, invented this dessert when a soft meringue cake was requested for an afternoon tea at the hotel where he worked. ... Recipe for Pavlova Recipe for Chocolate Pavlova Peanut Butter Cookies - The peanut butter cookie was invented in America in the 1940s. Peanut Butter Cookies, along with the Chocolate Chip and Oatmeal, are classified as drop cookies. George Washington Carver (1864-1943) tried very hard to get Americans to use peanuts in both cooking and baking. He founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and wanted farmers to grow peanuts after the cotton crop was destroyed by the boll weevil in the 1890s. He did accomplish his goal of getting Americans to both grow and eat peanuts, especially peanut butter, but not so much in cooking as in baking cakes, cookies, puddings, pies, and candies. Americans love their peanut butter so much that over half of our peanut crop goes to making peanut butter. John Mariani in 'The Dictionary of American Food & Drink' tells us that peanut butter was invented in the late 19th century by a St. Louis doctor who first promoted it as a health food at the 1904 St. Louis World's Fair. Children are big eaters of peanut butter, especially in their favorite 'Peanut Butter and Jelly Sandwiches'. Public schools give children this type of sandwich 'free' when they forget either their boxed lunch, or lunch money, at home.....Recipe for Peanut Butter Cookies Petit Four - What do miniature tuiles, eclairs, fancy cakes, macaroons, glazed or candied fruits, tartlets, ladyfingers, cigarettes, etc. have in common? They all belong to a category of small fancy cookies, pastries, or confections called "petits fours". The name petit four seems to have originated from the name of the ovens (petit four meaning 'small oven') they were baked in. In the 18th century the ovens were made of brick and once the large cakes were baked, small cakes were placed in the ovens as they were cooling down. Petits fours can be eaten in one or two bites and these fancy pastries are further divided into "sec" or "glace". "Sec" meaning "dry" and "glace"; meaning "iced or frosted". Petits fours sec usually refers to small biscuits (cookies) or pastries which have little done to them once baked. Tuiles, macaroons, cigarettes, meringues, and ladyfingers are some examples. Commonly served with afternoon tea or with ice cream, sorbet, or custard. Petits fours glace are pastries that can be filled with cream, chocolate, or jam and then covered, glazed, or dipped and decorated with marzipan, fondant, chocolate, or some other form of glaze or icing. A miniature sponge cake filled with a buttercream and glazed with ganache is one example. The petit four "sec" and "glace"; can be sponge or cake based, biscuit or cookie based, meringue based, marzipan based, fresh fruit or chocolate based. They are traditionally served with afternoon tea or after a fancy meal (particularly petits fours glace accompanied by tea, coffee, liqueurs, or dessert wines). Pound Cake - The pound cake originated several centuries ago in England from yeast leavened bread-like cakes. The name comes from the fact that the original pound cakes contained one pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, and flour. No leaveners were used other than the air whipped into the batter. These cakes were rich and dense. By the mid 1800's pound cake recipes began to deviate slightly from the original formula to make a lighter cake. Some recipes even contained a liquid, such as alcohol or rose water. It wasn't until the 20th century that artificial leaveners (baking powder/soda) were added. Today, pound cakes use different proportions of the same ingredients as the original formula to produce a lighter cake.... More on Pound Cake Rice Pudding - In Roman times rice puddings (pottages), softened in milk (almond or cow's), were thought to cure upset stomachs. Eventually recipes for both baked and boiled rice puddings began to appear. Spices such as nutmeg and cinnamon were popular in rice puddings along with raisins and currants. Eggs were sometimes added towards the end of baking and you will still find them used in recipes today. Rice pudding recipes differ in the type of rice (long or short grain white rice, brown, basmati, jasmine), milk (whole milk, coconut milk, cream, evaporated or condensed), spices (nutmeg, cinnamon), flavorings (vanilla extract, orange or lemon zest), amount and type of sugar (white or brown), whether eggs and butter are added, to whether there should or should not be a film of top.... Recipe for Rice Pudding Sable (French Butter Cookie) - The Sable is a classic French cookie originating in Normandy. Sable is French for "sand" and refers to the sandy texture of this delicate and crumbly shortbread-like cookie. A versatile dough that can be flavored with ground nuts or zests and although traditionally round with fluted edges, they can also be cut into other shapes and even sandwiched together with jam or preserves, chocolate or lemon curd.... More on Sabl e Scones - Scones are believed to have originated in Scotland and are closely related to the griddle baked flatbread, known as bannock. They were first made with oats, shaped into a large round, scored into four to six triangles, and cooked on a griddle either over an open fire or on top of the stove. The origin of the name 'scone' is just as unclear as where it came from. Some say the name comes from where the Kings of Scotland were crowned, the Stone (Scone) of Destiny. Others believe the name is derived from the Dutch word "schoonbrot" meaning fine white bread or from the German word "sconbrot" meaning 'fine or beautiful bread'. Still others say it comes from the Gaelic 'sgonn' a shapeless mass or large mouthful..... More on Scones Sherbet and Sorbet - In ancient time, the Sherbet was a non alcoholic sweetened fruit drink sold in the Middle East by street vendors during the summer months. As time went on the Sherbet, known as 'sharab', had alcohol added to it so a new name 'sharbat' was given to the original non alcoholic fruit drink. By the 16th century the sharbat had made its way to Europe where it became very popular. In Italy the fruit drink was called sorbetto (from the verb sorboire meaning 'to sip'), in France it was called sorbet, in Spain it was called sorbete and the English called it sherbet. Over time, and with the advent of making artificial ice, sorbets/sherbets were sometimes frozen and were either served as a drink or eaten with a spoon. In America at the turn of the 19th century, the word sherbet and sorbet were (at still are in some places) used interchangeably. The difference, however, is that sorbets are made using fresh fruit (juices/purees), sugar, water and sometimes lemon/lime juice and come closest to the original Middle Eastern drink. Sherbets, on the other hand, contain fruit juice or puree, sugar, and water but also milk and/or cream, and sometimes eggs to give them a smooth and rich consistency somewhere between an ice cream and a sorbet....Recipe for Lemon Sherbet , Blackberry Sorbet , and Strawberry Sorbet Shortbread - Scottish in origin, this rich, tender and crumbly straw colored biscuit (cookie) was once only served during Christmas and New Year's Eve (Hogmanay). The classic proportions of one part sugar to two parts butter to three parts flour were mixed together and placed in a lightly floured 8 inch (20 cm) round wooden mold carved with a thistle. The dough-filled mold was then inverted onto a baking sheet, released from the mold, and baked in a slow oven. Once baked, the shortbread was cut into wedges that were given the name "petticoat tails". This name was derived because the shape of the shortbread wedges was similar to the bell-hoop petticoats worn by court ladies in the 12th century..... More on Shortbreads Strawberries - The cultivated strawberries we enjoy today began in France with the chance meeting of two American species; one from North America, the other from South America. The first to arrive in France in the early 1600s was the F. Virginiana, the wild scarlet woodland strawberry that was found growing along the Eastern United States. A century would pass before the second American species, F. Chiloensis, would arrive from South America. It seems a French engineer, who was sent to the west coast of South America for a totally different reason, found and brought back to France a large walnut sized strawberry that tasted like a pineapple. At first, although the Chilean strawberry plant thrived, it would not bear any fruit. Then, by chance, the North American strawberry was planted near the South American plant. The two strawberry plants met and crossed naturally to produce a strawberry with the best characteristics of the two species. This new hybrid was the ancestor of the cultivated strawberries that have become one of the most popular fruits in the world today....Recipes for Strawberry Desserts Tiramisu - Pronounced tih-ruh-mee-SOO. Literally translated it means "pick me up" or "carry me up". It is an Italian dessert invented in the 1960's at the El Touga restaurant in Treviso, Italy. Variations exist, but the bottom layer is usually composed of a sponge cake or ladyfingers that are dipped or soaked in a mixture of coffee (espresso) and alcohol (rum or brandy). The next layer is typically a Zabaglione (Zabaione) (pronounced zah-bahl-YOH-nay) or a custard-like variation combined with mascarpone cheese. Zabaglione is a light, airy wine custard made by whipping egg yolks, sugar and sweet Marsala wine over a water bath . (Traditionally served warm or cold in wine goblets. Can also be used in making Tiramisu. Invented by the Italians but the French make their own version called sabayon (pronounced sah-bah-YAWN) and the Marsala wine (see note) is sometimes replaced by Champagne or dry white wine.) Grated chocolate is then sprinkled over the Zabaglione, followed by a layer of softly whipped cream. The layers are often repeated which is why it is oftentimes called an Italian Trifle. Finally, the Tiramisu is garnished with cocoa powder and sometimes a dusting of ground cinnamon.... Recipe for Tiramisu Torte - Torte is German for cake and refers to both a multi-layered cake filled with buttercream, jam, or cream and to a rich, moist, and dense single-layered cake. Trifle - What a stunning dessert the trifle makes with its multiple layers that delight our senses with so many colors, textures and flavors. The English have enjoyed this dessert for over three centuries now. Although the dictionary defines 'trifle' as being something insignificant, this dessert is anything but. Its beginnings were humble as the first trifles simply consisted of a mixture of boiled cream and a few other ingredients. It wasn't until the mid 18th century that the trifle started to evolve into what we have today. This is a trifle recipe by Frederick Bishop from "The Wife's Own Book of Cookery", 1852 (quoted from Elizabeth David's 'An Omelette and a Glass of Wine') 'Cover the bottom of the dish with Naples biscuits, and macaroons broken in halves, wet with brandy and white wine poured over them, cover them with patches of raspberry jam, fill the dish with a good custard, then whip up a syllabub, drain the froth on a sieve, put it on the custard and strew comfits over all.' (Naples biscuits was the name given to sponge fingers at the time.) (Syllabub being a milk or cream that is whipped with sugar, spirits, spices and sometimes egg whites.) (Comfits are sugar-coated coriander or caraway seeds.).... More on Trifles Truffle - The name 'truffle' for this confection comes from the fact that the mis-shaped cocoa powder covered truffle looked like the fungus of the same name.... More on Truffles Tuiles - is French for tile. So named because tuiles copy the shape of roofing tiles once used in France. A very thin, crisp (brittle) cookie that is traditionally made with almonds but can be flavored with vanilla, oranges, or even other types of nuts.... More on Tuiles. Valentine's Day - February 14th is named after the patron saint, St. Valentine, and we celebrate this day with the exchange of candy, flowers, cards, and gifts as a token of affection to our loved ones. The history of this day is very sketchy but it does appear to derive from Christian and Roman traditions. The story I like dates from the third century when Rome was ruled by the Emperor Claudius II. The Emperor outlawed marriages for young men as he felt single men made better soldiers than men who were married. A priest, named St. Valentine, didn't agree with the Emperor and married young lovers in secret. When the Emperor discovered what St. Valentine was doing, he sentenced him to death. The story then goes that while in prison, waiting to be put to death, he met and fell in love with the jailor's daughter. Before he died he sent her a letter and signed it "From your Valentine". This expression is still used today and St. Valentine is now best remembered as being a romantic and heroic figure. Find us on Google+ Use of materials on all pages on the domains Joyofbaking.com , joyofbaking.mobi, the Joyofbaking.com Facebook Page , @joyofbaking on Twitter , the Joyofbaking.com RSS Feed , the Joyofbaking.com email list the Joyofbaking1 YouTube Channel and any emails sent from @joyofbaking.com are entirely at the risk of the user and their owner, iFood Media LLC will not be responsible for any damages directly or indirectly resulting from the use. References cited may include a link to purchase the referenced book on Amazon.com. Joyofbaking.com receives a commission on any purchases resulting from these links. 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Which word of the phonetic alphabet is also a type of submarine?	Appendix:Glossary of military slang - Wiktionary Appendix:Glossary of military slang Jump to: navigation , search Military slang is a set of colloquial terms which are unique to or which originated with military personnel. They are often abbreviations or derivatives of the NATO Phonetic Alphabet , or otherwise incorporating aspects of formal military concepts and terms. Military slang is also used to reinforce the (usually friendly) interservice rivalries . Some of these terms have been considered gregarious to varying degrees and attempts have been made to eliminate them. For the purposes of this article, "military slang" includes slang used by any English-speaking armed forces (armies, navies, air forces). 0 - 9[ edit ] 1st CivDiv (U.S. Marine Corps) The "First Civilian Division", the (fictitious) division made up of Marines who leave the military and go back to civilian life. 11 Bang-Bang / 11 Boom-Boom / 11 Bush / (pejorative) 11 Bulletstop(per) (U.S. Army) An infantryman, from the Military Occupational Specialty designation "11B". (Canada and U.K.) Second in Command. 4-10-4 (U.S.) A "Desert Queen": a female who is normally considered a 4 on a 1-10 scale (back in the States), becomes a 10 upon arrival in the AOR, but reverts back to a 4 upon return to the States. 411 (U.S.) Briefing prior to one's mission. Example: "Meet me in my office when you're ready for the 411 on your mission." 5 fingers of death (U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps) The beef franks which are included, with beans, in some MREs; so named for their number and unpleasant taste. The dish is also known as "beans and motherfuckers" for the same reason. Because later versions of the meal only contained four beef franks without any beans, they and were subsequently renamed the "4 dicks of death". (U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, and U.S. Marine Corps) A 40mm grenade or M203 grenade launcher , such as is often mounted underneath an M-16 or a variant thereof. 60 mil (Canada) A 60mm mortar. 782 Gear (U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Navy Seabees) Organizational equipment issued to a Marine or Seabee by his or her unit that is kept as part of the Member's personal gear, but must be returned in serviceable condition upon that member's departure, usually including load-bearing equipment, ruck packs, body armor, helmets and other field gear. References an obsolete inventory form. Also referred to as "deuce gear." The U.S. Army equivalent is "TA-50 [gear]". 84 mil (Canada) A 84mm Carl G ( Carl Gustav recoilless rifle ). The Singapore Army equivalent, prior to 2013, was simply "84". 90-day wonder (derogatory) A newly-commissioned (O-1) graduate of Officer Candidate School or DIRCOM (Direct Commissioning) program. During WWII, Korea, and early Vietnam, prior to 1970, this terminology referred only to graduates of OCS, which was also derisively known as the "Oklahoma Cook's School." From 2004-2005, the U.S. Marine Corps had a 90 day reservist option that allowed a Marine to enlist, do boot camp, then return to civilian life without attending advanced schooling to finish high school. (U.S. Navy) Term used to designate something as "All hands", or pertinent to everyone. Usually used by air traffic controllers to designate one transmission as pertinent to all aircraft on frequency. Example: "99, arresting gear is down." 72s and 96s (U.S) The time (72 or 96 hours, respectively) given to a military member for liberty on holidays or special occasions. Anti-aircraft fire; flak . acorn boy(s) (U.S., Civil War-era) Member(s) of the U.S. Army's XIV Corps, from its distinctive acorn cap badge. adashi (U.S.) A Korean man. adm day (RN, circa 1900) Tinned fish. AFI Air Force Instruction, or derogatorily Another Fucking Inconvenience Ai-ee-yah (U.S.) Same as "Hooah," used in the U.S. Army 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment . Based on an American Indian war cry. See also "Ie-yee-ah" air bear (U.S. Air Force) Security or MP trooper air-dale (U.K. and U.S.) Derogatory term for a pilot or aircrew. Air Force mittens (U.S.) Front pockets of BDU pants. Also, "Army gloves." Compare with 'Bundeswehr gloves', below. airplane gang (U.S.) Derogatory term used to describe Airborne-designated division or brigade-level units, i.e., "82nd Airplane Gang". Can also be shortened to simply "Airplane". African golf (U.K, U.S. and Iraq) During the Iraq war, name for insurgents, local thieves and looters. Alpha Mike Foxtrot (Infantry) "Adios Mother Fucker" abbreviated using the phonetic alphabet. When used in garrison it is a friendly farewell. When used in combat situations it generally means that the person on the other end of the barrel is being wished a not-so-kind farewell. alpha roster (U.S.) An alphabetical list (by last name) of all personnel within a unit. Aluminum U. (U.S.) The U.S. Air Force Academy, so called because of the metal's use in the architecture of the campus. and in aircraft. amen wallah (U.S. Marine Corps) Reference to U.S. Navy Sailors (pejorative). (U.S. Navy) Any Chief Petty Officer, whose insignia is an anchor. ...and a wake-up (U.S.) Term used following a particular period of time to reference how many complete days or watches plus the time spent on the last day leaving a service member has before a tour of duty or field evolution is complete, e.g.: "Two days and a wake up, and I'm gone!" Annie Laurie (Br, WW1) transport away from the front (pun on "any lorry") the animal (AUS, Vietnam) mechanism for detonating up to 20 claymores at once (also "The Monster") another damn army Internal slang for the Air Defense Artillery (ADA) because of their unusual unit structures and over-the-top standards. See also: Fake Infantry arsapeek (British, WW1) Antiaircraft (gun or fire; in plural, guns) armored cow (Australian Army, WW1-1960s) Entrenching tool army's lawn dart (U.S.) UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter. Named for its inability to stay in the air. Also Known as a "Crash Hawk" army proof (U.S. Air Force) Explained in very simple, easy to understand terms; often with pictures. Derived from "Fool Proof" army strawberries (U.S. Air Force, WWII) Prunes. as you were/as I was (U.S.) Return to what you were doing. The second version is to acknowledge that the order was given in error, particularly during drill. See also "belay my last". asino morto Armored vehicles. "We'll be driving behind a lot of ass today." E.g.: Tanks, etc. Asses and Elbows (U.S.) A state in which everyone is busy, such as while cleaning. ASVAB waiver (U.S.) A slow or stupid servicemember; references the military's ASVAB intelligence and skills entrance test, the results of which were allegedly waived to allow enlistment of said servicemember. At ease (U.S.) Relax; also, "As you were." Usually an acknowledgement by a superior (especially commissioned) to junior personnel moving into action or attention. ate-up (U.S.) refers to a service member who is overly concerned with following every regulation to the letter, usually with little regard for the situation. Also used to describe a Soldier who has little or no Military Bearing. "Airman Dummy is ate-up with the dumbass." Attend B (Singapore) Written in abbreviated form as ATTN B; personnel excused from strenuous or physical training, but are otherwise required to be present for the training or class and allowed light duties. Attend C (Singapore) Written in abbreviated form as ATTN C; personnel excused from training are in Attend C status and considered unfit for all duties. auto-pilot (U.S. Air Force) used to describe when a flight or other marching formation executes a maneuver such as a flank or column movement without the commander issuing the order for such a movement. Normally done during training to avoid an obstacle, such as a tree or MTI. Also, "Auto-pilot march." B[ edit ] B1A (U.S. Army, Vietnam-era). used to describe a C-ration B1A unit, the most highly prized meal of that genre, due to it containing a can of fruit salad in syrup. Pronounced, "Bee-one-A". bag (Canada) Term used to denote the uselessness of a Soldier, as in a "bag of hammers" or "bag of shit". (U.S.) Slang for the flight suit worn by aircrew members. Bag Drag To inspect gear/personal bags for unauthorized equipment or prohibited items either prior to posting for shift or upon return from overseas deployment. The name refers to the act of dragging every thing out of ones bag while in formation bag nasty (U.S.) The name given to the fast food options in chow halls, i.e.; hot dogs and hamburgers. Also common reference for MRE's. In the Air Force, commonly a reference to pre-packed Flight Lunches intended for aircrew or personnel whose duties do not allow them to go to the chow hall to eat their meals. Also see Box Nasty. bag of dicks (U.S.) A problematic or intractable situation. bag of smashed asshole (U.S.) Highly derogatory, typically used to describe a Soldier whose uniform wear is unsatisfactory, as in "Private Smith, you look like a bag of smashed asshole". Can also be used in a more general sense to describe anything that is heavily damaged or poor in appearance. Bagger (IRL) derogatory term referring to an Irish reservist Soldier, comparing him/her to a sandbag, i.e.; useless. balls (U.S.) Term for midnight on a 24-hour clock since it looks like four balls (0000), "My watch is from balls to eight". balls to the wall(s) (U.S.) To go as fast as possible. (From aviation and nautical; pushing all engine throttle levers toward firewall.) Full throttle causing the ball weights of the engine govenor to open outward toward the walls. balls to nutsack (Canada) Describes troops cramped together closely BAM (U.S.) Broad Assed Marine. Derogatory term for a female Marine. bang stick (Canada) C7 rifle or any other rifle barracks rat (U.S.) A service member unwilling or financially unable to go "out in town" during liberty. (Canada) Servicewoman who engages in sexual relations with others in a housing area Battle Bowler (U.S., Civil War-WW1) Infantryman BCGs (U.S.) Birth Control Glasses. Military issued eyeglasses, typically first issued in basic training, noted for their unappealing appearance which would prevent attracting members of the opposite sex. Beagle (U.S. Air Force) F-15E Fighter/Bomber. Contraction of "Bomber-Eagle". Beam Rider (U.S.) An A-10 Thunderbolt or similar aircraft that uses laser guided missiles or other laser guided rounds to destroy objects. beans and bullets (U.S.) The general term for all types of supplies. beat your face (U.S.) Slang for "do some push-ups" and is commonly used in recruit training. Example: "Private, you think that's funny?! BEAT YOUR FACE!" Benny (U.K.) British Army slang for the Falkland Islands civilians during the Falklands War and locals around bases in the West Country. Based on a badly dressed, mentally retarded character in the soap opera Crossroads. belay that (English-speaking navies, origin probably RN) Disregard the order just given. Similar to "as you were". Belching Buzzard (U.S. Army) Derogatory/affectionate term for a member of the 101st Airborne Division, so named for the division's "Screaming Eagle" crest, which features the Bald Eagle's head. BFE or Bum Fuck Egypt (U.S.) An isolated deployment, or any other extremely isolated or distant location; pejorative. used mostly about the disgust at the distance or remoteness, but also implies that there could be little worthwhile in such an isolated place. The variants "Big Fucking Empty", "BFN" or "Bum Fuck Nowhere" are used in the same sense. BFH (U.S.) Big Fucking Hammer- When referring to a hard to do mechanical job: "You're going to need your BFH for that" BFO (U.S.) Blinding flash of the obvious.. BFR (U.S.) Big fucking rock. Sometimes used as a reference point on tactical radios: "We're 100 meters south of the BFR." BFW (U.S.) Big fucking wrench. Refers to the wrench used on generators to tighten the grounding nut. BGB (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Big Gray Boat. Refers to large ships, e.g., carriers and battleships, which are gray in color. biff chit (U.K.) A sick note from the medical centre excusing a Soldier from PT. See profile and ATTN C. Big Chicken Dinner (U.S.) Bad Conduct Discharge, the less severe of the two types of punitive discharge that may be awarded by court martial (the more severe being a dishonorable discharge ) . Big Dick Contest (U.S.) An argument that amounts to who's done or experienced more in terms of training or combat. big green tick (U.S. Army) An Army-issue large (not medium) ALICE pack. This name is usually used to further emphasize an uncomfortable situation, as in "I've got a three-hour date (12 mile road march at 15:00 min/mile) with the big green tick." Big Green Dick (U.S. Army) The Army's administration, especially when it fails to work in the Soldiers' favor. Big Green Weenie (U.S. Marine Corps) The fictitious dick that is said to have been at work whenever Marines get screwed over. Big Red One (U.S. Army) The First Infantry Division, so noted for the unit insignia of a single red 1. "If you're gonna' be one, be a Big Red One!" Big Red Pig (U.S. Coast Guard) Derogatory/affectionate term for Icebreakers, which are painted red for visibility. Big White One (U.S. Coast Guard) A High Endurance Cutter , the largest "White Boats" (rescue and law enforcement) vessels in the U.S. Coast Guard. BIMBLE (U.K.) Basic Infantry Manoeuvre But Lacking Enthusiasm bin rat (Canada) A supply technician or storesman. bingo fuel (U.S.) A pre-briefed amount of fuel for an aircraft that would allow a safe return to the base of intended landing. bird (U.S.) an airplane or satellite . In combat, may refer to an air-to-air missile; strategic context implies an ICBM. Bird, Ball and Chain (U.S. Marine Corps) Cynical term for the Marine Corps' Eagle, Globe and Anchor emblem. bird barn (U.S.) an aircraft carrier. bird colonel (U.S.) a Colonel (O-6), whose insignia is an eagle, as opposed to a Lieutenant Colonel, who wears silver oak leaves. black Cadillacs (Canada) Combat boots. used ironically in reference to use as a mode of transport. blade (U.K.) SAS Trooper employed in a Sabre Squadron. : (Canada) A traitorous or untrustworthy person; one who would betray you or "stab you in the back." Can also be used as a verb. blanket party (U.S., Canada) A form of hazing meted out to unpopular service members. Involves covering the head and arms of the target with a blanket to prevent fighting back or identification of the attackers while a beating is administered. blanket-stacker (U.K.) Any storeman (even if he doesn't deal with blankets) . Also applied to the Royal Logistic Corps in general, even though their duties include everything from catering to bomb-disposal as well as storekeeping. bleu (France) A recruit. Derived from the French term for barely-cooked steak, symbolizing a "raw" recruit. blivet (U.S. Army) Vietnam-era. Large, black rubber bag used to carry POL on flatbed trailers to resupply forward units. blivet (U.S. Army, U.S. Army Air Corps) WW2-era. A terrible mess. The standard definition is, "What you get when you put 2 gallons of shit in a one gallon container." (the) Block (U.S.) Civilian life before enlisting. Example "Oh, you think you're back on the block?" Also simply a reference to back home where you could have done what you wanted in your own way. Bloody Buckets (U.S.) Members of the 28th Infantry Division, Pennsylvania Army National Guard, whose division insignia is a red keystone. Bloggins (Canada) Name used to show examples during lectures (i.e., Pte. Bloggins just violated the ROEs) Bloods and Crips (U.S. Army) A group of Soldiers who are habitually injured, see Sickcall Ranger blood stripes (U.S. Marine Corps) "Pinning on blood stripes", an unauthorized hazing practice of kneeing a newly promoted Corporal up and down the outside of his/her thighs, causing bruises that mimic the "blood stripes" an NCO wears on their dress trousers/ (U.S.) Promotion one receives due to the death of the person who previously filled that position. blooper (U.S. Army and Marine Corps) Vietnam Era slang term for the M-79 Grenade Launcher. Suggested by the sound it made upon firing. blow the DCA (U.S. Navy) The directive, given as a snipe hunt (compare 'pad-eye cleaner'), that new sub crewmembers are often given in a false emergency. After much searching for the DCA, they discover that the DCA is a person, the Damage Controls Assistant (usually a junior officer). (Note: Many tanks on-board submarines are pressurized with compressed air and "blown" overboard. These tanks are usually identified by abbreviations or acronyms and always require permission before being "blown".) blue falcon (U.S.) "buddy fucker," i.e., one who does not help a fellow Soldier, or who intentionally gets a Soldier in trouble. The phrase "Bravo Foxtrot" is also used and has the same meaning. blue-head (U.S.) a term for a new recruit in the first few weeks of boot camp. New recruits have their heads shaved and the particularly white recruit's head look blue due to the blood vessels. blue job (Canada) A member of the Air Force; derives from their blue uniform. Pejorative (probably deliberately similar to "blowjob"). blue nose (U.S. Navy, Marines) Anyone who has served above the Arctic Circle or has participated in a ceremony similar to the Shellback ceremony (See Shellback) blue force (U.S. Army or Air Force) The friendly force, the opposite of the OpFor. blue on blue contact (U.S. and U.K.) A friendly fire incident. blue suiter (U.S. Air Force) A general term for active duty Air Force personnel, often used when distinguishing between a mixed environment of Air Force active duty and Department of Defense civilians and contractors. blues (U.S. Air Force and U.S. Marine Corps) Marine Corps Blue Dress uniform. The Air Force Service Dress Uniform. Occasionally Navy Dress and Winter Blue uniforms, which are actually black. blues buddies (U.S. Air Force) A pair of Airmen who frequently leave base together in their dress blues during training. BMO (U.S., 1991 Persian Gulf War) Black Moving Object, or a woman in a burkha . Also refers to the Battalion Motor Officer in a mechanized unit boat 1. (U.S. Navy) A submarine . 2. (U.S. Naval Aviation) A ship on which aircraft is landed. 3. (U.S. Army) First generation Minefield Clearing Line Charge which was literally a small boat that was dragged behind a towing vehicle. The current version is mounted on a trailer. 4. (Canada) a submarine. boat chuck (U.S. Navy) Derogatory term used by the aviation community for any member of a ship's company. Bobo (Singapore) A Soldier who cannot hit his target on the rifle range. This is a Singlish mispronunciation of "WOWO", meaning "wash out." BOHICA "Bend over, here it comes again." used when wearily contemplating idiotic or malicious. decisions by higher-ups. Bone (U.S. Air Force) B-1B Bomber (U.K.) Stupid or pointless, "Well that was a bone question" Bones (U.S.) Any military doctor, especially in the Navy. Probably derived from Sawbones. Bone Crushers (U.S. Marine Corps) A term which generally distinguishes Corporal ranked senior Marines in authority over lower grade Marines. bolo (U.S. Army) 1. a slur the early twentieth century for recruits who could not attain an adequate degree of marksmanship. It comes from the idea that they should grab a bolo and attack hand-to-hand. 2. (BOLO all caps) Be On the Look Out boomer 1. (U.S. Navy) A nuclear ballistic missile submarine, or personnel serving aboard same. 2. (U.S. Air Force) An enlisted aircrew member serving on either a KC-135 'Stratotanker' or KC-10 'Extender' primarily responsible for refueling other aircraft in flight. Derived from "boom operator." boomstick Used playfully among infantry when not around superiors to describe a breaching shotgun. "We're going on couple raids tonight. Make sure you bring plenty of shells for the boomstick." Derived from the Bruce Campbell movie "Army of Darkness". boot, booter (U.S.) A new join to a particular unit, probably coming from Boot Camp (see below). This person often has an overly enthusiastic yet naive disposition. boot camp (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Initial training of new recruits. Booter (U.S.); Bootnecks, Booties: (U.K.) Royal Marines, from the leather stock they used to wear around their necks (same origin as Leathernecks for the U.S. Marine Corps). boots and utes (or "boots'n'utes") (U.S. Marine Corps) Combat boots and utility uniform, minus. the blouse; sometimes used for physical training or working in hot environments. boot bands (or "blousing bands") (U.S. Marine Corps and Canada) Elastic straps or coiled springs used to roll trouser legging under at the boot and simulate tucking into the boot itself; used in blousing boots. BOSNIA (U.S. Navy) Big Old Standard Navy-Issue Ass. Applies especially to desk-bound female enlisted. bought the farm (U.S.) Originally comes from the U.S. Air Force, where it was slang for a fatal crash, wherein the "farm" referred to the small plot of land at the cemetery where the individual was laid to rest, then generally any KIA G.I. whose insurance money pays the family funeral bills. Bouncing bomb (U.K.) Issue sleeping bag Boss (U.K.) Informal yet respectful address for an officer - especially used in situations where disclosure of military status is not advisable. Box Kicker (U.S. Navy) A term used, sometimes derogatorily, for a Supply Officer. The term implies that all a Supply Officer does is go around the warehouse kicking boxes, doing no other work. (U.S. Marine Corps) A warehouseman, MOS 3051. Box Nasty (U.S. Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps) Box Lunch served in-flight. BPAG (AUS) Black Plastic Army Gun. The M16 rifle . brass (U.S. and U.K.) Top-ranking officers; The Powers That Be. Bravo Zulu (Worldwide Navies) Means 'Well Done'. Comes from the Allied Naval Signal Book, conveyed by flag hoist or voice radio. brain bucket (U.S.) Any combat hat that does not provide protection. (e.g., A boonie hat) brig rat (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Describes a Sailor or Marine who often frequents the brig (military jail), typically as a prisoner. broke-dick (U.S.) A Soldier with a medical condition that would hinder the Soldier's ability to perform certain tasks; alternatively, equipment that is not operationally ready. broken TV (U.S. Army) The 3rd Infantry Division crest, a blue square with three diagonal white stripes. broom (U.S. Army) Army talk for 'sweep' . used in the similar sense that you mop with a mop, hence, you broom with a broom. brownjob (RAF) Member of the British Army, from the khaki uniforms. Brown Water Navy (U.S.) The fleet of riverine vessels - fast patrol boats, amphibious. landing craft , shallow-draft supply and maintenance ships, U.S. Coast Guard cutters and the like - which had been deployed to control the rivers and coasts of Vietnam during the Vietnam War , so noted for the mud-brown color of the water. Today any such riverine naval force. brown shoe 1. (U.S. Air Force) Things and people related to the time when the Air Corps was a subsidiary unit of the U.S. Army. When the Air Force became independent, black shoes replaced the brown shoes worn by the Army at that time. 2. Also refers to U.S. Army service prior to the Vietnam era "You were in the brown shoe army" when it changed to black combat/jungle boots and low quarters. 3. (U.S. Navy) Things and people related to the naval aviation community. From the time when brown shoes were authorized only for aviation ratings and officers. brown star cluster 1. (US) A metaphorical scatological reference describing a panicked reaction. A play on red star cluster; the humorous implication being that the subject's frightened defecation serves as a substitute distress call. 2. (US) Alternately, can refer to warning or signalling others that things being said or done are "bullshit". Brylcreem Boys (U.K.) Royal Air Force pilots, who were renowned for wearing brylcreem on their hair ("A little dab'll do ya!"), originated during WW2. bubblehead Any person serving on a submarine or in the Submarine Service (a reference to decompression sickness ). buddy spike (U.S. Air Force & U.S. Navy) used during flight operations. In air exercises, it is common to "spike" or lock onto a friendly without engaging. This causes the targeted aircraft's defense systems to warn of active targeting. "Buddy Spike" is a term used to reassure the "spiked" aircraft that the lock came from a friendly aircraft. For example: Suppose you were fighting in an exercise as blue air with opposing red air trying to shoot you. If you got notification on your RWR that an aircraft had locked you, you would want to know if it was from red air or just your wingman. So you might call out "HOOTER 01, spiked from 300 (degrees)" and Hooter 02 might call out "Buddy spike!" having locked you unintentionally, or to help find you visually, etc. This term was used, somewhat incorrectly, in the movie The Incredibles . Buck Sergeant (U.S. Army) Referring to a newly promoted Sergeant E-5. Can be used in different contexts, good or demeaning. buckshee (U.K., Canada) Spare, unofficial. Buckshee equipment or ammunition is outside the normal accounting system and is often bartered by those who find themselves in possession of it. The origin and nature of the stores determines whether this is a serious. issue. From World War One, when spare bits of shaving soap where called "buckshee's". BUFF (U.S.) Big Ugly Fat Fucker. (Clean: Big Ugly Fat Fellow) . Slang for the B-52 'Stratofortress' . Buffer (U.K. and Canada) Chief Bosun's Mate, Senior Boatswain (Seamanship specialist) on a warship, usually having the rank of a Chief Petty Officer. Bug Company (U.S. Navy) In boot camp, a company (group) of recruits who are incapable of performing any task correctly, regardless of the rewards or consequences. Generally the individuals who make up these companies will leave boot camp in top physical shape, because they are always being punished with physical training, also known as "cycling". Bug Juice (U.S.) The nickname given to the powdered drink served with MRE's on onboard ships. Virtually any powdered, artificially flavored, juice served in the mess hall of almost any group male environment from Scout Camp through the Military. bulkhead (U.S. Navy, Marines, RCN) The interior structural divider of a ship; used ashore to refer to the interior walls of a building, as well. bullet sponge or bullet stopper (U.S.) An infantryman, MOS 11B "Eleven Bulletstopper" most commonly the point man of an infantry fire team who is usually the first member of the team to engage, or be engaged by, the enemy. Bull Ensign (U.S. Navy) Senior junior officer of the rank of Ensign (o-1) in a ship's compliment. The bull Ensign often is tasked by the Commanding Officer with unsavory tasks that other junior officers would rather avoid. Bull Nuke (U.S. Navy Submarine Service) Senior enlisted man within the Engineering Division onboard a submarine, usually a Senior Chief or Master Chief Petty Officer (E-8/9). Bullshit flag, throwing the (U.S.) Challenging the factual accuracy of another's statement. Bum Chum (U.S., Canada, Australia) Pejorative term for a naval seaman. Refers to the stereotypical seaman's homosexuality . bumf (U.K.) Paperwork, especially useless paperwork; comes from bum fodder (i.e., only fit to be used as toilet paper ). Bundeswehr gloves (U.K.) Pockets, from the perception that members of the German Army often walk around with their hands in them (prohibited in most NATO armed services - including the Bundeswehr. [German Soldiers caught by a superior with their hands in their pockets are typically asked "Is it your birthday? Because you're holding your candle."]) Bunk (U.S. Army) Bed. Bunker Bunny (U.S.) Someone who looks like the model spit and polish Soldier, Marine - but does not tarnish his/her image by venturing beyond the safety of a secure location, also see "Fobbit". bunny suit (Canada) CBRN (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear) suit bunting tosser (Royal Navy and Commonwealth Navies) A signalman. butterbar (U.S.) A second lieutenant or ensign , in reference to the rank insignia - a single gold bar. butterfly stripes (U.S. Air Force) Term used to refer to the two-striped chevron of Airman First Class , usually awarded to a six-year enlistee immediately after his technical school or to a four-year enlistee after 10 months in the rank of Airman (also see "dragonfly wings"). BZ (Navy) Also, Bravo Zulu. Allied Signals Book (ATP 1) for "Well done". B.B. Stackers C[ edit ] C.O.C.K (Canada) Confirmation of Combat Knowledge, a play-on from the more acceptable vernacular - AAR (After action review). "Good job on that exercise troops! Now it's time for some COCK!!" May also be used threateningly as in "I'm going to COCK you till you die" to indicate a useless or excessively harsh exercise in the field or garrison, ostensibly administered to teach the receiver a lesson. Cable Stretcher (U.S. Air Force) A "tool" that a new or troublesome Airman is sent to find for that "little bit extra" of cable needed to finish a run. Primarily used in Communication career fields. cadidiot (U.S. Army and Air Force, Canada) (kah-DID-iot) Slang term for an officer cadet. In Canada, term also used to indicate youth cadets of all branches. See also "cadink", below. Pejorative. cadink (U.S. Air Force) Slang term for an officer cadet. Slightly less pejorative than "cadidiot". Cadillac (U.S. Navy) A mop bucket. Named after the mop squeezer, which resembles a Cadillac grill. (Coalition Forces) A toilet facility, a.k.a. Caddie. Cambro (U.S. Army) Officially called the "Insulated Food Container" or "IFC," which is plastic with stainless steel inserts. Not to be confused with the all-metal "Food Container, Insulated" or "FCI" which is commonly called a "mermite can." camel jockey used to refer to Arabs. Pejorative. cammies (U.S. Navy and U.S. Marines) Camouflage utility uniform. What are referred to as "BDUs" in the Army and Air Force (now "ACUs" and "ABUs," respectively). Camp U.S. Coast Guard (U.S. Coast Guard) The United States Coast Guard Academy at New London . used when referring to the Academy in a derogatory manner. Also: Connecticut University of Nautical Technology. Canary Club (U.S. Air Force) used when identifying parking spaces or areas reserved for officers with the rank of O-6 ("bird" Colonel) cannon cocker (U.S.) An artilleryman. Also a U.S. Coast Guard Gunner's Mate. cannon fodder (U.S.) (formerly) An infantryman sent into battle with the expectation that he will be killed. Canoe U The United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . Jocular when used by graduates, pejorative when used by outsiders. canopy lights (U.S. Army) (Airborne) An item new recruits are sent to find; a form of snipe hunt . Refers to an imaginary set of lights to attach to a parachute canopy for use during night jumps. Captain Jack (U.S.) Is the military equivalent to the civilian Jodies in cadences, and always a tough guy. Illustrated in the song lyrics: "Hey, hey, Captain Jack, meet me down by the railroad tracks. With your knife in your hand, I'm gonna’ be a fightin' man." Captain's Mast (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Non-Judicial Punishment imposed under Article 15 of the UCMJ. CATFU (U.S.) (KAT-foo-(ed) ) Completely And Totally Fuck(ed) Up (i.e., "This thing is CATFUed") cat eyes (U.S. Army, Canada) A helmetband with two pieces of luminous. material at the rear. cat hole (U.S. Army) A hole dug in the ground in which to defecate. CBed (Canada) confined to barracks, a form of punishment. Pronounced "see-beed". CBPO (U.S. Air Force) used to mean the Consolidated Base Personnel Office, now if a member states they are going to CBPO or C-BO it means Commissary BX Post Office CCB (Singapore) Phonetic rendition of a Hokkien swear word referring to a smelly female reproductive orifice CFB (Canada) Canadian Forces Base . CFL (Canada) Corporal/Captain For Life, someone who will never be promoted above the rank of Corporal or Captain for the rest of their career. Canadian Gay Guard, Canadian Girl Guides (Canada) Derogatory term used to refer to the Canadian Grenadier Guard(CGG) Chairborne Ranger (U.S. Army) Pretty much anyone in the Adjutant General's Corps, referring to someone who works a desk, in comparison to an Airborne Ranger.. During the Vietnam era also referred to as "Remington's Raiders" a reference to the manufacturer of a popular brand of typewriter. Chair Force ( U.S. Air Force , Canadian Air Force ) The Air Force, referring to the perception that many Air Force personnel spend their time "flying a desk", i.e., doing office work of various. sorts. chalk (U.S. Army) A specific aircraft load, especially a group of airborne Soldiers which deploy from a single aircraft, typically a platoon for air assaults, or company-minus. sized for airborne drops. Originates from Vietnam War practice of chalking identifying marks on aircraft sides involved in such operations. Chancre Mechanic (U.S. Navy) Hospital Corpsman. Also called Pecker Checker, Dick Smith, or Pill Pusher. Charlie (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for the letter C. During the Vietnam War was a general term for the Vietcong by shortening of "Victor Charlie." Charlie Foxtrot See clusterfuck. Charlie Gulf One (U.S. Navy) NATO phonetic alphabet for "Standing By to Assist". The standard phrase of U.S. Navy medical teams. Charlie Mike (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for "continue mission" Charlie's Chicken Farm (U.S. Army) Corruption of Correctional Custody Facility (CCF) . A minimum security military prison for lesser offenses; Usually no more than a fenced-in barracks building and small surrounding area. Sentences to the CCF are Usually as a result of an Article 15 and are generally not career-ending in nature. Differentiated from “The Stockade,” which is much like a civilian jail. Analogous. to a city, county, or state prison in civilian life and houses serious offenders, some awaiting transport to military prisons like Fort Leavenworth Kansas or Mannheim Germany. Also "Charlie Charlie Foxtrot", from phonetic alphabet. charts and darts (U.S.) Manual field artillery firing calculations performed with paper (charts), pencil, and pins (darts) check six (U.S. Air Force) Term for "watch out behind you" or "watch your ass", based on looking for enemy aircraft or missiles to the rear (6 o-clock position). cheese eater/cheeser (U.S. Army) A suck-up or brown-noser. (U.S. Air Force) A rat or tattletale, usually someone who runs to the commander or other ranking member to get another in trouble. cheesedick (U.S. Marine Corps) To do something with minimal effort. As in "He cheesedicked his way through it." chem light batteries (U.S. Marine Corps) A form of snipe hunt . To have a new Marine search for obviously non-existent batteries for chemical light sticks. cherry (U.S.) New recruit still in Basic Training, or newly-minted service member (officer or enlisted) just arrived at first duty assignment after completion of training. chest candy (U.S.) Another term to describe ribbons or medals that are worn. It can be pejorative or appreciative, depending on Usage. chewed up or chewey (U.S.) Comes from "chewed up" Chicken colonel (U.S.) A full colonel, named for the eagle insignia. Also known as "full bull," "Full bird," or "Bird colonel" as opposed to "light colonel," which is a lieutenant colonel. chicken plates (U.S. Army) Small Arms Protective Inserts (SAPI) which fit into the Interceptor body armor system. Chief (U.S.) The familiar form of address for any U.S. Army warrant officer or U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard Chief Petty Officer. Also, a section leader in the U.S. Army, and a familiar term for Chief Master Sergeant, the highest enlisted rank in the U.S. Air Force. Chief of Smoke (U.S.) The senior enlisted man of an artillery battery or platoon, after the First Sergeant , the "Chief of Firing Battery". Also, "Smoke." Chief of the Boat/COB (U.S. Navy) Senior enlisted man onboard a submarine, responsible for manning, training, order and discipline of the enlisted crew. This equates with the Command Master Chief (CMC) onboard a surface ship or shore unit. In this position, the man is often casually referred to passively and in-person as "COB". chocko (Australia) An Army Reservist. Pejorative term dating back to World War 2, used by Soldiers of the 2nd AIF to imply incompetence on the part of Reservists who in their view were 'Chocolate Soldiers', likely to melt at the first application of the 'heat of battle'. Choggy (UK) a citizen of Afghanistan. chopped up (U.S. Army) Helicopter. Chow (U.S. Military) Food. (e.g., breakfast, lunch & dinner) "You want to go to the DFAC and get some chow?" Chow-dale (U.S. Navy (particularly used by Reactor Department personnel on Nimitz-class aircraft carriers ) ) A derogatory term for the Airmen (airdales) attached to the various. squadrons who seem to never-endingly stand in meal lines, make them longer for ship's crew. Chow keng (Singapore) Malingerer. Chow Runner (U.S. Air Force) A trainee in basic training that announces their respective flight into the dining facility. CHT (U.S. Navy) Sewage. Named after the ship's waste system (Collection, Holding, and Transfer (CHT) systems) . Pronounced "C-H-T" or "chit". CHT is Usually found splashing across ship's head floors because the designated ship's crew Usually aren't real excited about fixing a toilet problem. CHU (U.S.) Containerized Housing Unit. Common housing unit used on long-term deployments on built-up bases. Cigarette Soup (U.S. Army) Onion Soup, because it looks like what you get when you fill an ashtray with water. Circus. Battalion (Canada) Play on Service Battalion (Logistics and Supply) due to the excessive number of tents used in its deployment and the general state of coordination among its personnel. Generally pejorative, when used outside the company of said personnel. Circus. Battery (U.S. Army) The Service Battery of an Artillery Battalion. So named for its propensity to collect "misfits", and therefore to become a "Circus.". CIU (Canada) Civilian In Uniform, Person using the CF (Canadian Forces) as way to pay for school, person who does not belong in the Service. CK (U.S. Army) Containerized Kitchen used for preparing and serving meals in the field. clearing barrel A promiscuous female soldier. It is in reference to the red, sand filled barrels used to verify that small arms are unloaded before turn in. Soldiers preparing to turn in weapons line up and dry fire their rifles into the barrel. Extremely derogatory. See also "regimental groundsheet". Close of Business or COB (U.S. ARMY) The time of day when all scheduled training and administrative work stops. The unit's senior NCO may hold a formation at this time. During this formation, guidance is given to the enlisted members, the unit commander may publish information and the unit is released. However, some members of the unit, especially maintenance crews, may continue working. Also called end of day . Club Ed (Canada) The Canadian Forces Service Prison and Detention Barracks in Edmonton, Alberta. An ironic play on " Club Med ". clubz / clubswinger (RN) Physical Training Instructor. clusterfuck A disastrous. situation that results from the cumulative errors of several people or groups. In semi-polite company this is referred to as a Charlie Foxtrot (from the NATO phonetic alphabet ) . Also used as a slang term to describe the area effect nature of artillery or cluster bombs . CMFWIC Chief Mother Fucker Who's in Charge. Also "Chief Mother Fucker What's In Charge." CO (U.S. Military) Commanding Officer cock holster (U.S. Military) one's mouth, as in "Everybody, shut your cock holsters and listen up." See also "man-pleaser." Cockpit (U.S. Military) Derogatory term for promiscuous female aircrew, generally Army or Marine referring to Air Force female crew members. cockster (Singapore) a person who is habitually confused or amusing in a weird way. May derive from cock-up . Colonel Sanders (U.S. National Guard) Catered meals served in lieu of meals prepared by Army cooks. Obviously a reference to American fast-food icon Colonel Harlan Sanders , a founder of Kentucky Fried Chicken . Colonel Sanders Award (U.S. Army) See "KP", below. Command Private Major (U.S. Army) Derogatory slang for the rank of Specialist E-4. Commo In reference to communications equipment or those who operate them. A title Usually given to the Communications Officer or Communicator aboard U.S. Navy vessels. companionway (U.S. Navy, Marines) A staircase. From the term for a ladder or staircase aboard a ship. Company grade weather (U.S. Air Force) Exceptionally poor weather; all the senior pilots sit the day out and let the junior company grade guys (who are still trying to build hours) fly in the bad weather. Conn (U.S. Navy and Air Force) A naval term referencing the Conning Tower; where the Conning Team gives navigational instructions for a ship (conns the vessel). "You have the Conn" means you have control of the ship. When the CO (Commanding Officer) leaves the bridge, the next in rank takes charge of manning the ship. That person has the Conn. The term is also used in other fields to refer to a commanding officer who upon leaving his post his duties fall to the next ranking person. Contrails (U.S. Air Force Academy) Fourth Class Cadet ( SMACK ) book of military knowledge that is memorized during the fourth class year. Corfam (U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps) A high-gloss dress shoe, typically made of plastic rather than leather to enhance gloss and eliminate the need for polishing. Derived from a trademark artificial leather, Corfam developed by DuPont during World War II . cornflake (Canada) The cap badge of a recruit in the Canadian Forces, a brass rendition of the Canadian Forces tri-service badge. From the resemblance of the badge in shape and color to the breakfast cereal. 2. By extension from (1), a new recruit. 2. By extension from (1), the Canadian Forces insignia in general. Corps (U.K.) Informal address for a Corporal or Lance-Corporal . COTDA (U.S. Army) Stands for "Case Of The Dumb Asses." Spoken in both full context and abbreviation. Humorous. and imaginary syndrome or sickness often joked about towards any Soldier who makes an accidental mistakes or forgets something. Example: "Did you go home last night and catch a case of the dumb asses (or COTDA) ?" Country Club Academy (U.S.) A derogatory term used by cadets at the United States Military Academy and midshipmen at the United States Naval Academy to refer to the United States Air Force Academy . Refers to the perception of more relaxed standards of military discipline, and the generally less spartan living conditions for cadets, at the AFA as compared to the other academies. cover (U.S.) Military headgear of any type. crab fat (U.K.) Reference to RAF personnel crabs (Singapore) Reference to senior officers of rank major, lieutenant colonel, or colonel, whose rank insignias are respectively one, two, or three State Crests, the outline of each resembling a crab. (United Kingdom) Refers to the British Royal Air Force , due to the blue uniform being the same colour of the powder used to treat crabs. crabs within a cage (Singapore) A derogatory term to describe warrant officers whose rank insignias are a state crest encased within a semi-circle and chevrons with the number of chevrons denoting higher ranks. Sometimes used to dismiss a warrant officer who is noted for being very arrogant and proliferate in the use of his authority. crank (U.S. Navy) An enlisted Sailor who is doing temporary duty in a ship's galley. On most ships/subs junior enlisted will work full time for many weeks or months in the galley doing menial tasks like washing dishes or scrubbing floors before moving back to their assigned rate and division. "Cranking" or "Mess cranking" is a verb for this situation. Cranking can be occasionally used as a method of EMI. (See EMI) Crap Hat (U.K.) SAS or Parachute Regiment describing other regiments in the British Army as less than elite, derived from the distinctive SAS and Parachute berets which are different in color to every other regiment. crunchie (U.S. Army) Term used by a Tank Crewman to describe a dismounted infantry Soldier, derived from the sound that they make when the tank rolls over them. crutch brigade (U.S. Army) a rear-detachment unit, Usually full of Soldiers who are unable to deploy due to medical or legal issues. CS&MO (U.S.) Proper Usage: Close Station, March Order. Alternatively "CSMO,": Collect [your] shit and move out. Cunt cap (U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force) The flat garrison cap , the kind often seen tucked under a shoulder epaulet in the movies. Particularly descriptive of the female version of this cap discontinued in the late 1970's, which had an inverted fold in the crown. Also called "piss cutter". Cum-dumpster a mouth. Term generally used by drill instructors to create a sense of dominance over recruits, e.g., "shut your fuckin' cum-dumpster!". Cunt Hair (U.S. Army, U.S. Navy) a small increment as in, "Move that a cunt hair to the right." Cycled (U.S. Navy) or "getting cycled" In boot camp, the act of being "beat" by your company commanders via strenuous. work-out, or "PT" sessions. Cycling normally occurs after a member or the entire company has made an error of some kind either in drilling, training, etc. Cycling has no time limit, it lasts as long as desired by the company commander(s) , and it can include any physical training that has been imagined. Oftentimes company commanders will make their recruits put on multiple layers of clothing, while closing windows and turning off fans, etc., in an effort to make it "rain indoors". Lore states of "rain makers", company commanders often rumored to be in charge of other units who will make guest appearances at cycles in an effort to achieve the results of "raining indoors", due to the fact that the sweat from the recruits will cause condensation to build in the room and leak down from the ceilings. See tekan and quarterdecking." (U.S.) The Dining Facility (pron: Dee-Fack) a.k.a. Mess Hall. D4D (U.S. Air Force) Desk 4 Drawers Aircraft type flown by most of the U.S. Air Force. "Him? Oh he drives (Flies) a D4D!" DA Form 1 (U.S. Army) Toilet Paper. dark green (U.S. Marine Corps) An African-American U.S. Marine; as compared to a "light-green". Becoming an archaic term; sometimes perceived as offensive. DART (U.S. Air Force) Dumb Ass (radio/radar) Troop DAT (U.S. Army) dumb ass tanker. [1] Day 0 (U.S. Army) . The first day of basic training. Dead Man Walking (U.S. Army) A person who has a permanent profile (see profile below) which allows him/her to walk two and a half miles rather than run 2 miles as part of the Army Physical Fitness Test or APFT. Death Jet (DJ) (U.S.) "The F-22 Raptor used in the Air Force. The name was so given because the fighter jet was prestigious. and was an all-rounder, e.g.,, "Death Jet, ETA 30 seconds, hold back for airstrike package"" death technician (Canada) Infantry Soldier. Deck (Worldwide Navy, Marines) The floor on a ship; also used while ashore for the ground or a floor. Deck-Ape (Navy, Marines) Naval term used to signify a "boatswain's mate" on a ship who is in charge of anchors, moorings, lines, rope etc. Dependapotamus (U.S.) A non-military spouse so obese as to shame or draw into question their significant others decision making capabilities. Named so due to their perceived propensity to marry servicemen in order to secure their paycheck and government benefits for themselves. desert queen (U.S.) A promiscuous. woman who sleeps around while at a deployed location. (U.S. Air Force) Any female at a deployed location, especially an unattractive one. The stereotype is that because of the imbalance in the male to female ratio, unattractive women become attractive in lieu of sufficient quantities of attractive women. dairy Queen (U.S.) A promiscuous. overweight woman who sleeps around while at a deployed location. desk wallah (U.K.) A staff officer or other military administrator; pejorative and largely obsolete. Desert Fox Female Soldier who is considered more attractive because she has moved down range. Desperate Love Institute (U.S.) Nickname for the Defense Language Institute . deuce and a half, deuce (U.S., Canada) 2½ ton truck used for carrying cargo or up to 40 people. Commonly used in convoys . During WWII its predecessor, manufactured primarily by GMC was called a "Jimmy" deuce gear (U.S. Marine Corps) Organizational equipment that is issued to a Marine from his unit and is kept by the Marine as personal gear, but is expected to be returned in serviceable condition upon that Marine's detachment from the unit. Usually refers to load-bearing equipment, ruck packs, body armor, helmets and other field gear. Derived from "782 gear", referencing an obsolete form. Devil Dog (U.S.) U.S. Marine. The term comes from a (possibly apocryphal) complimentary term, Teufelhund, applied by German Soldiers to Marines during World War I for fighting like shock troops. DICK (U.S. Army) OIF era. Dedicated Infantry Combat Killer. dickbeaters (U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force) Generalized state of being incorrect or broken. dickskinners (U.S.) Hands. Dick Smith (U.S. Navy) Hospital Corpsman. Also called Pecker Checker, Pill Pusher, or Chancre Mechanic. Alludes to a blacksmith working on a penis. dicktrap (U.S.) Mouth. digger (AUS and NZ) Initially used to describe Soldiers who fought during the Battle of Gallipoli , but now a general term for any Australian or New Zealand Soldier. diggers (U.K.) Knife, fork and spoon. Cookhouses at transit barracks, training camps and other locations away from a Soldier's home base generally do not provide these. Thus. it is important to remember your diggers when going for a meal. digies (U.S.) Refers to new digital camouflaged field uniforms worn by the U.S. Army and Marine Corps. dig-it, dig it or diggit 1. (U.S. Navy) A (Usually derogatory) reference to a crew member who shows an outward eagerness to be at sea, in the Navy, etc.--especially when compared to less enthusiastic crew members (see Joe Navy). 2. (U.S. Navy) Any brand or model of butterfly-folding multi-tool (i.e., a Leatherman®) carried by said crew member. DILLIGAF (U.S. and Canada) Does It Look Like I Give A Fuck?! Usually a reply in Boot Camp when given a lame excuse for not being able to perform a duty or follow an order. (AUS) Do I Look Like I Give A Fuck? Similar as above Dink (U.S.) A derogatory term for an Asian enemy Soldier, used extensively during the Vietnam War . More recently, means delinquent in some form, i.e., not up to standards on progress on training qualifications. Dirt Nap (Naval Aviation) Flying ones aircraft and self into the ground. Flat Hatting gone wrong. disco belt (U.S. Air Force) A reflective belt worn around the waist on aircraft flightlines. ditch (RAF) crash into the sea Dittybopper (U.S. Army) A signals intelligence radio operator trained to intercept Morse Code transmissions. As a verb, "Dittybopping" is used to describe a Soldier or Soldiers who are marching out of time with the cadence being called. DNF (U.S.) Departure from Normal Flight. Term for when a pilot loses control of his/her aircraft. DNKH (U.S.) Damn Near Killed Himself/Herself. doc (Canada) To shirk one's duties. dogface (U.S.) A U.S. Army infantryman , common in World War II , also a Soldier of the 3rd Infantry Division, they get to sing the "Dogface Soldier Song" every morning; now this or "doggy" is used by a Marine to refer to an Army Soldier. donkey dick 1. (U.S. Army) The bottom section of a PRC-25/77 radio antenna. 2. A detachable fuel nozzle for 5 gallon fuel containers. See "horse cock" below. 3. A Mortar cleaning brush. 4. By extension, any long cylindrical object. 5. (U.S. Air Force Civil Engineering) An electric vibe tool with a long cylindrical vibrating shaft used in concrete construction to remove air bubbles from concrete. Donkey Walloper (U.S. Army) A day of no scheduled activity. donut launcher (U.S. Army) Ring Airfoil Grenade Launcher. A device which fits on the end of an M16 rifle which fired a donut shaped rubber bullet used in riot control. Doolie A fourth-class cadet (freshman) at the United States Air Force Academy (also called "SMACK") . Dope Acronym for Data on Personal Equipment (sights and elevation/windage settings for sniper rifles). Other Usage includes Information/intelligence regarding the position of a target or info on an objective. Air Force/Navy Usage of 'Bogey Dope' to request the position (bearing, range, altitude and heading) of enemy aircraft. Dope On A Rope (U.S. Army) An insult applied to air assault Soldiers. Used mostly by airborne units. Dorm hoe or dorm slut (U.S. Air Force) used for a female who is known for her promiscuity around dormitories and lodging facilities. Dot double-digit midget (U.S.) A service member who has less than 100 days until his or her enlistment ends, or time until rotation out of a combat area arrives. Double Ugly (U.S.) Nickname for the F-4 Phantom II . doughboy (U.S.) A U.S. Army Soldier. This term is almost exclusively used in the context of World War I "GI" was the term during WWII. dragonfly wings (U.S. Air Force) Refers to the two stripe chevron of an Airman First Class. drink (RAF) sea/ocean driver (U.S. Air Force) A fighter aircraft operator, i.e., pilot (example: "I'm an Eagle Driver", an F-15 Eagle pilot, or a "Viper Driver", an F-16 pilot. drive on (U.S. Army) Carry out the mission. Dropped (U.S.) An Army or Air Force term used to describe punishment by physical training (Usually pushups ) "The DI dropped dingleberry for 20 after he fucked up on the course!" dropshort (U.K.) An artilleryman, or the Artillery in general. Artillery will often fire over the heads of friendly troops, who will certainly not appreciate a round that drops short. Also "Dropshot." DROS (U.S. Army). Date Returned from Overseas Service. Pronounced, "dee-ross". Dual Cool (U.S. Marine Corps) A phrase for a Marine, Usually Recon or Force Recon, who has earned both the Scuba Bubble and Gold Jump Wings. duck hunter (U.S.) A member of the Air Defense Artillery . Duffle Bag (USAF Security Forces) An airman with an untidy uniform, Airman Blank looks like a duffle bag. dune coon E[ edit ] Educated Asshole (U.S. Navy) A Seabee in the EA (Engineering Aid) rating with civilian and/or military technical training in construction design, surveying, drafting, materials or quality control. Eagle (U.S. Air Force) The F-15 Fighter Eagle Driver (U.S. Air Force) F-15 Pilot Eagle Hatcher (U.S. Air Force) Member of the F-15 Development Team (SPO) Eagle Keeper (U.S. Air Force) F-15 Maintainer, crew chief Eagle Rider (U.S. Air Force) F-15E Weapons System Officer (WSO or 'Wizzo') - 'Backseater' Eaglet (U.S. Air Force) Humorous. term used by F-15 personnel in early days of the F-16 program to refer to the F-16. Echo Check (U.S. Air Force) a type of snipe hunt where a jet engine maintainer is told to scream into a static jet engine at the top of his lungs, and if he get the right pitch and volume the blades in the engine will ring. Echo Tango Suitcase (U.S. Army) Punning reference to ETS or "Expiration Term of Service," the end of an enlisted soldier's service contract, especially if the soldier has no intention of reenlisting. Similar to "PCS to Fort Living Room," another humorous reference to impending discharge from active duty. EGA (U.S. Marine Corps) Eagle, Globe and Anchor, the emblem of the U.S. Marine Corps. Egg Banjo (U.K.) A fried egg sandwich so called because when it is eaten, generally with the one hand that is free, egg yolk squirts onto the eater's shirt/jacket resulting in them raising their sandwich to approximately ear height whilst they attempt to "strum" the egg from their shirt with their free hand. Egyptian PT (U.K.) Sleeping, particularly during the day. Probably dates from WW2 or before. The act of laying on your bed, with your arms crossed over your chest, just like an Egyptian mummy Elsie (U.K. and U.S. Marine Corps) Phonetic pronunciation of "LC", the abbreviation for Lance-Corporal E.M.I. (U.S.): Extra Military Instruction. In military training establishments it is a supposed learning opportunity for a serviceman to better learn some military instruction. It is not supposed to be (but most often is) a non-judicial punishment that Usually consists of some menial task like running in place with arms outstretched from the chest while holding a rifle (Army) or changing into every uniform once an hour for inspection (a " Fashion Show ") (Navy) . This punishment is used for individuals who have difficulty following instructions, or show excess attitude towards company commanders/authority figures. ENDEX End Exercise Errr... (U.S. Marine Corps) An abbreviated or unmotivated "Oorah". Often used as a form of acknowledgment or greeting. ETS (U.S. Army). Expiration Term of Service. Pronounced, "ee-tee-ess". evolution Generally, any specific operation or activity. "This evolution does not require talking." "All hands on deck for the refueling evolution." extra (Singapore) to serve extra duties as camp guard or confinement (frequently on weekends) as punishment eyebrow remover (U.S. Army, Canada) Immersion heater, a device used for heating washing water in a field kitchen; it consists of a gas-fuelled element immersed in a large container, such as a large galvanized garbage container. An external gas tank drips gas down a column into the element, and is lit by dropping a match or inserting a lit gas-soaked rod into the tube, igniting the gas. The term "eyebrow remover" is derived making the mistake of looking in the opening after dropping the lit match in it to see if it lit properly; the puddle of gasoline at the bottom will sometimes flash and send a flame into one's face. Fucking Air National Guard. Fang Fairy (U.S. Navy) a.k.a. "Tooth Fairy". Slang for a Sailor in the DT (Dental Technician) rating. Self-explanatory. fangs (U.S. Marine Corps) A term used as a reference to teeth as in "Go brush your fangs!" farmer armor (U.S.) Improvised vehicle armor. See Hillbilly armor . fart cart Auxiliary ground air pressure unit, used to start jet engines. fart sack (U.S.) A sleeping bag. Farts and Darts (U.S. Air Force) A reference to the decorations on the brim of a field-grade officer's dress uniform cap. fashion show (U.S. Navy) A punishment where the service member, over a period of several hours, dresses in each of his uniforms (work, dress, summer dress and summer work) to be inspected. Designed to prevent the punished from going on liberty for most of a day. fast movers (U.S., Canada) Term used by Soldiers for jet fighters, especially ground support aircraft. Dates to Vietnam. fatigues (U.S. Army) Duty/work uniform, as opposed to dress uniform. fauji (Indian army) belonging to or part of military. field (U.K., U.S.) General use - duty or training away from any post/base, "In the field for training this week."; also used to denote forward deployed units/personnel, "1st Brigade is in the field at Al-Asad, 2nd and 3rd Brigades remain at main post stateside." field day (U.S.) Thorough cleanup of a barracks or duty area with the expectation of an inspection. Thursday is a common day for field day in garrison. Field grade weather (U.S. Air Force) Exceptionally good weather. All the field grade officers (O-4 thru O-6) like to get out of their offices and take a flight in this kind of weather, leaving the CGO's to fly in the bad weather. Fighting First The U.S. Army's First Infantry Division. (AKA Big Red One) FIDO "Fuck It, Drive On". i.e., What to do following a Charlie Foxtrot. FIGMO (U.S.) "Fuck it, got my orders". "Finally I got my orders" Exclamation by one who is scheduled to leave a duty post. Fighting Fit (U.K., Indian Army) Functioning properly, in perfect health, used for men as well as equipment. First Shirt (U.S.) A First Sergeant. Also, "First Soldier" or "Top". fish (U.S. Navy) Submarine warfare qualification pin. FISH "Fighting In Someone's House", variant of FIBUA ("Fighting In Built-Up Areas), an official acronym, but now known as OBUA "Operations in Built Up Areas." fish tank (U.S. Navy) Term used by submarine personnel to refer to the ocean surrounding a submerged submarine (see "people tank", below) . fister (U.S.) An artillery Soldier in a Fire Support Team (FST), i.e., an Artillery Forward Observer . five and fly (U.S.) To graduate from a U.S. service academy, serve only the required five years on active duty, and then resign at the first opportunity. Sometimes also referred to as "Five and dive". Five Jump Chump (U.S.) A U.S. Army Soldier who has earned the Airborne Badge, but has done no more than the required five jumps and is not part of an airborne unit. Five Knots to Nowhere (U.S. Navy) A phrase often to describe the missions that ballistic missile submarines are tasked with. Their purpose is to deter nuclear war by being on station, slowly crisscrossing a highly-classified location somewhere in the oceans. Five Plonks (U.S.) An old term for The Pentagon used during the Vietnam War . Five-Sided Puzzle Palace (U.S.) A term for The Pentagon . Flags 1. (RN) A flag lieutenant (i.e., admiral's aide-de-camp ). A signal officer. (WW2) 'Fl'ug'a'bwehr'k'anone - German for "air defense cannon". Flight Line (U.S. Air Force) Slang for any restricted area on most Air Force Bases where aircraft are parked for general maintenance. Equivalent to an airport apron . flight risk (U.S.) Term jokingly used to refer to an officer of grade O-6 (Colonel/Captain) or higher at the controls of an aircraft. flying a desk (RAF) Working as a staff officer or administrator; may be used pejoratively ("all he does is fly a desk") or simply to refer to a pilot who has been posted to such a job ("I'm flying a desk at the MOD these days"). flump Fat Lazy Unmotivated Pussy. FM (U.S. and U.K.) "Fucking Magic". used to describe why a faulty electronic device unexplainably starts working again. FNG (U.S.) "Fucking New Guy (or Girl)" . One of many terms used to describe a new arrival to a unit. Food for Freedom Program (U.S. Army) Wherein a soldier gains so much weight that he is kicked out of the service. As in: "He is so fat." "Yeah, He's in the food for freedom program." fobbit (U.S.) Fairly new term used to describe Soldiers who do not go outside their Forward Operations Base (FOB) in Iraq , or a Soldier stationed in Iraq who has not seen combat. Derived from J.R.R. Tolkien 's Hobbit , a creature that didn't like to leave the safety of their homes or "The Shire." Fort Fumble (U.S.) The Pentagon . football bat (U.S.) used to describe a person or system that is unusually odd. (i.e., "You are as Fucked up as a Football Bat". Sometimes rendered as "Left Handed Football Bat", or "Soup Sandwich". Four foot drop (U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps) Humorous take on repairing the unreliable PRC-25/27 radio. "Giving a prick (PRC) the four foot drop" is to throw it to the ground in frustration. Fourth Point of Contact (U.S. Army) The buttocks, or the fourth point of the body to contact the ground in a Parachute Landing Fall (PLF) (Balls of the feet, calves, thighs, buttocks, pull-up muscle) FRED (U.S.) "Fucking Ridiculous. Economic Disaster". The nickname given to the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy heavy transport aircraft. The name was popularized because of the so-called "$500 toilet seat" expose on 60 minutes during the early fielding of the aircraft. Or, (AUS) "Fucking Ridiculous. Eating Device". The issue eating device in combat ration packs, a combination between a small Spoon and a Can Opener, and a bottle opener. Officially Field Ration Eating Device or Food Ration Extraction Device (both are acceptable). Friend of the Bromide (U.S.) A generally non-qualified Sailor that performs no Useful function other than to provide a load for the air conditioning plant. The "Bromide" refers to the Lithium Bromide air conditioning plant, which operates better under load. (The) Frisbee (Canada) A term used to describe the shape of the Baked Cherry Dessert IMP entree which resembles a round, thin, flat Frisbee. Infamous. for its disgusting taste. Front Leaning Rest (U.S.) The colorful collection of ribbons worn on the breast of a dress uniform. FTA 1. (U.S. Army) "Fuck the Army" - common graffiti, also spelled out as a spoken epithet. When the Sergeant Major asks about the new "FTA" tattoo, remember that it stands for "Fun, Travel and Adventure" or "Finest Training Available" 2. (U.S. Marine Corps) "Failure to Adapt", a reason recruits are sent home from boot camp. FTAF (U.S. Air Force) "Fuck the Air Force" - common graffiti, also spelled out as a spoken epithet. Usually used as a high form of derogatory term towards the Air Force. FTN (U.S. Navy) "Fuck the Navy" - common graffiti, also spelled out as a spoken epithet. Usually used in a simple game of "hide & seek" - FTN can Usually be found in obscure places (like inside machinery) and the discovery of which Usually pisses-off higher-ranking people and 'dig-it's'. FUBAR (U.S.) Abbreviation for "Fucked up beyond all recognition (or repair)." Sometimes "FUBER" for "economical repair". See "SNAFU", below. FUBIJAR (U.S. Marine Corps Forces Reserve) "Fuck you Buddy, I'm just a reservist". FUBIS (U.S. Army) "Fuck You Buddy I’m Shipping" used in Vietnam Era by Soldiers who had a short amount of time before they went home. Fuck Stick (U.S.) Term of endearment used when beckoning a Soldier. "Come here fuck stick!" Fuck-tard (Canada) A hybrid term. A cross between being a Useless fuck and a full-blown retard. The Fuck Tard is an exceptionally worthless individual. Multitasking is an undefined term to this type of person. The Fuck Tard is unable to walk and chew gum at the same time without, somehow, turning into a complete clusterfuck. Fuck-chop (U.S. Army) A dumbass or screw-up. Something drill instructors have called recruits to make them feel more appreciated. Comes from the street/urban slang, meaning "fucking pork chop". FUGAZI Fucked Up, Got Ambushed, Zipped In. Vietnam War slang for a messed up situation. Zipped in refers to a body bag. full-bird colonel (U.S.) A colonel (O6) as opposed to "light colonel" which is a lieutenant colonel (O5). Named for the eagle insignia. Also known as "full bull," "full bird," or "bird colonel". See "light colonel", below. full-bull (U.S.) See "full-bird colonel" above. full screw 1. (U.K.) Rubbish, trash. A gashbag is what one puts it in. 2. (U.K.) Unprofessional and/or unimportant. 3. (Canada, signals) Probably derived from (1), garbled or incomprehensible signals. 4. (Canada, Navy) Trash, garbage. 5. (U.K.) Very derogatory term for any woman. gat 1. (U.K.) Referring to the rifle used by British Forces (SA80). 2. (U.S.) Any small arm, referring to gangster slang. Gator (U.S. Navy) Shortening of the title "Navigator". The senior officer in charge of navigation aboard a navy ship. Gator Navy (U.S. Navy) Meaning the amphibious. arm of the surface Navy. GAF (U.S.) Gay as fuck. When unpopular individuals ask what this acronym is, they are often told it stands for "Go Air Force". Alternatively, implying a "give a fuck" attitude, meaning one doesn't care. "What's with the GAF attitude?" or "That guy's pretty GAF." GAF Factor (Canada) Give a fuck factor. When a Soldier cares a lot or a little about a task, orders, duties, or instruction. "My GAF Factor is non-fucking-existent". Garatrooper (Canada) used to describe a Soldier who excels in garrison but is lacking where it counts in the field. This term was used by WWII U.S. Army Cartoonist Bill Mauldin "Up Front" to describe those who were "too far forward to wear ties, and too far back to get shot" However the term proved unpopular with the Paratroopers who saw it as a slur on their designation and it never gained popularity with U.S. forces. gedunk or geedunk (U.S. Navy): Commonly junk/snack food itself, or the store in which it can be acquired. Also the military service ribbon awarded to new recruits in boot camp is referred to as the "gedunk ribbon". (Unconfirmed: derived from the sound made by an old-fashioned cigarette machine when the Foosball-like metal handle was pulled out and released, i.e., the ribbon is of such little value that it was obtained from a vending machine.) get some Navy (U.S. Navy) A verb used to describe a situation where someone has some pain inflicted on them due to something associated to the Navy. (e.g., A Sailor is told that he has to stay past his duty time and do extra duty due to the whim of a higher ranking person - he is "getting some Navy"). GI (U.S.) Always pronounced as initials "gee ai", coined during WWII it reputedly stands for "government issue(d)". As a noun, GI refers to a member of a U.S. military service, as in "G.I. Joe"; originally pejorative as it implied that U.S. Soldiers were nothing but interchangeable units (Government Issue(d) Joe) that could be requisitioned like any other supplies. As an adjective, it can be applied to any item of U.S. military materiel or procedure. When used as a verb it means to put into military shape, as in "to GI the barracks". Etymology at GI . GIB (U.S.) Guy In Back, i.e., back-seater in a two-place aircraft, whose job duties vary with the aircraft (e.g. WSO "Wizzo" = Weapons Systems Officer). gig line (U.S.) An imaginary line running down the front of a uniform formed by the edges of the pants fly placket, right belt buckle edge and the shirt button placket. The significance of the "gig line" is that all parts of it be in-line for inspections. G.I. party (U.S. Army & Air Force) A term used to describe scrubbing the barracks from top to bottom. This sort of "party" is seldom, if ever, fun. Go-fasters (U.S. Marine Corps) Athletic or "tennis" shoes. go outside (UK Royal Navy and Royal Marines) To leave the service and return to civilian life. go west (WWII U.K.) die. As in migrate across the American continent in the 19th Century, when people who went West were often never seen again. goat rope/ing A Useless, futile, or foolish activity. A waste of time directed by higher authority. goat locker (U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard) Room or lounge reserved for Chief Petty Officers (E-7 and above). Those who are E-6 and below would do well to steer clear unless expressly permitted inside. Also used to refer to the Chief Petty Officers assigned to one command. GOBI General Officer Bright Idea. An idea often inspired by a briefing, which is then endorsed and ordered by a general. Sometimes it is valid, often it is pointless, but it invariably creates more bureaucratic hassles than are necessary to the mission. GOFO Grasp Of the Fucking Obvious.. goldbrick, goldbricker (U.S.) A member of the military who feigns illness to avoid duty; more recently, any service member who shirks duty. Golden Shellback (U.S. Navy) A Sailor who crosses the equator at the point of intersection with the International Date Line . See Shellback . Gold side (U.S. Coast Guard) The regular U.S. Coast Guard, which wears gold insignia compared to the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary, which wears silver insignia. See Silver side. gone Elvis (U.S.) Missing in action. gonk (U.S. Air Force) electronics/avionics/computer devices in general, especially when performing functions of a computational nature. Also seen as "gonkulator". Can be used as a verb: to "gonkulate" means to calculate either by hand or by machine. (From a "Hogan's Heroes" episode in which Hogan convinced Klink that the "gonkulator" was a top-secret Allied device.) Good Training (U.S.) Anything that does not result in death, a reportable incident, or the relief of the commanding officer. "We had rain for three days during the field problem, but it was all good training." Gook (U.S.) A derogatory term for an Asian enemy Soldier used extensively during the Vietnam War. From the Korean guk. ("people"). Got One's 6 (U.S.) military slang for 'got one's back'. When a Soldier in a situation where a solo battle can be dangerous, even life-threatening, another would offer help to ensure survival even if the mission ends in failure. The Soldier is like a clock with the face looking at 12 o'clock and arms at 3 and 9 o'clock. gopping (British Army) Dirty, especially used of rifles in need of cleaning. gouge (U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard - particularly aviation) Informal information channel; the grapevine; the straight dope; inside information. Gouge is passed on by the gouge train. goulasch cannon (U.S. Army, German Wehrmacht) Portable, self-contained field kitchen. Originally used by WWII German Soldiers, but it can also refer to the U.S. Army's Mobile Kitchen Trailer or MKT. Gore 4 (U.S. Marine Corps) Full Gortex rain suit, including hood, covering one's person. This is a play on the MOPP chemical warfare system and its numbered levels of use/protection. grand slam (U.K.) The act of defecating, urinating and throwing up while sleeping off a large "Male Bonding Session" while undergoing training. Grape 1. (U.S. Submarine Service) Delightfully easy. Examples: "This is %$# grape duty! I %$# love it!" or "That was a grape sig, you %$#." (See "sig" below) 2. (U.S. Marine Corps, Army) One's head. For example: "Put your cover [hat] on your grape." 3. (U.S. Air Force Fighter Pilots): an aircraft/pilot that is easy to shoot down. 4. (U.S. Navy): The flight deck crewmen on an aircraft carrier tasked with fuel handling (so called for their purple shirts and helmets) . Related to "skittles". Gravel Tech(nician) (Canada) Infantry, Usually referred to as such by the Navy. green eggs (U.S. Army) Powdered (dehydrated) eggs served by the Army. Green is used to indicate "Army issue" and not necessarily the actual color in this case. (pre 1995 eggs were often served mermite cans, and were actually green in color.) Green Eyed (U.K.) Excessively keen or professional Soldier. Green Slime (U.K.) Intelligence Corps. Based on color of Beret combined with the Intelligence Corps' sneaky and underhand warfare. grid squares (U.S. Army) An item new recruits are sent to find; a form of snipe hunt . A grid square is a term for one area on a map, a square created by grid lines of one kilometer. Green weenie (U.S. Marine Corps) A term used to describe one being refused a liberty. "I got fed the green weenie again....tasted like the last guys asshole!" Grinder (U.S. Navy) The outside tarmac, asphalted area or courtyard normally adjacent to a barracks which is used to perform musters, drilling, and sometimes " cycling " of recruits in boot camp. ground-pounder (U.K. and U.S.) Derogatory term for Army or Marines. Opposite of 'air-dales', above. ground sheet 1. (Canada) A rubberized tarp, used as a half-shelter 2. (Canada) A female who sleeps around, "she's nice to lay on" grow bag (U.K. RAF) Slang for aircrew - so named due to the color of the RAF flying suits. grunt (U.S.) Originally, a derogatory term for Army or Marine infantrymen (referencing the sounds made by men carrying heavy gear). This term has become more acceptable over time, and today, most, if not all, infantrymen are proud to be "grunts," as opposed to other MOSes in the military. Also known as "Ground Pounders." Although "grunt" is not an acronym, common backronyms include: "Ground Replacement Unit, Not Trained" or "Ground Replacement, Usually Not Trained." (Canada) Government Reject Unfit for Naval Training, Usually refers to infantry/combat arms. GTFO (U.S.) Pronounced "GIT-foe". Acronym of "get the fuck out", nonspecific utilization in training/combat. GTS (U.S.A.F.) Google That Shit. Used when asked a stupid or unknown answer to a question one could learn on their own by utilizing a popular search engine. Guardian Angel (U.S.) A Soldier or Marine placed in a high position in urban warfare to provide overwatch and cover to friendly units moving below. Gucci kit (U.S., U.K. & Canada) Non-issued kit or equipment bought by the Soldier. The word "gucci" alone is also used in the Navy to mean fancy, e.g. "that's a gucci computer". Guckle (U.S. Submarine Service) Storage Space on Submarines, Similar to a large closet, larger than a puka (below). Gum Shoe, or Gummy Bear (U.S. Navy) Slang for a Sailor in the CT (Cryptology Technician) rating. The first CT school was located in a room on top of a building having a tarpaper 'deck'. The students would inevitably get pieces of tar on the bottom of their shoes. gun (U.S.) An artillery piece. This isn't slang per se but precision, as rifles and pistols are referred to as "small arms" or "sidearms" or simply "weapons." Gun is also slang for "penis"; recruits learn not to call their weapon a gun in the rhyme, This is my rifle/This is my gun/This one's for fighting/This one's for fun. gun bunny 1. (U.S.) An artilleryman - often specifically a cannon crewman. (Royal Navy) Female camp follower of teams competing in the RN Field Gun Run . gun-plank (U.K.) An Artillery term for a junior officer, implying that they would be more Useful wedged under the wheels of the gun to prevent it sinking into the mud than in their current role. gun rock (U.S.) Artillery cannon crewman, especially used by other artillerymen (e.g.,: forward observers, fire direction control) . Pejorative. Gung Ho Mo Fo (U.S. Army) A Soldier who is more enthusiastic about the Army than those around him. This is a fairly recent slang term resulting from the "gangsta" influence in the U.S.. Gunny 2. (U.S.) a Naval Gunner's mate . 3. (U.S. Army) Master gunner in a Bradley Fighting Vehicle mechanized infantry company or battalion, or gunnery sergeant in a U.S. Army howitzer platoon. gyrene (U.S. Navy, U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force) Mildly derisive term for a Marine. Also "Jar Head," "Leather Neck" (U.S. Army, Vietnam-era). Term used to describe C-ration meal, Ham and Lima Beans. ham and lifers (U.S. Army, Vietnam-era). Term used to describe C-ration meal, Ham and Lima Beans. Hand bag (Australia) Signaller - from the satchel they carry that holds the light-weight antenna & other ancillary equipment. HANO (U.S.) "High Altitude No Opening", a parachute jump in which the parachute fails to open, Usually with fatal results. Play on "HAHO" and "HALO". Hang Fire To wait until further orders. hardball (U.S.) Any hard-surfaced road. hatch (U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps) A door. From the shipboard terminology for the means of entering or exiting the compartment of a ship. hatless dance (Canada) A charge parade, referring to the fact that the accused is marched in at double time in front of the presiding officer without a beret ("My last hatless dance cost me two days' pay!") hawk (U.S.) Winter or extreme cold weather; e.g., "the hawk" or "don't let the hawk get you." head 1. (U.S. Navy, Marines, U.S. Coast Guard) Facilities designated to relieve biological needs. See Army term "latrine". 2. A slightly less offensive term short for dickhead or other similar heads. Head Shed Headquarters health and comfort (U.S.) From "Health and Comfort Inspection", a euphemistic term for a search of quarters for contraband. Also called "Health and Welfare." helmet fire (U.S.) Task saturation, especially in the context of flying instrument procedures. helo (U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps) Helicopter. Herc Doc (U.S. Air Force) a C-130 maintainer. high speed, low drag (U.S.) Improvised, sometimes crappy vehicle armor. hindquarters Any headquarters. hit the silk (U.S.) To abandon an aircraft mid-flight by means of a parachute . For example, "Johnson's plane took a lot of flak , but he hit the silk just in time!" Also, punch Elvis . HMFIC Head Mother Fucker in Charge. Holland (Singapore) To be lost or get lost without a clue where you are. Etymology is disputed but it is pronounced as "ho-lan". holiday flag (U.S.) over-sized flag flown over Posts and Major Commands during holidays. Hollywood Marine (U.S.) Enlisted Marine who underwent their recruit training at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego . Hometown Hero A title which criticizes military persons who play the role of a highly achieved individual in their home town but is known by comrades to be fictitious.. hooah (U.S. Army/USAF Security Forces/Canadian Army Infantry) A spirited cry, which can mean nearly anything positive. Exact origins are unknown. Paratroopers claim it as originating from the involuntary grunting sound one makes on contact with the ground during a parachute landing. Others claim that it is an acronym for "Heard, Understood and Acknowledged." used normally in group instruction as acknowledgement of understanding rather than in one on one situations with an officer where "Yes Sir, understood sir" is still preferred. Pronounced "Who-Ah" in one short syllable by Rangers. In the Regiment ( 75th RGR ) , depending on its placement in the sentence or its inflection and tone, Hooah can an affirmative, a negative, a Verb, and or curse word. Its Usage in the Canadian Army is somewhat debated, however, "seen" is used as the preferred affirmative. See also, HUA. hook 1. (Canada) A chevron as rank insignia. For example, to "get one's third hook", say, is to be promoted to sergeant (third chevron). 2. (U.S.) A Chinhook, a CH-47 twin rotor heavy lift helicopter, see ' Shithook ' below. Hoorah (U.S. Navy) A spirited cry, equivalent to the U.S. Army's "Hooah". Hoover (U.S. Navy) Nickname for the S-3 Viking . Named for the sometimes strange sounds it makes while flying. horse cock 1. (U.S. Navy) (Vulgar) A heavy cylinder of lunch meat or ground hamburger while still in the wrapper, prior to being sliced or opened. 2. (Canada) (Vulgar) A flexible metal nozzle attached to gas cans to facilitate pouring. house mouse (U.S. Navy) An unskilled 'FNG' Sailor arriving in Vietnam who is assigned to camp maintenance at a naval facility. HUA (USAF Security Forces) An acronym for "Head Up Ass", or "Heard, Understood, Acknowledged." See hooah . Hudson High The United States Military Academy at West Point , which overlooks the Hudson River. Pejorative. HUGA (U.S. Air Force/USAF Security Forces) Used in lieu of HUA towards higher ranking individuals who won't stop talking "Heard, Understood, Go, Away". hummer 1.(U.S. Navy) Nickname for the E-2 Hawkeye . 2. (U.S. Army) Nickname for the HMMWV . hun (U.S. Air Force) The F-100 fighter hun driver (U.S.): Intoxication & Intercourse. A wild time while on leave. Play on R&R Ie-yee-ah (U.S.) Same as "Hooah," used in the U.S. Army 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment . Based on an American Indian war cry. See also "Ai-ee-yah." IFR "I fucking refuse", in a pseudo-rebellious. form against higher-ups. IHTFP (U.S.) "I Hate This Fucking Place", a feeling common among recruits, officer candidates, and those who are burned out. When asked by a superior what it means, the junior will often reply, "I Have Truly Found Paradise." I Must Puke (Canada) Refers to the disgusting flavors of the various Canadian Forces IMPs (Individual Meal Packs). in country (U.S.) In a foreign territory, especially a combat zone, especially Vietnam . I was in country that whole summer. Does not generally apply to foreign basing in friendly countries during peacetime. in the dinghy (WWII RAF) All right for the moment. If you ditch your kite in the drink, you may go west, but you will be safer for the moment if you can get into a life-raft. Indian country (U.S. Marine Corps) Ink pen. irons, eating irons (U.K.) Cutlery . (the) Island (U.S. Marine Corps) Parris Island in South Carolina . One of two boot camps in the corps; the only one that trains female enlisted marines. Male marines who trained there are called "island marines". Ivan (NATO countries) Generic term for Russians, similar to "Hadji/Haji" for Arabs. IYAAYAS (U.S. Air Force) means If You Ain't Ammo You Ain't Shit. Self-explanatory. used by 2W0X1 (Formerly 461XX) Ammo Troops IYAOYAS (U.S.Navy/Marine Corps)If You Ain't Ordnance You Ain't Shit. Used by Navy and Marine Aviation Ordnancemen as a greeting or farewell to other Ordnancemen or an insult to those outside the rate as in "IYAOYAS mother fucker". Pronounced "ai-yo-yas". ID10T Form (U.S.) Idiot form. A non-existent form that ignorant airmen/marines are sent to find. Usually they are new to their unit. (U.K.) Jersey Heavy Wool, the old-style thick military sweater. Jimmy (Canada) signaler. It is suggested that this term comes from the figure of Mercury on their cap badges, which is referred to as "Jimmy" by the un-enlightened. jimmy dean (U.S. Army) In reference to a kind of pre-packaged meal, Usually more edible than an MRE but lacks any way of heating the food. Usually contains a can of juice, canned meal or vacuum-packed sandwich, a fruit cup, a peppermint, and sometimes Pringles. Jodie/Jody (U.S.) A man who steals a Soldier's girlfriend/wife when deployed, out in the field, or in training. So often referred to in cadences used during exercises that the cadences themselves have become known as Jodies or Jody calls. Ain't no use in goin' home, Jodie's got your girl alone. Joe (U.S.) Name given to a prostitute or bar girl. Originated in Korea. joey (Canada) Can be used to describe a new member, or a Soldier who is heavily reliant on others. John Wayne (U.S.) Also known as a P-38 . A small finger held can opener. (US Army) John Wayne can also refer to a Soldier who does not have his helmet chinstrap buckled, and therefore looks like John Wayne in 1960s war movies. John Wayne School (U.S.) Army Special Forces school, Fort Bragg . JN (U.S. Navy) Japanese National. Usually a Japanese shipyard worker, but can also be applied to any Japanese citizen. (U.K. & Commonwealth) An aircraft's jet engine, components spin and heat up. keener (Canada) A recruit or one who is new to a unit that is Usually overly-enthusiastic about his/her assignment. Keys to aircraft 300 (U.S. Navy): A form of snipe hunt . A new join is sent to the Maintenance Office or Ready Room in an attempt to get keys to start an aircraft due to launch. Of course, there are no keys to military fighter jets, the gag is simply to humiliate a new join. The number given is the BUNO (bureau number), or painted aircraft designation of the new join's squadron, it could be any number. (USAF Security Forces) Keys to the aircraft, a JEEP joke pulled on gullible first time Close in Sentries. It involves either the Area Supervisor or one of the Alarm Response Teams asking if the Close in Sentry if he received the keys to the aircraft from the sentry whom he relieved of the post, the Flight Sargent and Commander may get involved. The sentry is usually threatened with an article-15 for dereliction of duty, and goes on all night until he gets relieved in the am where he is called into the Flight Sgt.'s or Commander's office where he is told that it was all a joke. K.I.A Killed In Action Keys to the Submarine/Ship/Reactor (U.S. Navy) Snipe hunt - A new join is sent all over the vessel to get the keys, so the CO can get underway. Everyone tells the new person they just gave the keys to someone else, preferably far away or hard to get to. This is similar to the "Keys to aircraft" snipe hunt, since there are no keys for military ships larger than riverines and certainly no keys for submarines. KFS (U.K., Canada) Knife, fork and spoon. killick (Canada, U.K.) An old term for a homemade anchor, now used to refer to a person in the rank of Leading Seaman. This is in reference to the rank badge which historically was a single fouled anchor worn on the left arm. Also, not coincidentally, the name of Capt. Aubrey's steward, a grumpy but beloved character in the Patrick O'Brian Aubrey-Maturin series of Napoleonic naval adventures. KITDAFOS (U.K.) Kept in the dark and fed on shit kite Kilometers KMAGYOYO Kiss my ass, guys: you're on your own... (used "outside" the community of brothers or in jest) Knife and Fork School (U.S. Navy) (pejorative) The school that U.S. Navy doctors, nurses, dentists and hospital administrators go to prior to receiving their commissioning. So-called because of the belief that all they learn there are social graces. Knee-deep Navy (U.S.) U.S. Coast Guard (pejorative), so-called because of the mistaken belief the U.S. Coast Guard never sails into deep water. knock it down (Singapore) Command to get into pushup position. "You guys want to take your own sweet time...whole lot of you knock it down!" knuckle dragger (U.S. Navy Submarine Service) A Machinist's Mate Auxiliary-man, responsible for non-propulsion systems like the sanitary system or hydraulic system. The term was coined from the stereotype that Machinist Mates are not as intelligent as other rates like Radiomen or Sonar Technicians, so they rely mostly on brute strength to get their job done. (U.S. Air Force) A crew chief, also referred to as "wrench-turner" or "grease monkey". KP (U.S., Canada) Abbreviation for the obsolete term "Kitchen Police", a duty assigned (to other than food service personnel) to perform menial, but necessary, kitchen chores such as dishwashing, serving and kitchen cleaning, oftentimes as a punishment for bad behavior. It has been jocularly backronymed to "Keep Peeling", in reference to the popular perception of Soldiers peeling potatoes; however, in the United States, current Army regulations prohibit non-food services personnel from food preparation. (U.S. Marine Corps) Cynical terms for Lance Corporals , the third-lowest enlisted rank in the Marine Corps. Lance Corporal Underground (U.S. Marine Corps) refers to what the junior enlisted are saying or feeling; a more informed rumor mill. Lance Jack (U.K.) A term used to describe a Lance Corporal (LCpl) in the U.K. Armed Forces. Last Cleaning Position Left (U.S. Marine Corps) A play on the abbreviation "LCPL" for Lance Corporal , the highest non-NCO rank. used to remind a Lance Corporal that they are still subject to having to clean. latrinegram (U.S., WW2/Korea) Wild, unfounded rumor. Latrine Queen (U.S. Air Force) Title given to a trainee in basic training that is in charge of the cleaning crew of the bathrooms. Lautenberged (U.S.) Discharged due to a domestic violence conviction, named after the Lautenberg Amendment . Lawn Dart (U.S. Air Force) Pejorative nickname for the F-16 Fighting Falcon , based on its appearance and crashes early in its career. Also a pejorative nickname used by bomber pilots to refer to fighter jets. LBFM (U.S.) "Little Brown Fucking Machines." Originally coined to describe Filipina prostitutes who serviced American personnel stationed at/temporarily visiting Subic Bay Naval Base and Clark Field/Air Base ; also applied to Central American prostitutes. Highly pejorative and offensive. LBFMPBR (U.S. Navy) "Little Brown Fucking Machines, Powered By Rice". Prostitutes , specifically in the Philippines , to differentiate them from Central American LBFMs. Highly pejorative and offensive. leatherneck (U.S.) A Marine , from the high leather collar formerly worn with formal uniforms, and in fighting uniform during the days of shipborne, sword-wielding boarding parties, when Marines were issued a leather gorget . The "Fighting Leathernecks" is also the nickname of the Western Illinois University men's athletic teams, by exclusive permission of the Department of the Navy . Left Handed Salute (U.S.) Punishable action of disrespect to a superior unless right arm is immobilized or otherwise incapacitated. Reference to any action of open disrespect. leg (U.S.) non-airborne qualified Soldiers. Also LEG or LEGS (Low Energy Grunt or Low Elevation Ground Soldier). les Joyeux (France) "the joyful", Battalions de Afrique (African Discipline Battalions), named for beating jail. libo (U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps) Liberty, time away from work (after hours, on a weekend, during a port-call, etc.) not charged against leave. lickin' chicken (U.S. Army) radio-speak nonsensical version of "Lima Charlie" for "loud and clear" lifer (U.S.) A (Usually derogatory) term for a person who has been in the military a long time or plans to stay in long enough to retire, Usually a Dig it . light colonel (U.S.) A lieutenant colonel . Pejorative. light fighter (U.S. Army) Soldiers of one of the Army's Light divisions; foot infantry as opposed to mechanized units. light up (Canada) To correct someone in an extremely harsh manner, Usually involving yelling and profanity. "The RSM lit Smith up for walking on the grass." Lima Charlie (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet radio-speak for "Loud and clear." Lima Lima Mike Foxtrot (U.S. Army) Radio speak for "Lost Like A Mother Fucker". Little Shitty Volkswagen (Canada) Derisive backronym for "LSVW", which actually stands for "Light Support Vehicle, Wheeled". LN (U.S.) Acronym for a Local National (pronounced ELL-N). used to describe "friendly" locals who work on Army Bases in Iraq. Lobo (Singapore) Refers to individuals who, for some reason or another, are currently assigned to a unit but hold no assigned vocation. These are typically raw recruits or privates fresh from basic military training assigned to a military school or institution for further training but cannot attend the course that they have been sent for at the present time. They generally lack the skills or qualifications necessary for their military vocation and cannot function in that role as yet. Thus. they generally spend their time doing menial jobs such as cleaning or clerical work. The quasi-official term for such persons is "Temporary Support Staff". Is thought to refer to the acronym for "Left Out of Battle Order". Lock and load (U.S.) To insert a magazine of ammunition into a weapon and chamber a round. LOM (U.S. Army) Lack of motivation - A type of letter or memorandum signed by U.S. Army Ranger School students who drop out of the course by their own choice and not for medical reasons or performance. Signing a LOM is reputed to prevent voluntary drops from re-enrolling in the course and to cause long-term military career difficulties. LPC (U.S.) Leather Personnel Carriers - boots. lost the keys (U.S. Navy) After a negative incident, the Commanding Officer relinquishes some operating authority of his ship/submarine/reactor to his superiors, but without dismissal. LRA (U.S. Air Force) Lowest-ranking airman, often assigned the menial or unpleasant tasks that nobody else will do. LRSD (U.S. Army) Long Range Surveillance Detachment (pronounced LERSDEE) LRRP (U.S. Army) Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol (pronounced LURP). LT (U.S.) Nickname for Lieutenant (pronounced ELL-TEE) . A pronunciation of the actual military abbreviation for Lieutenant; is becoming more common in police jargon, as well. Load Toad (U.S. Air Force) Refers to former 462XX and current 2W1X1 AFSC. Those who load ordinance onto the aircraft. Meant to be derogatory but now a term of endearment. (U.S. Air Force) aircraft avionics , especially of the glass cockpit variety. Mail Buoy Watch (U.S. Navy) A method of hazing new enlisted unrated Sailors on ships. The Sailor is told that the ship's mail is on another ship, but they cannot bring it to us. So, they tie the mailbag to a buoy and send us its location. When we pass it, the Sailor is expected to use a boathook and snag the mailbag. The Sailor is outfitted with heavy weather gear, a Mae West lifejacket, helmet and boat hook. He is then paraded around to the "compliments" of more seasoned Sailors. Maisies (Canada) Nickname for the Régiment de Maisonneuve (abbreviation "R de MAIS"). Man jammies (Canada) Nickname for the traditional knee length button shirt worn by Afghan males. Marine Proof (U.S.) An overly simple task or way of doing things. Stems from the stereotype that Marines are slow-witted or unable to handle complex operations. Slightly pejorative. Master Blaster (U.S. Army) used as a casual reference to the Master Parachutist's Badge. Also used to describe the Tank Gunner's red T-shaped handle, used in misfire procedures. Master Guns (U.S. Marine Corps) Master Gunnery Sergeant; (U.S. Navy) Gunners Mate Master Chief Master jack (Canada): An MP, descriptive of the red berets they wear as part of their uniform . Merlion (Singapore) To vomit copiously, especially after an over-indulgence of alcohol. This description of projectile vomit invokes the image of the Merlion , a tourism mascot of Singapore resembling a hybrid of fish body with a lion's head. A famous. statue of this mascot is a large fountain with water spewing from its mouth. Mermite can (U.S. Army) Officially it's the "Food Container, Insulated" which was (see Cambro) for transporting hot or cold foods from a kitchen to Soldiers in the field. Declared obsolete by the Army in 1995. However, they are still a common sight and are used by some to smuggle cold beer to the field. MFWIC Mother Fucker Who's/What's in Charge. MIA Missing in action. Midnight Requisition (U.S.) To steal, see Scrounge. To acquire supplies for a unit from another with out their approval or knowledge, usually after business hours/dark. Mike Golf (U.S.) Term meaning, Master Gunner; from the NATO phonetic alphabet . Mike Mike (U.S.) Minutes, from the NATO phonetic alphabet . Millers (U.S.) Multiple Launch Rocket System from the acronym "MLRS". MIR Commando (Canada) Soldier who is always on Sick Parade. "MIR" refers to Medical Inspection Room, the medical facilities on a Canadian Forces base. MIRS (U.S.) Multiple Launch Rocket System, a.k.a. millers. MKT (U.S.) Mobile Kitchen Trailer, a.k.a. meals on wheels MMFD (Br, Gulf War 1) Miles and miles of fucking desert, a play on KKMC. Mo Rat (Canada) "Mo", slang from Militia. A pejorative term used to belittle or insult reservists. "God damn, piece of shit Mo Rat! Junk!" Mo Trap (Canada) A person who joins the reserves because they are too young to join the regular force but after 10 years they're still in the reserves. Usually, because they were promoted quickly and slid into an easy job. If they went regular, they would be back to doing shit tasks. "I joined the Mo at 16 years old until I was old enough to go Regular Force, then I got promoted to Sergeant two years later. I can't go back to being a Private. That's bullshit!" Mob-ster (U.S. Air Force) Member of a mobile combat communications organization. Monkey shit (U.S. Navy) A type of duct seal that is pliable and waterproof. Moonbeam (U.S. Marine Corps) A flashlight . Motti Finnish military slang for a totally encircled enemy unit. The tactic of encircling it is called motitus, literally meaning the formation of an isolated block or "motti", but in effect meaning an entrapment or envelopment. Mox Nix (U.S. European Theatre) Bastardization of the German "es macht nichts", or it makes no difference. MRE (U.S.) meal-ready-to-eat, a.k.a. Mystery E, Meals Refusing to Exit and "Meals Rejected by Ethiopians". MTV (Br, WW1) Motor Transport Volunteers. Muckle (Canada) To gain/take possession of something, as in "Muckle on to those ammo cans and get over here!" Mustang (U.S.) A nickname for an officer promoted from the enlisted ranks. Can be respectful when used by enlisted ranks and seasoned officers, or pejorative when used by career-oriented and/or snooty academy-trained officers. Mystery E (U.S. Army) Term used by regular Army Soldiers to describe National Guardsmen Navy issue ass (U.S.) Term used for female Navy members in reference to their reputation of having large posteriors. NJP (U.S.) Refers to Non-Judicial Punishment under Article 15 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice. Essentially, legal punishment imposed by a unit commander in lieu of a trial. May be refused by a servicemember in exchange for a court martial and (almost invariably) a stiffer punishment. No Duff (U.K., Canada, Singapore, Australia) Not a training scenario: "I say again, we have No Duff Casualty, over." Nonner (U.S. Air Force) Personnel who are not in a flightline AFSC. Derived from "Non-Sortie Producing Motherfucker". November Golf (U.S.) Phonetically stating NG for NO GO, literally, to fail. Army evaluations are scored as either GO/NO-GO instead of Pass/Fail. That's a big November Golf chief. NOF (U.S.M.C) Acronym for Non-Operating Fuck. Refers to Marines that are not 3531 Motor Transport Operators. Any other Marine besides them that has a license to drive a tactical vehicle and isn't a 3531, they are NOFs. Pronounced (naw-fs). NO GO Nazi (U.S.) An especially strict evaluator who seems to take pleasure in giving NO-GOs. NS (Canada) Not Serviceable, a term to describe equipment that is no longer serviceable. Also describe someone who is incompetent: "That guy is NS". NUB (U.S.) (Submarine Service) Abbreviation for 'Non-Useful body' or 'Non-Useful bitch'--a new enlisted crewmember who has not yet completed the qualification process to earn their vaunted Submariner's Warfare Badge, otherwise known as their 'Dolphins'. New definition for term "New Underway Buddy" was coined to allow its continued use despite new stricter hazing rules. Nug Away (U.S. Army) To work diligently at a tedious. task. nugget (U.S. Air Force and Navy) An inexperienced pilot or aircrew member. Nuke 1. (U.S. Navy) Naval nuclear personnel (Naval personnel who operate nuclear reactors and related machinery) . 2. Also refers to ordnance type that is neither confirmed nor denied, and is handled by a different Department (See "Weaponettes") . 3. (U.S. Navy) To make a simple task unnecessarily complicated. "Don't nuke this up - it's just stenciling your skivvies." 4. (U.S. Navy) To solve a problem. "I'm not really sure how that works, you'll just have to nuke it out." Number One (RN) The First Lieutenant of a vessel. Numpty (U.K., Canada) An individual who just doesn't get it; Frequently found getting "Jacked up" Nutsack Term used for the 100-round ammo holder on a M249 Squad Automatic Weapon. Narrower at its point of connection to the weapon than at the middle. Hence, its resemblance to a scrotum. Nut to Butt (U.S. Army, U.S. Navy): A phrase to tell Soldiers or Sailors to tighten-up a single file line, generally used in Basic Training (e.g., a chow line, equipment issue, etc.) Nylon Letdown (WWII Allies) (U.S. Marine Corps) Non-Judicial Punishment under Article 15 of the UCMJ. See Captain's Mast. OFP (U.S. Marine Corps) Own Fucking Program, a term given to a Marine who doesn't follow an order given or is not following the Marine Corps standard OG (Indian Army) Olive Green used to refer to the uniform worn, sometimes can be used to describe a person(officer/NCO) who is more strict or disciplined. Old man, the (U.S., U.K.) The unit commander. In practice, this term is often used even when the commander is female. A term of affection and respect. NEVER used (U.S.) in the personal presence of the Old Man. See CO. O Early Hundred, O Dark O'clock, O Dark 30 Hours, 0 Dark Early, O Dark Stupid (U.S., Canada) Very early morning or any time before sunrise. Also O Late Hundred, etc. for night. Often, these terms overlap - 0200 is both too early and too late. On the double (U.S. Navy, Marines) As quickly as possible; without delay. On your face (U.S. Army) Do pushups. One Cheek Lean (U.S. Marine Corps) Term used to respond in the affirmative to a question, acknowledge an order, or generally to express enthusiasm. Operation Full Bird (U.S. Army) Commands given by a LTC (0-5) with the hope of being noticed by a promotion board. Used derogatively by enlisted Soldiers required to carry out the mission. Operation Golden Flow (U.S. Air Force) Getting called from the orderly room, first sergeant, or commander's support staff to show up and sign a form. Then the joy of visiting the health and wellness center to provide a urine sample for the cause. ORSE (U.S. Navy) The Operational Reactor Safeguards Exam. A 24 hour exam where the ship's ability to operate the nuclear reactor during normal and casualty situations is tested. Also the crew's knowledge is examined and all facets of nuclear system maintenance, procedures, and documentation are reviewed. (Note: The Navy's standards are usually ten times more stringent than the NRC 's) Oscar-Mike (U.S.) On the Move, from the phonetic alphabet. O silly hundred hours (U.K.) Very early in the morning. Also "Zero Dark Thirty" O Dark Thirty (U.S.) Very early in the morning O Dark Stupid (Can) Very early in the morning. Overhead (U.S. Navy, Marines) The deck above you while aboard a ship; Used ashore to refer to the ceiling of a room, as well. Over The Hill (Singapore) "The sick and the crippled", those with a profile. Sometimes slurred to Pikachu . P.A.P.E.R. C.L.I.P (U.S.) People Against People Ever Re-enlisting—Civilian Life Is Preferred. Also People Against People Ever Re-enlisting Civilian Life Incentive Program. An acronym often used by military personnel whose enlistment is almost finished and have a cynical and jaded take on their time left in the military. Often this person will wear a paper clip on the brim of their hat as an act of defiance or snubbing of military authority. Marine Corps often wear the paper clip inside their cammie blouse where most people keep a pen. Some have gone so far as to take a large paperclip and put it in their blouse pocket and iron over it repeatedly so the outline is visible. PBI (British, WWI) Poor Bloody Infantry Pea Shooter (U.S. Army) 1. Term used by 155mm Artillery Cannon Crewmembers referring to the much smaller and less powerful 105mm Artillery Cannons. 2. Term used by Artillerymen for anything less powerful than a Howitzer. Example: M-16 Rifle or Mortars. Peacock (U.S.) Has every certification bag or tab authorized to wear on the uniform of the day and thinks they're better then everyone and can pick up anyone. Pear-shaped (U.K. ) Badly wrong or awry (as in "to go pear-shaped ") . Not a military term, strictly speaking, as it is in general use by civilians in the U.K.. People Tank (U.S. Navy) Term used by submarine personnel to refer to the interior of the submarine (see Fish Tank) . Penguin (U.K. RAF) Aircrews term for ground crew. "All flap and no fly." Penis Peelers (U.S.) Hands (U.S. synonym: Dick Beaters) Perfect for Cleaning; Personnel for Cleaning (U.S. Army and Marines) Unenthusiastic synonyms for Privates First Class (PFCs) in the Army and the Marine Corps. Professional Fucking Custodian (U.S. Air Force) An F-4 Phantom mechanic. Phone Colonel / Commander (U.S.) An O5 or O4 who introduce him- or herself as "Colonel or Commander" over the phone in hopes of being mistaken for a the higher rank. Pill Pusher (U.S. Navy) Hospital Corpsman. Also called Pecker Checker, Dick Smith, or Chancre Mechanic. Pilot (RN) The Navigating Officer of a ship. Pilot before Pontius. (RAF) "I was a pilot before Pontius." (i.e., Pontius Pilate ) means that the pilot is very experienced. Pineapple (U.S., World War II) Slang for a hand grenade, due to the pineapple-like shape of army issue Mk. II hand grenades. (U.S., pejorative) person from Hawaii (not necessarily ethnic Polynesian). Pinger (RN) Anti-Submarine helicopter and crew. Derived from the dipping sonar. PINGERS (U.S. Air Force) Persons In Need of Graduation, Education, Recreation, and Sex. Term used for young non-prior-service Air Force personnel graduated from basic training and enrolled in technical training. See also pipeliner. Pipeliner (U.S. Air Force) A non-prior-service Air Force member enrolled in initial technical training. Pit (U.S. Marine Corps) Large Sand pits at MCRD that are used for a platoon Trashing by Drill Instructors. See Thrashing. Pitching a tent (U.S. Navy, especially Boot Camp) One who masturbates at night under his blanket. Plastic Bug (U.S. Navy) Nickname for the F/A-18 Hornet . Plat Daddy/Mama (U.S. Army) Platoon sergeant. Plebe Freshman at the United States Naval Academy or United States Military Academy (a freshman at the United States Air Force Academy is a "Doolie" or a "Smack") . PLF (U.S. Army) Parachute Landing Fall. PLUG (Canada) Private Learning Under a Gun, this Soldier is so stupid he needs a gun to his head to understand (this usage is possibly a backronym for plug, which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as an "incompetent or undistinguished person" [4] , usage dating to 1848) PMCS (U.S.) Park the Mother and Call the Shop, a play on the official meaning: Preventative Maintenance Checks and Services. Po Bosun (RN) The senior petty officer medical assistant on board a ship; po is British slang for a chamber pot, the implication being that he was in charge of emptying the chamber pots in the sickbay. Pocket billiards (Singapore) Walking around with one's hands in his pockets, referring to someone beating off, as in 'Stop playing pocket billiards when I'm talking to you!' Pocket Rocket (U.S. Air Force) A ballistic missile warfare insignia. POG (U.S.) Person (or personnel) Other than Grunt. Rhymes with "rogue". Used by combat arms Soldiers to describe anyone in a support Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) . Also used by infantrymen to describe anyone other than an infantryman. Pogs The cardboard gift certificates circulated by AAFES shops in theater during Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom. They are used to save the cost of shipping regular U.S. coinage across seas, and resemble collectable milk caps, the most popularly produced by the "POG" company POL (U.S. Army) Petroleum, Oil, Lubricants. Shorthand for gasoline, diesel, or other fuel. Pronounced by letter, "Pee-Oh-Ell". Poles in the Holes (U.S. Navy Nuclear Program) To SCRAM the nuclear reactor. Poo-tang A term used to describe "pussy" during Vietnam. Pooka (U.S. Submarine Service) Area for storage, smaller than a closet, larger than a cabinet. Small workspace separated by partitions. Pop Smoke (U.S.) Call for extraction. Alternately to leave work or complete an period of service. Pop Tart (U.S. Air Force) An Airman whose technical training school is 6 weeks or less. Popcorn Colonel An O5 (Lieutenant Colonel). Called this because the insignia is an oak leaf and looks like a kernel of popcorn. Pork chop (U.S.) Term for the 200-round drum used with an M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW). Potato Masher (Allied, World War II) Slang for Nazi German hand grenades due to their distinctive shape. POV (U.S.) Privately Owned Vehicle. Pronounced, "Pee-Oh-Vee." PowerPoint Commando / PowerPoint Ranger A briefer notorious. for producing overly complex briefs in PowerPoint that are too long and use too many effects, such as animations and sounds. PRC-E6 (or E7, E8, etc.) (U.S.) A non-existent item that a new join to a unit may be sent to acquire and bring back, typically from an NCO of a particular grade (PRC is a common prefix in designations for radio or other communications equipment and is pronounced "prick". The combination of this pronunciation plus the "E-" rating makes up the joke.) Prick-6 (U.S. Army) Vietnam-era shorthand for the PRC-6 radio carried by platoons. Also applied to the "Prick-25", a backpack carried radio used by company-sized units. Profile a flat piece of scenery or stage property that has been cut so as to form an outline or silhouette of an object. Promotion Pads (Canada) Initial issued knee pads that are never worn under any circumstance. Unless you spend your career on your knees sucking the chain-of-command's dick. Provisional Wing of Tesco's (U.K.) Royal Logistics Corps nickname combining Provisional IRA with a famous. supermarket in the U.K.. PT Rat (see Belching Buzzard) a derogatory reference to the 101st Airborne's Eagle crest. Pull chocks (U.S. Air Force) to leave a bar, for example to abandon a crappy party. (U.S. Navy) to leave. Refers to removing the wheel chocks when an aircraft is ready to taxi away. Punch out (U.S. Air Force) to eject from an aircraft. Has acquired the meaning to separate from the service, or resign from the Academy. Purple Suiter (U.S.) A person who is serving in an all-service (Army, Navy and Air Force) position. An example would be a Naval officer who manages fuel for all military units in an area or major command. Purple Trade ( Canada) A support trade, such as an admin clerk, driver, medical officer, etc. Support trades are shared by all three services in the Canadian Forces. Puzzle Palace (U.S.) The National Security Agency headquarters at Fort Meade , Maryland. This comes originally from the book titled The Puzzle Palace written by James Bamford about the National Security Agency . Pump and Dump (All services) . To have sex. PX Ranger (U.S. Army) . A Soldier who purchases and wears badges, tabs, and insignia without having graduated from the appropriate corresponding schools, usually without the approval of the chain of command. (UK) Spoon for eating rations very quickly whilst in the field. Rack (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Bed. rack burn (U.S. Navy) The imprint on someone's face after waking up from the Navy-issue lightweight blankets that look something like grill marks on meat. This is implied towards a Sailor who seems to spend too much time sleeping. rack ops (U.S. Marine Corps) The time for sleep, if permitted, while in the field. rack PT (U.S. Marine Corps) Refers to either skipping unit or section PT in favor of staying in bed. Pussy Time. radioing the logs (U.S. Navy) Recording engineering log data via mental telepathy (see "Xoxing Logs" below) . Raf (U.K.) The Royal Air Force, as pronounced acronymically. Raghead (U.S., U.K.) Popularized by the Gulf and Iraq wars. A term referring to the enemy, or any terrorist. Railroad Tracks (U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Air Force) Captain's insignia (2 bars linked together at the top and bottom, Lieutenant in Navy and U.S. Coast Guard). Rainbow Flight (U.S. Air Force) Refers to a brand-new flight of Trainees in Basic Military Training, whom are characterized by the "rainbow" of civilian clothes prior to being issued uniforms. Ranger beads (U.S. Army) A string of pace count beads used during orienteering exercises. Ranger blanket (Canada) A lightweight thermal blanket. The first ones used were poncho liners imported from the United States military. Ranger file (U.S. Army) Single file line. Ranger grave (U.S. Army) Slang, slightly pejorative term for a hasty fighting position, so named because it is barely deep enough for an individual to lie prone in. Ranger roll (U.S. Army) A patrol cap with the top rolled slightly under so that the cap sits higher on the head. Ranger TV (U.S. Army) Fire. Rat Fuck (U.S.) Term used for the action of going through a MRE box before chow time selecting the best meal for oneself. Also used to describe taking preferred items out of MRE's. Could also be used to describe a random mess. RCH (U.S. Air Force) Red Cunt Hair. Means a very small quantity, tiny amount, or just a little bit. RCPO (U.S. Navy) Recruit designation in Navy Boot Camp, pronounced Are-Pock, for Recruit Chief Petty Officer. Normally, all recruits get a chance to be RCPO for one day when everyone else realizes that they suck at it. Next day, a new RCPO is chosen. The one who remains last is normally the guy who is too scared to say he can't do it, so he sticks with it. Typically this job is volunteered for by those who will eventually be labeled 'diggits' by others. (See 'diggit') . Rear-D (U.S.) Rear Detachment, the part of a unit that stays home when the unit is deployed. Recce (Canada, U.K., and Commonwealth) Reconnaissance. Traditionally used by Commonwealth militaries, though beginning to find more common usage in the United States. In South Africa , the term "Recces" colloquially refers to the South African Special Forces Brigade . Rectal Cranial Inversion (U.S.) To have one's head up one's ass. Also "Cranial Rectosis." Redleg (U.S.) An artilleryman. Refers to red leggings worn by some artillerymen in the 19th century. red-light ranger (U.S.) A Soldier who spends much of his pay at the red-light district. red on red (U.S.) Describes a situation when two enemy groups fight each other, leaving the U.S. force in advantage. Ex. Al-Qaeda terrorists fighting Sunni insurgents in Al Anbar, Iraq. red star cluster (U.S.) A distress call; literally refers to the hand-launched red pyrotechnic signal flare. In non-combat situations, acknowledgement of a precarious situation or need for help. A humorous derivation is brown star cluster for metaphorical panicked defecation. regimental groundsheet (Canada; pejorative) A promiscuous. female Soldier. "Groundsheet" is a term for a tarpaulin-like sheet used either for shelter or, in this case, protection from wet or cold ground; "regimental", in this case, refers to scope of usage. Relish Suit (Canada) Informal nickname used by some to refer to the temperate woodland Canadian Disruptive Pattern (CADPAT) uniforms. REMF (U.S., U.K. and Canadian Army) Rear Echelon Motherfucker . This is a term used negatively to describe a Soldier who is safely far from the front lines, such as a paper-pusher, support personnel or aide to a general. Rent-A-Crowd Often used in reference to farewell ceremonies or changes of command, this refers to a crowd that is gathered to attend an optional function only because they were ordered to. Repple Depple (U.S.) Replacement Depot. Any given assigned location near an area of operations where replacement troops are sent prior to assignment, or where troops are sent prior to rotation back home. Retarded Over-Trained Children (U.S.) Reserve Officer Training Corps or R.O.T.C. Pejorative. Rhino (U.S.) A nickname for the F-4 Phantom II, in reference to its, for the time, large radome. Ricky Boxing (U.S. Navy, especially Boot Camp) One who spends much of his day (and possibly night) beating off. Also: Ricky Boxing Champion would refer to a Recruit who beat off the most during Boot Camp. Ricky Fishing (U.S. Navy) Similar to Ricky Boxing above, only applicable for females. Ricky Ninja (U.S. Navy) A Sailor recruit in boot camp who does any variety of nefarious. things, particularly at night or when they have little chance of being caught. Activities could include, (but are not limited to,) stealing, vandalism, hazing, etc. In this form, it is derogatory. In a more jocular form, it can be used to refer to a fellow Sailor, or even yourself. Typically used during "service week" (week 5 of Naval boot camp, when a recruit is given an assigned task in various areas of the base) if the recruit works the mess hall and sneaks away to shirk one's duties, or "steal" cereal boxes or food for oneself or their friends. Ricky Recruit (U.S. Navy) A new Sailor, especially in boot camp, that exemplifies the "perfect Sailor" by never messing up, always following orders, etc.; much to the chagrin of his or her fellow recruits. May be jocular or pejorative, but mostly used as a derogatory term. Ripple (Pejorative) A military academy graduate, particularly one who calls attention to the fact. RMO Round Metal Object; slang for "coin" - specifically the unit's challenge coin. ROAD (U.S.) Retired On Active Duty. The condition of having no motivation and productivity within months of retirement. Invariably pejorative. ROMFT (Royal Navy) Roll On My F****** Time. The condition of having no motivation and productivity within months of retirement. rock (U.S.) A particularly stupid Soldier. From "Dumber than a box of rocks". Ironically, the term Sergeant Rock, based on the name of a comic, is a term for a heroic combat Soldier. rock (RAF) Member of the RAF Regiment (shortened form of rock ape) rock and roll (U.S.) The fully automatic fire setting on a weapon. "The M16 selector switch has three settings: safe, semi-automatic, and rock-and-roll." rock apes (RAF) The RAF Regiment , stereotyped in the RAF as being rather stupid. It does not come from the barbary apes of the Rock of Gibraltar , who were fed by the RAF Regiment during World War II, but rather from an incident when one rock officer shot another having mistaken him for a rock ape. rocks and shoals (U.S. Navy) Navy rules and regulations. roll in on (U.S. Air Force) To engage in the initial maneuver of an attack. ROP's (British Army) Restriction of Privileges Rotorhead (U.S.) Term for helicopter aviators Roundel Airways (British Army) The RAF , from their aircraft identification markings. Rounds Complete RTB 1. (U.S.) Term meaning "Return To Base." Usually used when a mission is finished, supplies are exhausted, or base wants to regroup. 2. (U.S. Air Force Academy) "Rag Tag Bastards"; any graduating class which has red as its class color. Each class is either a gold, silver, blue, or red class, when the senior class graduates, their class color is passed to the incoming class. run money (U.S.) 19th Century Navy term for a reward paid for the return of a deserter . Rupert Ruptured Duck (U.S.) The Honorable Service award given to U.S. service members who were discharged under honorable conditions during or just after World War II . Also used to describe the recipient; refers to the awkward appearance of the spread-wing eagle of the emblem. RTU (U.K. and Canada) "Returned To Unit"—sent back to the home regiment or base from a specialized training establishment as the result of failure or disciplinary action. "After the mess had been cleared up there was only one outcome … RTU!" (Singapore) Refers to one who is volunteered by superiors to do (usually) menial work. Sammy (U.S. Army) Term referring to a Somalia native. Used in the early 1990's by Soldiers deployed there. sandbag (Ireland) Term referring to reserve Soldier. sandbagging (U.S. Army, Canada) Term referring to a Soldier who is performing his duties inefficiently or with laziness. Ex: "That Soldier is sandbagging it." [see "goldbricking," "shitbagging"] sandbox (U.S.) Informal term for a forward deployed location. Also a miniature model of an area for troops to study for familiarization before an operation. (U.S.) An Arab person. Highly pejorative and offensive. Sarge (U.S., U.K.) Informal for Sergeant . Sometimes objected to by sergeants, and largely outdated. Sarnt (U.S. Army, Canada, and U.K.) Slang mispronunciation of Sergeant . sat (U.S.) Satisfactory, as opposed to Unsat. (U.K.) Soldier Awaiting Training - Soldier who is not currently posted awaiting training. SBO (Singapore) Skeletal Battle Order; officially refers to an infantryman's basic combat equipment, without field pack or field supplies. In slang usage, refers specifically to the old-style combat webbing and attached pouches, as opposed to the newer MOLLE-compatible load-bearing vest which is currently replacing it. scablifter (U.K. RN) Medical branch rating. scaly, or scaly back (U.K.) A signaler. It is suggested that this term comes from the figure of Mercury on their cap badges, who appears to have fish-like scales on his back. An alternative version is that it is related to the fact that old radios used to leak battery acid on the back of the man carrying it - hence they had a scaly back. scoff (RAF) Thin band in the centre of a squadron leader's rank badge. screen-saver face (Singapore) To be dreaming when one is supposed to be alert. Also 'Stone' screw the pooch (U.S. Military and civilian) To badly err or mess up. (Canada) To shirk one's duties. Used as an euphemism for dog fucking (see Dog Fuck .) screwed, blued and tattooed (U.S. Navy) Used to describe common liberty activities in some ports. Getting "Screwed, blued and tattooed" can imply a fun liberty, one where someone got in trouble for various. reasons, or one where the Sailors simply saw everything there was to see in a given port. scrounge (U.S. Navy) A Sailor who does not keep his body clean. (U.S. Army & Air Force) A very important member of a unit, a Soldier who can obtain any materials and/or equipment, usually by other than normal channels. scuttlebutt (U.S. Navy) Rumor or gossip, deriving from the nautical term for the cask used to serve water (or, later, a water fountain). See scuttlebutt . seabag (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Issue green canvas or cordura bag used to transport personal effects. seabag drag (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Routine of travel referring to the waiting period often encountered when transferring flights or waiting assignment to flight manifest. sea daddy (U.S./U.K. Navy) A senior enlisted man who acts as a guide to a junior (usually a "newbie"), showing him the ropes and guiding his early career. The civilian police equivalent is called a "rabbi". sea donkey Pejorative. A Derogatory term for a female Sailor. seagull Colonel A colonel who swoops in, makes a mess on (craps on) everything, and swoops out again. sea hag A Derogatory term for a female Sailor. sea pup (U.S. Navy) The junior enlisted who is guided by the Sea Daddy. sea lawyer (U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, RN) A Sailor, probably too smart for his own good, who thinks he knows all of the regulations and quotes them to get out of either work or trouble. Other U.S. and U.K. military equivalent is "Barrack Room Lawyer" (U.K.), and "Barracks Lawyer" or, more crudely, "Shithouse Lawyer" (U.S.). Sec(k) Daddy/Mama (U.S.) Section sergeant. seen (Canada infantry) Used as a confirmation for a visual reference; used to confirm understanding of orders, similar usage as Hooah self-loading cargo Passengers boarding a transport aircraft. semi-skimmed (U.K. Royal Marines) Referring to their Green Berets, due to green lidded semi-skimmed milk cartons and bottles available in the U.K.. semper fu (U.S. Marine Corps) Refers to the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program, the hand-to-hand combat system used by the Marines, which has different levels of belts (tan, grey, green, brown, black) for different levels. Combination of "Semper Fi" and "kung-fu". Senior Airman of the Air Force (U.S. Air Force) An overzealous. Senior Airman. Sergeant Rock (U.S.) Based on the name of a comic book, is a term for a highly competent and heroic combat Soldier. Serve And Fuckoff (Singapore) Backronym for the Singapore Armed Forces, generally used by conscript soldiers whose primary concern is to finish their obligation and get back to civilian life. Not to be used within earshot of senior NCOs or officers. severn nursery (U.S.) refers to the United States Naval Academy located on the banks of the Severn River in Maryland. A pejorative used by Navy enlisted personnel. shack (U.S. Air Force) A direct hit against a ground target, often used as praise. shack rat (Canada) A term used to describe promiscuous. female civilians who come to military barracks to sleep with random Soldiers. shacks (U.S.) A master of shamming. sham shield (U.S. Army) A term used for the Army's Specialist rank. Meaning that a Specialist can now get privates to do their work. Also, because a specialist is not accountable for anything, but still has authority. Also known as a chicken on a platter, because of the eagle in the middle of the shield. Sharkfin (U.S. Air Force) used at Beale AFB, including accompanying deployed locations and S. Korea, referring to a particular person that cannot perform his duties adequately, namely in aircraft maintenance. shavetail (U.S.) (Also spelled "shave-tail") A derogatory term for a Second Lieutenant , or for a female servicemember. Compare with "Split Tail". Sheet Metal (Canada) A very condescending and uncomplimentary term for civilians (Civvies), especially those who do not agree with the military perspective about something. shellback (All English-speaking navies, originally U.K.) A Sailor who has crossed the Equator during a tour. There is a "Crossing the Line" ceremony where all Shellbacks kindly harass the new initiates - called tadpoles or pollywogs - to initiate them into the position of Shellback. The senior Shellback aboard presides as King Neptune 's personal representative. shiney-arse (U.K.) Regimental Admin Officers and those in similar desk-bound posts. The green polyester "barrack trousers" formerly worn by Army office workers did indeed acquire a certain shine to the seat after prolonged contact with an office chair. Shiny guys/Shiny (U.S. Army) Officers. Also see Brass. shipwreck tech Mildly derogative term for the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . Common among graduates of West Point. Shirt (U.S. Air Force) Respectful term to address an Air Force First Sergeant. For example, "Hey Shirt, got a minute?" Shitbird (U.S. Marine Corps)Derogatory name for a Marine that is not squared away in appearance or discipline. shit hot (U.S.) Outstanding, hardcore, tactically proficient. For example, "Second platoon was looking shit hot today in the shoot house." Shithook (U.S.) CH-47 'Chinook' cargo helicopter. shitmate (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Derogative term Used often by Marines when referring to Navy Sailors. shit on a shingle (sometimes abbreviated S.O.S.) (U.S.) Chipped beef on toast . shit patrol (U.S. Army) Term used to describe being selected for latrine duty in the field or the practice of burning the buckets of shit, with diesel fuel, collected from the field latrines. To be selected means you have "shit patrol". shit pump or pump (Canada) A person who displays a poor attitude, meets the bare minimum standard, an overall bad Soldier. "Bloggins is a real shit pump". shoe (U.S. Navy) Short for "black shoe", a surface warfare officer. Pejorative. Compare "brown shoe". shoe clerk (U.S. Air Force) Someone who works a desk job in the military, has no idea what military operations really are, is convinced that his relatively meaningless, bureaucratic job is the most important function in the military, and causes the people doing the real mission to waste time and resources on his petty, trivial tasks. See queep. shooting pool with the Captain (U.S.) A U.S. Navy term for captain's mast (non-judicial punishment presided by the unit commanding officer) . This refers to the green felt cloth draped over the commanding officer's table during mast. The green cloth is a tradition dating to the Royal Navy in the 15th century that is symbolic for the Captain's mastery of the seas. shovel patrol (U.K.) Leaving your Unit area with a spade in order to defecate. short or short-timer (U.S.) Term coined during Vietnam era to describe personnel approaching the end of their tour and/or term of service. Usually announced in an obnoxious and rowdy manner — examples: "I'm so short I had to parachute out of bed this morning and accidentally landed in my boot!", "I'm so short I could sit on a piece of paper and dangle my legs over the edge!" Modified into "short-timer" in the modern military era. Short Bus (U.S.) The MRAP (Mine Resistant Ambush Protectant) vehicle, because of its appearance. shower-shoe (U.S.) Pair of rubber sandals (a.k.a. "flip-flops") issued to recruits to prevent infections from the use of community or shared showers. See also Jesus. shoes. Also used as a slightly pejorative term for junior servicemember. Comes from the perception that new personnel still wear their footwear in the shower, as mandated in boot camp or basic training. shower tech (U.S. Navy) Pejorative term for Sonar Technicians who are perceived to never get dirty from their work, which mostly involves sitting in front of computer screens and seem to have a lot of off-watch time as compared to other enlisted rates, hence the ability to take a shower whenever. Shut up and Color Often told to someone of equal or lower rank, telling them to quit complaining. See also 'Suck Thumb'. sick, lame and lazy The group of military personnel on 'sick call' or excused from duty for injury or illness -- a half-joking reference to malingering . sickbay commando (U.S.) A servicemember found often in sickbay (a hospital or infirmary) , usually in lieu of difficult work or PT. sick-call ranger (U.S. Army) someone who is "hardcore" about malingering. Also, the more-recent 'sick-call ninja', 'master of malingering', 'clinic ninja' or 'profile ranger'. Sierra Hotel 1. Shit's Hot- Refers to actions that are particularly awesome or high-speed. Used as a compliment when someone is doing well. 2. The NATO phonetic alphabet abbreviation for Shit Hot. It is considered high praise and is the pilot's favorite and all-purpose expression of approval. For example, "That Sierra Hotel pilot just shot down six MiGs and an ICBM !" This is the "polite" military way to say that something is very impressive, and has come into use outside the military. Sierra Tango Foxtrot Uniform Shut The Fuck Up ( NATO phonetic alphabet ). sig (U.S. Navy) A signature on a qualification card (a card that shows you are ready to stand a particular watch) . There are many, many "qual cards" in the Navy that must be completed before being allowed to take an exam or be interviewed by a board to be qualified to stand a particular watch or role. Some qual cards and their individual sigs can be easy or extremely difficult to obtain. In some cases a junior Sailor going for a sig may not only have to prove his/her knowledge to a senior crewmember, but also do something extra for that signature--such as performing a minor menial task or bringing a small bribe like a can of soda. Silver bullet Rectal thermometer used on boots who over heat during boot camp. Also known as a magic bullet. Silver side (U.S. Coast Guard) . The U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary, which wears silver insignia of office (since Auxiliarists have no military rank). See gold side. silly buggers (Canada) A sarcastic reference to "playing army" when an individual must act upon the fictional events taking place in a field exercise. "...Since Jesus was a Corporal" (U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps) For a very long time. e.g.,: "I haven't been home since Jesus. was a Corporal." Sith Gear (U.S. Marine Corps) Organizational equipment issued to a Marine from his unit and kept by the Marine as personal gear, but is expected to be returned in serviceable condition upon that Marine's detachment from the unit. Usually refers to load-bearing equipment, rucksacks, body armor, helmets and other field gear. From the warrior Sith lords in the "Star Wars" franchise. six, six and a kick (U.S.) Six months confinement, six months loss of pay, reduction in grade to E-1, Bad Conduct Discharge; formerly the most severe penalty that could be awarded by a special court martial . A special court martial can now adjudge 12 months confinement. Skillfully Acquire (Canada) To steal, without the negative connotation. Used by seniors to circumvent the regulations on giving unlawful orders, i.e., stealing. skimmer puke (English speaking Navies) Submariner's pejorative term for Sailors on surface warships, especially destroyers and frigates . The ships are often referred simply as "targets", even if speaking of one's own Navy. skittle (U.S. Navy) A term used by ship's crew for an Airman on an aircraft carrying vessel referring to the multi-colored candy " Skittles ". Aircraft handling crew (and some ship's crew) wear colored pull-over shirts depending on their job which stands out to the majority of a ship's crewmen in plain blue uniforms. Sleaford Technical College, Sleaford Tech (RAF) The Royal Air Force College Cranwell slick-sleeve (U.S. Air Force) Lowest enlisted grade (E-1), so named because no stripe is awarded until the grade of E-2 (Airman) is achieved. slider (U.S. Navy) Chow hall cheeseburger. slop bucket (U.S. Navy) Used by Navy air traffic controllers to refer to a metal or plastic bucket that excess coffee and coffee grounds are disposed into. Each day the Slop Bucket PO (Petty Officer) - normally a non-petty officer rank, E1-E3 - is charged with disposing of the contents and cleaning the bucket for the following day. Slop Bucket PO is not a legitimate collateral duty, but still a common duty given to junior air traffic controllers prior to receiving any controller qualifications. slope/slopehead (U.S.) A derogatory term for an Asian enemy Soldier used extensively in Vietnam. slow-mover badge Purple Heart Award SLUF (U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy) Short Little Ugly Fucker (Clean Short Little Ugly Fellow) Description and term of affection for the A-7 Corsair II attack aircraft. sluggie (Ireland) Term referring to reserve Sailor. SMACK An acronym short for "Soldier Minus. Ability, Coordination, and Knowledge", refers to a fourth-class cadet (freshman) at the United States Air Force Academy (also called a "doolie"). Smash Pissers (Canada) To have sex with. Ex "Man, I'd smash pissers with her any day." . SMB (ex-Yugoslavia) "sivo maslinasta boja" (grayish olive green color); the typical green color of army uniforms in ex-Yugoslavia. smell your own musk (U.S.) General term for a person acting more important than they are. Like they are getting high from smelling themselves. Common among E-4 (SPC) in leadership positions. Use started in Afghanistan. Usage: "He was talking back to me like he was smelling his own musk." smoke (verb) (U.S. Army) Term to describe punishment of minor offenses by means of excessive physical training. Usage: "The drill instructor smoked me for talking back." See U.S. Marine Corps term Thrashed Smokey Bear (U.S.) General term for a Drill Instructors' (Marine Corps), Drill Sergeants' (Army), Military Training Instructors' (Air Force) or Company Commanders' (U.S. Coast Guard) wide-brimmed hat. Properly called a campaign hat and formerly standard uniform issue in the Army and Marine Corps (per-WWII). Also called "round brown hat". SNAFU (U.S.) Acronym for "Situation Normal, All Fucked Up"; dating probably before World War II, Oxford English Dictionary defines it as "an expression conveying the common Soldier's laconic acceptance of the disorder of war and the ineptitude of his superiors" [5] . It began to enter the everyday American lexicon shortly after the war. It also spawned other acronyms denoting increasing states of "fucked up": 'FUMTU': Fucked Up More Than Usual 'TARFU': Things Are Really Fucked Up 'FUBB': Fucked Up Beyond Belief ' FUBAR ': Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition (or Repair) 'JANFU': Joint Army-Navy Fuck-Up (U.S. Army) Special Forces snake pit (U.S.) An Air Force term for the TI table in a dining facility at BMT or a situation where many people are critically watching for the slightest break in protocol, usually award events or promotion ceremonies. Snake pit (Australian) the sergeant's mess or senior non commissioned officer mess. sniper check (Canada and U.S.) A salute rendered to an officer in a field environment, where salutes are normally proscribed because they identify officers to the enemy. snipes (U.S.) Members of the engineering crew on a naval vessel (usually submarines). snivel gear, snivel kit (U.S., Canada) Creature comfort items such as Gore-Tex clothing, sleeping bag, etc. SNOB (U.S. Navy) Acronym for Shortest Nuke On Board. The nuke on board a submarine with the least amount of time left on board; usually someone on their first and only enlistment, without any intention of re-enlisting. snot locker (U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Navy) Nose. snotty (Canada and U.K.) An untrained subordinate officer in the Navy. A naval cadet in Canada, or a midshipman in the U.K. SOC (Singapore) Standard Obstacles Course. A 1600-meter course with 11 obstacles. soup sandwich (U.S.) Insult often used in Basic Combat Training, referring to an action, uniform or task done inefficiently or improperly. Example: "Your uniform is all messed up, looking like a soup sandwich." soup coolers (U.S.) refers to one's mouth." SP (U.S. Army) Start point. The location where and point in time when travel starts. Sparks or Sparky (U.S.) Anyone who deals with radios or things electronic. speed bump (U.S. Army) Pejorative term used by armor personnel to describe infantry. See also "crunchie." Sperm on a Sponge (Canada) Technical term for the individually wrapped decontamination wipes issued with CF gasmasks Split (Canada) derogatory reference to early female members of the Navy. Short for split-ass. Split Tail (U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps) derogatory reference to any female. Spook (U.S., U.K.) A spy. Used for anyone in the CIA , NSA , NRO , DIA , MI5 or MI6 . In the military, one who deals with the gathering of electronic intelligence. Spot (U.S. Army) An ROTC cadet or Warrant Officer 1. See "Dot." Derogatory Spotlight Ranger (U.S. Army) One who puts forth his best effort only when he is receiving attention. Sprocket Grease (U.S.) Term used by tracked vehicle operators referring to foot Soldiers. Squaddie (U.K.) An enlisted member of the British army, lower ranks only. (U.K.) Short for Squadron Leader squared away cleaned up; in military shape; ready for inspection. squawk (U.K.) a member of the Army Air Corps squid/squiddly (U.S.) A U.S. Navy Sailor. Often used with derogatory intent. Inspired naming of the cartoon character Squiddly Diddly , a squid in a Sailor suit. Squidward has also been used in recent years, lifted from the name of a character from the Sponge Bob Square Pants cartoon. STAB (British Army) Stupid Territorial Army Bastard. Pejorative Acronym. Stacking Swivel (U.S.) Originally parts of a military-issue rifle (the stacking swivel was located near the muzzle, in front of the forward sling swivel, and was used to hook the rifles together when stacking arms). Now used to refer to a male Soldier's throat, and always used in the phrase "pick you up by your stacking swivel" to connote that the speaker, usually a DI, metaphorically intends to bodily move you from one place to another. Example: "Son, if you don't move pronto, I'm gonna’ pick you up by your stacking swivel and put you in the proper position of attention." "I'm gonna’ grab you by the stacking swivel and shake the stupid out of you!" stand tall (U.S.) Used as a verb for to be proud, or to present a military appearance. Also can refer to having to answer to higher authority facing consequences: "Standing tall before the man." stay frosty (U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps) Regular term among Soldiers to both stay calm and stay alert.: "I'm not sure if these guys are friendlies or not. We might be walking into something here. Stay frosty." Still/stills (U.K.) Derogatory effort to work around the prohibition of another pejorative term. Denotes "Still a [fill-in],"e.g., Still a Bennie (RN), Still a Split (RN), Still a STAB (Army). Itself prohibited and superseded by Andys denoting And he's still a Bennie etc. steam table (U.S. Navy) A form of snipe hunt. A new join is sent to look for 30 feet of steam table. steel beach picnic (U.S. Navy) An party-like event held on a ship that is intended to let Sailors let off steam. Usually includes grilling food, games, music, etc. steel pussy (U.S. Navy) Heavy duty steel wool, often made of stainless steel, that is used to scrub pots, toilets, rust, etc. Stone Frigate (U.K., Canada) Term for a Naval shore establishment. Stonewallers (CSA) Term for 116th Infantry Regiment, commanded by Thomas J. Jackson at First Manassas during the American Civil War, where he earned the nickname "Stonewall". storm flag (AUS) Term for flag draped over coffin at military funeral (U.S. ARMY) Smaller sized flag flown over Posts and Major Commands during inclement weather STRAC U.S. Army slang term for "a well-organized, well turned-out Soldier, (pressed uniform, polished brass and shined boots)." A proud, competent trooper who can be depended on for good performance in any circumstance. stripes (U.S.) Enlisted rank insignia, especially E-4 and above (non-commissioned officer (NCO) ) pay grades in leadership positions. (U.K.) NCO rank insignia. (U.K., U.S.) Get your stripes - to be promoted to an NCO rank. STUMP (U.S.) "Stupid Tankers Under Mortar Protection" Acronym used by Infantry to describe Armor personnel to show that being Infantry is a harder profession. Stupid O' Clock (U.S.) A U.S. Army slang term that refers to any time very early in the morning. See '0 dark thirty'. Super Wammy-dyne (U.S. Navy) Advanced or new technology/equipment, akin to New Fangled suck, the (U.S.) The field, bad conditions, rotten duty, used to describe the military as a whole. One might say "embrace the suck" to tell someone to stop complaining and accept the situation. suck it up (U.S.) See "Suck, the" above. Similar to "embrace the suck." suck thumb (Singapore) Shut up and stop complaining. Sucking Rubber (U.S.) (Submarine Service) Extended periods wearing Emergency Air Breathing devices (EABs), a full-face air mask similar to that worn by firefighters, except fed from ship's emergency air system rather than a bottle on your back. (U.S. Air Force) Wearing the chemical warfare mask, especially in MOPP 4. "We spent two hours sucking rubber". Suspense (U.S. Air Force) A deadline. Suzy or "Susie Rottencrotch (U.S.) The girl back home. Often spends a lot of time with Jody very soon after deployment. See Jody. Swab (U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard) A freshman cadet at the United States Coast Guard Academy ; also contraction of "swabbie" (see below) swabbie (U.S.) A U.S. Navy Sailor. A reference to swabbing (mopping) the deck, a frequent and highly visible activity of deck division Sailors SWAT Team (Canada) A pejorative term for combat-arms reservists referring to their training schedule. "Some Weekends And Thursdays" sweet Fanny Adams (U.K.) meaning nothing, literally "sweet fuck all". swinging dick (U.S.) Any male military member, especially a lower-ranking enlisted male. For example, "Every swinging dick in here had better be ready to go in ten minutes!" In polite company, "swinging Richard." Swivel Chair Partrol (U.S.) meaning "Civil Air Patrol" (USAF Aux.) SWO (U.S.) Staff Weather Officer, (pron. SW-oh) generally refers to any USAF commissioned or non-commissioned officer supporting Army operations downrange or in-garrison. Term of endearment and/or derision depending on current weather forecast, usually prefaced with "F-ing" if said forecast sucks. (U.S. Army) Issued "Go to War" gear used by Soldiers during training or actual combat. TA-100 (U.S. Army) Refers to overwhelming amount of TA-50. For example, "At Ft. Stewart, we got issued TA-100. It's twice as much." TACP (U.S. Air Force) Tactical Air Control Party (pron. TACK-PEA) An Airman that serves with an army unit who is a liaison to the Air Force. Main job is to call in air strikes. T-Rats (U.S. Army) Tray-pack field rations. Even though the Tray-packs are obsolete and are no longer issued, the term survives and is used for the UGR (Unitized Group Ration) which replaced the Tray-pack meals. Tab (U.K.) A term meaning marching at fast pace while carrying a full bergen and rifle (army), similar to yomp. Tac (U.S. Army) Short for Tactical Officer, whose role in Officer Candidate School and at the U.S. Military Academy is analogous. to a Drill Sergeant for Basic Training. Taco (U.S. Air Force) A grade of "Unsatisfactory" on a training sortie, derived from the taco-shape of the letter "U". Tac-O (U.S. Army) Pronounced the same as the dish (taco) , it is another form of Tac, but is generally Used in the absence of the Tactical Officer's presence. Example: "Hey, have you seen the Tac-O around?" TACAMO (U.S.) Take Charge And Move Out. TACAMO is also the Pentagon designation for aircraft which are integral to the U.S. nuclear warfare command and control system. Tactical (Singapore) To perform an unauthorized action in a circumspect manner. Smoking "tactically", for instance, means smoking (at an unauthorized time or place) in such a manner as to avoid detection by senior NCOs or officers. Take a Knee (U.S. Army) To pause or rest. Tango (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for the letter "T" and for "Target" (or enemy). Example: "We have two Tangos at 3 o'clock – I'll take the right one." Tango Down (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for "Target Down", i.e., when an enemy or target has been neutralized. Example: "The first guard is Tango Down." Tango Mike (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for "Thanks much." Tango Uniform (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for "Tits Up" also used by the FCC, FAA and DOD to mean killed or destroyed. (Alternative more polite translation: "Toes Up"). (U.S. Army & U.S. Marine Corps) Not in optimal condition. (e.g., The HUMVEE went Tango Uniform before we even arrived.). (U.S. Air Force) Dead drunk. (U.S.) Object Inverted. (Upside Down) (e.g., 'I'm turning the plane Tango Uniform to get a better look.') May be used in a more vulgar fashion as "Tits Up" Tango Yankee (INTL) [NATO phonetic alphabet] short for "Thank You.", commonly used over the radio. Commonly just "Tango" over the radio (for "Thanks"). Tapes (U.K.) NCO rank insignia (i.e., stripes). TDY (U.S. Air Force, Army) Temporary Duty, used as an adjective ("Capt Smith is TDY this week, sir.") Teeny Weeny Airways (U.K.) Army Air Corps, a reference to the fact that the Regiments are equipped with Helicopters that carry very few men. Teflon-coated (U.S.) Excellent, especially a piece of equipment. Origin: Teflon-coated bullets, widely (but incorrectly) thought to pierce armor. (U.K.) Nickname for someone who got themselves out of trouble (The shit didn't stick to their Teflon coating). (Canada) Refers to the fact that untrained privates and officer cadets can't be demoted any further for doing something stupid. (If they mess this up, it doesn't matter since they're Teflon coated.) Tekan (Singapore) Physical training used as a minor corrective action by instructors, which usually are knock-it-downs; also refers to the process of taking down a peg a Soldier who has attitude. See cycled. Telephone Colonel (U.S. Army, Air Force, Marine Corps) A lieutenant colonel. Tender Vittles, Tender Ho's (U.S. Navy) Derogatory term for women that make up crews of repair tenders or dry docks, based on a stereotype that they are promiscuous. Pejorative and offensive. The World (U.S.) Used in Vietnam by G.I.'s in reference to the United States. The Day the Eagle Shits (U.S.) Payday. Example: "I'm sorry I can't pay you back until the day the eagle shits." Those people (U.S.) Euphemism for "enemy forces" used by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee during the American Civil War . The phrase is still widely used. Thrashed (U.S. Marine Corps) An extreme physical exercise routine ordered by DIs upon a recruit or Platoon for making a mistake which could last until complete exhaustion. Puddles of sweat are often the end result. throttle-jockey (U.S.) A jet aircraft pilot, particularly one with a penchant for speed. Thumper (U.S. Army and Marine Corps) Slang term for the M-79 or M-203 Grenade Launcher. THS (U.S. Army): "Too Hooah Syndrome." When a Soldier, especially a Platoon Leader or Noncommissioned Officer, holds himself and/or Soldiers to extreme standards of cleanliness, physical fitness, efficiency. Thud (U.S. Air Force) Nickname for the F-105 Thunderchief . Tighten one's shot group (U.S. Army) To focus. the attention of a distracted, disorganized or incompetent person, usually by applying a 'boot up the ass'. Tighten it up (U.S. Marine Corps) A term used to further piss off a unit during a hump.(Hump; walking with a pack approximately half your body weight from one location to another, not to be confused with the similar activities performed unto dog owners by their K9 companions.) Titless Wave (U.S. Navy) Derogatory term for a male clerk, or other non-combatant military occupational specialty, implying it is women's work. Tits-Up A generic name for a Soldier in the British Army (now obsolete) . Tom (U.S. Navy) Nickname for the F-14 Tomcat . Tooth Fairy (U.S. Navy) a.k.a. "Fang Fairy". Slang for a Sailor in the DT (Dental Technician) rating. Self-explanatory. Top (U.S. Army and Marines) The First Sergeant or Master Sergeant (U.S. Marine Corps), senior enlisted man at company level. Tore Up (U.S. Army) A person, object or situation in disarray. Also, used as "Tore up from the floor up." Towelhead (U.S. and Europe) A pejorative slang term referring to an Arab person. (With the towel being their turbans) Track Pad 1. (Canada) boil-in-the-bag omelet from ration pack. Similar in size and (reputedly) texture to the rubber pads fitted to AV tracks 2. (Canada) the rubber pad insert fitted to steel armored vehicle tracks to prevent damage to asphalt or concrete road surfaces. Travelling Around Drunk (U.S. Navy) On detached duty, officially termed "Temporary Additional Duty". Tread (U.S. Army) An officer or NCO, especially one seen as oppressing enlisted personnel. Trench monkey (U.S.) A member of the Army infantry. Mostly used in a derogatory way by members of other services. trigger puller (U.S.) A Soldier or Marine who is regularly involved in actual combat. I wouldn't want to be out in the shit without the trigger pullers with U.S.. Triple Threat (U.S. Army) A Soldier who has the Special Forces Tab, Ranger School Tab, and Airborne Tab (worn as an integral part of the SSI) and wears all three tabs on his uniform. Also known as the "Tower of Power" due to the extreme difficulty involved in the military schools, and the "Triple Canopy" as a reference to parachuting. TROBA (U.S. Air Force) When ABORT is improbable, but desired. Sometimes TROBA dances are initiated, to increase the chance of an aircraft RTB. Tube stroker A common nickname given to mortar-men by rival units to playfully mock the mortar-man job. Turd Chaser (U.S. Navy) Slang for a Sailor in the HT (Hull Technician) rating. So named because most of their job aboard ship consists of fixing sewage pipe blockages. Turd Herder (U.S. Navy) Slang for a Seabee in the UT (Utilitiesman) rating, tasked with building and maintaining camp water supply and sanitation systems. Turd herders only need to know three things - hot on the left, shit flows downhill, and quittin' time is 1500. Turtle fuck(ing) (U.S. Marine Corps) Striking a Marine on his helmet with another helmet. The clunking of the two Kevlar helmets sounds like two empty shells hitting. Sometimes done deliberately among friends, but often as a joke to an unsuspecting trooper. Twenty-nine Stumps (U.S. Marine Corps) Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twenty-nine Palms , California. Often simply referred to as "the Stumps." Two beer queer (U.S.) A man who can't handle his liquor. Implies that he's ready to perform homosexual favors after his second beer. Two digit midget (U.S.) A G.I. who has less than 100 days 'in country' left before they rotate back to the U.S.A and/or before discharge. Coined during Vietnam War. See "short". (U.S.) The United States U.S. Coast Guard . Uncle Sam's Misguided Children (U.S.) Ironic term for the United States Marine Corps . Sometimes also the "University of Science, Music, and Culture", "U Suckers Missed Christmas", and "U Signed the Motherfuckin' Contract". Unfuck (U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps) To bring something or someone into proper order and accord with SOP. Universal rounds (Singapore Army) A fictional type of training ammunition used during platoon- or section-level infantry training when the requisitioning and firing of blanks or live rounds would be unacceptably wasteful, troublesome or hazardous. Refers to the practice of aiming one's rifle at the target and yelling "Bang!". Unsat (U.S.) Unsatisfactory. US (U.K., WWII, until 1944) Un Serviceable. Since this acronym was also used to identify a major ally, this particular usage became politically unacceptable but unofficially continued in use. (RN) Navigator of a private or capital ship; probably derived from Vasco da Gama . VFR direct (U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy) To circumvent normal chains of communication or command; for example, "I can't believe the butterbar went VFR direct to the Old Man!" From " Visual Flight Rules ", meaning to take the most direct route; said to also be a jocular acronym for "Visually Follow Railroads." Vice (U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps) Used in speech in place of the word "versus" or the phrase "as opposed to". For example: "I'd prefer a night operation vice day". Of uncertain origin but widespread in DON speech. Viper (U.S. Air Force) What F-16 Pilots affectionately call the F-16 Fighting Falcon . (An allusion to the fighter from Battlestar Galactica ) Volun-told (U.S., Canada) A supposedly optional event, award, assignment, or activity in which a person (or persons) are required to attend either by persons-in-charge nominating them or their peers expecting them to be there. The individual often has no say in the matter, and non-attendance is frowned upon. (U.S.) Derogatory term used to describe a woman Marine, a.k.a. WM Warthog (U.S.) The A-10 Thunderbolt II . wavy navy (U.K. and Commonwealth) Pre-1952 referring to the naval reserve of the Royal Navy and its empire/dominion counterparts (Royal Canadian Naval Reserve, Royal Australian Naval Reserve, Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, etc.). Historically, the Reserve officers wore rank stripes that were wavy, denoting reserve status. from a regular Navy officer. Wayang (Singapore) to work hard or exercise discipline only in front of authority. The derivation of this term is from the Malay/Indonesian word for a shadow puppet show. A soldier who makes a habit of wayang-ing is a Wayang King; compare Spotlight Ranger. Weather Guesser (U.S. Navy) Slang for a Sailor in the AG (Aerographers Mate) rating. Weather forecasters. Self-explanatory. Weaponette (pl: Weaponettes) Pejorative term for a submarine's Weapons Department members as used by Navy/Ops or Engineering, usually when they want their stolen tools back weekend warrior 2. (Canada) A Canadian Armed Forces reservist 3. (U.K.) British Territorial Army - since pressed into service in overseas war zones alongside regular troops ...when "Centurion" was a rank , not a tank A long time ago. Falling out of usage as the Soldiers who can actually remember Centurion tanks retire from service. What the piss trainee (U.S.) A phrase yelled by Military Training Instructors (MTIs) in the U.S. Air Force when a trainee messes up. Ex. "What The Piss Trainee/Airman" or "What The Fricken Piss Airman" Whiskey Charlie (Germany) NATO phonetic alphabet for "water-closet" ( Toilet ) - not used that much. Whiskey Delta (U.S.) NATO phonetic alphabet for "Weak Dick". Derogatory term used to describe someone who is not up to the task. WOFTAM (Australia) Waste of fucking time & money - usually refers to a useless soldier Whiskey Locker (U.S. Marine Corps) A closet in MCRD squad bays used to store hygiene gear and to hold private "Motivational Speeches" See thrashings. whiskey Pete (U.S. Army). Weak, Incompetent, Malingering Pussy. Ranger School slang, circa Ranger 5. 1969. Winchester (U.S. Air Force) Out of a particular type of ammunition (e.g., "Negative, we are Winchester Hellfire.") or all ammunition (if no type is specified). wing king (U.S. Air Force) An informal term for the Wing Commander. wing weenie (U.S. Air Force) A pejorative term for a staffer at Wing Headquarters. Wire Biter A name given to wire-rates such as Electronics Technicians. wire dawg (U.S. Air Force) Telephone maintenance. The Wizard Aka "The Sandman", a psychological therapist who helps post traumatic or stressed military patients overcome psychological difficulties. WOG 1. (Canada) Same as "pog". A person (or personnel) in a combat service support trade, not a front-line Soldier. "Without gun" is Usually a derogatory term used by combat arms Soldiers. 2. (U.K.) In Victorian times , a derogatory term for alien or dark-skinned inhabitants of the British Empire . It is probably a shortened version of the term golliwog , although the backronym 'Worthy Oriental Gentleman' is sometimes attributed to it. 3. (U.S. Navy) A "pollywog", or a person who has not yet crossed the equator aboard a ship. Only used in the weeks leading up to "wog day", or the Crossing the Line Ceremony (see Shellback). wog stopper (British Army) A Large Caliber Round - usually 7.62 or above. woobie (U.S. Army) Slang for the poncho-liner that is used as a "blankey" instead of its proper use when you sleep. Often regarded as the "softest thing the Army issues". It is called a woobie because "you woobie cold without it" Wookie (U.S. Marine Corps) Term used to describe a female Marine. Uncommon woodentop (U.K.) Nickname for Soldiers from the British Army Household Division. Consists of The Welsh, Scots, Irish, Coldstream and Grenadier Guards Foot Battalions, The Life Guards and Blues and Royals Cavalry Regiments and the Royal Horse Artillery. woollie pullie (U.K.) Woollen Pullover, the old-style thick military sweater. WTFO (U.S.) "What the fuck, over?" A question often implying disbelief, confusion, or discontent. The only proper response is "What the fuck, out.".	KILO
Who wrote the 1980 Booker Prize winner 'Rites Of Passage'?	Military Alphabet - TV Tropes Military Alphabet You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account Share YMMV Also called a spelling alphabet or a phonetic alphabet, (not to be confused with the entirely different International Phonetic Alphabet, ) this is a system of assigning to each letter of the alphabet a word that begins with that letter. This way, if something has to be spelled over a radio, telephone, etc. there is much less chance of the wrong information being transmitted. The military, police departments and radio operators all make frequent use of this. Phone-based customer service and technical support also use it, but with more informal construction (any word will do), for the same reasons. (The formal ones specifically pick words themselves which all sound distinct from all the others with poor sound quality.) The most common alphabets are shown below, from A to Z. NATO Zebra Zebra The NATO version is near universal in the modern age, because it is also used for civil aviation throughout the whole world (for which English is the only official language). In addition, if the NATO system is being used, expect the digit 3 to be pronounced "tree"; 4 to be pronounced "fo-wer" to distinguish from "for", 5 to be pronounced "fife" so it won't be confused with "fire"; and 9 to be pronounced "niner", to keep it distinct from "nein", German for "no" (as well as from "five," as the two are indistinguishable otherwise over a distorted signal). This is used almost exclusively in modern military shows. Non-military shows which use it will usually stick to A-E, since they are more recognizable. Exclusively military shows tend to use more of the letters. Military units will sometimes use one of the letters as their designation (for example, 'Bravo Company'). Individual personnel may refer to themselves or others in the military alphabet over radios; "Echo-6-Charlie" would be someone whose pay-grade is E-6, with a last name beginning with the letter C. (Alternately, the number is code for a position withing the unit. 6 usually is the commander.) And that's without getting into the ones used in other languages... For satirical purposes, an anti phonetic alphabet can be used, for example Inspector Clouseau's "J as in jalapeno". Another set, named "Fanatic Alphabet", can be found here. Examples open/close all folders Fox Item Love Mike (Film) Flight of the Intruder uses this for a bit of a Genius Bonus : A character uses "Alpha Mike Foxtrotnote "Adios, Mother Fuckers"" to sign off after calling in an airstrike on himself because the North Vietnamese were using him as bait for rescue choppers. Hot Shots! had a very funny parody of the phonetic alphabet. Jim 'Wash Out' Pfaffenbach: Alpha Velveeta Knuckle Underwear, you are cleared for take-off. When you hit that nuclear weapons plant... drop a bomb for me! Lt. Commander Block: Uh, Sphincter Mucus Niner Ringworm, roger! The highway patrol in Super Troopers use a unique version when reading license plates over the radio. With inherently funny words like "eunuch". George Clooney's character in The Men Who Stare at Goats . "We're Oscar Mike. That's 'on the move' soldier." Approximately coincides with the popularity of Generation Kill and Modern Warfare 2. Die Hard 2 uses military alphabet when referring to the plane that is bringing General Esperanza to the United States. It is designated FM (Foreign Military) 1, though later in the film, both Colonel Stuart and Esperanza refer to it as "Foxtrot Michael 1", despite the military alphabet using the shortened name Mike for the letter M. Dr. Strangelove is a fairly early example. The B-52 is assigned to targets Yankee-Golf-Tango-three-six-zero and November-Bravo- X Ray -one-zero-eight as part of the wing's Attack Plan R for Romeo , or Robert (used by General Ripper in communication with his RAF exchange officer Mandrake, as per the British Royal Air Force's own pre-NATO phonetic alphabet). In The Incredibles , Helen identifies her plane as "India Golf Niner Niner" — a reference to The Iron Giant being released in 1999. The survivors in The Island have these as part of their names. The Cannonball Run . The Obstructive Bureaucrat trying to stop the illegal road race is watching the contestants at the start gate and getting the woman with his to write down the license plate numbers. He confuses her by using this trope for the numbers (she keeps writing down the word in full until he explains what it means). In the 2010 The A-Team movie, Face uses "Alpha Mike Foxtrot", standing in for "Adios, Mother Fucker" (the full form of which, except for its final use, is hidden by a Sound Effect Bleep ). In Star Trek: First Contact , Picard's, Crusher's and Worf's command authorization codes feature "tango," "charlie" and "echo" respectively. Picard's also includes "alpha," but it's most likely the Greek letter since Crusher's and Worf's feature "beta" and "gamma" in the same character position of their respective codes. In Star Trek , Chekov's includes "victor" twice. The computer still doesn't understand him due to his accent. Lima India Tango Echo Romeo Alpha Tango Uniform Romeo Echo (Literature) Biggles uses the now less well known World War I era British alphabet. One of the few uses that survived is "Ack-Ack" for AA (anti-air) fire. In Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall , Spike Milligan mentions how the British in North Africa had to adapt to the American system when America joined the war, to much confusion. War games mentioned show the British dividing themselves into Ack Army and Beer Army. The Johnny Maxwell Trilogy features an overly-educated police officer who can never remember "all this Foxtrot Tango Piper business", so he makes up his own using words the sergeant he's reporting to doesn't know - the Crowning Moment of Funny is "W for Wagner. No, Wagner!" In Rivers of London Inspector Nightingale has the unique callsign Zulu-One, representing his unique position in the Met. Robert Westall 's short story Blackham's Wimpy revolves around a bomber group, featuring planes S-Sugar, C-Charlie and L-Love, among others. In You Only Live Twice , Tiger Tanaka tells James Bond that the Japanese do not swear. Bond expresses incredulity that Tiger never wants to say Freddie Uncle Charlie Katie . Within The Bourne Identity , Bourne was given the callname of Cain with an elaborate backstory involving the U.S. having changed the C from Charlie to Cain during The Vietnam War due to confusion with the designation of the Vietcong as "Charlie." Just as Cain replaced Charlie in the Military Alphabet, Cain would replace Charlie (Carlos the Jackal). In Team Yankee , the eponymous team is named for the phonetic letter Y, while its sister unit, Team Bravo, is named for the phonetic letter B. The phonetic alphabet is also featured prominently during radio communications. Mary Union Sam Ida Charlie (Music) One of The Bloodhound Gang 's many Intercourse with You songs is named "Foxtrot Uniform Charlie Kilo". One of Wilco 's albums is titled Yankee Hotel Foxtrot, which was taken from a sample that's featured on the track "Poor Places". Papa India November Bravo Alpha Lima Lima (Pinball) Williams Electronics ' F-14 Tomcat identifies the enemy fighters with the NATO alphabet — Alpha, Bravo, Charle, Delta, Echo, Fox, and Golf. The last opponent is the Big Bad , General Yagov . Papa Romeo Oscar Whiskey Romeo Echo Sierra Tango Lima India November Golf (Pro Wrestling) The entrance theme of WWE stable The Shield starts off with radio chatter spelling out "Shield" with the NATO military alphabet (Sierra - Hotel - India - Echo - Lima - Delta), which is fitting, considering their paramilitary-esque gimmick. Roger Able Dog Item Oboe (Radio) Cabin Pressure has a scene in which Arthur is trying to learn the NATO alphabet (as used in real-life civil aviation) with predictable consequences. "The phonetic alphabet version of M is not 'muh'!" Television Tare Easy Love Easy Victor Item Sugar Item Oboe Nan (Television) Archer 's inability to use this creates a Crowning Moment of Funny in "Skytanic". Seriously, Mancy? The Los Angeles actives in Dollhouse — who are the focus of the show — are all named from it. (The ones at the Washington, DC branch are named after Greek gods, suggesting that each branch uses a different scheme.) The Simpsons episode "Separate Vocations" shows that the Springfield police have an unusual radio alphabet: Snake's licence plate is read out as "Eggplant Xerxes Crybaby Overbite Narwhal". In one NCIS episode, information is being confused so Gibbs requires everyone to use the phonetic alphabet. Abby takes to it particularly easily. The military alphabet is often used in JAG . Hey, all the main characters are military officers, so why not? Being centered around the Air Force, Stargate SG-1 naturally uses this trope, especially with the characters who have a military background. If you ever hear "Sierra Golf Charlie" mentioned they're talking about Stargate Command. One of the peculiarities of number pronunciation is on display when O'Neill's call sign is used: Sierra Golf One Niner. Radio: Unit 17, please report. Stewie: Ten-four. Everything's Charlie Forty Sixty. Brian: What does that mean? Stewie: I dunno, I just think you're supposed to say names and numbers. Nobody's corrected me so far. (explosion) Stewie: What the hell was that? (into radio) Help! Help! I mean...Charlie Tango Cash, Forty-seven Victor Charlie, Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman. MAS*H had nurses named Able and Baker. Subverted on The Thin Blue Line when it turns out to be requests for drinks from a pizza place. "Tango. Tango. Lilt and a Fanta." Since half the characters are ex-military, it pops up often on Person of Interest . Additionally, this is how the Machine communicates with anyone who's not Root. The Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Brothers" has Data rattle off a massively long command authorization code that includes "charlie," "tango" and "victor." Victor India Delta Echo Oscar Golf Alpha Mike Echo Sierra (Video Games) Cole Phelps' radio codename is "Car 11 King". The Call of Duty series, specifically Modern Warfare and its sequels, are credited with popularizing a number of NATO alphabet phrases among American teenagers. Most notably, the use of "Tango" to mean "target", "Oscar Mike" for "on the move", and the title of one Modern Warfare 2 mission, "Whiskey Hotel", to mean White House (though this last one may or may not actually be used by the military). The flight simulator, Falcon 3.0, makes use of some real-life examples. After shooting down an enemy plane, you'll hear your wingman say "Alpha Mike Foxtrot" ("Adios, mother fucker"). Also, if you give your wingman an order that'll get him killed (e.g., telling him to descend more than his current altitude), he'll tell you "Kilo Mike Alpha" ("Kiss my ass"). The phonetic jargon in Generation Kill was a plot point: as the reporter grows closer to the squad, they finally start telling him what some of the phrases mean. Like Whiskey Tango = White Trash. The phrase "Oscar Mike," meaning "On the Move" has suddenly seen prevalence in military videogames since Generation Kill aired, notably the aforementioned Modern Warfare 2 and Operation Flashpoint: Dragon Rising. In Half-Life 2 the Overwatch dispatcher uses phonetic codenames and numbers — such as "X-ray 8" or "Union 5" — when addressing specific Civil Protection teams. In Half-Life : Opposing Force, one of the levels is named "Foxtrot Uniform", which is an acronym for "Fucked Up". Halo uses it extensively. Fitting, since it's a military-based series. Notable examples include "Sierra" (Spartan) and "Bravo Kilo" (refers to Brutes, short for "Baby Kong"). Operation Flashpoint makes heavy use of the NATO phonetic alphabet. The topographical maps of the each of the game's islands are partitioned into squares with letters along the top and bottom and numbers down the sides. Combined these letters and numbers form map references and the letters are pronounced over the radio as their phonetic equivalents, so a squad leader might order his men to "Go to Delta Foxtrot Two Five", for example. The words are also often used as codenames to identify the various squads. "Alpha" through "Echo" are usually used to refer to infantry squads, "Yankee" usually refers to a tank platoon, the helicopter gunships are usually "November" and so on. The downloadable platform game Blade Kitty has various Mooks cry out "Oscar Michael Golf" or "Sierra Oscar Lima" as you defeat them MechWarrior 3 had nav point designations of Able, Baker, Charlie, Dog and Echo, and the fourth game uses Greek letters. Living Legends uses the NATO system for Betty's pronounciation of the alphanumeric base names, up to Golf. Outpost ECHO SIX Captured. The Police Quest series uses the LAPD alphabet to refer to specific units. In the second game, for example, you and your partner are 52mary when called by the dispatcher. Wing Commander Prophecy has one of the (non- Red Shirt ) wingmen give you a blistering "Whiskey Tango Foxtrot over" if you accidentally shoot his ship. In the Left 4 Dead comic the army call the infected "Whiskey Deltas", for walking dead. Corki the Daring Bombardier from League of Legends makes some use of this when you order him into battle, usually to disguise profanity . It's a Charlie Foxtrot!translation clusterfuck Delta Sierratranslation dog shit at twelve-o-clock! Lima Oscar Lima!translation LOL In XCOM: Enemy Unknown , aliens are called X-Rays by the soldiers, probably due to the Nicknaming the Enemy pattern common in US forces to call their enemies by the Military Alphabet code for one of their letters. The three captains in Pikmin 3 are named after the first three letters in the NATO alphabet: Alph, Brittany, and Charlie. In Payday 2 is a rather subtle one. You can find a casual looking magazine with the title of Whiskey Tango Foxtrot. In the English version of Inazuma Eleven GO 2, the members of the villainous Protocol Omega teams are each named after a letter of the NATO alphabet. It's likely intended to emphasize their cold, military precision.	i don't know
In which Indian city in 1984 was a toxic cloud of methyl isocynate accidentally released from a pesticide plant killing a least 15,000 people?	The 1984 Bhopal Gas Disaster: Three Decades After \| ANSER The 1984 Bhopal Gas Disaster: Three Decades After By N. Vinod Chandra Menon, Founder Member, National Disaster Management Authority, Government of India Published: June 16, 2015 An earlier version of this paper was presented by the author at the “International Conference on CBRNe Response: Identifying Challenges to Delivering Capabilities,” organized by Banyan Analytics, in Washington, DC, on April 14, 2014. The chemical gas leak on the night of December 2, 1984, and in the early hours of December 3, 1984, at the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India provides valuable lessons on the need to strengthen disaster preparedness, risk reduction, preventive maintenance, and emergency response capacities among various stakeholder groups. Background Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) was formed in the early part of the 20th century by the merger of four U.S. companies that manufactured batteries, arc lamps for street lighting, and headlights for cars. “By the second half of the 20th century, UCC had 130 subsidiaries in 40 countries, approximately 500 production sites, and 120,000 employees.” [i] UCC’s India operations began with “an assembly plant for batteries” in Calcutta in 1924. “By 1983, UCC had 14 plants in India manufacturing chemicals[,] pesticides, batteries and other products.” [ii] In 1954, UCC had begun experiments to manufacture a chemical pesticide, codenamed “Experimental Insecticide Seven Seven.” This pesticide was later named Sevin, and its manufacturing process involved a reaction of phosgene gas with monomethylamine to create a new molecule called methyl isocyanate (MIC). This compound was found to be highly toxic and dangerous, and the results of UCC’s toxicology experiments on rats were “so terrifying that the company banned publication of” the work. The compound was also found to be volatile, reacting violently on “contact with a few drops of water or a few ounces of metal dust” and emitting “a fatal cloud into the atmosphere,” and it had to always be kept at temperatures close to 0° C to prevent this. [iii] In 1966, Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL, an Indian subsidiary of UCC who owned 50.9 percent stakes) signed an agreement with the Government of India to “import 1,200 tons of Sevin” from UCC and establish a factory in India at Kali Grounds in Bhopal “to produce Sevin within five years.” [iv] Bhopal was selected “because of its central location and access to transport infrastructure” [v] for distribution across the country. However, the site where the factory was set up “was zoned for light industrial and commercial use, not for hazardous industry.” [vi] The application for setting up the factory did not reveal the hazardous nature of the pesticides that would be produced using highly toxic chemicals such as MIC, chloroform, and phosgene that could cause harm to neighboring settlements, and the local communities were not warned of any possible danger. [vii] The Argentinian UCC engineer Eduardo Munoz, tasked with making the UCIL project a success, had expressed serious concerns about siting the dangerous industry in such an inhabited area and about the large quantities of MIC being stored. However, his concerns were reportedly brushed aside with the words “You have absolutely no need to worry, dear Eduardo Munoz. Your Bhopal plant will be as inoffensive as a chocolate factory.” [viii] The plant was approved initially only for formulation of pesticides from component chemicals, such as MIC imported from the parent company, in relatively small quantities.… pressure from competition in the chemical industry led UCIL to implement “backward integration”—the manufacture of raw materials and intermediate products for formulation of the final product within one facility. This was inherently a more sophisticated and hazardous process. [ix] In 1969, the UCIL pesticide unit was set up in Bhopal with a license “to manufacture 5,000 tons of Sevin per year,” [x] and the pesticide unit of UCIL for manufacturing Sevin was commissioned in 1977. UCIL started producing MIC in 1980. [xi] Early Warnings and Previous Incidents There were many incidents at the Bhopal plant before the disaster of 1984. For example, on November 24, 1978, “there was a huge fire in the storage area of alpha-naphthol … which could be controlled only after ten hours,” causing “huge loss to the company.” [xii] In December 1981, one plant operator died and three workers were injured in a phosgene gas leak. On February 9, 1982, another phosgene gas leak affected 16 workers. All these incidents prompted UCIL to organize a “Safety Week” from April 10 to 16, 1982, but “at least 10 accidents were reported” during the same period. [xiii] These events forced UCC to send a three-member “team of safety experts to India to carry out an Operational Safety Survey” in May 1982. Their report “warned that a leak could occur due to ‘equipment failure, operation problems or maintenance problems.’” [xiv] The report also criticized the general maintenance and upkeep of the plant: The report described the surroundings of the plant site as being “strewn with oily old drums, used piping, pools of used oil and chemical waste likely to cause fire.” It condemned the shoddy workmanship on certain connections, the warping of equipment, the corrosion of several circuits, the absence of automatic sprinklers in the MIC and phosgene production zones, and the risk of explosion in the gas evacuation flares. It also reported leaks of phosgene, MIC and chloroform, ruptures in pipework and sealed joints, absence of any earth [ground] wire on one of the three MIC tanks and poor adjustment of certain [devices] where excessive pressure could lead to water entering the circuits. [xv] It further expressed concerns about “the inadequately trained staff, unsatisfactory instruction methods and sloppy maintenance reports.” [xvi] There were other reports of minor leaks, and a report published by the Centre for Science and Environment quoted Ramnarayan Jadav, a driver, who mentioned that though he detected the 1984 gas leak much earlier, at 11:30 pm on the fateful day, “he stayed on for at least another 45 minutes because ‘this much gas used to leak every eighth day and we used to feel irritation in the chest and in the eyes. But finally everything used to calm down.’” [xvii] Apart from these incidents, there were fears and concerns raised by the media and local residents and activists, which were also not taken seriously. “The day is not far off when Bhopal will be a dead city, when only scattered stones and debris will bear witness to its tragic end,” stated the Bhopal Rapat Weekly in 1982. [xviii] Similarly, a Hindi weekly, Report, carried a “lead article titled ‘Please Save This City’, which was published on” September 17, 1982, warning “the residents of Bhopal of the imminent danger from the UCIL plant,” [xix] followed by another article on October 1, 1982, with the headline “Bhopal you are sitting on the mouth of a volcano!” [xx] The issue of UCIL plant safety was also raised in the Madhya Pradesh state assembly in December 1982, but the state’s Labour Minister rejected the plea to relocate the factory to a less populated site, saying, “The factory is not a small stone, which can be shifted elsewhere. There is no danger to Bhopal, nor will there ever be.” [xxi] There was also an MIC leak reported in October 1982, resulting from “a broken valve, seriously affecting four workers and causing eye irritation and breathlessness among people in the nearby communities.” [xxii] However, despite all these concerns, the only “corporate health and safety audit over the seven years of plant operations” [xxiii] was the one in 1982. Cost-Cutting by UCIL By 1984, crop failures, droughts, and increasing farmer indebtedness had led to a decline in demand for chemical pesticides, and the UCIL plant at Bhopal “was manufacturing Sevin at one quarter of its production capacity.” [xxiv] Decreased profitability of the plant had led to local managers being “directed to close the plant and prepare it for sale in July 1984.” [xxv] Pending its sale, the plant was attempting to cut costs and was operating “with safety equipment and procedures far below the standards” [xxvi] of a similar UCC plant in West Virginia. “The disaster demonstrated that seemingly local problems of industrial hazards and toxic contamination are often tied to global market dynamics.” [xxvii] “The operating manual supplied by the U.S. company was also grossly inadequate. The MIC control room plant manual did not have instructions for procedures to follow in the event of a rise in temperature or pressure of stored tanks of MIC.” [xxviii] “The local government was aware of safety problems but was [reluctant] to place heavy industrial safety and pollution control burdens on the struggling industry because it feared the economic effects of the loss of such a large employer.” [xxix] T. R. Chouhan, a former MIC plant operator at Bhopal, has been quoted as saying, “… in case of an accident, the company had made evacuation plans only for the workers and not for the people living around the plant. Even the siren to warn people was switched off after five minutes as per the company’s revised policies. Only a muted alarm to alert personnel continued to ring.” [xxx] Though UCIL had a license to produce 5,000 tons of MIC-based pesticides annually, the “peak production was only 2704 tons in 1981, which fell to 1657 tons in 1983”—only 33% “of its licensed capacity. Within the first ten months of 1984, UCIL’s losses were 50 million rupees. [xxxi] UCIL’s cost-cutting drive led to 200 “skilled workers and technicians [being] asked to resign.” [xxxii] “Between one-half and two-thirds of the skilled engineers who had worked with the plant right from the project stage had left the plant by 1983.” [xxxiii] The staff was reduced to half its strength between 1980 and 1984. [xxxiv] This in fact was a critical factor, as pointed out by S. Varadarajan, Chairman of the government committee appointed to investigate the cause of the disaster. “Speaking at the Indian Science Congress in January 1985, Varadarajan claimed that his team had not found anyone in Bhopal who had any idea of the chemistry of MIC. Engineers at the plant went by operating manuals only and did not know the plant design. Efforts to locate the original designers of the factory to learn more about the system had also failed.” [xxxv] In the MIC unit, the personnel were cut by half in each shift. The duration of the safety training was reduced from six months to 15 days. The control room had one man to monitor more than “70 dials, counters and gauges,” which showed critical information, including “the temperature and pressure of the three tanks containing the MIC.” [xxxvi] MIC “gas can react with almost any chemical, including itself, to generate substantial quantities of heat and carbon dioxide. The heat released causes the reaction to speed up, which generates more heat, and pressure can thus go on building up till it finally reaches an explosive level.… [Varadarajan said that the] reaction could have started even two weeks before the fatal night.” [xxxvii] On the night of December 2, 1984, MIC “was flowing through the scrubber (meant to neutralize MIC emissions) at more than 200 times its designed capacity. MIC in the tank was filled to 87% of its capacity, while the maximum permissible was 50%. MIC was not stored at” 0° C: “the refrigeration and cooling systems had been shut down five months before … Vital gauges and indicators in [MIC tank 610] were defective. The flare tower meant to burn off MIC emissions was dismantled and under repair at the time of the disaster.… In order to save coal, the flames which burnt off any toxic gases” [xxxviii] had also been extinguished. “The scrubber contained no caustic soda,” as “the scrubber cylinder, used to decontaminate any gas leaks,” had also been deactivated. [xxxix] The Bhopal Gas Leak At about 9.30 pm on December 2, 1984, “during routine maintenance … a large quantity of water entered tank no. 610,” which contained “over 40 tons of MIC,” triggering a reaction and increasing the “temperature and pressure in the tank.” [xl] Varadarajan’s hypothesis, according to the Centre for Science and Environment was that “the phosgene-water reaction produced heat, carbon dioxide and hydrochloric acid. The heat and hydrochloric acid acted as the accelerators of the polymerisation of MIC leading to a runaway reaction.” [xli] Forty tons of MIC, hydrogen cyanide, and other toxic gases were released into the air around 12:30 am. “Senior factory officials knew of the lethal build-up in the tank at least one hour before the leakage, yet the siren to warn the neighborhood communities was sounded more than one hour after the leak started. By then, the poisonous gases had covered an area of 40 sq. kms., killing thousands” [xlii] and injuring more than 500,000 people. When thousands of people reached the hospitals, the doctors called the medical officer at UCIL to find out what gas was causing the injury. Dr. Loya, UCIL’s doctor in Bhopal, replied: “It is not a deadly gas, just irritating, a sort of tear gas.” [xliii] Jagannathan Mukund, the Managing Director of the Bhopal plant, was also initially unaware that his company was responsible, and said, “The gas leak just can’t be from my plant.… Our technology just can’t go wrong. We just can’t have such leaks.” [xliv] Even today, there has been no official confirmation from UCC or UCIL as to what poisonous gases were in the gas cloud that leaked into the atmosphere in Bhopal. Several explanations for why the explosion occurred have been presented. According to the Centre for Science and Environment, these were the critical issues: One, the company never installed in Bhopal the computerised pressure/temperature sensing system, which it has used for several years in the US plant as a warning device. Two, the community living near the plant had never been told of the significance of the danger alarm. The danger alarm had sounded several times accidentally in the past and resembled a nearby factory’s shift change hooter. Many people on hearing the alarm after the gas leak actually rushed towards the factory. Thirdly, the community had never been informed about the dangers posed by the materials used in the plant. Several neighbours thought that the plant made medicines. This contrasts sharply with the right-to-know laws in … US states. In West Virginia, Union Carbide is forced by law to inform people regularly about the dangers they face and instruct them about appropriate action during an emergency. [xlv] UCC made claims of deliberate sabotage, first blaming Sikh terrorists and later a disgruntled employee. According to the report by UCC’s Jackson Browning, “… the gas was formed when a disgruntled plant employee, apparently bent on spoiling a batch of methyl isocyanate, added water to a storage tank. The water caused a reaction that built up heat and pressure in the tank, quickly transforming the chemical compound into a lethal gas that escaped into the cool night air.” [xlvi] However, reportedly this was later denied by UCC Chairman Warren Anderson, who, when asked by a US Congressional panel, “admitted that he had ‘no evidence whatsoever that sabotage was behind’ the Bhopal disaster.” [xlvii] Whatever the cause of the explosion, the fact is that “within hours, the streets of Bhopal were littered with human corpses and the carcasses of buffaloes, cows, dogs and birds.” [xlviii] In the words of the CSE Report, “the gas that spewed out of the hi-tech factory of the multinational Union Carbide spread over some 40 sq km and affected people seriously as distant as five km to eight km downwind. For nearly 200,000 people, a quarter of the city’s population, Bhopal became a gas chamber. If it were not for the two lakes of Bhopal which came in the way of the gas cloud and neutralised it, an even bigger tragedy could have taken place. [xlix] ” Estimates of the actual deaths also vary: 3,800 people reportedly died immediately, mostly in the slum adjacent to the UCC plant, and “estimates of the number of people killed in the first few days by the plume from the UCC plant run as high as 10,000, with 15,000 to 20,000 premature deaths reportedly occurring in the subsequent two decades. The Indian government reported that more than half a million people were exposed to the gas. Several epidemiological studies conducted soon after the accident showed significant morbidity and increased mortality in the exposed population.” [l] The Indian Council of Medical Research later estimated that “about 600,000 of the nearly 900,000 people of the city, may have suffered injuries in varying degree.” [li] “The impact on flora and fauna in the affected area was equally staggering,” [lii] and many exposed individuals left the city immediately after the disaster and did not return, thus being lost to follow-up. Moreover, the poorest were the worst hit. According to UNICEF estimates, about 200,000 people were affected, “of which 80 per cent were Muslims, 75 per cent slum dwellers, 40 per cent children below one year of age, 20 per cent women in the reproductive age group, and 10 percent elderly women.” [liii] “The entire episode left the survivors, their health and their economy totally shattered.” [liv] A survey by the medical college at King Edward Memorial Hospital in Mumbai 100 days after the Bhopal disaster observed that the impact of the gas leak on people within 2 km of the Union Carbide plant was severe. [lv] The impact of the leak of the poisonous gas lingers among the affected people even after 30 years. Out of 250,000 exposed population, 63,385 people had severe medical disability, while 43,864 people had mild to moderate medical disability. [lvi] After the Bhopal Gas Leak, the Union Carbide facility at Institute, West Virginia, which had been producing MIC since 1966, was closed down for four months [lvii] “until safety measures were reexamined and more light shed on the cause of the Bhopal tragedy.” [lviii] A medical team was sent from the United States to help identify the best treatment options and work with the local medical community. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention sent “four medical experts to evaluate the impact on” human health. [lix] Government of India’s Response “The government’s response was uncertain and tardy,” stated the Centre for Science and Environment. “The Central government … flew in a team of doctors, as well as a Central Bureau of Investigation” team. [lx] The factory was closed on December 3 on the orders of the district magistrate, and five officers of the company were arrested in Bhopal. “A judicial enquiry into the tragedy was announced. The next day two teams of chemical industry and environmental experts were flown in from Delhi.” [lxi] However, the entire response was ad hoc and confused, partly due to ignorance about what had happened and how to deal with it, and partly due to the government’s being overwhelmed by the sheer magnitude of the problem. This was compounded by the atmosphere of extreme fear and distrust that prevailed, reflected in the controversy and drama that surrounded the safe disposal of the remaining MIC in the tanks. This incident brutally exposed the lack of preparedness and planning. The legal issues and the cleanup of the disaster site remain incomplete even after 30 years. “It’s clear that legal and official hurdles continue to delay the cleaning-up of 30-year-old chemical trash.” [lxii] The Emergency Response to the Gas Leak UCC says that, immediately after the Bhopal disaster, it “provided approximately $2 million in aid to the Prime Minister’s Relief Fund,” “immediately and continuously provided medical equipment and supplies,” and “sent an international team of medical experts to Bhopal to provide expertise and assistance.” [lxiii] Although UCC claimed that the company “openly shared all its information on” MIC with the Government of India, “including all published and unpublished toxicity studies available at the time,” [lxiv] Edward Broughton disputed this: “At every turn, UCC has attempted to manipulate, obfuscate and withhold scientific data to the detriment of victims.” [lxv] UCC’s claim has been contested by several reports. Union Carbide also says it took the following actions: - “Dispatched a team of technical MIC experts to Bhopal on the day after the tragedy,” carrying “MIC studies that were widely shared with medical and scientific personnel in Bhopal” - “Funded the attendance by Indian medical experts at special meetings on research and treatment for victims” - “Provided a $2.2 million grant to Arizona State University to establish a vocational-technical center in Bhopal, which was constructed and opened, but was later closed and levelled by the government” - “Offered an initial $10 million to build a hospital in Bhopal; the offer was declined” - “Provided an additional $5 million to the Indian Red Cross” - “Established an independent charitable trust for a Bhopal hospital and provided initial funding of approximately $20 million” - “Upon the sale of its interest in” UCIL, “and pursuant to a court order, provided approximately $90 million to the charitable trust for the hospital” [lxvi] One of the biggest obstacles immediately facing the first responders was ignorance about the exact nature of the problem they faced and the course of treatment to be administered. “Amazingly, even as hundreds died in Bhopal, the confusion over what it was that was killing them persisted right through the horrendous first week and after. Nobody knew anything, including experts at the Union ministry of chemicals in New Delhi.” Even by 2005, UCC had “not stated exactly what was in the toxic cloud.” [lxvii] There were some clues, however: “When MIC gets exposed to 200° heat, it forms degraded MIC that contains the more deadly” hydrogen cyanide. “The cherry-red color of blood and viscera of some victims [was] characteristic of acute cyanide poisoning.” [lxviii] Many victims responded well to “sodium thiosulphate, an effective therapy for cyanide poisoning.” [lxix] However, UCC insisted that the gas had no cyanide. UCC’s Medical Director in the United States, Bipin Avashia, “cabled the authorities in Bhopal to administer sodium thiosulphate to the victims ‘if cyanide poisoning is suspected.’” [lxx] But “in Bhopal 10 days after the disaster, Avashia … argued that there could be no cyanide poisoning.” Union Carbide “issued a statement: ‘MIC is not a cyanide. In no way should it be confused as such. MIC naturally degrades in the environment by reacting readily with water to become harmless substances while cyanides do not react with water.’” [lxxi] The Indian Council of Medical Research held a press conference in February 1985 and “announced that it was now tentatively convinced that MIC-affected patients were suffering from chronic cyanide poisoning, though it was not able to say where this cyanide was coming from.” [lxxii] It also advised the use of sodium thiosulphate. Lessons Learned Besides the evident need for a robust disaster management plan and regularly exercised emergency response mechanisms in industrial units handling hazardous chemicals, the Bhopal tragedy threw up other key issues that were debated and discussed in great detail over the years not just within India but globally. Even in the United States, according to Browning, “the impact of Bhopal went well beyond Union Carbide. It changed views and practices among the entire U.S. chemical industry. It provided impetus to the development and enactment of federal laws requiring companies to notify government and the public about toxic substances they make or use. The EPA’s Federal Superfund Reauthorization, spurred by the Bhopal tragedy, helped bring about a network of local emergency planning councils, in which corporate specialists work with their neighboring communities to safely deal with unthinkable environmental disasters.” [lxxiii] The Chemical Manufacturers Association established the Community Action Emergency Response (CAER) and the Responsible Care programs. The Bhopal tragedy also led to increased environmental activism and demand for public accountability and scrutiny by civil society and media. In the Town Planning By-laws and City Master Plans, the concerns for zoning and regulation of siting of hazardous industries in urban or populated areas, including issues related to existence of adequate infrastructure and financial support, received greater attention in the years that followed. The need to establish Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) in the industrial townships also was recognized. As Broughton observed, “Communities that do not possess infrastructure and technical expertise to respond adequately to such industrial accidents should not be chosen as sites for hazardous industry.” [lxxiv] The critical imperative of center-staging preventive maintenance as an integral part of routine safety culture in industrial plants that process, store, and transport hazardous chemicals was highlighted. The need to establish parks, open spaces, and green belts in industrial townships was also recognized. There was greater civic pressure on ensuring the integrity of safety systems in hazardous chemical units and increasing demand for the formulation, enactment, and strict enforcement of public safety, health, and safety laws, regulations, and standards in industrial units handling hazardous chemicals. The Bhopal tragedy also highlighted environmental issues such as the need for phasing out hazardous chemical pesticides and reevaluating the need for laws to control hazardous chemicals and industries, pollution, effluent and waste management, and air and water pollution, as well as to review soil conservation and land use patterns and corporate accountability and corporate social responsibility. The strategy of the path of industrialization and development adopted by the country was debated, with increasing demands for a more sustainable growth path that guarantees public safety. The problems associated with setting up and establishing a multinational company in a developing country also received attention. As the Browning report put it: “It became a political story that focused on varied interpretations of the societal role of multinational corporations and crucial differences between Eastern and Western cultures.” [lxxv] The right to information, the right of the public to know, and the need for public involvement and participation and in disaster management and industrial development were also emphasized by various stakeholder groups. In the words of the Centre for Science and Environment report, “To ensure that safety measures are indeed undertaken, the people must be fully involved and informed about all possible dangers.… The Bhopal disaster … reinforced the need—and demand—to democratise access to information. It is clear that otherwise every interest group will try to exploit the society’s ignorance for its own nefarious ends.” [lxxvi] The problems caused by inadequate telecommunication links in general were also exposed during this disaster: the parent company in the United States was dependent on overwhelmed trunk telephone lines and the radio for information about the disaster. [lxxvii] “Information direct from Bhopal was slow in arriving and fragmentary at best.” [lxxviii] The need to continuously inform and update the press and the public at large also was recognized mainly because of the greater reliance on print media at that time. The lack of transparent, free, and reliable information heightened the atmosphere of mutual distrust among the company, public, and government authorities, greatly complicating the response efforts. Techno-Legal Reforms After the Bhopal Tragedy Among the significant reforms was the enactment of the Environment (Protection) Act in 1986 and the associated establishment of the Ministry of Environment and Forests as the nodal ministry for administering, enforcing, and monitoring “environmental laws and policies” and ensuring the integration of “environmental strategies into all industrial development plans for the country.” [lxxix] The Government of India also established the Disaster Mitigation Institute at Bhopal as an apex body for undertaking the capacity building of all stakeholder groups, creating greater public awareness on industrial safety, and carrying out research on related subjects. Other reforms include: - Setting up the National Disaster Management Authority and establishing the disaster management framework to reach out to the state, district, and village levels - National Disaster Management Authority Guidelines on Chemical Disasters (Industrial), Nuclear and Radiological Emergencies, Medical Preparedness and Mass Casualty Management, Biological Disasters, etc. - The Right to Information Act—“An Act to provide for setting out the practical regime of right to information for citizens to secure access to information under the control of public authorities, in order to promote transparency and accountability in the working of every public authority” - Relaxing the Official Secrets Act and replacing the 2002 Freedom of information Act Some areas of concern remain. The liberalization, privatization, and globalization ushered in through the economic reforms in India in the early 90’s led to a mushrooming of small- and medium-scale factories in major urban areas, as opposed to large industrial units. However, because the smaller factories usually produce less waste, they are less stringently regulated, yet pollution caused by their effluent discharge and release of gas clouds poses serious challenges: “New Delhi’s Yamuna River is illustrative. Dangerously high levels of heavy metals such as lead, cobalt, cadmium, chrome, nickel and zinc have been detected in this river which is a major supply of potable water to India’s capital thus posing a potential health risk to the people living there and areas downstream.” [lxxx] With significant global increase in hazardous chemical industries, [lxxxi] there is a greater need for enforceable uniform international operating regulations for installations handling the production, processing, storage, and transportation of hazardous chemicals. The corporate sector engaged in using hazardous chemicals in production processes has a greater responsibility for creating public awareness of the potential risks of the operations and of emergency response procedures related to gas leaks, explosions, etc. There is also a need for strict enforcement of site selection and location of hazardous industrial units away from human settlements and to institutionalize mandatory preventive maintenance of all machinery and equipment in hazardous chemical units. The Responsible Care program, started in the United States after the tragedy in Bhopal, needs to spread to all countries where hazardous chemicals are used in the production, processing, storage, and transportation of products. Responsible Care has already been adopted by 52 national chemical industry associations around the world. The Indian Chemical Manufacturers’ Association launched Responsible Care in India in 1992; at present 92 chemical companies are signatories. [lxxxii] India’s Environment (Protection) Act was intended to ensure the safety and security of people from disasters caused by human error or negligence in the transportation, storage, and processing of hazardous chemicals. A few of the regulatory provisions prepared under its rules have an important role in controlling major accidents and responding to the emergencies arising from hazardous chemicals: - Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989, 2000 - Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991, 1992 - Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Amendment Rules, 1996 In India, 273 districts have factories storing, processing and transporting hazardous chemicals; these factories are called major accident hazards (MAH) units; 170 of those districts have clusters of more than five units (Hazardous/Industrial Pockets). There are an estimated 1,790 units in the country. On-site emergency plans have been prepared for 1,635 of them, and off-site emergency plans have been prepared for 137 districts. Twenty-six of the plans are based on hazard analysis studies undertaken at the initiative of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. By law, a drill of the on-site plan by an occupier every six months is required. However, the drills of off-site plans are not conducted regularly. As Gujarat has a large number of hazardous chemical units, its government has established five control rooms: the Emergency Control Room in Vadodara (registered as a Central Control Room); the Atul Emergency Control Centre in Atul Ltd., Valsad; the Emergency Control Centre in the Vapi Industrial Association, Vapi; the Disaster Prevention and Management Center in the Fire Station of the Gujarat Industrial Development Centre, Ankleshwar; and the Disaster Management Centre, Bharuch, in the Indian Petro Chemical Limited Guest House, Dahej Off-Site Emergency Control Room. Four Emergency Response Centres have been established: Manali in Chennai, Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, Mahad in Maharastra, and Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh. The centers are mandated to deal with chemical emergencies in their area and disseminate technical information relating to the hazardous chemicals that are stored, transported, and processed there. The first National Poison Information Centre was set up in the Department of Pharmacology in 1995 at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences in New Delhi. The main functions of Poison Control Centres are toxico-surveillance (actively surveying the prevailing and potential toxic risks) and environmental health monitoring. These centers help to detect events such as heavy metal contamination, occupational exposure, and food, water, and air or soil contamination. In West Bengal, with the support of the European Commission and technical support from the International Institute for Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation, Netherlands, and the Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen, Italy, an Environmental Risk Reporting Information System (ERRIS) has been established. ERRIS provides an integrated approach to risk management through bottom-up planning, information systems, institutional mechanisms, collaborative partnerships, and sensitization of stakeholders in the chemical industries. The ERRIS Project has developed a comprehensive database of hazardous industries, hazardous chemicals, vulnerable areas, and emergency response resources. It has a Hazard Mapping module that can analyze scenarios and address natural disasters. The ERRIS Project also has potential for assisting the planning for urban land use, location of hazmat units, industrial estates, etc. However, there is an unfinished agenda for improving the disaster management practices in industries handling hazardous chemicals: remediation of the areas and groundwater in and around UCIL, Bhopal, contaminated by hazardous waste; strengthening the preparedness and emergency response capacities of first responders, technical staff, and workers in hazardous chemical units; creating greater public awareness of the potential risk of hazardous chemical units; strict enforcement of safety regulations; strengthening of chemical disaster preparedness in areas with hazardous chemical factories by preparing worst-case scenarios and conducting drills; and developing on-site and off-site disaster management plans. Conclusions In the developing countries in the Asia-Pacific region, the Bhopal gas leak must remain a grim reminder of the adverse consequences of lack of enforcement and monitoring for strict compliance with safety regulations. The Government of India introduced several safety regulations and legislation to strengthen disaster preparedness, risk reduction, and emergency response capacities in India after the Bhopal disaster. Since 1984, the regulatory environment has become more rigid. The uncontrolled expansion of hazardous chemical industries and the introduction of hazardous chemicals in small and medium-size enterprises pose serious challenges in enforcement and monitoring of compliance by industrial units. The industrial units transporting, processing, storing, and manufacturing hazardous chemicals have to create greater awareness among the public about the potential dangers of various hazardous chemicals and also conduct drills using off-site and on-site disaster management plans. Social networking websites and applications can also be used to disseminate public awareness resources to improve safety and security and strengthen chemical disaster preparedness in the developing countries. --------------- N. Vinod Chandra Menon is a Founder Member of the National Disaster Management Authority for the Government of India. The views expressed are soley the author's. Image courtesy of Bhopal Medical Appeal via Flickr Creative Commons. Image cropped and adapted. --------------- “The Aftermath of Bhopal,” EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] Journal, January/February 1985, www2.epa.gov/aboutepa/aftermath-bhopal. 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Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India, Center for Management Research, Hyderabad, India, European Case Clearing House Collection, 2002. “The Essential Chemical Industry,” University of York, England, July 21, 2013, www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/the-chemical-industry/the-chemical-industry.html . Ben A. Franklin, “Toxic Cloud Leaks at Carbide Plant in West Virginia,” New York Times, August 12, 1985, www.nytimes.com/1985/08/12/us/toxic-cloud-leaks-at-carbide-plant-in-west-virginia.html . “India Reassesses Responsible Care,” Chemical Watch, November 2012, https://chemicalwatch.com/12928/india-reassesses-responsible-care . N .D. Jayaprakash, “A Note on the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster—Part 1,” August 23, 2010. N. D. Jayaprakash, “Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster: UCC’s Heinous Crime and Response of the Indian State,” The Marxist, XXVI 2, April-June 2010, pp. 25-50. L. A. Kail, J. M. Paulson, and C. S. Tyson, “Operational Safety Survey, CO/MIC/SEVIN Units, Union Carbide India Limited, Bhopal Plant, May 1982,” UCC, Chemicals and Plastics, West Virginia, p. 2; (quoted in N. D. Jayaprakash, 2010). Dominique Lapierre and Javier Moro, Five Past Midnight in Bhopal: The Epic Story of the World’s Deadliest Industrial Disaster (Delhi: Full Circle Publishing, 2001) (quoted in Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India, Center for Management Research, Hyderabad, India, European Case Clearing House Collection, 2002). Bhopal Rapat Weekly, September 30, 1982, quoted in Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India, Center for Management Research, Hyderabad, India, European Case Clearing House Collection, 2002. M. Rawat, M. C. Moturi, V. Subramanian, “Inventory Compilation and Distribution of Heavy Metals in Wastewater from Small-scale Industrial Areas of Delhi, India,” Journal of Environmental Monitoring, vol. 5, no. 6, December 2003, doi: 10.1039/b306628b (quoted in Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review,” Environmental Health, vol. 4, no. 6, 2005, published online May 10. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-4-6, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1142333/ ). Union Carbide Corporation website on the Bhopal incident: www.bhopal.com [i] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India, Center for Management Research, Hyderabad, India, European Case Clearing House Collection, 2002, p. 3. [ii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 3. [iii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 3. [iv] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 3. [v] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review,” Environmental Health, vol. 4, no. 6, 2005, published online May 10. doi: 10.1186/1476-069X-4-6, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1142333/ . [vi] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [vii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 4. [viii] Dominique Lapierre and Javier Moro, Five Past Midnight in Bhopal: The Epic Story of the World’s Deadliest Industrial Disaster (Delhi: Full Circle Publishing, 2001) (quoted in Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” pp. 3-4). [ix] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [x] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 3. [xi] N. D. Jayaprakash, “Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster: UCC’s Heinous Crime and Response of the Indian State,” The Marxist, vol. XXVI 2, April-June 2010, pp. 25-50. [xii] N. D. Jayaprakash, “Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster.” [xiii] N. D. Jayaprakash, “Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster.” [xiv] L. A. Kail, J. M. Paulson, and C. S. Tyson, “Operational Safety Survey, CO/MIC/SEVIN Units, Union Carbide India Limited, Bhopal Plant, May 1982,” UCC, Chemicals and Plastics, West Virginia, p. 2, quoted in N. D. Jayaprakash, “Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster.” [xv] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 4. [xvi] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 4. [xvii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” in India’s Environment—1984-85, p. 206. [xviii] Bhopal Rapat Weekly, September 30, 1982, quoted in Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 4. [xix] N .D. Jayaprakash, “A Note on the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster—Part 1,” August 23, 2010. [xx] N .D. Jayaprakash, “A Note on the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster—Part 1.” [xxi] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 5. [xxii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 4. [xxiii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 215. [xxiv] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [xxv] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [xxvi] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [xxvii] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [xxviii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 215. [xxix] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [xxx] Poulomi Banerjee, “Thirty Years on … An Unending Tragedy,” New Delhi Hindustan Times, November 9, 2014. [xxxi] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 5. [xxxii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 4. [xxxiii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 5. [xxxiv] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 2. [xxxv] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 208. [xxxvi] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 5. [xxxvii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 208. [xxxviii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” pp. 2, 5. [xxxix] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” pp. 5, 2. [xl] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 5. [xli] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 208. [xlii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 5. [xliii] Sanjib Dutta, “The Bhopal Gas Tragedy,” p. 6. [xliv] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 206. [xlv] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 215. [xlvi] Jackson B. Browning, “Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal,” reprinted with permission from Jack A. Gottschalk (ed.), Crisis Response: Inside Stories on Managing Under Siege (Detroit, MI: Visible Ink Press 1993), on the Union Carbide Bhopal website, http://storage.dow.com.edgesuite.net/dow.com/Bhopal/browning.pdf. [xlvii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 216. [xlviii] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [xlix] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 206. [l] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [li] N .D. Jayaprakash, “A Note on the Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster—Part 1.” [lii] N. D. Jayaprakash, “Bhopal Gas Leak Disaster.” [liii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 210. [liv] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 222. [lv] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 224. [lvi] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 224. [lvii] Ben A. Franklin, “Toxic Cloud Leaks at Carbide Plant in West Virginia,” New York Times, August 12, 1985, www.nytimes.com/1985/08/12/us/toxic-cloud-leaks-at-carbide-plant-in-west-virginia.html. [lviii] Jackson B. Browning, “Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal,” p. 6. [lix] “The Aftermath of Bhopal,” EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] Journal, January/February 1985, www2.epa.gov/aboutepa/aftermath-bhopal. [lx] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 217. [lxi] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 218. [lxii] Poulomi Banerjee, “Thirty Years on … An Unending Tragedy.” [lxiii] “Union Carbide’s Response Efforts to the Tragedy and the Settlement,” Union Carbide Corporation website on the Bhopal incident, http://www.bhopal.com/UCC-Response-Efforts-to-Tragedy. [lxiv] “Union Carbide’s Response Efforts to the Tragedy and the Settlement.” [lxv] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [lxvi] “Union Carbide’s Response Efforts to the Tragedy and the Settlement.” [lxvii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 219. [lxviii] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [lxix] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [lxx] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 219. [lxxi] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 219. [lxxii] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” p. 220. [lxxiii] Jackson B. Browning, “Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal,” p. 14. [lxxiv] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [lxxv] Jackson B. Browning, “Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal,” p. 5. [lxxvi] Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, “The Bhopal Disaster,” pp. 228, 231. [lxxvii] Jackson B. Browning, “Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal,” p. 4. [lxxviii] Jackson B. Browning, “Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal,” p. 4. [lxxix] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [lxxx] Edward Broughton, “The Bhopal Disaster and Its Aftermath: A Review.” [lxxxi] Worldwide chemical sales almost doubled from 2001 to 2011, the University of York, England, “The Essential Chemical Industry,” July 21, 2013, www.essentialchemicalindustry.org/the-chemical-industry/the-chemical-industry.html. [lxxxii] Almost 33% of the members of the Indian Chemical Council are Responsible Care signatories, “but it is a long journey from being a signatory to achieving certification,” according to Jose Cyriac, Secretary of the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilisers (“India Reassesses Responsible Care,” Chemical Watch, November 2012, https://chemicalwatch.com/12928/india-reassesses-responsible-care).	Bhopal
In the USA, the Colorado Beetle is a major pest that attacks which crop?	United Black Untouchables worldwide: CARBIDE Pandemic Extended in CARBIDE Rule!Indians more worried than Chinese, Americans on climate change!Why humans outlive apes?Rising sea level threatens Sunderbans inhabitants! While my Parents Pulin babu and Basanti devi were living Thursday, December 3, 2009 CARBIDE Pandemic Extended in CARBIDE Rule!Indians more worried than Chinese, Americans on climate change!Why humans outlive apes?Rising sea level threatens Sunderbans inhabitants! CARBIDE Pandemic Extended in CARBIDE Rule!Indians more worried than Chinese, Americans on climate change!Why humans outlive apes?Rising sea level threatens Sunderbans inhabitants! Indian Holocaust My Father`s Life and Time -Two Hundred Thirty Nine Palash Biswas Posted Thursday, December 3, 2009 ; 04:15 AM \| View Comments \| Post Comment Updated Thursday, December 3, 2009; 11:04 AM Union Carbide's Bhopal, India, MIC plant The tragedy sparked change at plants in the Kanawha Valley CHARLESTON -- It has been 25 years since one of the worst industrial disasters in history. In 1984, a leak of methyl isocyanate gas, or MIC, from Union Carbide's plant in Bhopal, India, killed nearly 4,000 people. After the tragedy, Union Carbide, changed its manufacturing processes to eliminate large stockpiles of MIC at its facilities. The Dow Chemical Co. purchased Union Carbide in 2001. As of May 2009, more than 200,000 pounds of MIC was stored at the Bayer CropScience Plant in Institute. That plant once was owned by Union Carbide. www.unioncarbide.com Union Carbide Corporation (Union Carbide) is one of the oldest chemical and polymers companies in the United States , currently employing more than 3,800 people. [1] It became infamous for the worst ever industrial accident that took place in its Bhopal , Madhya Pradesh , India plant in 1984 [1] . Union Carbide was found liable for the disaster, but has denied responsibility. Union Carbide became a wholly owned subsidiary of The Dow Chemical Company (TDCC) on February 6, 2001, [2] and sells most of the products it manufactures to TDCC. It is a former component of the Dow Jones Industrial Average . [3] In 1920, its researchers developed an economical way to make ethylene from natural gas liquids such as ethane and propane, giving birth to the modern petrochemical industry. Today, Union Carbide possesses some of the industry's most advanced process and catalyst technologies, and operates some of the most cost-efficient, large-scale production facilities in the world.[ neutrality disputed ] Before divesting them, the chemical giant also owned consumer products Eveready and Energizer batteries , Glad bags and wraps, Simoniz car wax and Prestone antifreeze . Union Carbide primarily produces chemicals and polymers that undergo one or more further conversions by customers before reaching consumers. Some of these materials are high-volume commodities, while others are specialty products meeting the needs of smaller market niches. The end-uses served include paints and coatings, packaging, wire and cable, household products, personal care, pharmaceuticals, automotive, textiles, agriculture and oil and gas. Contents Main article: Bhopal disaster The Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy was an industrial disaster that took place at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in the Indian city of Bhopal , Madhya Pradesh . At midnight on 3 December 1984, the plant accidentally released methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, exposing more than 500,000 people to MIC and other chemicals. The first official immediate death toll was 2,259. The government of Madhya Pradesh has confirmed a total of 3,787 deaths related to the gas release. [4] Others estimate 8,000-10,000 died within 72 hours and 25,000 have since died from gas-related diseases. [5] [6] As of 2009 no one has yet been prosecuted for the disaster. Local groundwater still contains over a thousand times the recommended level of carbon tetrachloride. Groups Worldwide Remember Bhopal Disaster, Urge Dow to Clean Up Site EHS Today - Laura Walter - ‎42 minutes ago‎ 3 to pressure Dow Chemical, the current owner of Union Carbide, to clean up the water in Bhopal and face criminal charges in India. ... Wall Street Journal - Geoffrey Rogow , Steve Goldstein - ‎Dec 2, 2009‎ Weighing against that move, financials were the Dow's weakest components with American Express, JP Morgan Chase and Bank of America all trading in the red. ... GLOBAL MARKETS: European Stocks Seen Up, Dubai Fears Recede Wall Street Journal - Michele Maatouk - ‎Nov 30, 2009‎ Bank of America was the Dow's weakest component Friday, closing down 48 cents, or 3%, at 15.47, reflecting declines across the financial sector amid ... Rytlewski leads Dow High Chargers hockey team over Saginaw Nouvel Midland Daily News - John Kennett - ‎3 hours ago‎ Eli Rytlewski showed Wednesday why he is a leader on the Dow High hockey team. The senior captain had two goals and two assists as the ... Dow expands residential RO membrane production desalination.biz - ‎1 hour ago‎ Dow Water & Process Solutions announced investment on 3 December 2009 in the design, construction and start-up of the next generation production line of ... The Natural Step and Dow Announce Strategic Alignment CSRwire.com (press release) - ‎3 hours ago‎ 03 /CSRwire/ - The Natural Step and The Dow Chemical Company recently announced an agreement that will help both organizations advance their sustainability ... Infosys to double US headcount Times of India - ‎Dec 2, 2009‎ As part of the alliance, Dow and TCS are planning to build a new service centre at a site near Dow's global headquarters in Midland Michigan, the US. ... Market Recap: Dow Ushers In December with a Triple-Digit Gain Schaeffers Research - Andrea Kramer - ‎Dec 1, 2009‎ Against this jolly backdrop, the Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) ushered in December with a triple-digit gain. The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA ... The Resurrection of the Gold Standard Gold Seek - Gary Dorsch - ‎22 hours ago‎ The Dow Jones Industrials is up more than 60% from its lows in March, while at the same time, copper, gold, silver, and a broad array of commodities are ... Renewed Risk Trade Pushes Dow Toward New 13-Month High Wall Street Journal (blog) - Peter A. McKay - ‎Nov 23, 2009‎ Investors are back in the mood to take risks Monday, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average again flirting with 13-month highs and the ... Next The 1984 gas leak in Bhopal, India, was a terrible tragedy that understandably continues to evoke strong emotions even 25 years later. In the wake of the release, Union Carbide Corporation worked diligently to provide immediate and continuing aid to the victims and set up a process to resolve their claims – all of which were settled 18 years ago at the explicit direction and with the approval of the Supreme Court of India. This web site provides our statement regarding the tragedy , details our response , and other historical and legal information about the incident. In 1998, the Indian state government of Madhya Pradesh took full responsibility for the site. For more information on the Indian state government's efforts to address victims' needs and site clean up, visit the Madhya Pradesh web site that addresses the Bhopal tragedy. Since the time of the incident, the chemical industry has worked to voluntarily develop and implement strict safety and environmental standards to help ensure that an incident of this type never occurs again. Read More .... Bhopal Tourism Bhopal, the capital of the state of Madhya Pradesh, has grown around a large lake, part of the city Learn more about Bhopal disaster » The Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy was an industrial disaster that took place at a Union Carbide pesticide plant in the Indian city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. At midnight on 3 December 1984, the plant released an estimated 42 tonnes of toxic ... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rmtN8NkMcmo <object width="425" height="344"><param name="movie" value=" http://www.youtube.com/v/rmtN8NkMcmo&hl=en_US&fs=1& "></param><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"></param><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"></param><embed src=" http://www.youtube.com/v/rmtN8NkMcmo&hl=en_US&fs=1& " type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="425" height="344"></embed></object> By Vineet Sharma, 03/12/2009 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lbpuSPL-FNU <object width="425" height="344"><param name="movie" value=" http://www.youtube.com/v/lbpuSPL-FNU&hl=en_US&fs=1& "></param><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"></param><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"></param><embed src=" http://www.youtube.com/v/lbpuSPL-FNU&hl=en_US&fs=1& " type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="425" height="344"></embed></object> Bhopal Disaster - BBC - The Yes Men The Yes Men strike again. Impersonating a Dow Chemical spokesman on BBC, "Jude Finisterra" promises a huge compensation for the thousands of victims of the Bhopal disaster in which Dow Chemical's s... http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LiWlvBro9eI <object width="425" height="344"><param name="movie" value=" http://www.youtube.com/v/LiWlvBro9eI&hl=en_US&fs=1& "></param><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"></param><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"></param><embed src=" http://www.youtube.com/v/LiWlvBro9eI&hl=en_US&fs=1& " type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" width="425" height="344"></embed></object> Sehwag promises 300; Jaye ho for Vijay & more: Highlights Virender Sehwag's unbeaten 284 had Sri Lanka in tatters at the end of day two of the third Test in Mumbai's Brabourne stadium. Sehwag's rocket-paced knock combined with Murali Vijay's classy 87 placed India in position from where the home side can call the shots in the Test match. Sehwag's 250 is the fastest ever in international cricket. Supersonic Sehwag Virender Sehwag punished the Sri Lankan attack with unsparing weapons. There were ferocious pulls, slog-sweep for sixes and typical stand-and-deliver shots. Sehwag's bat pounded the Lankan attack like a train rattling over the railway line. With his blistering double hundred on day two, Sehwag became the first Indian to slam six double centuries, breaking Dravid's record of five doubles. Sehwag's supersonic knock of 284 runs was laced with 40 boundaries and seven sixes. - Researcher who helped demystify poison gas battles lung disease G.S. MUDUR New Delhi, Dec. 2: From the bed of an intensive care unit, Samavedam Sriramachari today recalled his two decades of research that helped demystify the poison gas which caused the worst chemical disaster in human history. The Indian pathologist, who helped the world fathom how the methyl isocyanate gas that leaked from the Union Carbide factory in Bhopal 25 years ago killed and harmed thousands of people, is now himself fighting a lung disease probably linked to the tragedy. Sriramachari, 84, who was director of the Institute of Pathology, a government research centre in New Delhi at the time of the Bhopal gas disaster on the night of December 2-3, 1984, entered the city within a week after the leak. He spent several days there performing autopsies, seeking clues in globules of froth around mouths, in cherry red coloured lungs and pink-discoloured bodies. Any clues that might help treat the survivors. Toxic residues of the gas that scientists believe lingered in the city's air for days after the leak entered his own lungs. And bursts of trapped gas released from body tissues during the autopsies worsened his own exposure. "When the Bhopal disaster occurred, no one had a clue about the toxic effects of methyl isocyanate on humans," said Samavedam Sandhyamani, Sriramachari's daughter who is herself a trained pathologist. "It was an emergency, but without toxicity information, doctors weren't sure what was the best way to help the survivors," Sandhyamani told The Telegraph. The government estimates that 3,700 people died of exposure to toxic gases during the early days after the leak. But thousands more have suffered the long-term adverse effects over the years. Sriramachari and his colleagues helped demonstrate that the toxic cloud over Bhopal wasn't just methyl isocyanate. Their research established that the gas, which is heavier than air, breaks down at high temperatures and leads to the production of two other lethal compounds — hydrogen cyanide and carbon monoxide. Bhopal's residents were exposed to multiple toxic threats that night. The first autopsies by local pathologist Heeresh Chandra had indicated acute cyanide poisoning — and severely ill survivors injected with sodium thiosulfate, an antidote to cyanide, showed rapid signs of recovering. But, Sriramachari recalls, the cyanide theory encountered a barrage of criticism from sections of medical community. Some doctors insisted it was only methyl isocyanate that was causing symptoms and not cyanide. "We lost time," said Arun Jain, a senior scientist at the Institute of Pathology. The Institute team conducted a study to show that toxic residues were excreted in the urine of patients to make the sodium thiosulfate therapy become acceptable. In subsequent years, their studies showed that the gases produced from the leak interacted with a certain enzyme in the body to cause long-term effects in the lungs that could last for years. "The lungs of some of the victims from Bhopal who had never smoked show changes that are typically observed in the lungs of long-term smokers," said Jain. The studies also helped unravel the molecular mechanisms of the gas byproducts in the body. Sriramachari himself began to experience symptoms of lung disease about two years after returning from Bhopal. "We suspect it had to do with his exposure while he was there. He had never shown any lung symptoms before that," said Sandhyamani. He's been diagnosed with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and was admitted to the intensive care unit of the Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute here a few days ago after he had bouts of breathlessness. Many scientists believe Sriramachari's investigations from 1984 through 2004 have spawned the most comprehensive body of toxicity research on methyl isocyanate, a legacy for pathologists of the future. "The techniques he used to solve the puzzle of methyl isocyanate could also help in future disasters involving toxic gases," said Sandhyamani. "There are lessons for the future -- whether it's to study emissions from a burning factory or an oil refinery." http://www.telegraphindia.com/1091203/jsp/frontpage/story_11816387.jsp Indian activists marked the 25th anniversary of the Bhopal gas leak disaster on Thursday with protests and demands that those responsible for thousands of deaths finally be held to account.It is reminiscent of Early Eighties, Operation Blue Star, Sikh Genocide and failure of GREEN Revolution. I had just landed in Meerut from Ranchi where I had to witness the Military Revolt in ramgarh cant and read daily edits written by Prabhash Joshi and rajendra mathur Dictating Indira gandhi that the nation was on Operation table and the Army must act. Now it makes me laugh while I read about all the Rubbish that the Hindu Intelligentsia had been so much so concerned with the Persecution of Sikh Nationality. Bhopal gas Tragedy is essentially linked with the Resurgence of Hindutva and India becoming the Safe heaven of ZIONOISM and FREE Market whic made everything Chemically, Biologically and Nuclear inflicted. Since Neo Liebralism introduced by the BASTARDISED Politicians, Economists and Policy makers with the Decalration of death for Idelogy, History and Genres, LPG Mafia has inflicted the Nation with CARBIDE Pandemic as the Gandhian CARBIDES made the ZIONIST Dynasty tagged with United States as well as Israel and made Indian Ocean Peace Zone a Region of Constant Conflict, War and Civil War, Repression, Ethnic Cleansing, Exodus,Insurgency and Terror! Quite amusing as Parliamentarians today expressed their solidarity with thousands of victims of the Bhopal gas tragedy on its 25th anniversary and resolved to make the world free of such catastrophes and make it a better place for coming generations. Making a reference in the Lok Sabha, Speaker Meira Kumar said it was on this day 25 years ago the country witnessed one of the most harrowing "man-made" tragedies in which thousands of people lost their lives and many were blinded or physically disabled. "The survivors of this gas tragedy are still suffering from the ill-effects of the MIC(methyl iso-cyanate) gas leaked from the Union Carbide plant at Bhopal," the Speaker said. Hundreds of people marched through Bhopal with torches before dawn Thursday to mark the 25th anniversary of the world's worst industrial disaster and demand the cleanup of toxic chemicals they say still contaminate the Indian city's soil and water. Early on Dec. 3, 1984, a pesticide plant run by Union Carbide spewed about 40 tons of deadly methyl isocyanate gas into the city's air, quickly killing about 4,000 people. The lingering effects of the poison raised the death toll to about 15,000 over the next few years, according to government estimates. Me and Sabita were still in Honeymoon mode as I was not quite OFF the way from my Social and Environment Activism. My Father, the Black Untouchable Refugee Leader leading Peasant Uprising and Mobilising Refugees for Civi and Human Rights were still active.I had just returned form the hot pot of Nationality Movement, Jharkhand and landed myself in the Jat Bastion where I witnessed Hindutva Festivals Presided by the SO Called Secular Gandhian carbides including Prabhash Joshi! Later, I witness how Meerut and the Rest of Uttar Pradesh were IGNITED with Communal Mass Suicide. It was the real back ground for Operation Blue Star, finalised in Meerut Cant. and Bhopal Gas Tragedy and Global Hindutva proved to be the best Stimulus for US Corporate Colonisation which followed very soon jsut after the Demise of Mrs ionmdira Gandhi with the Historical super Alliance of RSS, Gandhian Carbides, Socialst Oxides and Marxist Hypocrite with the single Goal, HINDU Corporate nation, the HINDU Swaraj, Ram rajya of Gandhi, the Greatest Zionist outside Israel, Americas and Europe!From which US President Barack OBAMA seeks inspiration very logically. We had no TV at home. We rented a room in KL Dutta house in Nagala Battu near Meerut cant wherefrom I could see all RSS activities and Corporate Manipulation as I was In charge of a Prominent Hindi Daily Edition and had to deal with the corporates. I witnessed how the handlooms were destroyed! How Cottage Industries all over North India were lit on fire. I tarced well the Geography of Corporatisation annexed with Communalisation supervised the Ruling carbides. The daughter in law of the land lord, Manju was a daughter of a Military Official from Lucknow. She had a sister in Bhopal where UNION Carbide exposed the Masses to Carbon Monoxide to experiment Chemical warfare which continues till this date with modertae termonology like Disinvestment, Foreign Capital Inflow, GDR, development, Urbanisation, Infrastructure, Industrialisation, retail chain, IT, Public Private venture, NGO, Maoism,Genetic Engineering and even on the name of Environment, Ecology,Life Cycles, Conservation, Global warming and Climate Change. Since I spent my entire student life in the Himalayas deeply indulged in Environment activism, I maty dare to distingush the Hidden Agenda out of PR Literature which I dealt well in Dhanbad, the Caol Fields! Manju`s Sister and Brother in law withtheir chiled were entarpped in the Gas Envelop and we witnessed a Bhopal at home while the Couple suvived the tragedy and lost the child in a road accident later! The Tragedy NEVER Ended. rather it ESCALATED as CARBIDE Pandemic! High level of contamination found in Bhopal Groundwater in areas around the Bhopal gas tragedy site contain almost 40 times more pesticides than allowed under the Indian standards, the Centre for Science and Environment has claimed. The Pollution Monitoring Lab of the NGO tested water and soil samples from in and around the Union Carbide factory, and found high concentrations of pesticides and heavy metals. All 11 groundwater samples collected from colonies around the UCIL factory were found to be contaminated with chlorinated benzene compounds and organochlorine pesticides, the test results showed. "The reason this is extremely worrying is because we have found the toxins in the groundwater we have checked from almost 3 km below the factory," said Chandra Bhushan, associate director, in-charge of the CSE laboratory. The Bhopal gas tragedy occurred on December 3, 1984 when the plant accidentally released Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) gas, killing around 5000 people and permanently incapacitating many others. All the samples collected from within the factory were found to be highly contaminated. The waste stored within the premises had Carbaryl content of 9,856 parts per million (ppm) and mercury content of 1,065 ppm, Bhushan said. The concentration of pesticides was 1.1 to 38.6 times higher than the Indian standard, the study claimed. "The profile of chemicals found within the UCIL factory and in the waste disposal site of UCIL matches the chemicals found in the groundwater sample in the colonies outside. There is no other source of these chlorinated benzene compounds and pesticides than UCIL," Bhushan said. CSE Director Sunita Narain said, "The factory site in Bhopal is leading to chronic toxicity –- continuous tiny exposure leading to poisoning of our bodies. This is different from acute poisoning and so the claim that the factory is not dangerous because people can touch the waste is misleading." 'Bhopal gas survivors still poisoned' The waste left behind at the Union Carbide India Limited(UCIL) factory that was closed 25 years ago after a fatal gas leak continues to poison people around the plant, says the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). "Latest tests show that groundwater in areas even three km from the factory contains almost 40 times more pesticides than Indian standards," CSE Director Sunita Narain said here on Tuesday, a day before the 25th anniversary of the gas leak that killed 3,500 people at once and maimed thousands more. The pollution monitoring lab of the CSE has tested water and soil samples from in and around the closed factory and found high concentrations of pesticides and heavy metals inside the factory as well as in the groundwater outside. "One water and eight soil samples were collected from various places inside the factory in October this year and 11 more water samples came from locations outside — from colonies next to the factory's boundary to those 3.5 km away and toxins were found in the groundwater checked from almost 3 km from the factory," CSE Associate Director Chandra Bhushan said. "All 11 groundwater samples collected from colonies around the factory were found to be contaminated with chlorinated benzene and organochlorine pesticides. Carbamates were found in four samples. The concentration of pesticides was 1.1 to 38.6 times higher than the Indian standard," he said. "Also, the profile of chemicals found within the factory and in its waste disposal site matched the chemicals found in the groundwater sample in the colonies outside. There is no other source of these chlorinated benzene compounds and pesticides," Narain said. The entire site is highly contaminated, she added. The problem is that chemicals present in the soil of the factory are leaching into the groundwater and leading to slow poisoning of residents. "The entire site of the factory needs to be carefully checked and cleaned up," Narain said. Demonstrators and survivors capped a week of commemorations with a march to the Union Carbide pesticide plant in Bhopal, where on December 3, 1984 a cloud of methyl isocyanate gas killed up to 10,000 people within three days. CARBIDE Pandemic Extended in CARBIDE Rule!Worried over 'urban chaos becoming a way of life', Prime Minister Manmohan Singh Thursday called for radical reforms for the future of urban India.With food inflation shooting up and the Centre asking states to do something about it, Akali Dal-ruled Punjab today hit back, saying the union government's policies were to blame for the upward spiral in prices.The Reserve Bank today said the domestic banks do not have much exposure to the debt-ridden Dubai World and hence their balance sheets will not be materially affected from the crisis. Local activists insist the real numbers are almost twice that, and say the company and government have failed to clean up toxic chemicals at the plant, which closed after the accident. "Down with the government," and "Down with Union Carbide," the protesters chanted Thursday as they marched to the plant in Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh state. "Punish the guilty and remove the toxic waste from the plant that still contaminates the soil and groundwater," said Rashid Bi, a victim who joined the march. Union Carbide was bought by Dow Chemical Co. in 2001. Dow says the legal case was resolved in 1989 when Union Carbide settled with the Indian government for $470 million, and that all responsibility for the factory now rests with the government of the state of Madhya Pradesh, which now owns the site. The government says at least 500,000 people were affected by the gas, also known as MIC. Activists say thousands of children born to parents directly exposed to the gas or poisoned by contaminated water are suffering from brain damage, cleft lips, missing palates and twisted limbs. Skin, vision and breathing disorders also are common, they say. "The enormity of that tragedy of neglect still gnaws at our collective conscience," Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said in a statement Wednesday. "I reaffirm our government's commitment to resolving issues of safe drinking water, expeditious cleanup of the site, continuation of medical research, and any other outstanding issues connected with the Bhopal gas tragedy," he said. However, Babulal Gaur, the state minister for gas relief and rehabilitation, insists there is no current toxic contamination and dismisses assertions that the birth defects are related to the disaster. He says the diseases plaguing children are only a consequence of living in poor slums. Investigations have found that the accident occurred when water entered a sealed tank containing highly reactive MIC, causing pressure in the tank to rise too high. Union Carbide Corp., an American chemical company, said the accident was an act of sabotage by a disgruntled employee who was never identified, and not the result of lax safety standards or faulty plant design, as claimed by some activists. Critics say the plant should not have used MIC, which is cheaper than less-hazardous alternatives, and should not have been located in a highly populated area. 'As infrastructure struggles to keep pace with demand, urban chaos is becoming a way of life. Our cities and towns are not an acceptable face of a rapidly modernising and developing economy. This must clearly change and change for the better,' said Manmohan Singh.He was speaking at a function here to mark the fourth anniversary of the government's flagship Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission.The prime minister reiterated the 'government's firm commitment to the development of the urban sector'. Rising sea level threatens Sunderbans inhabitants!At least 10,000 inhabitants have been turned into environmental refugees and another 70,000 are in the danger of meeting the same fate over the next thirty years, environmental experts say.After a 10-year study in and around the Bay of Bengal, oceanographers say the sea is rising at 3.14 millimetres a year in the Sunderbans against a global average of 2 mm, threatening low-lying areas of India and Bangladesh. Why humans outlive apes?Chimpanzees and great apes have lifespans that barely exceed 50 years, in spite of their genetic similarity to humans. The difference is that humans evolved genes that enabled them to better adjust to levels of infection, inflammation and to the high cholesterol levels of their meat-rich diets, says a researcher.Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) leader Vinay Katiyar Thursday said he will make certain 'startling revelations' about the razing of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya Dec 6, 1992, on the 17th anniversary of the incident Sunday.The debate on the Liberhan Commission report in the Lok Sabha has been rescheduled to Dec 7 and 8, while in the Rajya Sabha it will be held Dec 9 and 10, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) spokesperson Prakash Javadekar said here Thursday.The Samajwadi Party Thursday said it will join hands with non-Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) opposition parties to hold a rally Dec 18 protesting rise in prices of essential commodities and issues concerning farmers.The Reserve Bank of India (RBI)is likely to revise upwards growth forecasts for 2009/10 when it reviews policy in January and monetary action may be needed if inflation accelerates, senior officials said on Thursday. Following in China's footsteps, India has also decided to slow down the growth of greenhouse gas emissions.Last week, China had claimed that it would cut carbon emissions up to 45 percent by 2020. India has decided to cut its carbon intensity by 24 percent by 2020.AsGold created history in the Mumbai bullion market, with the yellow metal crossing the Rs 18,000 level per 10 grams for the first time in the history.Menawhile,The two LeT militants, handed over to India by Bangladesh, have confessed to their involvement in the serial blasts that rocked Bangalore in 2008. Hmar tribes of Manipur celebrated their community's colourful harvest festival, Hmar Sikpui Ruoi recently with much fanfare.On this occasion, various troupes presented cultural dances and songs during the festival.Though there is no particular date for holding this festival, it is celebrated on any convenient days during the winter in December (Mimtuk thla) and January (Tuolbuol thla).Sikpui Ruoi, in olden days, was celebrated for several days and sometimes, the celebration lasted a month. But usually, the celebration lasts for a week. The all-embracing mood of the festival where everyone, rich and poor, young and old can participate without any social inhibition is a distinctive feature of the Sikpui Ruoi. On this auspicious occasion, everybody be it young or old, rich or poor, dances in blissful harmony on a common platform. Rising sea levels has forced thousands of families to leave their ancestral houses and lands in the Sunderbans area of West Bengal, and many more are living in the constant fear of losing theirs. Sugato Hazra, an oceanographer at Jadavpur University in Kolkata, the capital of West Bengal, who led the team that conducted the study, said an increase in the sea temperature was compounding the problems for the islanders. Studies released earlier this week showed the shanty towns surrounding the site were still laced with lethal chemicals that polluted groundwater and soil, causing birth defects and a range of chronic illnesses. "The survivors of the tragedy, through these protests, are venting their ire against the state government for its inaction in clearing the toxic waste," said Satinath Sarangi of the Bhopal Group of Information and Action. Research by the Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) showed 25,000 people have died from the consequences of exposure since 1984. After those studies concluded, government statistics said 100,000 people were chronically sick, with more than 30,000 people living in water-contaminated areas around the factory. The state government of Madhya Pradesh, of which Bhopal is capital, assumed responsibility for the site in 1998, and has only partially cleared the hundreds of tonnes of toxic materials scattered around the plant. Thousands more tonnes lie just yards away from the plant in man-made "solar evaporation ponds" where Union Carbide was dumping waste for years before the accident. State authorities say the material is not harmful and, to prove this, last month said they planned to open the site to visitors. Officials later reversed the decision. In a statement released to coincide with the anniversary, Dow Chemical -- which purchased Union Carbide in 1999 -- said a 470 million dollar settlement reached in 1989 with the Indian government "resolved all existing and future claims" against the company. Union Carbide "did all it could to help the victims and their families" until the settlement and said the Indian government should be responsible for providing clean drinking water and health services to residents. It said at the time and continues to insist that sabotage was behind the leak. Most of the settlement money was used to pay compensation of 1,000-2,000 dollars to victims who were left unable to work or with long-term ailments, but many received nothing at all. "People came and told us we could apply for compensation," Laxmi Narayan, whose wife suffers severe eye complaints apparently caused by the industrial accident, told AFP. "They took our name down, but we never saw a penny." Prime Minister Manmohan Singh issued a statement describing Bhopal as a tragedy that "still gnaws at our collective conscience" and he vowed continued efforts to tackle the issues of drinking water and site decontamination. Criminal cases against former Union Carbide executives are pending in various Indian and US courts which hold them and Dow liable for the catastrophe. Amnesty International called on Dow to "cooperate fully in the ongoing legal proceedings in order to ensure that those responsible are held accountable." What can states do? Everything is in the hand of the Central government," Punjab Chief Minister Prakash Singh Badal said within days of Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee blaming states for the rising prices. Food inflation rose to 17.47 per cent as of the third week of November, driven by high prices of onions and other edibles. Badal was talking to reporters, who asked him about the rising prices of essential items, after a meeting with Deputy Chairman of Planning Commission Montek Singh Ahluwalia. Asked what the state is doing to check the hoarding of essential commodities, Badal said the Centre has to see that. Last week, Mukherjee and Food and Agriculture Minister Sharad Pawar had put the onus on states, maintaining that reining in prices was not just a Central issue. Mukherjee told the Lok Sabha that when vegetable prices increase, blame cannot be squarely put on the Union Finance Minister or the Union Agriculture Minister. "Surely, it is bad management (by some states)." Similarly, Pawar had told Parliament: "I have written to the Chief Ministers that if the state government machinery is not alert, it will be difficult to provide relief to people. "In Sunderbans the impact (of global warming) is very high because not only the coastline is retreating and we are losing islands and losing land at the rate of say, in 30 years we have lost 90 square kilometre area including two islands. A lot of people have become environmental migrants but also high intensity cyclones are increasing in Bay of Bengal because of the rise in the sea surface temperature," said Hazra, director of the School of Oceanography at the Jadavpur University. According to a United Nations climate panel report, human activity was causing global warming and it predicted more droughts, heat-waves and rising seas. But for the Sunderbans, made up of hundreds of islands, criss-crossed by narrow water channels and home to many of India's dwindling tiger populations, the threat is more immediate. At least 15 islands have been affected but erosion is widespread in other islands as well, Hazra said. A combination of drought and then heavy rainfall this year plus increasing soil salinity have made it impossible to grow enough food to survive on traditional agriculture alone. At least four million people live in the islands spread across 9,630 sq. km (3,700 sq. miles) of mangrove swamps. Bhopal gas tragedy victims to 'expose' central, state governments Associations of the victims of the December 1984 Bhopal gas leak Thursday launched a campaign to "expose" those in the government working for the benefit of Dow Chemicals, the current owner of Union Carbide from whose plant the deadly gas had leaked out, killing and maiming thousands. Leaders of the three organisations -- Satinath Sarangi and Rachna Dhingra of Bhopal Group for Information and Action, Rashida Bi and Champa Devi Shukla of Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila Stationery Karmachari Sangh and Syed M. Irfan of Bhopal Gas Peedit Mahila Purush Sangharsh Morcha -- accused both the Madhya Pradesh and central governments of working to provide relief to the American multinational. Addressing a press conference here, they said that while the Indian government officially holds Dow Chemicals liable for Union Carbide's environmental crimes in Bhopal and has sought $22 million as advance for clean up, it has taken no steps against the Indian subsidiaries of Dow Chemicals. Dow Chemicals has been fined $350,000 by the US Securities & Exchange Commission for having paid $200,000 in bribes to Indian officials eight years ago, yet the Indian government is yet to take any action on this issue, they said. The three organisation declared the launch of the "Jhooth Bole Kauwa Kaate" (Crow bites Liars) campaign to nail the state government's "lies". As part of this, a "Benign Buffet" will be organised Saturday at which members of the state cabinet and the bureaucracy would be invited to eat such "delicacies" as "semi-processed pesticide on watercress" and "Lime Sludge Mousse". Gwalior-based Defence Research Development Establishment's director R Vijayraghavan and the head of the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute at Nagpur, who had certified Union Carbide's chemical wastes to be "orally ingestible" are also invited, they added. The leaders alleged Home Minister P. Chidambaram, Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh, Road Transport and Highways Minister Kamal Nath and other central government ministers were acting as "lackeys" of Dow Chemicals. They also condemned the Indian government's negligence towards extraditing Union Carbide chief Warren Anderson against whom a fresh non-bailable arrest warrant was issued in July 2009. They also charged Prime Minister Manmohan Singh with failing to honour his 14-month-old promise of setting up the Empowered Commission on Bhopal for medical care and rehabilitation of Bhopal's poisoned people and their future generations. Incredible India campaign to hit domestic market soon The Incredible India campaign, which showcases major holiday destinations and has won international awards, will now be promoted in the domestic market too. "The Incredible India commercial, which has won several prestigious international awards should be used in domestic markets too as the film has the quality to stir the imagination of not just the foreign travellers but also domestic tourists who sustain our tourism industry," union Tourism Minister Kumari Selja said here Thursday. She was speaking while felicitating the entire team that was involved in producing the television commercial that has appeared during the Oscar, Grammy and BAFTA award functions. The Incredible India campaign, which has won international awards at Berlin, Poland, Romania, France, Portugal, the Czech Republic and Croatia , has been jointly made by an NGO that works in the area of tourism -- Experience India Society and Nirvana Films. So far, the campaign has been promoted abroad and now the ministry plans to aggressively promote it in the country. In November, the campaign picked up the prestigious Grand Prix Award in Vienna, Austria. Gunbattle between Maoists, security forces in West Midnapore In continuing violence in West Midnapore district, Maoist guerrillas Thursday planted a landmine, torched houses and engaged security forces in gunbattles. Four rebels were also arrested by the securitymen. Meanwhile, normal life continued to be hit in the forest lands of the three districts of West Midnapore, Bankura and Purulia on the third day of the five-day shutdown called by the Maoist-backed tribal body People's Committee Against Police Atrocities (PCAPA) demanding a 15-day halt to the anti-Maoist operation in view of the harvesting season. Security was stepped up in view of the Dec 2-8 'foundation week' being observed by the People's Liberation Guerilla Army (PLGA), the armed wing of the Communist Party of India-Maoist (CPI-Maoist). The rebels attacked and set fire to the house of a Communist Party of India-Marxist leader Bhagwan Pal in Jhargram early Thursday, and then torched two other houses in the vicinity before fleeing, police said. The Maoists planted a landmine at Malibandhi village in the district, but the villagers discovered the landmine and informed the police in time. When the bomb disposal squad was trying to defuse the landmine they came under heavy fire from the Maoists. The security forces returned the fire, and the gunbattle continued for a couple of hours before the militants fled, said district police superintendent Manoj Verma. The shutdown in West Midnapore, Bankura and Purulia called by the PCAPA saw deserted streets and thin attendance in offices, while markets and shops remained shut. The state government began a massive security operation against the leftwing extremists in and around Lalgarh - about 200 km West of Kolkata - June 18. The Maoists are active in areas under 30 police stations in three western districts - West Midnapore, Bankura and Purulia - of the state. --IANS Obama rejoining economic debate with jobs summit Under pressure from Republicans and an impatient public to fix the sputtering economic recovery, President Barack Obama is refocusing on this politically potent issue by talking job creation with business and labor leaders at the White House. The White House has lacked a unified economic message in recent weeks, with its attention focused instead on health care and Obama's three-month review of the Afghanistan war. With unemployment in double digits for the first time in decades, Democratic lawmakers are suggesting a second economic stimulus aimed directly at job creation may be needed. Administration officials are hoping Thursday's jobs forum, an Obama trip to Pennsylvania on Friday and a major economic speech on Tuesday will help counter Republican critics who contend the administration's economic recovery efforts have failed and its oversight of the $787 billion stimulus package has been inadequate. At the jobs forum, Obama planned to defend his administration's handling of the economy and argue that it would be in far worse shape had Congress not passed the huge stimulus bill earlier this year. Under intense GOP attacks, public support for the stimulus effort has faded. "I certainly hope it's more than a photo op," said the No. 2 House Republican, Rep. Eric Cantor of Virginia. "All of us want to do anything we can to get Americans back to work. Past history has been, with this White House, that there's been a lot of pomp and ceremony with very little follow-through in terms of delivering results." Administration officials said they don't expect major policy announcements from the president, Vice President Joe Biden or members of the Cabinet who were scheduled to be on hand. "Increasing employment is everyone's responsibility, from government to businesses to households," Obama economic adviser Larry Summers said in advance of the forum. "The White House jobs forum will take stock of where we are on the implementation of the Recovery Act and explore new job creation measures, including infrastructure investment, incentives for small businesses, developing our green economy and promoting U.S. exports." The nation's unemployment rate is 10.2 percent, the highest since 1983. Some 15.7 million Americans are out of work. The average jobless worker has been unemployed for more than six months. These sobering statistics spell potentially serious trouble for Democrats in next year's midterm elections. The recession technically may be over, but analysts say many of the jobs lost in the downturn probably will not return and high unemployment is likely to persist. Indians more worried than Chinese, Americans on climate change! Just before world leaders assemble in Copenhagen to discuss climate change, a new global survey shows sharp differences among people in different countries about global warming. Throwing up an interesting contrast in the world's two fastest growing nations, China and India, the Global Attitudes survey by the respected Pew Research Center shows 67 percent Indians are worried about global warming as against just 30 percent Chinese. The survey, conducted from May 18 to June 16, shows that there is a lot less concern about climate change in the three major polluters US, Russia and China than in other leading nations. Compared to 90 percent in Brazil, 68 percent in France, 67 percent in India, 65 percent in Japan, 61 percent in Spain and 60 percent in Germany, only 44 percent in the US and Russia say they are concerned about climate change. At 30 percent, the Chinese are least concerned about climate change, says the survey. In fact, in India, China and Brazil which have enjoyed strong economic growth in recent years, eight in 10 people favour giving priority to the environment over rapid economic expansion. According to the survey, people in these countries are willing to make sacrifices such as having to pay higher prices to protect the environment. Anxiety about global warming is also less pervasive among Israelis (48 percent), Kenyans (48 percent), Canadians (47 percent) and Indonesians (44 percent). However, large majorities in every country believe that global warming is a serious problem, with majorities in 15 of the 25 countries say it is 'very serious.' Also, majorities in 23 of 25 countries agree that protecting the environment should be given priority, even at the cost of slower economic growth and job losses. India is at present under immense pressure to pronounce the details of how it would cut its carbon intensity. New Delhi's position will strengthen at the Copenhagen summit if it is successful in its aim. Minister of State for Environment and Forests Jairam Ramesh said, "We now have taken on performance targets in energy, building, forestry and various sectors of the economy. We are not going to be taking any legally binding emission cuts. That is simply out of the question, but we can look at various alternatives. Incidentally, our carbon intensity is very low. "The Chinese have just announced a carbon intensity decline by 2020 and according to that, they will be in the year 2020 where India was in 2005 as far as carbon intensity is concerned." With this stand, India is under immense pressure to set emissions targets ahead of the Copenhagen summit. The western countries are imposing their pressure on India to quantify the cuts. To add to that, the developed countries want India to draw out and state a plan that India will follow to cut its emissions. Caleb Finch, gerontology professor at the University of Southern California (USC) has revealed that these evolutionary genetic advantages, caused by slight differences in DNA sequencing and improvements in diet, make humans uniquely susceptible to diseases of aging such as cancer, heart disease and dementia when compared to other primates. Finch said that a major contributor to longevity is human genes that adapt to higher exposure to inflammation. "Over time, ingestion of red meat, particularly raw meat infected with parasites in the era before cooking, stimulates chronic inflammation that leads to some of the common diseases of aging," Finch said. In addition to differences in diets between species of primates, humans evolved unique variants in a cholesterol transporting gene, apolipoprotein E, which also regulates inflammation and many aspects of aging in the brain and arteries. ApoE3 is unique to humans and may be what Finch calls "a meat-adaptive gene" that has increased the human lifespan. However, the minor allele, apoE4, when expressed in humans, can impair neuronal development, as well as shorten human lifespan by about four years and increase the risk of heart disease and Alzheimer disease by several-fold. ApoE4 carriers have higher totals of blood cholesterol, more oxidized blood lipids and early onset of coronary heart disease and Alzheimer's disease. "The chimpanzee apoE functions more like the "good" apoE3, which contributes to low levels of heart disease and Alzheimer's," Finch said. Correspondingly, chimpanzees in captivity have unusually low levels of heart disease and Alzheimer-like changes during aging. Finch hypothesizes that the expression of ApoE4 could be the result of the antagonistic pleiotropy theory of aging, in which genes selected to fight diseases in early life have adverse affects in later life. "ApoeE may be a prototype for other genes that enabled the huge changes in human lifespan, as well as brain size, despite our very unape-like meat-rich diets. Drugs being developed to alter activities of apoE4 may also enhance lifespan of apoE4 carriers," Finch said. The findings have been published in the December issue of PNAS Early Edition. (ANI) Don't compromise in Copenhagen, MPs urge government Ahead of the global climate talks in Copenhagen, Indian MPs Thursday urged the government not to compromise on development issues and commit to only what is practicable. The Lok Sabha held a special discussion on the issue. Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh is likely to spell out various steps that the government is taking to tackle climate change. Indian officials have calculated that the country will reduce its carbon intensity by 24 percent by 2020, compared to 2005, if the effects of its National Action Plan on Climate Change are quantified. India is the world's fourth largest emitter of greenhouse gases. India is under pressure from the US and China to do so after the two countries quantified their targets on carbon emissions. China has announced to cut its carbon intensity in the range of 40 to 45 percent, while the US has pledged to reduce emissions by 17 percent. Speaking during the debate in the Lok Sabha, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) leader Murli Manohar Joshi said India should lead poor nations for a development model. He said the Western model of development and lifestyle needed to be changed to save mother earth. 'Earth is our mother. Ask the Western developed world to change their lifestyle,' Joshi told Jairam Ramesh in the house. He said he would be happy if Prime Minister Manmohan Singh attends the Dec 7-18 Copenhagen meet and 'sends out a message to the world that India will lead the poor developing nations in saving the earth. We should not compromise'. Congress MP Sandeep Dikshit, while expressing concern at the hazards India is suffering due to climate change, said the government should only commit what can be done and achieved. 'Commit to what is possible. Be balanced. Don't commit what cannot be done,' Dikshit said. Mangi Lal Mandal of the Janata Dal-United said India's problem is its poverty, but 'we are being told to accept what is suitable to the developed Europe and America'. 'It is learnt that India will commit to huge GHG emission cut and ask for new and renewable energy technology. Are they (Western countries) trying to make us a market of their technology in the name of climate change hazards,' Mandal said. Indo Asian News Service India''s drug industry is over Rs one lakh crore The Indian Pharmaceutical industry has become the third largest in the world in terms of volume, valued at over Rs one lakh crore, Parliament was informed today. "The Indian pharmaceutical industry, now over one lakh crore (US $ 20 billion) industry, has shown tremendous progress in terms of infrastructure development,technology base creation and a wide range of products," Minister of State in the Chemicals and Fertilisers Ministry Srikant Kumar Jena said in the Lok Sabha in reply to a written query. The country now ranks third worldwide by volume and 14th by value thereby accounting for around 10 per cent of the world''s production by volume and 1.5 per cent by value, he added. "Globally, it ranks fourth in terms of generic production and 17th in terms of export value of bulk actives and dosage forms," Jena said. The industry has established its presence and determination to flourish in the changing environment, the minister said. Indian exports pharmaceuticals to more than 200 countries around the globe, including highly regulated markets of USA, West Europe, Japan and Australia. Three port projects cleared Three port projects worth Rs.7,661 crore have been approved by a committee chaired by Finance Secretary Ashok Chawla, the government said Thursday. The Public Private Partnership Appraisal Committee has approved a Rs.600-crore standalone container handling facility and a Rs.6,600-crore container terminal at Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai, the finance ministry said in a statement. Additionally, it also sanctioned Rs.462 crore for coal handling facilities and upgrading of the general cargo berth at outer harbour of Visakhapatnam. Since its constitution in January 2006, the committee has granted approval to 137 projects, with an estimated project cost of Rs.144,687 crore, the ministry said. These include 121 National Highway projects, 11 ports projects, two airports and one each for tourism infrastructure and the railways. Indo Asian News Service Question hour facing crisis: Speaker Lok Sabha Speaker Meira Kumar Thursday expressed anguish over the frequent disruptions of question hour. 'The question hour is facing a crisis. We are unable to conduct it properly,' Meira Kumar said when Samajwadi Party MPs advanced towards the speaker's podium during question hour demanding a statement by the government on the divestment of National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC). The agitating MPs returned to their seat after the speaker assured them that their leader Mulayam Singh Yadav would be allowed to raise the matter during zero hour. On Tuesday, Congress president Sonia Gandhi sought an explanation from party MPs on their absence from the Lok Sabha Monday when the question hour virtually collapsed because of missing members. Indo Asian News Service Music and human speech are biologically linked! Duke University neuroscientists have shown new evidence that a deep biological link exists between human music and speech. In two new studies, researchers found that the musical scales most commonly used over the centuries are those that come closest to mimicking the physics of the human voice. They also said that we understand emotions expressed through music because the music mimics the way emotions are expressed in speech. Composers have long exploited the perception of minor chord music as sad and major chord music as happy, and it is now that the researchers led by Dale Purves, a professor of neurobiology, found that sad or happy speech can be categorized in major and minor intervals, just as music can. In the second study, Kamraan Gill, another member of the team, found the most commonly used musical scales are also based on the physics of the vocal tones humans produce. "There is a strong biological basis to the aesthetics of sound. Humans prefer tone combinations that are similar to those found in speech," said Purves. And the evidence suggests that the main biological reason we appreciate music is because it mimics speech, which has been critical to our evolutionary success, said Purves. To study the emotional content of music, the researchers collected a database of major and minor melodies from about 1,000 classical music compositions and more than 6,000 folk songs and then analysed their tonal qualities. They also had 10 people speak a series of single words with 10 different vowel sounds in either excited or subdued voices, as well as short monologues. The team then compared the tones that distinguished the major and minor melodies with the tones of speech uttered in the different emotional states. They found that the sound spectra of the speech tones could be sorted the same way as the music, with excited speech exhibiting more major musical intervals and subdued speech more minor ones. The tones in speech are a series of harmonic frequencies, whose relative power distinguishes the different vowels. Vowels are produced by the physics of air moving through the vocal cords; consonants are produced by other parts of the vocal tract. In the second paper, researchers argued that the harmonic structure of vowel tones forms the basis of the musical scales we find most appealing. They showed that the popularity of musical scales could be predicted based on how well they match up with the series of harmonics characteristic of vowels in speech. The first study has been published in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America (JASA), while the second appears in the online journal PLOS One. (ANI) India could be a new pole of global growth: World Bank president Change is the great constant of the world economy. India was still a colony when the allied powers shaped the international architecture at the end of World War Two. Today, India is a rising economic power that is contributing to world growth in new and powerful ways. Economic reforms in India and China, and the export-driven growth strategies of East Asia all contributed in the last 20 years to a world market economy that surged from about 1 billion to 4 or 5 billion people. This shift offers enormous opportunities. But it has also shaken an international economic system forged in the middle of the 20th Century. The international architecture needs to accommodate India and other powers whose growth rates far exceed those of developed countries. We must recognise this reality and anticipate the future - shape it or be shaped by it. India is already an indispensable part of the global conversation. Its voice at the G-20 table is an important force for designing a future global architecture, not least because it has well-managed the impact of the economic crisis and is helping support the world's recovery. Shifting influence is also reflected in the numbers. As India's $1.2 trillion economy returns to growth rates of eight to nine per cent, we can expect it to grow not only as a market but as a supplier of a range of services and increasingly knowledge-intensive goods. With India's strong human capital and cutting-edge innovation, it is clear the knowledge and technology content - the real competitive smart-edge of India's exports - is going to rise. India's increasing globalisation will be driven by the country becoming a source for some of these specialised products. As it further integrates with global production chains, it will do so not by making more of the same, but by making products of new value. Of course, India still faces enormous challenges as a developing country yet if it can remove bottlenecks that slow its economy, then India is well positioned to become one of the new poles of global growth. India will need innovative financing to move on its massive infrastructure agenda. I hope the World Bank Group can help to attract global partnerships for knowledge and funding. Access to finance is another area where changes will mean a difference to the lives of millions of citizens, that difference being a share in the opportunity of India's growth. There are also huge technology advances that India can put to work to make government more efficient, to make service delivery easier to monitor and track, and public financial flows more visible. Half a billion Indians now have cell phones. This translates into a powerful information flow to - and critically from - some of the remotest and poorest areas. A sustainable globalisation means an India that shares some of its remarkable achievements more widely. Call it South-South cooperation or good global citizenship, India has much to offer the world: lessons from its model of economic development; cooperation between private and public sectors to generate microeconomic efficiency and macroeconomic stability; working on global financial regulation as part of the G-20 task forces; and considering ways forward on migration and cross-border labour mobility. Everyone cites India's Green Revolution. But I'm even more intrigued by what is known as SRI, or system of rice intensification, and I know this is also an area of interest for PM Manmohan Singh. Using smart water management and planting practices, farmers in Tamil Nadu have increased rice yields between 30 and 80 per cent, reduced water use by 30 per cent, and now require significantly less fertilizer. This emerging technology not only addresses food security but also the water scarcity challenge that climate change is making all the more dangerous. These are all lessons for our world. India's status as a rising economic power is closely connected with how it can create opportunity and inclusion. It's not an option to exclude hundreds of millions of Indians from the country's growing prosperity. One in three of the world's poor are in India and the country has one of the highest malnutrition rates in the world, with 44 per cent of children born underweight. Actions to address poverty widely - and education, health, rural roads and livelihoods more specifically -have a renewed urgency. Robert Zoellick Anlaysis blasts Obama for trickery on US troop deployment in Afghanistan Former US President George W. Bush can no longer be held responsible for the bloody war in Afghanistan, for his successor-President Obama has decided to take that burden into his shoulders, an analysis appearing in CBS says. According to the analysis, Obama might just have committed what could be the biggest political blunder of his years in office, and it adds that he has done so "knowingly, deliberately, and without blinders on." It further goes on to criticise Obama for leaving sceptical Americans no choice: by setting a firm timetable to begin withdrawing troops. It says that by twinning his troop increase (30,000) with a timetable to withdraw from Afghanistan by the middle of 2011, Obama has pulled off a bit of a trick. "He's given Americans and Congress a meter reading, that, once triggered, will close down the conflict," it says. Obama has allowed himself and his commanders room to keep a heavy presence in Afghanistan beyond his firm term, but he has created a strategy and structure that renders that option prohibitively expensive. His timetable all but guarantees that his request for more troops now will be funded by a reluctant Democratic Congress. In an hour-long interview today with a small number of political analysts and columnists, Obama said he was prepared for the political onslaught, particularly from within his own party. "This has been an entirely transparent process," Mr. Obama said today, adding: "There's no Gulf of Tonkin here. We are having a wholesome debate about the best strategy forward and I am being held fully accountable to members of Congress, all of whom I think are going to be interested in holding me accountable and making sure that this strategy works. And if it doesn't, I think there is going to be enormous interest on the part of the American people and on the part of Congress in keeping me to my word that this is not a constant escalation." (ANI) Cabinet papers can be disclosed under RTI Act: Delhi HC The Delhi High Court has rejected the government''s plea that cabinet papers containing the deliberations of the ministers cannot be disclosed under the RTI Act even after a decision has been taken by it on an issue. Justice Sanjiv Khanna rejected the plea by the Centre which contended that the decision by the cabinet can be disclosed but not the cabinet papers which record the deliberations of the council of ministers, secretaries and other officers. The Court, while elaborating the provisions of the Right to Information Act, pointed out that the exemption to make public such documents is only till the final decision is taken by the Centre. "A limited prohibition for a specified time is granted (under the Act). Prohibition is not for an unlimited duration or infinite period but lasts till a decision is taken by the Council of Ministers and the matter is complete or over," the court said. "The prohibition in respect of the decision of the Council of Ministers, the reasons thereof and the material on the basis of which decisions were taken shall be made public after the decision is taken and the matter is complete or over," it said. The court passed the order on a petition filed by the Centre challenging a CIC order directing the government to disclose cabinet papers. UK banks have $5 bln exposure to Dubai World - FT Four British banks have a $5 billion combined exposure to Dubai World, making them the biggest foreign creditor group at the Dubai state-owned conglomerate, the Financial Times said on Thursday. The report, citing bankers and advisers, said Royal Bank of Scotland was the most exposed with between $1 billion and $2 billion. HSBC, Standard Chartered and Lloyds Banking Group had exposure of about $1 billion each, according to the report. The estimates were broadly accurate, several bank industry sources told Reuters. All of the banks declined to comment. Emirates NBD was the biggest creditor with outstanding loans of $3 billion, the FT said. The bank declined to comment. The report confirms that British banks have far greater exposure to potential problem debts in Dubai than their global rivals, as shown by several sets of loan data. UK banks have loans totalling $50 billion into the United Arab Emirates, out of total loans of $123 billion by international banks, according to statistics from the Bank of International Settlements (BIS). But there remains a lack of clarity on where exposures to Dubai World lie and how wide the issue will spread. The FT said much of the UK banks' lending is to the still functioning parts of Dubai World, including ports operator DP World and the Jebel Ali Free Zone. Dubai World unveiled a $26 billion debt restructuring plan on Monday, after worries about debt problems have shaken investor and creditor confidence in the past week. As a result of the restructuring plan RBS's exposure would be about $700 million and Standard Chartered's exposure would be about $350 million, the FT said. The four UK banks are among six creditors who are leading a committee of Dubai World's creditors, which will meet the company next week, according to an Abu Dhabi bank executive. (Reporting by Steve Slater and William James in London and John Irish in Dubai; Editing by Mike Nesbit) Three ministers among 11 killed in Somalia blast A bomb blast ripped through a hotel in the lawless Somali capital Mogadishu Thursday, killing three government ministers and at least eight others. The apparent suicide attack took place at the Shamo Hotel during a graduation ceremony for dozens of university students, a DPA correspondent at the scene said. Nobody claimed responsibility for the blast, but Islamist insurgent group al-Shabaab - which the US says is linked to Al Qaeda - has increasingly turned to suicide bombings as it battles to oust the weak Western-backed government. Government officials confirmed that Health Minister Qamar Aden Ali, Higher Education Minister Ibrahim Hassan Addow and Education Minister Ahmed Abdulahi Waayeel were among the dead. The Minister for Youth and Sports, Saleeban Olaad Roble, was seriously injured. Hassan Subeyr Haji Hassan, a cameraman for Arabic TV channel al-Arabiya, and Mohamed Amiin Aden Abdulle, a journalist with Somalia's Radio Shabelle, were also killed, the Somali Journalists' Rights Agency said. A doctor died on the spot, while medics said another five victims succumbed to their injuries after arriving at hospital. Over 40 people are being treated for injuries of varying severity. Witnesses told DPA they saw a man enter the hotel and detonate a device strapped to his body. Other unconfirmed reports say the male bomber was disguised as a woman. Dozens of guests, many of them bleeding, staggered from the partially destroyed building, while shocked onlookers gathered to cry and condemn the bomber in the wake of the attack. Hundreds of students and their family members, lecturers and government officials were attending the ceremony for graduates from the local Banadir University. The bombing raises further questions about the government and AU's ability to police the few areas they control in Somalia. Seventeen peacekeepers died in a suicide blast at their main base in September, while Somalia's Security Minister Omar Hashi Aden was among dozens killed in a suicide car bomb attack on a hotel in the central town of Baladweyne in June. Diplomats and AU officials say foreign fighters from Afghanistan and Pakistan are increasingly flocking to the lawless Horn of Africa nation to fight alongside al-Shabaab - which controls much of the country - and attend terrorist training camps. DPA India most vulnerable to climate change: Environment Minister India is the country most vulnerable to climate change, Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh said here Thursday. Replying to a debate in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of parliament, on India's position at the Dec 7-18 climate summit in Copenhagen, Ramesh said India was most vulnerable to climate change due to four reasons. First, two-thirds of India's population was still dependent on the monsoon, which was impacted by climate change. Two, climate change impacted the Himalayan glaciers, which were receding, endangering the water flow in the rivers of northern India. Third, ecologically sensitive areas such as the Western Ghats, the North East, Andamans, Lakshadweep were being impacted by climate change. Fourth, climate change would exacerbate the effect of mining in forest areas of Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh. Ramesh said the problem was that India had hardly any information of its own on climate change effects, which he called "a pathetic state of affairs". He said most of the information was derived from Western sources and talked of the urgent need to start research and have "our own scientific capacity" to study all aspects of climate change in India. Source: IANS	i don't know
Who did Mohammed Ali fight in the 1974 boxing match dubbed 'The Rumble In The Jungle'?	Muhammad Ali wins the Rumble in the Jungle - Oct 30, 1974 - HISTORY.com Muhammad Ali wins the Rumble in the Jungle Share this: Muhammad Ali wins the Rumble in the Jungle Author Muhammad Ali wins the Rumble in the Jungle URL Publisher A+E Networks On October 30, 1974, 32-year-old Muhammad Ali becomes the heavyweight champion of the world for the second time when he knocks out 25-year-old champ George Foreman in the eighth round of the “Rumble in the Jungle,” a match in Kinshasa, Zaire. Seven years before, Ali had lost his title when the government accused him of draft-dodging and the boxing commission took away his license. His victory in Zaire made him only the second dethroned champ in history to regain his belt. The “Rumble in the Jungle” (named by promoter Don King, who’d initially tagged the bout “From the Slave Ship to the Championship!” until Zaire’s president caught wind of the idea and ordered all the posters burned) was Africa’s first heavyweight championship match. The government of the West African republic staged the event—its president, Mobutu Sese Seko, personally paid each of the fighters $5 million simply for showing up—in hopes that it would draw the world’s attention to the country’s enormous beauty and vast reserves of natural resources. Ali agreed. “I wanted to establish a relationship between American blacks and Africans,” he wrote later. “The fight was about racial problems, Vietnam. All of that.” He added: “The Rumble in the Jungle was a fight that made the whole country more conscious.” At 4:30 a.m. on October 30, 60,000 spectators gathered in the moonlight (organizers had timed the fight to overlap with prime time in the U.S.) at the outdoor Stade du 20 Mai to watch the fight. They were chanting “Ali, bomaye” (“Ali, kill him”). The ex-champ had been taunting Foreman for weeks, and the young boxer was eager to get going. When the bell rang, he began to pound Ali with his signature sledgehammer blows, but the older man simply backed himself up against the ropes and used his arms to block as many hits as he could. He was confident that he could wait Foreman out. (Ali’s trainer later called this strategy the “rope-a-dope,” because he was “a dope” for using it.) By the fifth round, the youngster began to tire. His powerful punches became glances and taps. And in the eighth, like “a bee harassing a bear,” as one Times reporter wrote, Ali peeled himself off the ropes and unleashed a barrage of quick punches that seemed to bewilder the exhausted Foreman. A hard left and chopping right caused the champ’s weary legs to buckle, and he plopped down on the mat. The referee counted him out with just two seconds to go in the round. Ali lost his title and regained it once more before retiring for good in 1981. Foreman, meanwhile, retired in 1977 but kept training, and in 1987 he became the oldest heavyweight champ in the history of boxing. Today, the affable Foreman is a minister and rancher in Texas and the father of five daughters and five sons, all named George. He’s also the spokesman for the incredibly popular line of George Foreman indoor grills. Related Videos	George Foreman
In the USA, the Boll Weevil is a pest that attacks which crop?	Muhammad Ali v George Foreman: the Rumble in the Jungle – in pictures \| Sport \| The Guardian Muhammad Ali v George Foreman: the Rumble in the Jungle – in pictures Muhammad Ali v George Foreman: the Rumble in the Jungle – in pictures Share on Messenger Close Forty years on from the legendary heavyweight championship fight in Zaire, a look at the best images from the momentous meeting of a prime, undefeated beast of a heavyweight champion known as ‘Big George’ Foreman and his opponent Muhammad Ali Wednesday 29 October 2014 08.00 EDT Last modified on Saturday 4 June 2016 04.57 EDT Muhammad Ali reacts during a New York press conference promoting the upcoming fight against George Foreman in May 1974. Photograph: The Ring Magazine/The Ring Magazine/Getty Images Pinterest With a fight purse of $5m, promoter Don King needed an outside country to sponsor the fight. Zaire’s president Mobutu Sese Seko negotiated for the fight to be held in the African country and was eager for the publicity such a high-profile event would bring. Photograph: Agence France Presse/Getty Images Muhammad Ali on a sightseeing tour in downtown Kinshasa, the venue for the fight. Photograph: AP The interest in the fight was immense, thousands were at the Kinshasa stadium 11 days before the fight when the reigning heavyweight champion George Foreman made an appearance. Photograph: AFP/Getty Images The fighters trained in Zaire for a number of weeks to get acclimatised to its tropical climate. Photograph: Agence France Presse/Getty Images Foreman, too, trained hard in the Zaire heat. Photograph: -/AFP/Getty Images Muhammad Ali’s mother was onp hand to take care of him during one training session. Photograph: AFP/AFP/Getty Images The bombastic Ali came alive whenever microphones and news cameras appeared. Photograph: -/AFP/Getty Images Pinterest The fight began at 4am local time on 30 October so that it could be shown at 10pm on US TV. The younger and stronger Foreman faced the 32-year old Ali in front of 60,000 people in the stadium in Kinshasa and millions more watching on television around the world. Photograph: AFP/Getty Images	i don't know
In Shakespeare's 'Hamlet', what is the name of the King of Norway who arrives to take the throne of Denmark after the death of the Danish royal family in the final act?	SparkNotes: Hamlet: Act I, scene ii Act I, scene ii Act I, scene ii, page 2 page 1 of 2 Summary The morning after Horatio and the guardsmen see the ghost, King Claudius gives a speech to his courtiers, explaining his recent marriage to Gertrude, his brother’s widow and the mother of Prince Hamlet. Claudius says that he mourns his brother but has chosen to balance Denmark’s mourning with the delight of his marriage. He mentions that young Fortinbras has written to him, rashly demanding the surrender of the lands King Hamlet won from Fortinbras’s father, and dispatches Cornelius and Voltimand with a message for the King of Norway, Fortinbras’s elderly uncle. His speech concluded, Claudius turns to Laertes, the son of the Lord Chamberlain, Polonius. Laertes expresses his desire to return to France, where he was staying before his return to Denmark for Claudius’s coronation. Polonius gives his son permission, and Claudius jovially grants Laertes his consent as well. Turning to Prince Hamlet, Claudius asks why “the clouds still hang” upon him, as Hamlet is still wearing black mourning clothes (I.ii.66). Gertrude urges him to cast off his “nightly colour,” but he replies bitterly that his inner sorrow is so great that his dour appearance is merely a poor mirror of it (I.ii.68). Affecting a tone of fatherly advice, Claudius declares that all fathers die, and all sons must lose their fathers. When a son loses a father, he is duty-bound to mourn, but to mourn for too long is unmanly and inappropriate. Claudius urges Hamlet to think of him as a father, reminding the prince that he stands in line to succeed to the throne upon Claudius’s death. With this in mind, Claudius says that he does not wish for Hamlet to return to school at Wittenberg (where he had been studying before his father’s death), as Hamlet has asked to do. Gertrude echoes her husband, professing a desire for Hamlet to remain close to her. Hamlet stiffly agrees to obey her. Claudius claims to be so pleased by Hamlet’s decision to stay that he will celebrate with festivities and cannon fire, an old custom called “the king’s rouse.” Ordering Gertrude to follow him, he escorts her from the room, and the court follows. Alone, Hamlet exclaims that he wishes he could die, that he could evaporate and cease to exist. He wishes bitterly that God had not made suicide a sin. Anguished, he laments his father’s death and his mother’s hasty marriage to his uncle. He remembers how deeply in love his parents seemed, and he curses the thought that now, not yet two month after his father’s death, his mother has married his father’s far inferior brother. 1	Fortinbras
The three 'Fates' of Greek mythology were 'Lachesis', 'Atropos' and which other?	Enjoying "Hamlet" by William Shakespeare Enjoying "Hamlet" by William Shakespeare Ed Friedlander, M.D. [email protected] This website collects no information. If you e-mail me, neither your e-mail address nor any other information will ever be passed on to any third party, unless required by law. I have no sponsors and do not host paid advertisements. All external links are provided freely to sites that I believe my visitors will find helpful. This page was last modified April 1, 2010. "...pluck out the heart of my mystery..." -- Hamlet The Story Suicide This page is for high school and college students, or anyone else. Everybody brings a different set of experiences to a book, a theater, or a classroom. Although I've tried to help, ultimately you'll need to decide for yourself about Shakespeare and Hamlet. I hope you have as much fun as I have! Getting Started Once you get past the minor difficulties posed by the language, you'll probably enjoy "Hamlet" -- and not just for its action. "Hamlet" is the first work of literature to look squarely at the stupidity, falsity and sham of everyday life, without laughing and without easy answers. In a world where things are not as they seem, Hamlet's genuineness, thoughtfulness, and sincerity make him special. Hamlet is no saint. But unlike most of the other characters (and most people today), Hamlet chooses not to compromise with evil. Dying, Hamlet reaffirms the tragic dignity of a basically decent person in a bad world. "Hamlet" is the first work of literature to show an ordinary person looking at the futility and wrongs in life, asking the toughest questions and coming up with honest semi-answers like most people do today. Unlike so much of popular culture today, "Hamlet" leaves us with the message that life is indeed worth living, even by imperfect people in an imperfect world. Shakespeare's "Hamlet" is full of talk about death, dead bodies, murder, suicide, disease, graves, and so forth. And there is no traditional Christian comfort or promise of eventual justice or happiness for the good people. But the message is ultimately one of hope. You can be a hero. Aristotle wrote that in a tragedy, the protagonist by definition learns something. Whatever you may think of Aristotle's reductionist ideas about serious drama, Shakespeare's heroes all develop philosophically. (You may not agree with everything they decide.) As you read the play, watch how Hamlet -- who starts by wishing he was dead -- comes to terms with life, keeps his integrity, and strikes back successfully at what's wrong around him. So far as I know, it's the first time this theme -- now so common -- appeared in world literature. Scene by Scene "Revenge should know no bounds." -- Claudius Hamlet, our hero, is the son of the previous king of Denmark, also named Hamlet ("Old Hamlet", "Hamlet Senior" as we'd say), who has died less than two months ago. Hamlet remembers his father as an all-around good guy, and as a tender husband who would even make a special effort to shield his wife's face from the cold Danish wind. The day Hamlet was born, Old Hamlet settled a land dispute by killing the King of Norway in personal combat. How old is Hamlet? We have contradictory information. The gravedigger mentions that Hamlet is thirty years old, and that the jester with whom Hamlet played as a child has been dead for twenty-three years. A thirty-year-old man might still be a college student. However, Ophelia is unmarried in an era when girls usually married in their teens, and several characters refer to Hamlet's "youth". So we might prefer to think that Hamlet is in his late teens or early twenties. And many people have seen Hamlet's bitter, sullen outlook at the beginning of the play as typical of youth. You'll need to decide that one for yourself. (I think "thirty" might be a mistake for "twenty". Richard Burbage, who played Hamlet first, was older than twenty, and perhaps the editor thought "twenty" must be wrong. You decide.) Hamlet was a college student at Wittenberg when his father died. (Of course the historical Hamlet, who lived around 700, could not have attended Wittenberg, founded in 1502). The monarchy went to his father's brother, Claudius. (Shakespeare and the other characters just call him "King".) Hamlet's mother, Gertrude, married Claudius within less than a month. Old Hamlet died during his after-lunch nap in his garden. The public was told that Old Hamlet died of snakebite. The truth is that Claudius murdered Old Hamlet by pouring poison in his ear. Old Hamlet died fast but gruesomely. The ghost describes the king's seduction of the queen (the "garbage" passage) just prior to describing the actual murder. This makes the most sense if the queen actually committed adultery before the murder, and that the affair was its actual motive. Even in our "modern" age, if a twenty-plus-year marriage ends with the sudden death of one partner, and the survivor remarries four weeks later, I'd believe that there had probably been an adulterous affair. And everybody at the Danish court must have thought the same thing. If you don't know this, you're naive. It's not clear that Gertrude actually knew a murder was committed, and we never get proof that anyone else knew for certain, either. But everybody must have been suspicious. And nobody was saying anything. Young Hamlet is very well-liked. He is a soldier, a scholar, and a diplomat. We learn that he's "the glass of fashion and the mould of form", i.e., the young man that everybody else tried to imitate. He's also "loved of the distracted multitude", i.e., the ordinary people like him, and if anything were to happen to him, there would be riots. Exactly why Claudius rather than Hamlet succeeded Old Hamlet is not explained. Hamlet refers (V.ii) to "the election", i.e., the choosing of a new king by a vote of a small number of warlords (as in Macbeth ). (By Shakespeare time, it was the Danish royal family that voted.) Interestingly, the Norwegian king is also succeeded by his brother, rather than by his own infant son Fortinbras. Or the royal title may have gone to Claudius simply because he married the royal widow, who he calls "our imperial jointress". Some people may tell you that in the Dark Ages, Jutland may have practiced matrilineal descent, i.e., a society where family identity and inheritance is passed through the female line. Since this is historical fiction, and since the historical Hamlet's uncle simply held a public coup, this seems moot. Matrilineal descent is known among some primitive people in our own century, and is attested to by ancient writers on various cultures. The advantage of this system is that the best men tend to get picked for hereditary positions of power. With male-line succession, the old king is followed by his oldest son, who may be stupid and get himself killed quickly. Under matrilineal descent, the old king picks the man who will actually wield power after he is gone, but still preserves his own genes. In spite of what anybody else may tell you, we know of no human culture where the men, who are physically stronger and do the fighting, let the women make the laws and the big decisions (a matriarchy ). You may decide this is unfortunate. A real anthropologist, Eric J. Smith [link is now down] at U. Wash., points out that its checks-and-balances system made the Iroquois government the "closest thing to a matriarchy ever described". I.i. The play opens on the battlements of the castle. It's midnight. (Shakespeare anachronistically says "'Tis now struck twelve.") Francisco has been keeping watch, and Bernardo comes to relieve him. Neither man recognizes the other in the darkness, and each issues a tense challenge. Francisco remarks, "It's bitter cold... and I am sick at heart." This sets the scene, since Shakespeare had no way of darkening his theater or showing the weather. The fact that each guard suspects the other of being an intruder indicates all is not well, even though Francisco does not say why he is "sick at heart". Francisco leaves, and Marcellus arrives to share Bernardo's watch. Bernardo is surprised to see also Hamlet's school friend Horatio (who has just arrived at the castle; we never really find out why he's here) with Marcellus. Marcellus and Bernardo think they have twice seen the ghost of "Old Hamlet". Horatio is skeptical. The ghost appears, the men agree it looks like the old king, and Horatio (who is a "scholar" and thus knows something of the paranormal) tries to talk to it. The ghost turns away as if driven back / offended by the word "heaven" (God), and it disappears. The men talk about Old Hamlet. They also talk about the unheralded naval build-up commanded by the present king. This is in response to an expected military invasion by the Norwegian prince Fortinbras, who wishes to regain the territories lost by his father's death. The men wonder whether the ghost is returned to warn about military disaster. The ghost reappears. The men try to talk to it to find out what it wants. They try to strike it. It looks like it is about to speak, but suddenly a rooster crows (the signal of morning) and the ghost fades away. (As usual, Shakespeare is telescoping time.) Marcellus relates a beautiful legend that during the Christmas season, roosters might crow through the night, keeping the dark powers at bay. I.ii. Claudius holds court. This is apparently his first public meeting since becoming king. Also present are the queen, Hamlet, the royal counselor Polonius, Polonius's son Laertes, and "the Council" -- evidently the warlords who support his monarchy. Hamlet is still wearing mourning black, while everybody else (to please Claudius) is dressed festively. Claudius wants to show what a good leader he is. He begins by talking about the mix of sorrow for his brother's death, and joy in his new marriage. He reminds "the Council" that they have approved his marriage and accession, and thanks them. Claudius announces that Fortinbras of Norway is raising an army to try to take back the land his father lost to Old Hamlet. Claudius emphasizes that Fortinbras can't win militarily. Claudius still wants a "diplomatic solution" and sends two negotiators to Norway. Next, Laertes asks permission to return to France. The king calls on Polonius. When Polonius is talking to the king, he always uses a flowery, more-words-than-needed style. Polonius can be played either for humor, or as a sinister old man. (Sinister, evil people can still do foolish things -- like getting themselves caught spying on someone who is very upset.) Either fits nicely with the play's theme of phoniness. Polonius says he is agreeable, and the king gives permission. This was rehearsed, and Claudius is taking advantage of the opportunity to look reasonable, especially because he is about to deal with Hamlet, who wants to return to college. Claudius calls Hamlet "cousin" (i.e., close relative) and "son" (stepson), and asks why he is still sad. Hamlet puns. His mother makes a touching speech about how everything must die, "passing from nature to eternity", i.e., a better afterlife. She asks him why he is still acting ("seems") sad. Hamlet replied he's not acting, just showing how he really feels. Claudius makes a very nice speech, asks that Hamlet stay at the court, and reaffirms that Hamlet is heir to his property and throne. Hamlet's mother adds a nice comment, and Hamlet agrees to stay. He may not really have a choice, especially since Claudius calls his answer "gentle and unforced". Does Claudius really care about Hamlet? Maybe. The meeting is over, and Claudius announces there will be a party, at which he'll have the guards shoot off a cannon every time he finishes a drink. Hamlet is left alone. He talks to himself / the audience. Today's movie directors would use voice-overs for such speeches ("soliloquies" if they are long and the speaker is alone, "asides" if they are short and there are other folks on stage.) He talks about losing interest in life and how upset he is by his mother's remarriage and its implications. (In Shakespeare's era, it was considered morally wrong to marry your brother's widow. Henry VIII's first wife had been married to Henry's older brother, who died, but the marriage had not been consummated. This puzzle sparked the English reformation.) Hamlet is trapped in a situation where things are obviously very wrong. Like other people at such times, Hamlet wishes God hadn't forbidden suicide. Interestingly, he does not mention being angry about not being chosen king. Horatio, Marcellus, and Bernardo come in. Hamlet is surprised to see his school buddy. Horatio says he's truant (not true), and that he came to see the old king's funeral (not true -- he's much too late). Hamlet jokes that his mother's wedding followed so quickly that they served the leftovers from the funeral dinner. (I think Horatio probably came to Elsinore out of concern for Hamlet, spoke with the guards first, and was invited at once to see the ghost. Some guys don't say to another guy, "I came to see YOU" even when it's obvious.) You'll need to decide what Hamlet means when he says that he sees his father "in his mind's eye". Sometimes, bereaved people notice their eyes fooling them -- shadows forming themselves in the mind into an image of the deceased. Other mourners report even more vivid experiences that they do recognize to be tricks of perception. Or perhaps Hamlet is simply thinking a lot about his father, or holding onto his good memories. The friends tell Hamlet about the ghost. Hamlet asks what the ghost looked like -- skin color and beard colors -- and agrees they match his father. Hamlet asks the men to keep this a secret and to let him join them the next night, hoping the ghost will return and talk. Afterwards he says he suspects foul play. Everybody else probably does, too, even without any ghost. I.iii. Laertes says goodbye to Ophelia, his sister. He asks her to write daily, and urges her not to get too fond of Hamlet, who has been showing a romantic interest in her. At considerable length, he explains how Hamlet will not be able to marry beneath his station, and explicitly tells her not to have sex ("your chaste treasure open") with him. Ophelia seems to be the passive sort, but she has enough spunk to urge him to live clean too, and not be a hypocrite. Laertes suddenly realizes he has to leave quickly (uh huh). Polonius comes in and lays some famous fatherly advice on Laertes. It's today's self-centered worldly wisdom. "Listen closely, and say less than you know. Think before you act. Don't be cold, but don't be too friendly. Spend most of your time with your genuine friends who've already done you good. Choose your battles carefully, and fight hard. Dress for success. Don't loan or borrow money. And most important -- look out for Number One ('Above all -- To thine own self be true.')" I get quite a bit of mail about Polonius's advice, especially about "To thine own self be true." Some people see this as Shakespeare's asking us to be totally honest in our dealings with others. Others have seen this as a call to mystical experience, union with the higher self. I can't see this. The key is "to thine own self." In Shakespeare's time, the expression "true to" meant "be loyal" or "look out first for the interests of..."; it also meant fidelity to a romantic relationship. This usage recurs in the Beatle' song "All My Loving". "To be false" implies making a promise or a pretense and not delivering. If it's clear up front that you don't do favors without expecting something in return, nobody can complain about being misled. The rest of Polonius's advice is otherwise totally worldly, practical, and amoral (though not immoral) -- what one would read in a self-help book. Polonius is not the model for scrupulous honesty. Polonius tells Reynaldo to lie. Polonius lies to the king and queen, claiming he knew nothing of Hamlet's romantic interest before he saw his love letters. And Polonius tells his daughter that everybody puts on a false front. Hearing this actually makes the king feel ashamed. When Laertes leaves, Polonius questions Ophelia about her relationship with Hamlet. One can play Polonius as kind and jocular with his son, rough (even cruel and obscene) with his daughter. He calls her naïve, orders her not even to talk to Hamlet, and demands to see his love letters to her. Contemporary readers who are puzzled by this should remember that in Hamlet's era (and Shakespeare's), a father would probably get less money from his future son-in-law if his daughter was not a virgin. Polonius, of course, pretends he cares only about Ophelia's well-being. I.iv. Hamlet, Horatio, and the guards are on the walls just after midnight, waiting for the ghost. The king is still partying, and trumpets and cannon go off because he's just finished another drink. Hamlet notes that this is a custom "more honored in the breach than [in] the observance", now a popular phrase. (This was a Danish custom in Shakespeare's time too. The Danish people's neighbors make fun of them for this. Old Hamlet may not have engaged in the practice, hence the "breach".) This fact inspires Hamlet to make a long speech, "So, oft it chances...", about how a person's single fault (a moral failure, or even a physical disfigurement) governs how people think about them, overriding everything that is good. Of course this doesn't represent how Hamlet thinks about Claudius (who he detests for lots of reasons), and it's hard to explain what this is doing in the play -- apart from the fact that it's very true-to-life. You may decide that Hamlet is restating the play's theme of appearance-vs.-reality. The ghost enters. Hamlet challenges it. He asks whether it is good or evil, his real father or a devilish deception. He asks why it has returned, making us think about the unthinkable and unknown ("so horridly to shake our disposition / with thoughts beyond the reaches of our souls"). The ghost beckons Hamlet. Horatio warns him not to follow, because the ghost might drive him insane. Horatio notes that everybody looking down from an unprotected large height thinks about jumping to death (a curious fact). Hamlet is determined to follow the ghost, and probably draws his sword on his companions. (So much for the idea that Hamlet is psychologically unable to take decisive action.) Hamlet says, "My fate cries out", i.e., that he's going to his destiny. He walks off the stage after the ghost. Directors often have Hamlet hold the handle of his sword in front of his face to make a cross, holy symbol for protection. Marcellus (who like everybody else surely suspects Claudius of foul play) says, "Something is rotten in the state of Denmark" (usually misquoted and misattributed to Hamlet himself.) Horatio says God will take care of Hamlet ("Heaven will direct it"). "Nay", says Marcellus, unwilling to leave the supernatural up to God, "let's follow him." I.v. The scene change is to indicate that the place has changed, i.e., Hamlet and the ghost are higher up. Hamlet demands that the ghost talk, and he does. He claims to be Old Hamlet. Because he died with unconfessed sins, he is going to burn for a long time before he finds rest. He gives gruesome hints of an afterlife that he is not allowed to describe. (Even the more fortunate dead returning to earth are "fat weeds".) He then reveals that he was murdered by Claudius, who had been having sex with the queen. (At least the ghost says they were already having an affair. Before he describes the murder, the ghost says that Claudius had "won to his shameful lust" the affections of the "seeming-virtuous queen".) The ghost's account now becomes very picturesque. Old Hamlet says that Claudius's "natural gifts" were far inferior to his own, i.e., that Old Hamlet was much better looking, smarter, nicer, and so forth. Claudius was a smooth talker ("wit") and gave her presents. Old Hamlet says that "lust, though to a radiant angel linked / Will sate itself in a celestial bed / And prey on garbage." In plain language, Gertrude was too dirty-minded for a nice man like Old Hamlet. She jumped into bed with a dirtball. Claudius poured poison in the king's ear. Old Hamlet tells the grisly effects of the poison. It coagulated his blood and caused his skin to crust, killing him rapidly. His line "O horrible, O horrible, most horrible!" is probably better given to Hamlet. The ghost calls on Hamlet to avenge him by killing Claudius. He also tells him not to kill his mother. ("Taint not thy mind..." doesn't mean to think nice thoughts, which would be impossible, but simply not to think of killing her.) The ghost has to leave because morning is approaching. Hamlet says he'll remember what he's heard "while memory holds a seat [i.e., still functions] in this distracted globe." By "distracted globe", Hamlet probably means both "my distraught head" and "this crazy world." (The name of the theater, too.) Hamlet already has made up his mind about Claudius and his mother, without the ghost's help. So before considering whether the ghost is telling the truth, Hamlet calls his mother a "most pernicious woman", and says of Claudius "one may smile, and smile, and be a villain." We all know that from experience -- most really bad people pretend to be nice and friendly. When Hamlet's friends come in, he says, "There's never a [i.e., no] villain in all Denmark..." He probably meant to say, "...as Claudius", but realizes in midsentence that this isn't the thing to say. He finishes the sentence as a tautology ("Villains are knaves.") Hamlet says he thinks the ghost is telling the truth, says he will feign madness ("put an antic disposition on" -- he doesn't explain why), and (perhaps re-enacting a scene in the old play) swears them to secrecy on his sword and in several different locations while the ghost hollers "Swear" from below the stage. It's obvious that Hamlet's excitement is comic, and the scene is funny. Hamlet calls the ghost "boy", "truepenny", and "old mole", and says to his friends, "You hear this fellow in the cellarage." It seems to me that Shakespeare is parodying the older play, and even making fun of the idea of ghosts, and that he's saying, "Don't take this plot seriously, but listen to the ideas." Horatio comments how strange this all is, and Hamlet (who likes puns) says that they should welcome the ghost as a stranger in need. "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy." (Ethan Hawke has "our philosophy". I wonder if this might be what Shakespeare actually wrote.) In Shakespeare's era, "philosophy" means what we call "natural science". Notice that Horatio, who is skeptical of ghosts, is the one who suggests trusting God when the ghost appears, and who will later talk about "flights of angels" carrying Hamlet's soul to heaven. Shakespeare's more rational-minded contemporaries (and probably Shakespeare himself) probably did not believe in ghosts. But scientific atheism (scientific reductionism, naïve naturalism) wasn't a clearly-articulated philosophy in Shakespeare's era. II.i. Some time has passed. From Ophelia's remarks in III.ii. (which happens the day after II.i), we learn that Old Hamlet has now been dead for four months. Shakespeare telescopes time. We learn (in this scene) that Ophelia has (on Polonius's orders) refused to accept love letters from Hamlet and told him not to come near her. We learn in the next scene (which follows soon after) that the king and queen have sent to Wittenberg for Hamlet's long-time friends, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern (two common Danish surnames), and that they are now here. Hamlet has been walking around aimlessly in the palace for up to four hours at a time. Polonius, in private, sends his servant Reynaldo to spy on Laertes. Polonius reminds him of how an effective spy asks open-ended questions and tells little suggestive lies. Polonius likes to spy. Ophelia comes in, obviously upset. She describes Hamlet's barging into her bedroom, with "his doublet all unbraced" (we'd say, his shirt open in front), his dirty socks crunched down, and pale and knock-kneed, "as if he had been loosèd out of hell / to speak of horrors." Or, as might say, "as if he'd seen a ghost." Hamlet grabbed her wrist, stared at her face, sighed, let her go, and walked out the door backwards. What's happened? Hamlet, who has set about to feign mental illness, is actually just acting on his own very genuine feelings. Hamlet cares very much about Ophelia. He must have hoped for a happy life with her. Now it is painfully obvious that they are both prisoners of a system that will never allow them to have the happiness that they should. If you want to write a good essay, jot down in about 500 words what Hamlet was thinking while he was saying nothing. Here's where we really see him starting to be conflicted. Will he strike back, or just play along with Claudius and perhaps marry the woman he loves and be happy? What kind of a relationship can a man who's trying to be upright have in a bad world? Hamlet says everything and says nothing, just as the skull will do later. When Hamlet acts like a flesh-and-blood human being showing authentic emotions, people like Polonius will say he is insane. And Polonius suggests Hamlet is lovesick. Maybe Polonius really believes this. Maybe he just realized that perhaps his daughter might be the next Queen of Denmark. II.ii. The king and queen welcome Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Claudius says that except for the death of Hamlet's father, he's clueless as to why Hamlet is upset. (Uh huh.) He asks them very nicely to try to figure out what's wrong so Claudius can help. (Now Claudius might well be sincere.) Gertrude says she wants them to make Hamlet happy, and that the good and generous king will reward them well. Both say how much they appreciate the opportunity, and Claudius thanks them. Often a director will have Claudius call each by the other's name, and Gertrude point out which is which (lines 33-34). They go off to find Hamlet. Polonius comes in and announces that the ambassadors from Norway have returned, and that after their report he will tell them why Hamlet is acting strange. Gertrude thinks that Hamlet is simply distressed over his father's death (which Claudius thought of) and her remarriage (which Claudius pretended he couldn't think of.) The ambassadors are back from Norway. Fortinbras was indeed mounting an army to attack Claudius's Denmark. The King of Norway was sick and supposedly thought Fortinbras was going to invade Poland instead. (Uh huh.) When he "learned the truth", the King of Norway arrested Fortinbras, made him promise not to invade Denmark, and paid him to invade Poland instead. The King of Norway now requests that Claudius let Fortinbras pass through Denmark for the invasion. (Denmark is on the invasion route from Norway to Poland if the Norwegian army is to cross the sea to Denmark. And we know a sea-invasion was expected from the amount of shipbuilding mentioned in I.i.) This all seems fake and for show, and probably Claudius (who doesn't seem at all surprised) and the King of Norway had an understanding beforehand. As before, Polonius can be a foolish busybody or a sinister old man. (Foolish busybodies do not usually become chief advisors to warrior-kings.) Polonius launches into a verbose speech about finding the cause of madness, prompting the queen to tell him to get to the point ("More matter with less art"; the queen actually cares about Hamlet.) He reads a love letter from Hamlet. It's about the genuineness of his love. Polonius asks the king, "What do you think of me?" The king replies, "[You are] a man faithful and honorable." Now Polonius tells a lie. He emphasizes that he had no knowledge of Hamlet's romantic interest in Ophelia until she told him and gave him the love letter. Polonius then truthfully tells how he forbade Ophelia to see or accept messages from Hamlet. However, Polonius does not mention the wrist-grabbing episode. He then reminds the king of how reliable an advisor he has always been, and says "Take this from this" (my head off my shoulders, or my insignia of office from me; the actor will show which is meant) "if this be otherwise." He finishes, "If circumstances lead me [i.e., allow, the actor could say "let"], I will find / Where truth is hid, though it were hid indeed / Within the center [of the earth]." He suggests he and the king hide and watch Ophelia and Hamlet. Polonius likes to spy. At this time, Hamlet (who may have been eavesdropping), walks in reading a book. Polonius questions him, and Hamlet pretends to be very crazy by giving silly answers. They are pointed, referring to the dishonesty of Polonius ("To be honest, as this world goes, is to be one man picked out of ten thousand.") Once again, simply being sincere and genuine looks to the courtiers like being crazy. Hamlet is well-aware that Polonius has forbidden Ophelia to see him, and he refers obliquely to this. Polonius notes in an aside (a movie director would use a voice-over), "Though this be madness, yet there is method in it" -- another famous line often misquoted. The speech of the insane, as Polonius notes, often makes the best sense. Why is Hamlet pretending to be comically-crazy? He said he would "put an antic disposition on" just after he saw the ghost. You'll have to think hard about this, or suspend your judgement. Shakespeare was constrained by the original Hamlet story to have Hamlet pretend to be comically insane, and for the king to try to find whether he was really crazy or just faking. But Hamlet is also distraught, and the play is largely a study of his emotional turmoil while he is forced to endure a rotten environment. You might decide that Hamlet, knowing that his behavior is going to be abnormal because he is under stress, wants to mislead the court into thinking he is simply nuts rather than bent on revenge. (Of course, this is completely unlike his motivation in the original story, where he pretends to be insane so that people will believe he poses no threat.) I've never been able to decide for myself. Polonius leaves, and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern (who have been watching) enter. Hamlet realizes right away that they have been sent for. They share a dirty joke about "Lady Luck's private parts" that would have been very funny to Shakespeare's contemporaries, and Hamlet calls Denmark a prison. When they disagree ("Humor a madman"), Hamlet says "There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so. To me it is a prison." Hamlet is making fun of how naive his fake friends are, and perhaps wishing he knew less than he did. (Note that Hamlet is obviously not referring to the idea that there are no moral standards common to the whole human race -- as do certain contemporary "multiculturalists". The theme of right and wrong pervades the play.) The idea that attitude is everything was already familiar from Montaigne, and from common sense. Again we have the theme of the play -- Hamlet chooses NOT to ignore the evil around him, though everybody else has, or pretends to have, a "good attitude" toward a terrible situation The spies suggest Hamlet is simply too ambitious. This is ironic, since they are the ones who are spying on their friend for a king's money. Hamlet replies, "O God, I could be bounded in a nutshell and count myself a king of infinite space, were it not that I have bad dreams." The friends continue to play on the idea that Hamlet's ambitious are being thwarted, sharing some contemporary platitudes about the vanity of earthly ambitions. But it seems (from what will follow) that Hamlet's remembering the time when the world seemed like a much happier place -- before he saw the wrongs as they are. Hamlet then questions the men again about the purpose of their visit. If they actually cared, they would say, "Your family asked us to come. We are all very worried about you." Instead, they pretend they just dropped by to visit, which is stupid. Only when Hamlet asks them "by the rites of our fellowship" (i.e., by our secret fraternity ritual) do they have to tell the truth. (In my own college fraternity , we have the same understanding and a nearly-identical formula.) Hamlet levels with his friends. There was a time when the beauty of the earth, the sky, and the thoughts and accomplishments of the human race filled him with happiness. (All of this is good Renaissance thought, and familiar from many times and places -- and I hope you've felt this as well.) Now he has lost his ability to derive enjoyment, though he knows the earth, sky, and people should still seem wonderful. They seem instead to be "the quintessence of dust". Anyone who's experienced depression knows the feeling. "Quintessence" ("fifth essence"; compare Bruce Willis's "Fifth Element") was an idea from prescientific thought -- a mystical substance that made fire, air, water, and earth work together, and supposedly what the planets and stars were made of. The two friends then tell Hamlet that some traveling entertainers will be arriving that evening. They used to have their own theater, but some child-actors became more popular (a contemporary allusion by Shakespeare to the late summer of 1600), and the adult actors took to the road. Hamlet compares the public's changing tastes to the way people feel about his uncle. (Q2 omits the reference to the child actors, but without it, the transition between the actor's losing popularity and the new king gaining popularity makes no sense, so it cannot be an interpolation.) Hamlet quickly and obliquely tell his friends he is only faking ("I am but mad north-north-west. When the wind is southerly, I know a hawk from a handsaw.") The players arrive, heralded by Polonius, who Hamlet calls a big baby. Hamlet fakes madness for Polonius's benefit. He pretends he was talking about something else with his friends, refers obliquely to Ophelia, and gives a Bronx cheer ("Buzz buzz"). When the players arrive, Hamlet drops the pretense of madness, and greets old friends. One actor repeats a bombastic speech on the fall of Troy, overacting with tears in his eyes. Hamlet asks Polonius to treat the actors well. Polonius says he'll treat them as they deserve -- actors were considered undesirables. Hamlet says, "[Treat them] better. Use every man after his desert [i.e., deserving], and who shall [e]scape whipping?" Hamlet gets an idea. He asks for a performance of "The Murder of Gonzago", with a short speech by Hamlet himself added. (Don't try to figure out what happened to this speech.) Everybody leaves. Hamlet soliloquizes. He calls himself a "rogue" and a "peasant slave". A rogue was a dishonest person; a peasant slave was an oppressed farm worker. He talks about how the actor got himself all worked-up over something about which he really cared nothing (the fall of Troy). Hamlet contrasts this with his own passiveness in both word and deed. What does Hamlet really mean? He reminds us, at the end of the soliloquy, that even though he thinks the ghost is telling the truth, he needs to be sure this is not a demonic deception. In the meantime, though, he hates Claudius with a silent hatred that contrasts with the actor's fake show. Hamlet calls himself "gutless" ("I am lily-livered and lack gall"). Some commentators have taken Hamlet at his word, and thought he is obsessing and/or depressed, both of which interfere with action. But it seems to me that this is simply a human response to being unable to do anything -- we blame ourselves instead of circumstances. Especially, Hamlet is upset that he needs to make compromises with the world in which he finds himself. Perhaps this is confusing -- since Hamlet still doesn't know for sure that the king is guilty. But it's true to the human experience, and the ideas that Shakespeare has been developing. I hope you'll think about this, and decide for yourself. III.i. The next day, the two spies visit with the king and queen, as well as Polonius, who has brought Ophelia. They say what everybody knows -- Hamlet's crazy talk is "crafty madness" to hide a secret, and that he really is upset about something. They invite the royal couple to the play, and the king seems genuinely glad that Hamlet's found something he will enjoy. The king sends the queen and the spies away. Polonius gives his daughter a book, plants her where Hamlet will find her, and tells her to pretend she is reading. Polonius tells her (or to the king?), "It's all right, dear, everybody pretends." ("With devotion's visage / and pious action we do sugar o'er / the devil himself.") The king sees the application to himself, and says, "No kidding." ("How smart a lash that speech doth give my conscience!") This is powerful -- we suddenly learn that the king feels horrible about his own crime. Maybe this surprises us. If Polonius is a sinister old man and knows all about the murder, the king says this directly to him as they are out of earshot of Ophelia. Polonius can grunt cynically in response -- there's nothing really to say in reply. If Polonius is a foolish old man, the king says this as an aside. We have just learned that the king really does hate his crime, and suffers under a "heavy burden". Hamlet's famous speech on whether it's worthwhile living or doing anything needs little comment. He says it seems to him that life is not worth living, mostly because people treat each other so stupidly and badly. We also suffer from disease and old age -- even living too long is a "calamity". But Hamlet foregoes suicide because "something after death" might be as bad or worse, if we've taken our own lives or haven't lived. He's saying what many people have felt, especially those who do not assume that the Christian account of the afterlife is true -- or even that there is any afterlife. Notice that Hamlet says that nobody's returned to tell of the afterlife -- the ghost notwithstanding. Shakespeare seems to be saying, loud and clear, "Don't focus on the story. Focus on the ideas." Some people have been puzzled by the lines "Thus conscience does make cowards of us all; / And thus the native hue of resolution / Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought, / And enterprises of great pitch and moment / With this regard their currents turn awry / And lose the name of action." Not only is Hamlet talking about actual suicide -- he's also talking about "lifelong suicide" by doing nothing, choosing the easy passive approach to life. Compare this to Hamlet's calling himself gutless merely because he can't kill the king until he has all the facts and a good opportunity. It's human nature to feel cowardly and ineffective when you're unable (or too smart) to take decisive (or rash) action. Hamlet sees Ophelia, reading a book. He assumes it's her prayer book (she is evidently not much of a pleasure reader), and asks her to pray for the forgiveness of his sins. Instead, she tries to give him back his love letters, saying he has "prove[d] unkind", which is ridiculous. Hamlet immediately realizes that she has been put up to this. He responds like a thoughtful man of strong feelings. He generalizes his disappointment with the two women in his life to all women -- I think unfairly. (Watch how his attitude toward women matures later in the play.) But the Olivier movie's torrent of loud verbal abuse seems wrong. Showing Hamlet's emotional turmoil and conflict seems better. Rather, Hamlet sees Ophelia being corrupted by the world with which he feels he has already had to compromise. He doesn't want this to happen to the girl about whom he cares so much. Like most men during breaking up, he says "I loved you" and "I didn't love you". More meaningfully, Hamlet talks about fakeness. He asks where her father is, and must know that she is lying. (In Ethan Hawke's version, he finds a wire microphone hidden on Ophelia.) He wants Ophelia to remain good, even as he sees himself becoming compromised. She would have an opportunity to renounce the world by joining a convent, and he urges her to do so. (Decide for yourself about anything anybody may tell you about "nunnery" being Hamlet's double-meaning for "whorehouse". I can't make sense out of this in the present context.) In our world, even being beautiful drives people to be dishonest. Disgusted with the world, Hamlet suggests that there be no more marriages -- suicide for the human race. Ophelia thinks Hamlet, who she admired so much, is crazy. (Once again, being genuine looks like insanity.) But the king comes out and says that he thinks that Hamlet is neither in love, nor insane, but very upset about something. Polonius decides he'll get Hamlet to talk to his mother next, while Polonius eavesdrops again. Polonius likes to spy. The king decides that he will send Hamlet to England "for the demand of our neglected tribute" (i.e., to ask for protection money.) III.ii. Hamlet gives an acting lesson, mostly about being genuine. He wants to show people -- body and mind -- as they are. So does Shakespeare. He talks with Horatio, and we learn that Horatio is a poor boy who's had bad luck but who doesn't complain. He and Hamlet are genuine friends who know they can trust each other. (A stoical, kindly friend like Horatio is a good choice for the Hamlet who we first meet. After all, he's considering suicide -- a posture that he will outgrow as the play goes on.) Hamlet says, "Give me that man / That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him / In my heart's core, ay, in my heart of heart, / As I do thee." Our society doesn't talk as much about male bonding as Shakespeare's did. Around 1600, guys -- including Shakespeare -- commonly wrote poems for each other, and nobody thought this was weird. Hamlet tells Horatio to watch the king as the players re-enact the murder of Old Hamlet. Hamlet jokes -- first bawdily, then about how his mother looks cheerful despite his father having died only two hours ago. (Ophelia, who is literal-minded and thinks he is crazy, corrects him.) The play begins with a "dumb show", in which the story is pantomimed. The king and the queen profess love, the king falls asleep, and the villain pours poison in the king's ear and seduces the queen. If Polonius is a sinister old man and Claudius's accomplice, he can glance at the king when the poison is poured in the ear. If Gertrude knows the details of the homicide (the director can decide), she can glance at the king when the poison is poured in the ear, or be outraged herself. Many directors will choose to omit everything after the poison is poured in the dumb show, and have the King get upset and run out right now. Otherwise, the play proceeds, while Hamlet cracks dirty jokes and the king mentions that the story is "offensive". Courtiers who are suspicious or in-the-know can shoot glances at the king during the production. When the villain pours the poison in the victim's ear, and Hamlet shouts "You will see [next] how the murderer gets the love of [the murdered man]'s wife", the king stands up, shouts "Give me some light! Away!", Polonius calls for torches ("Somebody get the lights..."), and everybody runs out. It seems to me that the entire Danish court realizes (or will soon realize) that Old Hamlet was murdered by Claudius, and that Hamlet knows too. (Hamlet is about to break through his own mother's denial.) Hamlet and Horatio congratulate each other. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern come back in looking for Hamlet, telling him the king is very angry (duh) and that his mother wants to see him (king's orders). Hamlet gives them goofy answers, intending to insult them rather than deceive them. Guildenstern asks for straight answers. Rosencrantz says, "My lord, you once did love me", and asks why Hamlet is upset. Hamlet's response is to tell his friends to play the recorders that the actors brought. Neither knows how. Hamlet says they should be able to, since "it is as easy as lying". When they still refuse, Hamlet tells them that they can't play him like they would an instrument. Once again, Hamlet's genuineness looks like madness. Polonius comes in, and Hamlet, still talking crazy, gets Polonius to agree that a particular cloud looks like each of three different animals. (Appearance versus reality.) In an aside, he says to the audience that this is as good a job of acting crazy as he can manage. Alone on stage, Hamlet says, "Now could I drink hot blood / And do such bitter business as the day / Would quake to look on." (Unfortunately for everyone, he is about to do just that, by stabbing Polonius.) He says that he'll keep his temper and not hurt his mother physically. III.iii. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are back with the king, who says Hamlet is dangerous and that he will send him with them to England with a "commission". The two spies talk in Elizabethan platitudes about the sacredness of kingship, the importance of stability in a monarchy, being "holy and religious", and so forth. (Uh huh, uh huh.) The spies leave. Polonius enters and tells Claudius he is going to hide in the bedroom. Claudius thanks him. Now Claudius is by himself. The play has really affected him. He tries to pray. We get to listen. If this were a contemporary action movie (today's "revenge plays"), we would simply hate the bad guy and wait for him to get his just deserts in the end. Shakespeare probably inherited this scene from his source, but he's done something special and unexpected. By giving Claudius real substance and depth, Shakespeare has at once imitated life, increased Hamlet's own stature by giving him an enemy with real character, and reinforced the theme of appearance against reality. Hamlet wants to take decisive action, but can't. It turns out that Claudius cannot, either. And it's Claudius -- not Hamlet -- who is prevented from acting by his own inner turmoil. He hates his crime. He wants to repent. He realizes he could come clean, confess all, and part with his crown... and his queen. He realizes that until he is willing to do this, he cannot find forgiveness from God. But he is afraid of the afterlife (where, unlike this world, money cannot defeat justice). And he is disgusted by the murder itself. Claudius is trying hard, and calls on God's angels to help him get up the courage simply to pray for God's grace. Hamlet enters, sees the king unguarded. Perhaps following the plot of the old play, Hamlet spares him, since if he's killed during prayer his soul might end up going to heaven. The actor can say, "And so he goes to h.... [long pause, he meant to say "hell"], uh, heaven". Somebody will ask you to say that Hamlet is a very bad person for wanting to wait for his revenge until the king is more likely to end up going to hell. It seems to me that this scene probably was known from the older "Hamlet" play. Whatever you make of it, the King's speech is among my favorites. Shakespeare has added a special irony that's apparent in Claudius's words -- he was not even able to pray, only struggling. III.iv. Polonius hides behind a curtain ("arras") in the bedroom. Hamlet comes in. The queen yells at him. He yells back. Hamlet accuses her of killing his father (i.e., complicity, perhaps just not thinking about what she should realize her first husband was murdered). Of course, there is no evidence she actually knows. (In the quarto version, she says she has no knowledge of the murder.) Gertrude seems puzzled. Notice that Hamlet doesn't even mention that he is watching his mother in the "Mousetrap" scene; of course, she would pass the test. Gertrude gets frightened and yells "Help!" Polonius behind the curtain yells "Help!" In the stress of the moment, Hamlet stabs him to death through the curtain. (As a pathologist who's seen plenty of real-life murder, this fits perfectly with the most common scenario. Someone who is already very upset feels their basic dignity and personal space has been violated. And Polonius has done this to Hamlet.) Trying to avenge a murder and set things to right, Hamlet has just committed another murder -- this one senseless. But Hamlet is so focused on his mother that he does not even pause to see who he has killed before he accuses his mother of complicity in the murder of his father. (Hamlet doesn't know for sure.) When Polonius's body falls out from behind the curtain, Hamlet remarks he thought it was the king (who he was just with, someplace else), and talks about how being a busybody is dangerous. He turns immediately back to his mother, who is baffled and evidently is just now realizing herself that Claudius is a murderer. (In the quarto version, the queen says something to the effect that she has just now learned of Claudius's guilt. Perhaps some of the original text of the play has been lost from the folio version.) Hamlet's speech to his mother has less to do with the murder and how it is wrong than with her sexual misbehavior and her not mourning her loving first husband. Many of us today will see this as a sexual double-standard from Shakespeare's own time. Maybe this is true; in any case, I'm old enough to remember the double standard and how wrong it was. Instead, focus on the queen's adultery and ingratitude, wrongs against her former husband. The ghost enters, visible to Hamlet but not to the queen. Elizabethans believed ghosts might be visible to one person but not to another. Perhaps the queen is too morally debased to see the ghost, or perhaps Shakespeare didn't want to clutter his story by having the ghost and the queen have it out between themselves. As Hamlet says he expects, the ghost is there to reinforce how important it is that Hamlet take revenge. But the ghost also asks Hamlet to "step between [the queen] and her fighting soul", and help her in this moment of crisis to make the right choice. The queen thinks Hamlet is crazy. The ghost leaves. Hamlet tells the queen not to dismiss what he has said about her as the result of madness, and says how ironic it is that virtue (his blunt talk to his mother) has to ask pardon for its bad manners. Hamlet tells his mother to confess herself to heaven and to repent, and not to have sex with the king. "Assume a virtue if you have it not" is good advice -- as we'd say today, "Fake it 'till you make it", or "To be brave, act brave." Carrying out Polonius's body (as in the sources), Hamlet remarks that he's become "heaven's scourge and minister" against a corrupt world. He also says it has "pleased heaven (God)" -- in his killing of the old man -- to punish Polonius for his mean-minded, foolish spying, and to punish Hamlet, who will have to take the consequences of his nasty-and-stupid act. He tells the queen not to reveal that he's feigning madness. He also indicates that he already knows the spies are going to do him mischief on the English trip, and that he has a counter-plan that will destroy them. Exiting, he remarks that for once, Polonius doesn't have anything to say. We never do figure out why Gertrude cannot see the ghost (if there is a reason). Nor does the scene focus on her realizing that the king is a murderer. Probably Hamlet couldn't persuade her since he still doesn't have the evidence; she'll only realize this at the climax when she drinks the poison. Hamlet talks to her, as he does to others (Ophelia, the spies, Horatio) about not being sullied by a crooked, corrupt world. Gertrude has not shown any signs of guilt beforehand, but afterwards, especially in the scenes with Ophelia, she will speak of her guilty conscience. Now that Hamlet has killed Polonius, he has become himself a murderer and the object of Laertes's just quest for revenge. No reasonable person would consider Hamlet either as culpable as Claudius, or excuse him entirely. (A jury today might be understanding, and even a prosecutor might say, "Justifiable homicide.") Just recently, we heard Hamlet talk about his own "patient merit". Now Hamlet is all-too-human. But there's something else. In this scene, Hamlet and his mother reaffirm their love for one another. From now on, Hamlet will no longer talk about life not being worth living. Perhaps this is the real turning-point of the play. IV.i. The queen tells the king what has happened to Polonius, and that Hamlet is insane. The king says he will need to send Hamlet off immediately, make some kind of excuse for him, and think how to protect the king's own good name (uh huh). Line 40 is defective. It should conclude with something about "slander". IV.ii. Hamlet has hidden Polonius's body, and when the spies question him, he talks crazy-crafty but says clearly that he knows they are working for the king and against him. He warns them that this is dangerous. By now the two spies do not even pretend they care about Hamlet. IV.iii. The king and "two or three" of his courtiers enter. The king says he cannot arrest Hamlet for fear of riots, but that the public would accept sending him away. The two spies bring Hamlet in. He talks crazy, commenting that everybody ends up dead in the end -- fat kings and lean beggars end up both food for worms, simply different menu items. The king tells Hamlet he just go to England, and gives sealed letters to the two spies. He tells them, "Everything is sealed and done". It sounds as if the spies know the contents of the letters; a director who wishes to make this clear can have the king show the letters to the spies first. The spies leave with Hamlet. The king, alone, tells the audience that the letters instruct the King of England to kill Hamlet upon his arrival. IV.iv. Fortinbras's army crosses the stage, and Fortinbras drops a captain off to visit the Danish court. The captain meets Hamlet, Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern. Hamlet asks about the army, and the captain says that Norway and Poland are fighting a stupid war over a worthless piece of land. Two thousand people are going to get killed over this nonsense. Hamlet says this is the result of rich people not having enough to do, a hidden evil like a deep abscess rupturing into the blood. Alone on stage, Hamlet contrasts himself to Fortinbras. Hamlet has something worth doing that he hasn't yet done. Fortinbras is busy doing something that isn't worthwhile. Hamlet reaffirms his bloody intentions. You may be asked to comment on this passage. You'll need to decide for yourself exactly what it means. If you've made it this far, you're up to the challenge. IV.v. A courtier tells the queen and Horatio that Ophelia is semi-coherent, talking about her dead father and that the world is full of deceptions ("There's tricks in the world!") The queen does not want to talk to her; in an aside, she says it will trouble and expose her own guilty conscience. Since the scene in her bedroom, the queen has felt guilty. She speaks of her own "sick soul" and of "sin's true nature"; she also worries if she can keep her own composure with her own bad conscinece ("So full of artless jealousy is guilt, it spills itself in fearing to be spilt.") Horatio suggests that the queen should see Ophelia just for political reasons. Ophelia comes in, singing a song about a dead man, then one about premarital sex. When she leaves, the king talks to the queen about all the wrong things that have happened -- Polonius killed and quietly buried without a state funeral, Hamlet sent ("just[ly]") away, the people confused and upset, and Laertes on his way back, angry. (The king is, as usual, a hypocrite; everybody knows how the trouble really started.) Just then, Laertes (at the head of a mob) breaks down the castle door. The mob wants Claudius deposed and Laertes crowned king. Laertes runs in, armed, and faces off with Claudius. He is doing exactly what Hamlet considered doing, and didn't do. Gertrude risks her own life by wrestling Laertes down. Claudius tells her to let him go, because God protects kings (uh huh). Laertes yells, and Claudius asks for a chance to explain. Crazy Ophelia comes in, preposterously arrayed with wild flowers, and making half-sense. Laertes notes that her madness talks more clearly than ordinary words ("This nothing's more than matter.") She sings another song about a dead man, and passes out symbolic flowers. You can have fun trying to figure out who gets the rosemary (remembrance, "thinking of you" -- weddings and funerals), who gets the pansies ("thoughts", a pun on pensées), who gets the fennel (flattery / infidelity) and columbines (unchastity), who (with Ophelia) gets the rue (repentance / sorrow; probably Gertrude gets it, as she must "wear her rue with a difference" as to distinguish two coats of arms, since they have different reasons to be sorry), and who gets the daisies (unrequited love; you know the game with the daisy, "She loves me, she loves me not"). Ophelia regrets there have been no violets (faithfulness and friendship) available since her father died. Later, Laertes will ask violets to grow from Ophelia's body. IV.vi. Horatio gets a letter from Hamlet. Supposedly he boarded a pirate ship during a sea scuffle. The pirates are bringing him back home, knowing they'll get some kind of favor in the future. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are on their way to England and Hamlet will have more to say about them. IV.vii. The king explains to Laertes that he couldn't arrest or prosecute Hamlet because the queen loves him and he's popular with the common people. He's about to tell Laertes that his revenge is imminent ("Don't lose any sleep over that" -- l. 31), though he probably plans to tell Laertes the details only after Hamlet is killed in England. Just then a letter comes from Hamlet announcing he's back in Denmark. The king already has "Plan B". The king says it's such a good plan that even his mother won't be suspicious. (Uh huh. The plot that Shakespeare inherited has some credibility problems, and Shakespeare does not seem to care.) He will have Laertes have a fencing match with Hamlet. Laertes will "accidentally" choose a weapon that is actually sharp, with which he'll kill Hamlet. (Hamlet is "most generous, And free from all contriving", so he won't check the swords.) Laertes mentions that he has some blade poison. He must have bought it to use on Claudius (who he thinks is the murderer of Polonius). Even a scratch will kill. (Uh huh, nobody will be suspicious?) Now the king decides that for backup (in case Laertes is unable to stab Hamlet and make it look like an accident), he will have a poisoned drink ready, and Hamlet will want some when he's thirsty. (Uh huh, nobody will be suspicious?) Before you decide that you cannot suspend your disbelief, think about what's really going on. The king knows that the court knows that he's already a murderer, and that they don't care. So nobody will do anything even when the king and Laertes kill Hamlet treacherously in plain view. The queen comes in, crying. Ophelia was hanging chains of flowers on trees. She climbed a willow that hung out over a river. She fell into the river, simply continued singing, and drowned when her clothes waterlogged. Please note that this is obviously an accident, not a suicide -- just as when a crazy person walks in front of a bus nowadays. I think Claudius gives it out as a suicide just to inflame Laertes. We don't know who saw Ophelia drown, or why nobody tried to save her. Perhaps an observer from the castle battlements, or perhaps her last acts were reconstructed from the scene, or perhaps we are asking the wrong question. V.i. Two men are digging Ophelia's grave. One asks whether someone who tries to go to heaven by the short route (suicide) can be given Christian burial. In Shakespeare's time (as Hamlet already mentioned in I.ii.), suicide was considered a sin, and sometimes even unforgivable. Suicides would ordinarily be buried in unconsecrated ground without a Christian service. Sometimes they'd be buried at a crossroads (as a warning to everybody not to do the same), and sometimes with a stake through the heart (to prevent them from rising as undead, of course.) The men joke about how politics has influenced the coroner's decision to allow Christian burial. They parody lawyer talk ("Maybe the water jumped on her, instead of her jumping into the water. Or maybe she drowned herself in her own defense.") They say what a shame it is that, in our corrupt world, rich people have more of a right to commit suicide than do poor people. Hamlet and Horatio walk in. The gravedigger sings a contemporary song about having been in love and making love, and thinking it was great, but now being dead and in a grave as if he'd never lived at all. The marks "-a-" signify his grunting as he shovels. He tosses up a skull. Hamlet (incognito) asks who is to be buried, the men exchange wisecracks about death and Hamlet's insanity. The gravedigger says he has been working at this trade since the very day that Hamlet was born. (Thus the gravedigger comes to stand for Hamlet's own mortality.) Hamlet asks about dead bodies, makes a four-way pun on the word "fine", and jokes about "chop-fallen" (in the living it means frowning, but the skull has lost its "chop", i.e., jawbone.) Loggits is the game we call horseshoes. "Let her paint an inch thick" is a reference to the new fashion of women wearing make-up. Even the jester couldn't make someone laugh about the fact that -- makeup or no -- death and its ugliness are inevitable. The gravedigger tells him which skull belonged to the court jester, Yorick. Hamlet also remembers Yorick's jokes and his kindness. But there is more. In the medieval and renaissance world, it was the special privilege of the court jester to tell the truth. He could do this without fear of reprisals. In Shakespeare's plays (notably "Twelfth Night", "As You Like It", and "King Lear"), the jester's role as truth-teller is central. "Hamlet" has dealt with the themes of honesty, dishonesty, and truth-telling. In this most famous scene of all, Yorick tells the truth without saying a word. We all end up in the same place, dead. The funeral party comes in, and Hamlet recognizes "maimed rites", i.e., much of the era's normal Christian burial service is eliminated because of the suspicion of suicide. Hamlet and Horatio hide. Laertes protests the fact that the service is limited. The pastor's reply is organized religion at its worst. Laertes says the priest is the one who will go to hell. He jumps into the grave, picks up the corpse and embraces it, and launches into a bombastic speech. Hamlet comes out and jumps into the grave too. He calls himself "Hamlet the Dane", claiming the royal title. (In Shakespeare's era, a monarch was called by the name of his country for short.) Shakespeare's heroes all develop as people, and many people (myself included) dislike Hamlet's attitude toward women as evidenced in the first half of the play. But in striking contrast to the "nunnery" scene, he now proclaims boldly, "I loved Ophelia." Laertes drops the corpse and starts choking Hamlet. Separated, Hamlet parodies Laertes's bombastic speech. Horatio takes Hamlet off and the king says to Laertes, "Good. Now we have an excuse for a duel right away." V.ii. Hamlet is explaining to Horatio about how he substituted his own letter to the King of England, ordering the execution of the spies. (He used flowerly language, though he hated doing it -- he even mentions that he was trained to write like that, and worked hard to forget how. Again, this is the theme of sincerity.) Hamlet already had a pretty good idea of what the English trip was all about, so his having a copy of the royal seal, and some wax and paper, is no surprise (as he already indicated at the end of the bedroom scene.) Surprisingly, Hamlet talks about reading and changing the letters on an impulse, and has a famous line, "There's a divinity that shapes our ends / Rough-hew them how we will." Rough-hew was to carve the basics of a woodcarving or sculpture, with the fine-shaping to follow. Horatio (who seems more inclined to faith in God than do the other characters) agrees: "That is most certain." Since this doesn't make perfect sense with the plot, Shakespeare probably placed it here for philosophic reasons, especially given what is about to happen -- coincidences ("Providence"?) are going to work events out for Hamlet's cause. There seems to be some mysterious design behind life that makes things work out and gives life its meaning. Unfortunately for Hamlet and other decent people, it doesn't always bring about altogether happy endings. Still, it's grand being part of things. One can find similar ideas in Montaigne, Proverbs 16:9, and the modern Christian saying, "A person proposes, God disposes." Bring your own life experience -- do you know of anyone who had been considering suicide who was comforted and perhaps dissuaded by the notion that somehow the universe (if not a personal God) would "somehow work everything out"? Do you think this is true? I can't answer. Horatio remarks that it'll only be a short time before the king finds out about the execution of the spies. Hamlet says life itself is short ("The interim is mine, / And a man's life's no more than to say 'One'.") Osric brings Laertes's challenge, Hamlet accepts. The king has bet heavily on Hamlet, probably to divert suspicion. Don't try to figure out the terms of the bet -- the two accounts contradict each other. Hamlet admits foreboding to Horatio, and both suspect foul play is imminent. But Hamlet decides to go forward anyway. "We defy augury" -- Hamlet is not going to let his apprehensions interfere with his showing courage and doing what he must. "There is special providence in the fall of a sparrow." This is an allusion to the gospel. God knows every sparrow that falls. Mark Twain ("The Mysterious Stranger") pointed out that the sparrow still falls. Hamlet is about to die, too, although God is watching. Hamlet notes that death is going to come, sooner or later. "The readiness is all" -- being ready to live and die with courage and integrity is all the answer that Hamlet will find for death. Hamlet points out that nobody really knows what death is, so why be afraid to die young? "Let be" -- don't fight it. Is "Let be" the answer to "To be or not to be?" (!). The duel is set up. In Q1 and Q2, they bring foils (long slender swords) and daggers; in Q2 and F foils and gauntlets (metal gloves). Hamlet puns on "foil", a metal backing that made gemstones shine brighter; he will make Laertes look even more the champion fencer. (Thanks to Hamlet, "foil" has come to mean any character who contrasts with the hero, showing up what kind of person the hero is.) Hamlet apologizes to Laertes, and blames his distracted mental state -- he wasn't himself. (There is a parallel in Romans 7-8). As the king expected, Hamlet is not at all suspicious about the swords, and merely asks whether they're all the same length. In the first round, Hamlet tags Laertes (who is thinking about the poison and perhaps doesn't have his heart really in it). The king drops the poison in the cup, pretending he thinks it's a pearl. (Okay, this is silly.) Whether the court thinks the pearl is to be dissolved in acidified wine and drunk (occasionally done as conspicuous-consumption), or is a gift to Hamlet, you'll need to decide for yourself. The king probably takes a drink (from another cup, or he drinks before the poison is dissolved, or he just pretends to drink.) The queen mentions that Hamlet is "fat and out of breath". Fat just means "sweating", so she wipes his forehead. In the second round, Hamlet hits Laertes again. The queen grabs the cup and drinks despite the king's warning. We'll never know whether she has just realized what is going on, and wants to save Hamlet's life and maybe end her own miserable existence. (She does realize quickly that the cup is poisoned. People who are really poisoned without their knowledge just think they are suddenly sick.) Laertes says in an aside that he's having moral qualms about killing Hamlet by treachery. The third round ends in a draw (perhaps locked weapons), then Laertes reaches out and scratches Hamlet illegally when he is not looking. (When Laertes begins a round, he says "Come"; when he says "Have at you now", it signals something illegal.) They scuffle (because of the illegal blow, Hamlet is "incensed"). During the scuffle, they exchange swords. This was a recognized move in fencing. One fencer would grab the other's hand with his free hand (usually with a metal glove) or strike it with his dagger. The right response was for the other fencer to do the same, and swords could then be exchanged. On stage, the exchange is usually done by having Hamlet disarm Laertes with his sword, which flies up. Hamlet puts his foot on the sharp poisoned sword (he knows it's sharp, but not that it's poisoned, and he intended to scratch Laertes back). Hamlet gives his own sword to Laertes, fights again, and inflicts a deeper wound on him, explaining why Laertes dies quicker. The queen announces the drink is poisoned, and drops dead. Laertes tells everything, and shouts "The king's to blame!" For the first time, Hamlet can kill the king and have people realize he was right. Hamlet stabs the king with the poisoned blade, then forces the poisoned beverage down his throat. Elizabethans pretended to believe that kings were sacred, so Shakespeare had to have everybody shout "Treason", but nobody does anything. (If the director wishes, the guards and court can draw their own weapons and surround the king. Horatio can show the letters to England at this time, too.) Hamlet says he is dying, and Horatio offers to commit suicide like a Roman soldier when his side was defeated. Hamlet drinks the poison instead, to ensure Horatio won't. If Hamlet saw no reason to live, then Horatio has one -- to tell the truth about Hamlet. In the final scene, Fortinbras happens by, as do the English with word of the spies' execution. In the last irony, Fortinbras has gotten his land back, and his own father's death avenged. Horatio says he'll tell about "accidental judgments", i.e., people have gotten their just deserts through seeming accidents -- the theme of God working in the world to make things right. Fortinbras calls for military honors to be shown Hamlet's body. Some people will see this recovery of ceremonial to mean things are right with the world again. Others will simply see one more example of power passing in an unfair world -- as it was in the real Dark Ages. In Ingmar Bergman's production of "Hamlet", Fortinbras's words, "Bid the soldiers shoot!" is their signal to pull out their guns and slaughter Horatio and the rest of the surviving Danish court. The Background Shakespeare's "Hamlet" was a remake of an already popular play, based in turn on historical fiction, based in turn on an episode from the Dark Ages, the lawless, might-makes-right era that followed the collapse of Roman-era civilization. The Historical Hamlet was the son of a Danish "King of the Jutes", who lived during the Dark Ages. The warlord was assassinated and his crown usurped by his brother. This was a coup, not a secret murder. According to current superstition, anyone who killed a crazy person risked acquiring the same disease from the victim's spirit. Therefore, the murdered warlord's son pretended to be crazy, acquiring the nickname "Amlothi", crazy person. Eventually he killed his uncle and became "King of the Jutes" in turn. He ruled successfully, and the nickname stuck. The Geneologies [my link is now down] record "Amleth, King of Denmark." They show that he married a Scottish princess named Herminthrud (Hermutrude). He was eventually killed in battle. He is buried in Denmark in a field called "Ammelhede" ("Hamlet's Heath") to this day. In a strange twist of fate, Herminthrud married one Viglek, also "King of Denmark", the man whose army defeated and killed Hamlet. Michael Skovmand , Dept. of English at U. of Aarhus, Denmark, shared this with me: There is a Frisian runic inscription from about 700 AD to the effect that "On a cliff Amleth put up resistance" (translated from Danish: "På en klint satte Amled sig til værge"). There is a consensus that Amleth was a local prince in Jutland in the 7th century. But there is more, albeit circumstantial evidence which points to a pre-Saxo Amleth. A report from a vicar north of Aarhus in Jutland from 1623 describes a locality called Ammelhede where according to local legend Amled lies buried. The details of this report shows how Amled existed in popular memory, independent of Saxo which at that time had only existed in Danish a hundred years and had practically no readership beyond the clergy and a few academics. Ammelhede exists to this very day, and in 1933 the local tourist board put up a stone with this memorial inscription: "Amled ypperste / Oldtids-snille / teed sig tåbe / Til H�vnens time / Kaaret paa ting / Af jyder til konge/ H jsat han hviler / Paa Ammel Hede" ( = "Amled the greatest / Craftiest of Old / Acted a fool / Until the hour of revenge / Elected at the "Ting" / by Jutes to be king / raised high he rests / at Ammel Heath" [my translation]) So next time you visit Denmark, stop by Ammelhede, a few miles to the south-east of Randers -- don't even think about visiting the bogus 'Hamlet's Grave' between Elsinore and Copenhagen! In Saxo, Hamlet pretends to think that the beach sand is ground grain. This is ancient, being repeated explicitly in an old Norse saga (the Prose Edda) that refers to the ocean-wave nymphs "who ground Hamlet's grain". (Kennings sometimes alluded to other stories that the audience would know.) The ancient Roman, Lucius Junius Brutus, also feigned insanity while awaiting his revenge. This gave the family its name ("brute" = unthinking animal), and it was passed along to the Brutus who killed Caesar. David (I Samuel) also once feigned madness to deceive Saul. In our era, organized crime leader Vincente Gigante is said to have feigned madness. There is a historical novel, now hard to find, about the historical Hamlet entitled "The War of Jutish Succession". Royal Deceit is a B-movie, not released in theaters, adapted from Saxo. I'd appreciate knowing of any good links. Amled -- "Viking Theater" play based on Saxo. Link is now down. Prince of Jutland -- Danish movie based on Saxo. Christian Bale is Hamlet. Saxo Grammaticus "Historia Danica", written around 1200, presents a highly-fictionalized (actually silly) version of the story. Horwendil, warlord of Jutland, kills the King of Norway in single combat and is given Gurutha, daughter of the King of Denmark. Their son is "Amleth". Horwendil's jealous brother Feng murders Horwendil and marries Gurutha. The murder is no secret. (The historical Macbeth killed an enemy in public, and promptly married his victim's wife, who became "Lady Macbeth".) Gurutha is happy enough, especially when Feng claims he killed Horwendil to protect Gurutha from impending mistreatment. Amleth pretends to be crazy. Feng tries to find out whether he is really crazy, or just pretending. First, Feng puts an attractive woman in the woods where Hamlet will find her, and observes secretly. Amleth is warned of the plot, and takes the woman off for a private date. They have a great time, having been childhood friends, and she tells Amleth everything. Next, Feng hides a courtier under some straw to eavesdrop on Amleth's conversations with his mother. Amleth suspects a trap, pretends to think he is a chicken, jumps around on the straw, stabs the eavesdroper to death through the straw, cuts the body up, and tosses it into the sewer where it is eaten by the pigs. Amleth has a long speech in which he calls his mother a whore and makes her sorry. She agrees to help him. She begins weaving a net to entrap Feng's courtiers. Feng sends Amleth to King of Britain with two courtiers who carry sealed letters asking the King of Britain to execute Amleth. Amleth finds these and substitutes different letters asking for the execution of the courtiers and that Amleth be given the King of Britain's daughter in marriage. Again, this all works out for Amleth. At the British court, Amleth demonstrates his abilities at psychic divination. Amleth returns a year later. He arrives at Feng's court, where he again pretends to be insane. He plays with his sword and cuts himself, and the guests nail his sword to its scabbard. Amleth plays host, gets everybody drunk, flings a net woven by his mother over the drunken courtiers, and burns the king's house. Feng is asleep nearby. Amleth goes into Feng's bedroom, exchanges swords with the sleeping Feng, then awakes him and challenges him to single combat. Feng now has the sword that is nailed to the scabbard, and Amleth kills him. Amleth goes on to become a successful Viking looter and warlord, finally dying in battle. Saxo confirms that Amleth's Scottish wife betrayed him and married Wiglek (Viglek), the man who had killed him in battle. Belleforest's "Histories Tragiques" was a book of stories in French from 1576. Belleforest adapted Saxo's historical fiction. The queen committed adultery before the murder of Hamlet's father. Hamlet is melancholy and brooding. There is a lot of dialogue. Hamlet's very long speech in his mother's bedroom is closely followed by Shakespeare. There was an English translation in 1608, "The History of Hamblet" (sic.); it borrows Shakespeare's "A rat! A rat!", and specifically makes the "covering" through which the spy is stabbed into a wall hanging. My link to Belleforest in translation is now down. Please let me know if this ever reappears online. "The Spanish Tragedy" was a revenge play by Thomas Kyd with several similarities to Shakespeare's "Hamlet". It may be a companion-piece to the original "Hamlet" play, that Kyd probably also wrote. The background is one of international political intrigue. A ghost reveals a secret murder (but to the audience, not the hero). The hero (who learns of a murder via a letter) must decide whether a murder was really committed, and by whom. The hero acts crazy; it is not clear how much of this is pretending The hero upbraids himself for delaying, although his only problem is figuring out how to kill a king surrounded by guards. There is a play-within-the-play. The bad guys play roles, and are actually killed onstage. Synopsis The older "Hamlet" play... ("Ur-Hamlet") There are several records of a play, performed in 1594 at Newington Butts outside London, and probably earlier, about Hamlet. It is described as a tragedy with a ghost crying "Hamlet, revenge!". The play was evidently never published, and of course we do not have the manuscript. Thomas Nashe wrote in 1589 in his introduction to a book by Robert Greene, "English Seneca read by candlelight yields many good sentences -- as 'Blood is a beggar' and so forth; and if you entreat him fair on a frosty morning he will offer you whole Hamlets, I should say handfuls, of tragical speeches!" Nashe is mostly spoofing Thomas Kyd, who wrote blood-and-thunder revenge plays. So Kyd is probably the author of the first "Hamlet" play. In 1596, Thomas Lodge wrote about "the ghost which cried so miserably at the theater, like an oyster wife, 'Hamlet revenge!'". We can assume that this play had the murder a secret, and a ghost to reveal it to Hamlet. Some people will tell you that this play must be the source of these plot elements, which fit with the genre: the play within a play; Ophelia's madness; Hamlet's death and the surrounding circumstances. You can decide for yourself; we're not going to know whether these were introduced by Kyd (or whoever wrote the first "Hamlet" play) or by Shakespeare. The First Quarto of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" (Dated 1603, pirated, the "bad quarto") seems to have been put together from an actor's memory. (Maybe Marcellus -- his lines are best-preserved). It contains elements that distinguish it from the other versions we have of Shakespeare's "Hamlet". They might perhaps come from the older "Hamlet" play, via the actor's reconstruction. The spy is called Corambis, not Polonius. His servant is Montano, not Reynaldo. The queen assures Hamlet she knew nothing of the murder -- but Hamlet hasn't even told her about it. The queen promises to "conceal, consent, and do her best" to aid Hamlet in his revenge against the king. The queen warns Hamlet, via Horatio, of a plot. Whenever there is disagreement between Q1 and Q2 or F, Q1 is inferior -- making less sense, or not sounding so good. Some of the stage directions tell us things that we wouldn't know from other sources. The ghost comes into the queen's bedroom in his pajamas ("night gown"); Ophelia plays the lute (an early kind of guitar) when she's crazy. When Hamlet and Laertes fight, "they catch one another's rapiers". Here is Hamlet's most famous speech as it appears in the Bad Quarto... To be, or not to be, aye, there's the point, To die, to sleep, is that all? Aye, all. No, to sleep, to dream, aye merry, there it goes, For in that dream of death, when we awake, And borne before an everlasting Judge, From whence no passenger ever returned, The undiscovered country, at those sight The happy smile, and the accursed damned. But for this, the joyful hope of this, Who'd bear the scorns and flattery of the world, Scorned by the right rich, the rich cursed of the poor? The widow being oppressed, the orphan wronged, The taste of hunger, or a tyrant's reign, And thousand more calamities besides, To grunt and sweat under this weary life, When that he may his full quietus make, With a bare bodkin? Who would this endure, But for a hope fo something after death? Which puzzles the brain, and doth confound the sense, Which makes us rather bear those evils we have, Than fly to others that we know not of. Aye that, oh this conscience makes cowards of us all. First Quarto (1603) -- visit here to see just how bad the "bad quarto" is. Warning: This link crashed my IE browser twice. Folio (1623) -- for comparison. "Antonio's Revenge" by John Marston, is mentioned by a contemporary source as 1601, and has a very similar plot to Shakespeare's "Hamlet". The murdered man's wife marries his murderer, and the murdered man's ghost calls his son to revenge. The son pretends to be insane, and is melancholy. He walks around in black reading a book. There is a play-within-a-play for no reason. The son foregoes an opportunity to kill the murderer in hopes of a better revenge later. The ghost speaks from beneath the stage, and reappears in the mother's bedroom. The son's girlfriend dies of a broken heart. Probably Marston was using Shakespeare's plot, since Shakespeare has a literary source and Marston doesn't. "Der Bestrafte Brudermord" ("Fratricide Punished") is a German play that is obviously an adaptation of Shakespeare's "Hamlet", which it resembles in contradistinction to Belleforest. A ghost appears to Francisco, Horatio, and the other guards at the beginning. Hamlet says he is "sick at heart" over his father's death and his mother's remarriage. Hamlet wants to go back to Wittenberg but the king asks him to stay in Denmark. Corambus's son Leonhardus goes to France. The king gets drunk, as is his habit. The ghost tells how he was killed by having "hebona" poured in his ear. Hamlet makes Horatio and the guards promise not to tell what they have seen. They swear in several locations. The ghost calls on them to swear from below ground. Hamlet begins acting crazy. Corambus remembers his own youth, and suggests that Hamlet is in love. Hamlet tells Ophelia to "go to a nunnery." Hamlet stages a play-within-a-play. The king's guilt is revealed by his reaction when poison is poured into the player-king's ear. Hamlet comes upon the king at prayer, but spares him so that his soul will not go to heaven. Hamlet kills Corambus by stabbing him through a tapestry. Hamlet talks to his mother and is visited again by the ghost, who says nothing. Ophelia goes crazy and commits suicide by jumping off a cliff. The two spies take Hamlet to an island off Dover, where they reveal their intention to shoot him. They stand on either side and let him give the signal. He ducks and they shoot each other. Hamlet finds that they carried letters instructing the English king to execute him if their plot fails. Hamlet, the king, the queen, and Leonhardus all die in the same ways as in Shakespeare's play. The king uses diamond dust as poison. ("That won't work." -- Ed the Pathology Guy.). What's more, the scenes and narrative proceed in the same order as in Shakespeare's play. Somebody will tell you that the old man's name being "Corambus" is proof that "Der Bestrafte Brudermord" must therefore derive from the older Hamlet play. This seems silly to me. I'd conclude, rather, that in the first run of Shakespeare's "Hamlet", Polonius and Reynaldo were named Corambis and Montano, and that Shakespeare changed their names for some reason. "Der Bestrafte Brudermord" has some other points of agreement with Q1 against Q2, but even more with Q2 against Q1. So both seem to be adaptations of Shakespeare's original. So what did Shakespeare add? Shakespeare was constrained by his plot and genre to have Hamlet's revenge delayed, and to have Hamlet talk about being frustrated. Belleforest provided the essential plot. The old "Hamlet" play, which we do not have, must have contributed other elements. Shakespeare adds more. The play is very long, and must have been trimmed for production. So Shakespeare must have written much of it to please himself. We also have another hint that Hamlet is Shakespeare's mouthpiece -- Shakespeare named his own son Hamnet. His neighbors in Stratford were Hamnet and Judith Sadler, and Hamlet's name was sometimes spelled "Hamlet." Hamnet Shakespeare died in August 1596. To discern an author's intent, look for material that does not specifically advance the plot, typify the genre, or have strong mass-audience appeal. Here is what Shakespeare added... Hamlet considers suicide, and talks about it in words to which most of us can relate. Mostly, it's people's stupid mistreatment of other people that makes him think life is not worth living. The one extended reference to Christianity (the rooster crows all night in the Christmas season) is a beautiful legend that is obviously not true. Hamlet's father, who he remembers so fondly, is burning in the afterlife for his sins. Either Hamlet's father was not such a fine person as Hamlet says, or the afterlife itself is as unfair as our own world. (Of course Shakespeare could not talk about this possibility openly.) Speaking of the afterlife... Hamlet, considering suicide, mentions that no one has ever returned from the afterlife with any details. This is despite the fact that we just saw him talking to a ghost. I think Shakespeare is saying, "This story is fiction. The ideas Hamlet talks about are basic to human experience." The girl who is used as a spy on Hamlet is one about whom he cares very much, and who may be pregnant by him. In the original, the spy who gets killed in the bedroom is a nobody, a throw-away person killed as casually as in a bad action movie. The spy who Hamlet kills in his mother's bedroom is not only somebody we have gotten to know -- he is the father of the woman Hamlet loves. Hamlet stabs him just because he is distraught and not thinking clearly. Hamlet -- who lives in a bad world -- himself becomes culpable. Shakespeare does not allow us to overlook this. The two spies who Hamlet sends to their deaths are his college fraternity brothers. It is not absolutely certain that they actually intend Hamlet any harm. It's just conceivable that they are too stupid to realize what's going on. Hamlet is interested in acting, and coaches actors. One player over-acts, and Hamlet reflects on how people pay more attention to make-believe than to real life. In the prayer scene, Shakespeare lets us listen to the King as he tries to repent his crime, and fails. The king gains much stature and some sympathy. Hamlet talks to a foot soldier who knows that the war is stupid and that he is likely to die for no good reason. Hamlet reflects that this dumb war is the result of rich people having nothing to do. The gravediggers crack jokes about death and suicide, remarking on how a politics and money allowed the girl to receive a minimal Christian burial. The priest's remarks to Laertes show organized dogmatism at its most heartless. (In fact, this pathologist thinks Ophelia probably died accidentally.) Hamlet handles Yorick the beloved jester's skull and meditates on how everybody ends up dead in the end. Hamlet likes the man with whom he fights his duel. Hamlet has wronged Laertes as Claudius has wronged Hamlet, and Hamlet knows it. Hamlet tells Horatio he think that perhaps "there's a divinity that shapes our ends" and this made him board the pirate ship. From time to time, Hamlet talks about a sense that he is God's agent, with his steps guided by divine providence. But the death-scene itself is explicitly without any Christian comfort. In Q1 (recalled by the actor either from the earlier play, or from what a good-guy hero might be expected to say), Hamlet's last words were, "Heaven receive my soul." Instead, Shakespeare's Hamlet speaks cryptic last words: "The rest is silence." Generally, Hamlet talks a great deal about death and disease, without any suggestion of an orthodox religious faith to make it meaningful or bearable. Almost all readers and viewers come away from "Hamlet" liking the prince very much. He is a thinker, and he is funny. We see into his own mind, and discover him to be genuine and sincere. We admire him for resisting the evil around him. But Hamlet is both stupid and mean when he kills Polonius. And it is hard to like his nasty, bitter outlook on life in the first half of the play. Especially, if you do not like everything about today's teenaged "Goth" culture (wearing black, being clever and disrespectful, playing with people's feelings, complaining that life seems meaningless and empty), you won't like everything about the Hamlet who we meet at the beginning. If this were an action-movie or something by one of Shakespeare's contemporaries, the prince might be entirely sympathetic, and his enemies altogether despicable. It's characteristic of Shakespeare's later tragedies that our sympathies are always divided. Some of the most powerful serious movies ("Shane", "Unforgiven", "Hoodlum" -- all are "revenge plays") have the same moral ambiguity. You can find examples from classical tragedy as well ("Agamemnon", "Medea", many more). In "Hamlet", Shakespeare explains why he writes in this way -- he intends to "hold a mirror up to nature", to show us ourselves. Being Genuine "I know not 'seems'..." -- Hamlet. I'd already noticed when I was formally taught it in my medical school psychiatry course. For most twenty-year-olds, the biggest life-issue is, "What has happened to most forty-year-olds that caused them to lose the ideals and the authenticity of youth?" For most forty-year-olds, the biggest life-issue is, "How did I lose the ideals and authenticity that made me who I was when I was twenty?" It's no coincidence that college Greeks profess high ideals. It's what makes them work... for people not yet corrupted by the world. Teenaged Holden Caulfield ("Catcher in the Rye") described the shams of the "phony" society of the wealthy, and heard Hamlet had talked about the same theme. He plans to read the play eventually. In the 1970's, it was usual for people to call each other "phony" if they thought differently about something, and there was no defending against it. Mark Twain's "Huckleberry Finn" uses another young person to comment on the falsity of adult society. Huck lives fairly well, as Hamlet does. Huck speaks only by his actions, without Hamlet's eloquence. Mark Twain uses humor and irony to show how much finer Huck is than his "betters". As you enjoy the play, watch for the theme of ceremony, and the theme of play-acting. The king holds a ceremonious first-public-meeting in I.ii. Polonius is buried without ceremony. Ophelia gets a limited ceremony. At the end, Fortinbras holds a ceremonial memorial for Hamlet. Find more. In Macbeth , we are treated to a spectacle from the same era of warlords that gives the setting for "Hamlet". Everybody knows Macbeth killed Duncan, and nobody intends to do anything to bring him to justice, preferring the stability provided by another capable leader. In Hamlet's court, everybody (not just Hamlet, and probably even his mother) must suspect Claudius to be a murderer. After the play-within-the-play, it's obvious. Son: Dad, what's the difference between ignorance and apathy? Dad: Son, I don't know and I don't care. -- Contemporary. At the end, Hamlet's fideism, a vague faith in God's ability to sort out the mess of this world without any more specific religious dogma, is the kind of faith that many honest, thinking people have reached in our own day. Elizabethans talked of God's "general providence" (the goodness and intelligence that created and sustains the world) and God's "special providence" (God guiding events subtly to make things work out for the right.) You will need to decide for yourself whether "special providence" is at work in our own world, or whether Shakespeare actually believed so. But Hamlet thinks it does. Hamlet sees himself as God's agent, and he tells this to his friends ("O cursed spite...") and his mother ("scourge and minister"). Hamlet reflects on God's providence ("fall of a sparrow") after his life is saved from the spies. Laertes sees his own death as God's judgment, and Hamlet as God's avenger. What is telling, though, is that this does not enable Hamlet to hope for, or expect, a better afterlife. Is Life Worth Living? If his chief good and market of his time Is but to sleep and feed? A beast, no more. -- Hamlet Pathologists joke, "Is life worth living? It depends on the liver !". Seriously, we've all asked this question. Shakespeare offers no pat answer, only Hamlet's courage and dignity in accepting the human condition, saying "No!" to corruption, and in meeting his own task and his own death. In the "noir" genre of hard-boiled detective fiction, the hero gradually learns about both public and private corruption. Nothing is as it seems. The hero strikes back, but the ending is never completely happy. Hamlet is called to his revenge "by heaven and hell", i.e., something that Shakespeare thought of as more fundamental than "the struggle between good and evil". Hamlet talks a great deal about the nature of human beings, characterizes himself as "indifferent[ly] honest" and "could accuse" himself of things for which it would have been better if he hadn't been born. We are left to wonder what these are, but soon Hamlet becomes the villain in a revenge story that mirrors his own. Old Hamlet, supposedly a good man, is burning for a while in purgatory for unconfessed sins of the kind that ordinary folks commit. Claudius, who Hamlet considers a very bad man, shows us his true mind twice, and we see a struggle between his hunger for divine grace and his need to keep his wife's love. The morality plays that preceded Shakespeare showed examples of good and bad people, and heroes that had a clear choice and made it. Shakespeare seems to be telling us in "Hamlet" that we can and should try to live well, but that both good and bad are inherent in the human condition. Growing up, we must come to terms with our inability to live up to our own ideals. (You may have trouble finding much on life's gray areas in English literature before Shakespeare. Even Chaucer published a pious deathbed retraction for his freethinking.) Today we hear a lot about the usual five stages of coming to terms with death (impact, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance.) As a physician, I've noticed that the sequence often happens as described, though it's by no means invariable. (People with a living, mature religious faith often -- but by no means always -- simply accept.) At the end, Hamlet is no longer depressed, but accepts the human condition. Whether he's right to do so is something you'll need to decide. But it's a common experience for people growing up. And Shakespeare's shown it to us in "Hamlet". Elsewhere (for example, in "Romeo and Juliet" and "The Tempest"), Shakespeare shows us the world being redeemed by love. Even in King Lear (where he seems to be saying, as explicitly as he can, that the comforts of religion are make-believe), Shakespeare still shows us the power of love to make life good -- at least temporarily. Love and reconciliation are less likely to be showcased in a revenge play. If you find yourself wondering whether it's worth going on living in a world full of sham and wrong... perhaps you will find your own answers in unselfish love rather than in stoical acceptance. And perhaps you, too, can be a hero. Is Hamlet Crazy? Shakespeare was constrained by his plot... to have Hamlet pretend to be delusional; and... to have Hamlet kill the spy in his mother's bedroom. The principal scene in which Hamlet pretends to be crazy ("puts [his] antic disposition on") is the one in which he teases Polonius, calling him a fishmonger (compare "fleshmoner", or pimp... remember that Polonius wants money for his virgin daughter.) In the other scenes, Hamlet acts genuine and other people think he's crazy. Ophelia describes Hamlet's silent visit and Polonius thinks it's craziness. Ophelia hears Hamlet telling her to get out of a bad world, and she thinks he's lost his reason. Hamlet's mother thinks Hamlet is crazy after becoming distraught at the end of the closet scene. After the play-within-the-play, the king knows Hamlet isn't crazy, but tells the rest of the court that he must be sent away to England because of his mental illness. Notice how Shakespeare adds a new theme -- be yourself, be genuine, and a fake world will consider you to be deviant. Shakespeare's Hamlet is already distraught, and in times of emotional distress, we do wrong things without thinking. Afterwards, Hamlet (who is "indifferent honest"), blames his "madness" for the killing of Polonius. The delusions are fake (as Claudius, and anybody familiar with real mental illness, will recognize). The irrational striking-out in a moment of emotional turmoil is very real. Shakespeare's play focused on the mind of a man who's profoundly distraught and who is asking himself whether life is worth living. Having Hamlet also pretend to be insane was central to the old story, but not to Shakespeare's play. Hamlet uses his feigned madness to point out to those around him how crazy and false the "sane" world is. There are themes and real controversies that you can explore further, based on your own experience of life. T.S. Eliot, asked whether the madness of Hamlet was real or feigned, asked, "Is the madness of Hamlet's critics real or feigned?" This sums it up for me. Does Hamlet Hesitate? The nonsense about Hamlet being "unable to make up his mind" begins with his own speeches after hearing the Player King's speech on Hecuba (he berates himself for hesitating), and especially after talking to Fortinbras's soldier ("thinking too precisely on the event" -- i.e., people who obsess a lot are the ones who do the least). Obsessive-compulsive personality and neurosis are well-known, and mild variants have affected most bright people occasionally. Bradley points out that Hamlet seems depressed ("melancholy") and that this will slow a person down; early 20th century writers influenced by psychoanalysis talked about a mother-fixation causing the depression. But the truth is that Hamlet has no opportunity to kill the king and then justify his action, until the final disaster, when Laertes reveals "The king's to blame". In the case, "providence" provides the opportunity. Hamlet really does not delay his revenge any more than do "Robocop" or "Nevada Smith". Heroes of earlier revenge plays soliloquize about having to delay, and criticize themselves for it. But revenge plays require that the revenge take time and planning -- or there would be no play. Sam Coleridge (an obsessive who blamed the failure of his grandiose projects on his opium habit) talked about Hamlet thinking too hard. Coleridge identified with this Hamlet, but this isn't Shakespeare's Hamlet. Schlegel called Hamlet "thought-sick". Goethe found Hamlet "lovely", "sensitive" and "without strength of nerve". Now, when Hamlet expresses regrets that he's not completed his revenge, he compares himself unfavorably to the Player King (who has just recited a ridiculous, bombastic speech) and to Fortinbras (who is getting thousands of people killed for no good reason at all -- I first became interested in Shakespeare during the Vietnam war). It is no coincidence that both the Player King and Fortinbras are pursuing stupid, vain goals. What is Shakespeare trying to tell us? Hamlet's "revenge" isn't so much simply the killing of the king, as it is the purging of all the rottenness in the Danish court. And although it costs him his life, he succeeds. At some time, we all consider how much wrong there is in the world. "Hamlet" gives us a chance to watch an ordinary person consciously choose to say "No!" to the world's wrongness and phoniness, and to strike back with intelligence and power. From the bare-bones of an old revenge story, Shakespeare has held up the mirror to something in us that is precious. I hear Hamlet saying, "So many people put so much effort into doing things that are not worthwhile. It's a bad world, and I am far from a perfect human being. And we all end up dead in the end. But I am going to do something worthwhile, and do it right." Think about it. More on whether Hamlet has a "tragic flaw." I believe that the whole "there has to be a tragic flaw" business was dreamed up by Aristotle , who got paid to tell young people that if they were really good, then bad things couldn't happen to them, and that people went to sad shows just to have a good cry ("purge the emotions of pity and fear"). If it is helpful, point out the obvious. Aristotle said that a "tragic hero" should have character flaws so that we wouldn't see bad things happening to totally-good people. Maybe the heroes of Shakespeare's tragedies are not all-virtuous because Shakespeare wants to show us life as it really is. Revenge Since Sophocles's ultra-coldblooded "Electra", revenge plays have been among the favorite genre for theater and movies. Why? First, a revenge play presumes that to right a wrong, somebody is forced to take the law into his or her own hands. This showcases one of the most important and serious of human concerns -- how do we maintain good law (i.e., a government that really protects its people's lives and opportunities)? It's the central question of civilization. (The conclusion of "Electra" is chilling -- read Sophocles's answer.) Second, the revenger must overcome obstacles to revenge. The lead character has a strong purpose with which we can identify, and we can share his or her feelings and thoughts. There is a satisfaction when revenge is finally won. "Shakespeare's philosophy?" You decide! One may find ideas similar to those in "Hamlet" in Montaigne's essays (here's a top-flight college paper for an eager student), in "Ecclesiastes" (Old Testament, of course) and in the following famous twentieth-century piece (sometimes stated to be much older). "The Desiderata" Go placidly amid the noise and haste, and remember what peace there may be in silence. As far as possible, without surrender, be on good terms with all persons. Speak your truth quietly and clearly; and listen to others, even to the dull and ignorant; they too have their story. Avoid loud and aggressive persons; they are vexations to the spirit. If you compare yourself with others, you may become vain or bitter, for always there will be greater and lesser persons than yourself. Enjoy your achievements as well as your plans. Keep interested in your own career, however humble, it's a real possession in the changing fortunes of time. Exercise caution in your business affairs, for the world is full of trickery. But let this not blind you to what virtue there is; many persons strive for high ideals, and everywhere life is full of heroism. Be yourself. Especially do not feign affection. Neither be cynical about love; for in the face of all aridity and disenchantment, it is as perennial as the grass. Take kindly the counsel of the years, gracefully surrendering the things of youth. Nurture strength of spirit to shield you in sudden misfortune. But do not distress yourself with dark imaginings. Many fears are born of fatigue and loneliness. Beyond a wholesome discipline, be gentle with yourself. You are a child of the universe no less than the trees and the stars; you have a right to be here. And whether or not it is clear to you, no doubt the universe is unfolding as it should. Therefore be at peace with God, whatever you conceive him to be. And whatever your labors and aspirations, in the noisy confusion of life, keep peace in your soul. With all its sham, drudgery and broken dreams, it is still a beautiful world. Be cheerful. Strive to be happy. --Max Ehrmann, 1927 Contrast this with Polonius's advice to Laertes. Other Ideas Somebody will remind you that according to the Christian ethics of Shakespeare's era, revenge was considered wrong. A saint would forgive and bring about reconciliation. (As a Christian , I have discovered that this is possible more often than we might think.) Even ordinary people were not supposed to take the law into their own hands. It's hard, though, to see this as a major theme of this revenge play. Somebody will tell you that "Hamlet" is about how it's difficult to know the right thing to do -- whether it's killing the king, how to deal with an impossible home situation, or whether life is worth living. Somebody else will tell you that the real tragedy is that Hamlet kills the king, rather than forgiving him and living in love and harmony. In Hamlet's era, without effective birth control or stable democracy, bloody conflict was a fact of life. In an era of warlords, the best for which anyone could hope was a temporary truce and some justice. Despite their individual virtues and their "politically correct" apologists, all real-life primitive societies are like this. Hamlet was fundamentally correct -- the world, by its very nature, is full of unpleasantness and wrong. How does Hamlet's attitude toward women change during the play? Is this a major theme? (I think so -- it's not mentioned that often. You decide.) Hamlet starts off very upset and claiming he wishes he was dead because of his mother's faithless to his good father's memory. He urges Ophelia to withdraw from a rotten world full of rotten women. Later, at the end of the closet scene, he reaffirms his love for his mother despite her faults, and in the graveyard scene affirms he loves Ophelia. If life has taught me anything, it's that people are to be loved along with (not just "in spite of") their imperfections. Perhaps you believe this as well. Eric Jones MD came up with an idea in "Hamlet and Oedipus". Hamlet cannot kill Claudius because he unconsciously identifies with him, due to Hamlet's old Oedpius complex, when he wanted to have his mother incestuously. Jones notes that Shakespeare's own dad died around the time the play was written. Nowadays, almost all psychiatrists will tell you that Freud's psychoanalysis is of historical interest, having shown very limited ability to predict the thoughts and actions of patients or to effect recovery. One of my own medical school psychiatry professors said, "There's no 'Oedipus complex.'" You can decide for yourself about Jones's claims. Is Ophelia pregnant with Hamlet's baby? Hamlet was romantically interested in Ophelia, and she in him, and they lived in the same castle. Hamlet jokes with Polonius about how his daughter might become pregnant, a pregnant rich girl might be sent for secrecy's sake to a convent ("nunnery") and the child given for adoption, and Ophelia sings about lost virginity. We aren't going to know. Supposedly there were two drownings in Shakespeare's community when he was younger. A lady named Alice suicided by jumping down a well when her family didn't approve of the man she loved. Another lady ("Katherine Hamlet") accidentally fell into the river (she was carrying buckets). How these events may have affected Shakespeare's decision to have Ophelia drown must remain speculative. You've already noticed that Shakespeare follows a rule from his era -- the highest-ranking person on stage gets the first and last lines in each scene. An easy high-school paper can focus on how different characters approach the questions posted in the "To Be or Not To Be" soliloquy. Ophelia is mostly passive. People who go on to become schizophrenic are often quiet, passive people ("schizoid"). Shakespeare probably noticed this. Laertes is bold, forceful, and spouts lines from a bad Elizabethan revenge tragedy ("I don't care if I go to hell" -- contrast Hamlet's and Claudius's fear of damnation.) Fortinbras bides his time, and grabs the opportunity. Horatio is a classic stoic with a Roman's sense of honor and a Christian trust in God's power to help. Polonius is a manipulator. From Shakespeare's Era If you are interested in the English religious controveries of Shakespeare's era, you may decide that some are reflected in "Hamlet". People who held to the Roman tradition might believe in Purgatory, a place of suffering where sins committed in life were burned away, and where sufferings could be eased by purchasing the ministry of the church. Before the Reformation, this had helped make the relgious orders wealthy, and also sparked the founding of schools and hospitals where the beneficiaries were asked to pray for the sould of their benefactors. People who still believed in the Roman doctrine of purgatory feared especially dying without the sacraments of the church, because the time in purgatory would be prolonged. The English government church forbidden even praying for the dead. Probably many people didn't like this. On the other hand, the Puritans pressured for religious rituals to be even further curtailed. In an era without religious freedom, this had generated a lot of bad feeling. Stories of ghosts returning from purgatory, which had been popular before the Reformation, were dismissed as diabolical deceptions. For purposes of the plot, there is really no reason for Old Hamlet to talk about his being in torment or having died "with all his imperfections on his head" (i.e., unconfessed sins). Hamlet swears by Saint Patrick, who is sometimes described as the patron saint of Purgatory. Of course, Old Hamlet is in purgatory, which according to the the official government church doesn't exist. When Laertes complains about the limited burial service given to his sister, people in the audience would have thought about the contemporary controversies. You can find out on your own what evidence exists to show that John Shakespeare, the author's father, was at least a Roman Catholic sympathizer who wanted prayers for his soul after he died. (Ask about documents found in Stratford centuries later.) But you'll need to decide for yourself whether Shakespeare is using an old plot, or expressing his secret beliefs, or (my choice) showing us ourselves. More For Students Shakespeare Playing Cards The Undiscovered Country -- Hamlet site, promoting the author's e-book. Looks good. To the best of my knowledge, all the links on my literature pages are to free sites. In August 2000, the operator of the large for-profit help-with-homework online Shakespeare site offered to buy these pages out "for a price in the low four figures." I refused, and the site owner replied that "I wish you would just close down the domain and spare everybody from a lot of wasted time. It's a shame." This site will always remain free, to help everybody enjoy the works that I have, myself, enjoyed so much. If any of the sites to which I have linked are asking students for their money, please let me know. Shakespeare Illustrated I've occasionally gotten E-mails from puzzled students whose instructors have told them that Hamlet is a villain. Upon inquiry, it's turned out that the instructor is a political extremist. (There are evidently people who hate Hamlet for expressing his doubts about conventional religion. There are evidently others who hate Hamlet and Shakespeare because they are the wrong race and gender and are not preoccupied with grievance-group special-interest politics.) If you run into this, handle it any way you want, remembering that the large majority of your classmates do not agree with the instructor. G. Wilson Knight once made an issue of the fact that in the prayer scene, Claudius is interested in forgiveness and Hamlet isn't, and that Claudius is right to have Hamlet killed because Hamlet is unstable and dangerous. Decide for yourself, remembering that in Shakespeare's works, our sympathies are always divided, and that this scene may have been a plot element from the older play. Another commentator makes political capital by voicing the same complaints about The Lion King ("Hamlet on the Savannah"). Accepting authority is bad, and fighting back is bad. There's no reasoning with people like this. Videos: Moby Dick Oedipus the King -- including something about the "tragic hero" business If you are asked to write about Shakespeare's "tragic heroes" or their "tragic flaw" or whatever, help yourself to my skeptical notes on Aristotle . You may find it more rewarding to focus on something at once more obvious and more profound. Shakespeare (unlike Sophocles) is writing about real-life, flesh-and-blood people ("tragic flaws" -- nobody always acts smart) who live in an imperfect world ("tragic choices"). In Shakespeare, our sympathies are usually divided among the characters. For this reason, Aristotle's thoughts on tragedy (i.e., people are imperfect) really seem more useful in discussing Shakespeare than in discussing Sophocles. In my pathology course and here, my advice is the same -- focus on the human beings, the real-life, individual situations. Twelfth Night It has often been noted that The Lion King has plot elements in common with the Hamlet story that Shakespeare inherited. You may also decide there are some common theme elements (real vs. fake friendship; bad government is bad for the country; despite what has happened to you, you can still be a hero). If you decide that the philosophical Hakuna Matata ("Everything is fine") song is ironic, then the central theme of "The Lion King" is that life is by its nature full of troubles and wrongs, and you find its meaning in what you do about it this fact. Of course, "compare and contrast" papers are for beginners. I've received several requests for my thoughts on Othello, and wish I had time to put something together. For now, if you're asked to write on the play, here are two ideas. (1) Look at the short story that provided the plot (click here . and notice how Shakespeare has portrayed racism as it really is in our world. Ordinary decent folks (i.e., the Venetian government) care only who a person is and what that person can do. They consider Brabantio a jerk for accepting a person of another race as a friend but not as a son-in-law. Iago, who for whatever reason has a chip on his shoulder, spews racial venom for his own dark reasons. Desdemona is originally frightened by someone who looks different, but quickly learns to love that person so that race become indifferent. (2) It is very common for special-forces operatives who return to civilian life and/or who try to sustain a marriage to have terrible difficulties. Those who are successful deserve our special admiration. Too many become terribly confused and end up in self-destructive behaviors, both loving and hating. It's one of our world's strangest ironies that romantic love is more treacherous and incomprehensible than war. Likewise, it'll be a while before I can put anything online about "The Merchant of Venice." I do want to take a minute to ask people considering Shakespeare's presentation of Shylock to consider his era. In all but Shakespeare's earliest plays, our sympathies are always divided. Shakespeare's English contemporaries would seldom or never see a real Jew (they had been expelled from England in 1280), and the "stage Jew" of the time was an evil, comic figure. Nevertheless, Shakespeare is the first writer to present a Jew as a human being. And it is easy to understand why Shylock is bitter and angry. Even at the beginning, the protagonists of the play talk trash to him simply because he is a Jew, obviously without even thinking. It's impossible not to notice this. They invite Shylock to their party simply so that his daughter can rob him, and afterwards they are only amused when his feelings are trampled. The play is actually about anger -- and Shakespeare has chosen a Jew to represent somebody who is right to be angry. This is more than a progressive choice -- it must have taken a great deal of courage. Defending himself, Shylock points out the evils of slavery, which the Jews did not practice but which was accepted at the time by some Christians. (It was illegal in Shakespeare's England but would soon re-emerge in the colonies.) The most famous speech ("The quality of mercy...") anticipates what I've found to be Shakespeare's greatest theme, i.e., in a godless universe, our only hope is to be kind to one another. No matter what your grievance is, why not be the first to take the brave step to end the stupid hatreds that darken our world? Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" may have been spoiled for you as required reading in high school, and/or by parodies of the balcony scene and/or a bad (left-wing, right-wing) college "Western Civ" course. Think: The play's about godawful teenaged murder-suicide. (Juliet is 14, Romeo 16.) Shakespeare's plot-source was a warning to teenagers to obey their parents. The themes of the play, which were pretty-much new with Shakespeare and very radical in his time, are (1) young people ought to be allowed to marry for love, not just whoever their parents choose for them; (2) young people's tragedies likely result from their parents' stupidity and meanness; (3) love matures people, and gives dignity, meaning, and beauty even in the worst of circumstances. By the way, did you notice that Papa Capulet is an old guy ("past [his] dancing days", thirty years since he was "in a mask"), but Mama Capulet was pregnant with Juliet at age 13. In other words, she was the old lecher's forced child-bride and she is setting up the same thing for Juliet. Forced marriage is still common (and the typical cause for a young girl's suicide) in much of our world. Did you notice that the Capulets are not terribly surprised to find Juliet dead on her wedding day? The fact that forced marriage is illegal in the United States and England may be due, at least in part, to the fact that we listened when Shakespeare showed us who we are. E-mail me I'm Ed. You can visit me at my own page and follow the links from there to my autopsy page , my notes on disease (the largest one-man online medical show, helping individuals around the world), my Adventure Gaming sites, or any of the other sites. You can E-mail me at [email protected] . Brown University, Department of English -- my home base, 1969-1973. Fellow English majors -- Okay, okay, I know the commas are "supposed" to go inside the quotation marks and parentheses. This became standard to protect fragile bits of movable type. My practice lets me know I'm the one who's typed a particular document. In one of the Bard's best-thought-of tragedies, our insistent hero, Hamlet, queries on two fronts about how life turns rotten. Anagram of: "To be or not to be: that is the question; Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune..." Teens: Stay away from drugs, work yourself extremely hard in class or at your trade, play sports if and only if you like it, and get out of abusive relationships by any means. Tell the grownups who support you that you love them (no matter what the circumstances or what feelings you really harbor -- get guidance from other adults if you need it, and remember Polonius's advice, which works often enough in our crazy world). The best thing anybody can say about you is, "That kid likes to work too hard and isn't taking it easy like other young people." Hamlet considers suicide. It is almost certainly a bad idea. Among young people who made serious attempts and failed, 99% said a year later that they are glad they failed. To include this page in a bibliography, you may use this format: Friedlander ER (1999) Enjoying "Hamlet" by William Shakespeare Retrieved Dec. 25, 2003 from http://www.pathguy.com/hamlet.htm For Modern Language Association sticklers, the name of the site itself is "The Pathology Guy" and the Sponsoring Institution or Organization is Ed Friedlander MD. Thanks for visiting. Health and friendship. Bleakers: Sigh. Hamlet didn't find meaning, because there isn't any, but he did find peace. Ciphers: Hamlet found out he could act instead of brood. Doomguard: The court goes bad and everybody dies. Dust Folk: Hamlet finds peace in death. Free League: There are many meanings here. Godsfolk: Hamlet develops as a person. Guvnurs: Nowadays with good forensic pathology , we could have proved the case against Claudius without Hamlet having to take the law into his own hands. Hardheads: See what happens when law and order break down. Mercykillers: We love a good revenge play. Revolutionaries: Authority corrupts. Sensates: "Hamlet" showcases powerful feelings. Signers: There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so. Takers: Hamlet learned to quit moping and got what he wanted. Xaositects: Crazy make sense people the most. "What is there about Shakespeare that would interest a contemporary American?" Visitors send me this question from time to time. If being a "contemporary American" means being focused on dirty TV sitcoms, greed, casual sex, big-money sports, shout-and-pout grievance-group politics, televangelism, professional wrestling, crybabies, slot machines, postmodernism , political action committees, and "war on drugs" profiteering... then the answer is probably "Nothing." If a contemporary American can still ask, "Is life worth living in a world full of wrong? And can I live well?" -- then the answer is maybe that "Shakespeare deals with basic human issues." Travis Morgan -- gym buddy, skydiver, long-term friend -- has a new site to help ordinary folks catch computer misbehavior.	i don't know
The three 'Graces' of Greek mythology were 'Euphrosyne', 'Thalia' and which other?	The Graces The Graces See More The Graces Pictures > The Charites (singular Charis) or Graces were three or more minor deities in Greek mythology, daughters of Zeus and Eurynome according to the prevalent belief; sometimes, they were considered daughters of Dionysus and Aphrodite ; or Helios and Aegle. They were Aglaea (splendor), Euphrosyne (mirth) and Thalia (good cheer), and they were also linked to the Underworld. In some parts of Ancient Greece, the number of the Graces differed; for example, other names have been included such as Hegemone, Peitho, Pasithea and Cale. In Sparta , Thalia was not considered to be a Grace , and Cleta was included instead. They all were patrons of various pleasures in life, such as play, amusement, rest, happiness and relaxation. In classical art, the Charites were often represented as three naked women dancing in a circle. The Graces Is also called Gratiae, Charites, Charis, Grace, Kharites, Charitae.	Aglaea
Which island group in the North Pacific was known as the Catherine Archipelago prior to 1867?	THALIA - Greek Goddess Charis of Festivity & Banquets THALIA Festivitiy (thalia) The three Graces, Greco-Roman fresco from Pompeii C1st A.D., Naples National Archaeological Museum THALIA was one of the three Kharites (Charites) and the goddess of festivity and banquets. She was usually depicted dancing in a circle with her two sisters. Her name was derived from the Greek adjective thalia which, when applied to banquets, means rich, plentiful and luxuriant. She was probably the same as Pandaisia (Banquet), a Kharis companion of Aphrodite in Athenian vase painting. Thalia's name also means "the blooming"--in the sense of springtime greenery and blossoms (cf. the Hora Thallo ). FAMILY OF THALIA [1.2] ZEUS & EUNOMIA (Orphic Hymn 60) CLASSICAL LITERATURE QUOTES Hesiod, Theogony 907 ff (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic C8th or C7th B.C.) : "And Eurynome, the daughter of Okeanos (Oceanus), beautiful in form, bare him [Zeus] three fair-cheeked Kharites (Charites. Graces), Aglaia (Aglaea), and Euphrosyne, and lovely Thalie (Thalia), from whose eyes as they glanced flowed love that unnerves the limbs: and beautiful is their glance beneath their brows." Pindar, Olympian Ode 14. 1 ff (trans. Conway) (Greek lyric C5th B.C.) : "Whose haunts are by Kephissos' (Cephisus') river, you queens [the Kharites] beloved of poets' song, ruling Orkhomenos (Orchomenus), that sunlit city and land of lovely steeds, watch and ward of the ancient Minyan race, hear now my prayer, you Kharites (Charites, Graces) three. For in your gift are all our mortal joys, and every sweet thing, be it wisdom, beauty, or glory, that makes rich the soul of man. Nor even can the immortal gods order at their behest the dance and festals, lacking the Kharites' aid; who are the steward of all rites of heaven, whose thrones are set at Pytho beside Apollon of the golden bow, and who with everlasting honour worship the Father, lord of great Olympos. Euphrosyne, lover of song, and Aglaia revered, daughters of Zeus the all-highest, hearken, and with Thalia, darling of harmony, look on our songs of revel, on light feet stepping to grace this happy hour . . . I come to praise Asopikhos (Asopichus), whose Minyan house, Thalia, now of your favour wears the pride of the Olympian victor." Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1. 13 (trans. Aldrich) (Greek mythographer C2nd A.D.) : "By Okeanos' (Oceanus') daughter Eurynome he [Zeus] had the Kharites (Charites, Graces), named Aglaia (Aglaea), Eurphrosyne, and Thaleia." Pausanias, Description of Greece 9. 35. 1 (trans. Jones) (Greek travelogue C2nd A.D.) : "Hesiod in the Theogony says that the Kharites (Charites, Graces)) are daughters of Zeus and Eurynome, giving them the names of Euphrosyne, Aglaia (Aglaea) and Thalia." Orphic Hymn 60 to the Charites (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns C3rd B.C. to 2nd A.D.) : "Illustrious Kharites (Charites, Graces), mighty named, from Zeus descended, and Eunomia famed [here identified with the Okeanis Eurynome], Thalia and Aglaia (Aglaea) fair and bright, and blest Euphrosyne, whom joys delight." ANCIENT GREEK & ROMAN ART	i don't know
In Shakespeare's 'Othello', what was the name of the wife of 'Iago', who exposes her husband's villainy but is then murdered?	Emilia in 'Othello' Emilia in 'Othello' By Lee Jamieson Updated April 01, 2016. Who is Emilia in Othello? What is her purpose in the play? We are on hand to help you get under the skin of Emilia in Othello and fully understand this character. Emilia in 'Othello' From her first introduction, Emilia in 'Othello' is ridiculed and chided by her husband Iago “Sir, would she give you so much of her lips As of her tongue she oft bestows on me, You would have enough” (Iago, Act 2, Scene 1) This particular line is prophetic in that Emilia’s testimony at the end of the play, relating to how Cassio came by the handkerchief, leads directly to Iago’s downfall. Emilia Analysis Emilia is perceptive and cynical maybe as a result of her relationship with Iago . She is the first to suggest that somebody is telling Othello untruths about Desdemona; “The Moor’s abused by some most villainous knave. Some base, notorious knave.” (Act 4 Scene 2, Line 143-5). Unfortunately she does not identify her own husband as the perpetrator until it is too late. continue reading below our video Shakespeare: Othello Themes “You told a lie, an odious, damned lie” (Act 5 Scene 2, Line 187). In order to please him, Emilia gives Iago Desdemona’s handkerchief, which leads to her best friend’s condemnation but this is not done out of spite but to garner a little praise or love from her husband; Iago, who rewards her with the line; “O good wench give it to me” (Act 3 scene 3, Line 319). In a conversation with Desdemona, Emilia does not condemn a woman for having an affair: But I do think it is their husbands' faults If wives do fall: say that they slack their duties, And pour our treasures into foreign laps, Or else break out in peevish jealousies, Throwing restraint upon us; or say they strike us, Or scant our former having in despite; Why, we have galls, and though we have some grace, Yet have we some revenge. Let husbands know Their wives have sense like them: they see and smell And have their palates both for sweet and sour,v As husbands have. What is it that they do When they change us for others? Is it sport? I think it is: and doth affection breed it? I think it doth: is't frailty that thus errs? It is so too: and have not we affections, Desires for sport, and frailty, as men have? Then let them use us well: else let them know, The ills we do, their ills instruct us so. (Act 5 Scene 1) Emilia blames the man in the relationship for driving her to it. “But I do think it is their husband’s faults If wives do fall”. This speaks volumes for her relationship with Iago and does insinuate that she would not be averse to the idea of an affair; which corroborates the rumours about her and Othello, although she denies them. Also her loyalty to Desdemona may belie this rumour too. An audience would not judge Emilia too harshly for her views knowing Iago’s true nature. Emilia and Othello Emilia judges jealous Othello’s behaviour harshly and warns Desdemona off him; “I would you had never seen him” (Act 4 Scene 2 Line 17). This demonstrates her loyalty and that she judges men based on her own experience. Having said this, it may well have been better if Desdemona had never set eyes on Othello , given the outcome. Emilia even bravely challenges Othello when she discovers he has murdered Desdemona “O the more angel she, and you the blacker devil!” (Act 5 Scene 2, Line 140). Emilia’s role in Othello is key, her part in taking the handkerchief leads to Othello falling for Iago’s lies more fully. She discovers Othello as Desdemona’s murderer and uncovers her husband’s plot which she exposes; “I will not charm my tongue. I am bound to speak” (Act 5 Scene 2, Line 191). This leads to Iago’s eventual downfall and sadly her own murder as her husband kills her. She demonstrates her strength and honesty by exposing her husband and challenging Othello for his behaviour. She remains loyal to her mistress throughout and even asks to join her on her deathbed as she herself dies. Unfortunately these two strong, perceptive loyal women are killed off but at the same time, they could be considered the heroes of the piece?	Emilia
Which city was the capital of the Inca Empire?	Othello by William Shakespeare. Search eText, Read Online, Study, Discuss. Othello's transformation Hello all. I have a small question about Othello's transformation throughout the play. I've noticed that, at the beginning of the play, Iago and Roderigo sterotype Othello; they characterize him using beastial imagery, calling him the "black ram" and the devil". Othello, upon entering the play, proves this wrong, showing himself to be an eloquent man, refined in his actions. However, as the play progresses, and Othello becomes more violent of speech and action, he lowers himself to Iago and Roderigo's characterisation of him. My question is this: why does this happen? What is the purpose of reducing Othello to a stereotype after painstakingly showing him to be otherwise? Is there some wort of didacticism that I'm missing here? Anybody know? Thanks in advance to anyone that can help me. Posted By Vasdeus at Tue 5 Mar 2013, 2:15 AM in Othello \|\| 3 Replies Who is Diablo? Hi all. This part from Othello is driving me bonkers: Cassio. Drunke? Iago. Away I say: go out and cry a mutiny. Nay good lieutenant. Alas gentlemen: Help hoa. Lieutenant. Sir Montano: Help Masters. Heer's a goodly watch indeed. Who's that which rings the bell: Diablo, hoa: ******** . . . . . . Anyone know who this Diablo character is meant to be? regards Posted By mike thomas at Fri 7 Dec 2012, 5:30 AM in Othello \|\| 3 Replies 1995 Othello movie - opinions I've only just read and watched Othello for the very first time so I don't really know too much about it, but I'm just wondering how you all felt about the 1995 movie and how it compares to the text? I personally thought Fishburne was perfect as Othello but, (and I'll probably be shot for saying this!) I just did not 'feel' the same Iago I heard in the text in the movie. I'm not saying Branagh was bad, just that for me, Othello in the film and text were very similiar but I can't say the same for Iago. Can't quite put my finger on why :nonod: What does everybody else think of the film in general? Posted By Aurora at Sun 1 Apr 2012, 7:06 PM in Othello \|\| 5 Replies How Does Iagos Motive Hunting Add To The Tragic Effect of Othello? Any ideas guys? Posted By doopers3 at Fri 25 Feb 2011, 1:16 AM in Othello \|\| 3 Replies Hello Everyone I'm looking for a poem related to Shakespeare's Othello in theme (jealousy, betrayal, etc.) for an English project. Anyone have any poems that are the best and most consistent with Othello? Thanks in advance! Posted By shakas at Thu 2 Dec 2010, 11:31 PM in Othello \|\| 0 Replies Iago Vs. Hatred ! Hello Everyone .. I've read one of the most inspiring plays of William Shakespeare which is "Othello" , and I was surprised by the way in which Shakespeare introduced 'Iago' .. cuz I can't find an explanation of Iago's hatred.! Understood that maybe he considered Othello as an intruder who came to thier country and took the most beautiful lady there , and maybe he thought that Othello wants to gain limitless power pretending to be caring . But , all these reasons don't explain to me the monsterous actions that he did to Othello and Desdemona .. and out of this comes a question .. Is Hatred exist in the mind and heart of Humans without 'REAL' reasons ? Posted By Emadattely at Thu 18 Nov 2010, 10:50 AM in Othello \|\| 3 Replies I need some help! How do Othello's age, soldier life story, and cultural/racial backgrounds alienate him from Venetian society??? I need some good answers. I have done the best I can. Posted By mattj at Tue 26 Oct 2010, 11:27 PM in Othello \|\| 2 Replies "Othello" A Critical Review "Othello" A Critical Review Prof. Niamat Ali Depatment of English Govt. Islamia College, Kasur Pakistan Shakespeare, the crown of English literature, can rightfully boast of his marvelous achievements as a dramatist. His plays both comedies and tragedies, have a sterling worth of their own. The magnet of his plays pulls the iron dust of thoughts, and the reader feels himself bound by silky ropes of interest and pleasure. He maintains such an artistic balance in his writings as is found in an expert acrobat walking on a tight rope. His tragedies develop from beginning to an end as a rose progresses from budding to withering .Thoughtsï¿½ scent and feelingsï¿½ shade can be viewed in wordy flowers through the eye of imagination. Lost with Hamlet, ruined with king Lear, stunned with Macbeth and stupefied with Othello, the feels himself much maturer as the finds a treasure of knowledge, wisdom, expression and power. At the same time, some faults can be traced out as some spots can be seen on the shiny face of moon. In the following passages an effort has been made to present a critique of Othello. On the very onset, we discuss the various causes of popularityfalleninOthelloï¿½lot. Unique charaacters have been used in it who arrest our attention.In this regard ,first of all Desdemonaï¿½sbeauty,nicety,adventurousness,etc., charm the reader to the back bone. He wishes to keep her in his view all the time and when she is slain he feels a great grief in his heart for this delicacy of nature. Secondly, Othelloï¿½s unparalleled strength and bravery make the piece extra-ordinarily magnetic. H.Coombes remarks: ï¿½Any feeling that is made to apear more important than it really is can be called inflatedï¿½ We ever expect something most wonderful from this mountain of might. But this mountain proves a volcano that busts and burns to ashes not only himself but also others. Thirdly, Iagoï¿½s role casts a magic effect on the reader. He works wonders like Fate according to his own will. He seems more cunning than devil himself; wearing the thick mask of honesty, he cuts the ground from under the feet of the simpletons. His planning is just like the movement of the puppet master who makes others obey his beck and call without an iota of doubt. His so called honesty is like the darkness of Evil. Cassioï¿½s role makes the play more playful and magnetic.Hibraverycumsimplicity,his attraction of personality and Desdemonaï¿½s sympathy for him create doubts that something will happen recently. Two momentous events thicken the interest of the play. In the beginning ,clouds of war make the atmosphere very very alluring. All senses become alert to know something or the other about the imminent war. The arrival of the messengers with oneï¿½s toes after the otherï¿½s heel make the reader as well as the audience spell bound to await the coming bloody- field. Along with others, Desdemona herself wishes to visit the bloody fields to confirm Othelloï¿½s bravery and skillfulness.Then instead of war, storm is involved to draw the senses to another natural phenomenon that is most captivating for those who are on the secure shores. The storm destoys the Turkish fleet, shatters their might ,even crumbles the very skeleton. Now we describe some other causes of interest in the play.Othello is lost for some moments and interest is strengthened; it is diverted from one spectacle to another. The whole play presents stormy situation. In the beginning, Desdemonaï¿½s elopement is an emotional storm for her aged father, Brabantio, the sudden information of the advancement of Turkish fleet is the political storm for the State ; misunderstanding between Othello and Desdemona is the domestic storm; then at last Desdemonaï¿½s muder is the criminal storm. Thus the playwright shuffles the situation from one storm to another. What else can attract manï¿½s attention more than a sound storm. It is at the same time both success and failure on the part of the author, who has expertly handled these storms. But he has made the storm the centre of the readerï¿½s thoughts not his artistic skill to make a piece of copper look like a golden one. The author uses the Herculean bow of exaggeration to shoot fickle arrows of imagination on all sides. Situation, character and language all are saturated with exaggeration. A humble obedient girl departs from her home all alone at midnight and goes across a stream to marry her lover. Her aged father, who himself had enjoyed love marriage, remained totally unaware like a tree from all of this emotional attachment between Desdemona and Othello. And it is not a duration of a short while but a long span of more than one year and the father could not even imagine such a self evident exposure. It seems merely the subjective approach flourishes on the banks of exaggeration. I.A.Richards says: ï¿½The two pillars upon which a theory of criticism must rest are an account of value and an account of communication.ï¿½ On the very nightof the marriage,the news of war alarm the atmosphere. It shows the secret agencies of the kingdom are too poor. They had no notion before it that the mighty enemy had been planning for war against them. Even storms can be predicted, why the war cannot be? Unexpectedly the storm comes and the fleet is shattered. Again the author has made full use of his subjective authority because no ship or person of the Venetions has been traced out by the storm. It does not seem a natural storm but the Furies begot by the curses of the Venetians. The winds of exaggeration can be felt blowing on the coasts of Cypress. Then overnight the married love-palace is razed to the ground on the basis of a baseless doubt. Desdemona has spent no separate time with Cassio. Cassio visits the castle once or twice and that also during the day.He has been their confidential friend and companion for an long time. Othello is so childish that he cannot see the truth in Desdemonaï¿½s eyes, rather the blind minded commander finds Cassioï¿½s kisses on her lips. A commander has no insight to understand her household affairs; how he can make his army fight for the state. He lacks intelligence to see behind the scene. This unexpected, sudden and somewhat irrational misunderstanding make the situation exaggerative. It seems the author ,not the conditions draw the rope to hang the characters. The handkerchief episode is just a welding or engrafting of some inferior shoot in a superior one. Othello exposes the importance of the handkerchief when it is lost; he must have done so at the moment of presenting it. This love- gift must not be a usual commonplace piece of cloth that may fall with a simple jerk of knees. And at that very moment true hearted Emilia picks it up and takes it to her wicked husband even with the belief that he may use it in some devilish activity. And she does not tell about it to Desdemona even when Othello demands its very furiously in her presence . This scene could become convincing if Desdemona had not been there. But when she is present and a skirmish occurs between her beloved couple and she is also loyal, she must have exposed the secret of the lost handkerchief . Thus the situation becomes unconvincing rather, exaggerative. And exaggeration is oppression for the rational minds. Roderigo has been is love with Desdemona for a long time. Her father Brabantio knows the fact. He cherishes her glance, spends money, time and energy for her. But Desdemona is absolutely unaware of Roderigoï¿½s condition . Though Desdemona doesnï¿½t love him yet his presence could be in her awareness. But the author has kept her in complete isolation that is to a large extent unconvincing is a locality where the same wind visits all corners. Othello, the commander in chief, watches Cassio and Bianca from a distance. But he has no suspicion of the illegal relations between the two.Then he falls down unconscious and Cassio comes their abruptly and Iago tells him that Othello suffers from epilepsy.Both Cassio and Iago have spent almost the equal duration with Othello. It can be asserted that Cassio has been closer to him than Iago is who has got his comfidence only a while ago. The ridiculous situation is that Iago knows this secret that is a lie but Cassio doesnï¿½t. And Cassio, a brave man, runs away from the situation when when his loyalty demanded. In the end Othello doesnï¿½t prove to be an obedient commander in chief but a brazen faced self-conceited man occupied not by wisdom but by blind vigour to commit suicide after the murder of a marvelous lady. Thus the play is mot masterpiece of art but of exaggeration. The language of the play also creates a negative impression. Discursive , unnecessary, long dialogues made the language cumbersom and to some extent oppressive. The reader wishes to know what happens next but the playwright stops him to listen to some flowery expressions to make the reader realize the mastery of the artist. Desemonaï¿½s passionate condition where Othello did beguile her to tears and she gave him a world of sighs must have made Brabantio aware of her heart. Brabantio, a senior courtier, also seems to be totally unware of the imminent war and he hasnï¿½t told Desdemona anything about it. This non-awareness of war among the characters is far from convincing. He openly disobeys the orders brought by Lodvico and doesnï¿½t make Cassio the commander in chief as are the orders.Rather he rebels against the state and acts upon the plan of murdering Cassio. It proves he hasnï¿½t the forbearance of a good soldier. About all such matters, Lodvico remarks: I am sorry that I am deceived in him (Act iv,sc-i) The play fails to prove Othelloï¿½s bravery except that he murders an innocent and delicate lady, Desdemona: Othello: Sweet soul take heed take heed of perjury Thou art on thy death- bed. He expresses his foolishness in these words: My wife my wife, my wife I haï¿½ no wife (Act iv,sc-ii) Towards the end of the play,disliking against Othello goes on increasing among the characters and the reader, as Emilia utters: O, the more angel she was, And you the blacker devil! She further abuses this mighty being: O gull , O dolt As ignorant as dirt ; thou hast done a deed (Act v Sc-ii) He himself shatters his rationality when he declares about the sexual intercourse between Desdemona and Cassio: A thousand times committed; Cassio confessed it While it is only the exaggeration of his poor fantasy. He is further deprecated when just before his suicide he expresses his prejudice against other nations of the world: like the base Indian I took the circumcised Dog And smote him thus. Othello plays as a jealous lover while Roderigo plays as a foolish lover. The first murders Desdemona while the second is murdered for her. Othelloï¿½s might and bravery act lower than his status while Roderigoï¿½s weakness and foolishness act higher than his position. Both of them have one target_ Cassio, but both of them are blinded by Iago. The impartial analysis of the play leads us to the conclusion that though it is one of the four major tragedies by Shapkespeare, yet it has some logical, technical and psychological defeacts. The overall impact and popualarity of the play are impressive enough to cover these drawbacks. References Ralph.P.Boas and Edwin Smith Enjoyment of Literature Harcourt, Brace and company NewYork Chicage I.A.Richards Principles of Literary Criticism Routledge and Kegan Paul LTD Broadway House; 68-74 Carter Lane H.Coombes Literatrure and Criticism Penguin Books (1966) Posted By maqsood hasni at Wed 7 Jul 2010, 1:58 PM in Othello \|\| 0 Replies Othello on R4 Hi, just a quick heads up for UK members. Lenny Henry's Othello is being broadcast this afternoon on R4, 2.30. It's got a good write-up for both Lenny, and the actor playing Iago. "Every Iago is a scheming, villainous traitor, but this guy means it. Very real, very scary." Great stuff. I'm off to listen.....:) Posted By wessexgirl at Sat 27 Feb 2010, 2:20 PM in Othello \|\| 3 Replies Othello: A White Man's Role? Look through Othello's performance history, the character Othello wasn't played by a black man until 1826, when Ira Aldrige stepped up to the plate. The French critic Thï¿½ophile Gautier praised his acting, saying: " had that nonchalance, that Oriental attitude, that desinvolture of a Negro that no European is able to imitate He produced an immense effect and received interminable applause." But The Times thought it was mediocre: " such an exhibition is well enough at Sadlerï¿½s Wells, or at Bartholomew Fair, but it certainly is not very creditable to a great national establishment." When Paul Robeson came to play the role in the early 1930s, he talked at length about Othello being a black man's role: "Shakespeare meant Othello to be a Black Moor from Africa, an African of the highest nobility of heritage. From Kean on, Othello was made a light-skinned Moor because the West had since made Africa a slave center and the African was pictured only as a slave." Of course, Robeson and Aldrige were not the only black Othellos; there was Salvini and, more recently, Laurence Fishburne (in Parker's film Othello), among countless others. But given all of this, what do you think of the following? "I am not sure Othelloï¿½s part should be portrayed by a black actor at all, and it should not be seen as the pinnacle of a black actorï¿½s career, as it so often is Shakespeareï¿½s tragedy is not about Africanness, but the white manï¿½s idea of Africanness." Virginia Vaughan, in Performing Blackness on English Stages, 1500-1800 Posted By Dori at Tue 17 Nov 2009, 11:55 PM in Othello \|\| 12 Replies	i don't know
From which tree is the spice 'Mace' obtained?	Monterey Bay Spice Co. - Mace Mace Bulk Discounts: 5 or more = 10% OFF\|25 or more = 15% OFF Myristica fragrans plant overview warm and spicy mace Mace is a spice made from the dried and ground leathery outer covering of the fruit of an Indonesian tree. Technically called the arillus, this outer covering protects the common nutmeg, from which another popular spice is obtained. Mace is bright red when fresh, but dries to a dull orange color and becomes quite brittle. The spice is widely used in Asian and Middle Eastern cuisines. It is also used as a baking spice to add warm flavor to breads, cakes and cookies. See also nutmeg . Clicking "learn more" next to each variety will take you to individual product pages for details. 01. Nutmeg: A Bit of Botany a little botanical information on nutmeg (mace) description Mace is the dried "lacy" reddish webbing or aril of the nutmeg seed from the nutmeg tree, Myristica fragrans, a member of the Myristicaceae family. Nutmeg and mace have similar flavors, with nutmeg being slightly sweeter and mace being a more delicate flavor. Mace is often used in recipes for the bright orange, saffron -like hue it gives. The tree from which they are produced is a small evergreen, not more than 40 feet in height, with smooth, grayish-brown bark, which is green on the younger branches. The alternate leaves are oblong-ovate, acute, entire, smooth, and dark-green. Nutmeg tree flowers are very small and unisexual. Nutmeg tree fruit is smooth and yellow, each resemble a pear grooved by a longitudinal furrow. The fruit contains a single erect seed about 1 1/4 inch long, the nucleus of which is the wrinkled nutmeg, and the crimson, fleshy, webbed covering being the mace. common names & nomenclature for mace Mace comes from the Latin maccis and French macis, both of which refer to the mace spice covering the nutmeg. mace is also known as: rou dou kou, macis, muscadier common names & nomenclature for nutmeg The name nutmeg is from the Old French for "hard aromatic seed of the East Indies”. nutmeg is also known as: nux moschata, myristica officinalis, myristica aromata, myristica 02. Nutmeg: Where in the World habitat and range for nutmeg (mace) Myristica fragrans is an evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia. 03. considerations on growing and harvesting nutmeg (mace) climate	Nutmeg (moth)
Containing the singles 'Cigarettes And Alcohol' and 'Live Forever', what is the title of Oasis' debut album?	Cookbook:Nutmeg - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Cookbook:Nutmeg Cookbook \| Recipes \| Ingredients \| Spices and herbs Nutmeg and mace are two spices derived from the same plant, the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans). The nutmeg tree is indigenous to the Banda Islands of Indonesia but is also grown in the Caribbean (e.g., Grenada). Several commercial products are produced from the nutmeg tree, nutmeg and mace being the best known. Nutmeg is the actual seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and about an inch long, while mace is the dried "lacy", reddish covering of the seed. Other products include their essential oils. Other nutmeg tree species include the M. argentea which produces 'Papuan' nutmegs from Papua (Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea, and M. malabarica which produces 'Bombay' nutmegs from India ; both are used as adulterants of M. fragrans products. The spices in their ground form are mainly used in the food processing industry, principally in the seasoning of meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, baked goods and spice mixes such as curry powder in Japan . Both spices have similar taste qualities; mace is more popular in light coloured foods because of its light orange colour. Mace tends to be sweeter and more delicate. The essential oil is obtained by the steam distillation of ground nutmeg. The oil is colourless or light yellow and smells and tastes of nutmeg. Essential nutmeg oil as such is used as natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages (e.g., cola), sweets, etc. It replaces ground nutmeg as it leaves no particles in the food. Nutmeg is extremely toxic when injected intravenously. Excessive consumption of the spice is also dangerous and can lead to death. Nutmeg can also cause hallucinations when taken in excess, along with nausea, dehydration, and generalised body pain.	i don't know
Containing the singles 'There's No Other Way' and 'Bang', what was the title of Blur's debut album?	Blur on Apple Music To preview a song, mouse over the title and click Play. Open iTunes to buy and download music. Biography Initially, Blur were one of the multitude of British bands that appeared in the wake of the Stone Roses, mining the same swirling, pseudo-psychedelic guitar pop, only with louder guitars. Following an image makeover in the mid-'90s, the group emerged as the most popular band in the U.K., establishing itself as heir to the English guitar pop tradition of the Kinks, the Small Faces, the Who, the Jam, Madness, and the Smiths. In the process, the group broke down the doors for a new generation of guitar bands that became labeled as Brit-pop. With Damon Albarn's wry lyrics and the group's mastery of British pop tradition, Blur were the leader of Brit-pop, but they quickly became confined by the movement; since they were its biggest band, they nearly died when the movement itself died. Through some reinvention, Blur reclaimed their position as an art pop band in the late '90s by incorporating indie rock and lo-fi influences, which finally gave them their elusive American success in 1997. But the band's legacy remained in Britain, where they helped revitalize guitar pop by skillfully updating the country's pop traditions. Originally called Seymour, the group was formed in London in 1989 by vocalist/keyboardist Albarn along with guitarist Graham Coxon and bassist Alex James, with drummer Dave Rowntree joining the lineup shortly afterward. After performing a handful of gigs and recording a demo tape, the band signed to Food Records, a subsidiary of EMI run by journalist Andy Ross and former Teardrop Explodes keyboardist Dave Balfe. Balfe and Ross suggested that the band change its name, submitting a list of alternate names for the group's approval. From that list, the group took the name Blur. "She's So High," the group's first single, made it into the Top 50 while the follow-up, "There's No Other Way," went Top Ten. Both singles were included on their 1991 Stephen Street-produced debut album, Leisure. Although it received favorable reviews, the album fit neatly into the dying Manchester pop scene, causing some journalists to dismiss the band as manufactured teen idols. For the next two years, Blur struggled to distance themselves from the scene associated with the sound of their first album. Released in 1992, the snarling "Pop Scene" was Blur's first attempt at changing their musical direction. A brash, spiteful rocker driven by horns, the neo-mod single was punkier than anything the band had previously recorded and its hooks were more immediate and catchy. Despite Blur's clear artistic growth, "Pop Scene" didn't fit into the climate of British pop and American grunge in 1992 and failed to make an impression on the U.K. charts. Following the single's commercial failure, the group began work on its second album, Modern Life Is Rubbish, a process that would take nearly a year and a half. XTC's Andy Partridge was originally slated to produce Modern Life Is Rubbish, but the relationship between Blur and Partridge quickly soured, so Street was again brought in to produce the band. After spending nearly a year in the studio, the band delivered the album to Food. The record company rejected it, declaring that it needed a hit single. Blur went back into the studio and recorded Albarn's "For Tomorrow," which would turn out to be a British hit. Food was ready to release the record, but the group's U.S. record company, SBK, believed there was no American hit single on the record and asked them to return to the studio. Blur complied and recorded "Chemical World," which pleased SBK for a short while; the song would become a minor alternative hit in the U.S. and charted at number 28 in the U.K. Modern Life Is Rubbish was set for release in the spring of 1993 when SBK asked Blur to re-record the album with producer Butch Vig (Nirvana, Sonic Youth). The band refused and the record was released in May in Britain; it appeared in the United States that fall. Modern Life Is Rubbish received good reviews in Britain, peaking at number 15 on the charts, yet it failed to make much of an impression in the U.S. Modern Life Is Rubbish turned out to be a dry run for Blur's breakthrough album, Parklife. Released in April 1994, Parklife entered the charts at number one and catapulted the band to stardom in Britain. The stylized new wave dance-pop single "Girls and Boys" entered the charts at number five; the single managed to spend 15 weeks on the U.S. charts, peaking at number 52, but the album never cracked the charts. It was a completely different story in England, as Blur had a string of hit singles, including the ballad "To the End" and the mod anthem "Parklife," which featured narration by Phil Daniels, the star of the film version of the Who's Quadrophenia. With the success of Parklife, Blur opened the door for a flood of British indie guitar bands that dominated British pop culture in the mid-'90s. Oasis, Elastica, Pulp, the Boo Radleys, Supergrass, Gene, Echobelly, Menswear, and numerous other bands all benefited from the band's success. By the beginning of 1995, Parklife had gone triple platinum and Blur had become superstars. The group spent the first half of 1995 recording its fourth album and playing various one-off concerts, including a sold-out stadium show. Blur released "Country House," the first single from their new album, in August amidst a flurry of media attention because Albarn had the single's release moved up a week to compete with the release of "Roll with It," a new single from Blur's chief rival, Oasis. The strategy backfired. Although Blur won the battle, with "Country House" becoming the group's first number one single, they ultimately lost the war, as Oasis became Britain's biggest band with their second album, (What's the Story) Morning Glory?, completely overshadowing the follow-up to Parklife, The Great Escape. While The Great Escape entered the U.K. charts at number one and earned overwhelmingly positive reviews, it sold in smaller numbers, and by the beginning of 1996, Blur were seen as has-beens, especially since they once again failed to break the American market, where Oasis had been particularly successful. In the face of negative press and weak public support, Blur nearly broke up in early 1996, but they instead decided to spend the entire year out of the spotlight. By the end of the year, Albarn was declaring that he was no longer interested in British music and was fascinated with American indie rock, a genre that Graham Coxon had been supporting for years. These influences manifested themselves on Blur's fifth album, Blur, which was released in February of 1997 to generally positive reviews. The band's reinvention wasn't greeted warmly in the U.K. -- the album and its first single, "Beetlebum," debuted at number one and quickly fell down the charts -- as Blur's mass audience didn't completely accept their new incarnation. However, the band's revamped sound earned them an audience in the U.S., where Blur received strong reviews and became a moderate hit, thanks largely to the popularity of the single "Song 2." The success in America eventually seeped over to Britain, and by the spring, the album had bounced back up the charts. 13 followed in 1999. Albarn stepped out with the hip-hop/pop cartoon group Gorillaz in 2000, a collaboration with artist Jamie Hewlett that soon eclipsed the popularity of Blur internationally. Coxon departed during the recording of Blur's next album, with Albarn stepping in on guitar. One last album, Think Tank, appeared in 2003 but the bandmembers went their separate ways after its release, with Albarn turning toward Gorillaz and other creative projects. Blur wound up reuniting for a tour of the U.K. in 2009, preceded by the career retrospective Midlife. From there, Blur pursued a halting reunion. They played a number of high-profile gigs in 2009, including headlining Glastonbury, then in 2010 a documentary of the band's history called No Distance Left to Run appeared. Along with it came "Fool's Day," a limited-edition single timed to coincide with 2010's Record Store Day. 2011 turned out to be quiet, but 2012 was a bustling year for Blur, with the band delving deep into their past for the exhaustive box set Blur 21, which contained double-disc reissues of all of their seven studio albums plus four discs of unreleased material and three DVDs. Along with this box came "Under the Westway/The Puritan," a single to support the box and the group's headlining spot at the closing Olympic ceremonies in August 2012. That concert at Hyde Park was released digitally the following week as Parklive; it later came out as a physical release that year. Blur continued to play shows into 2013; one of these included a gig in Hong Kong that was cancelled. The band used the downtime to record a bunch of material that lay unused until Coxon started working with producer Stephen Street to turn them into completed tracks in November of 2014. Soon, a full album came into shape. Blur announced the release of this record, now entitled The Magic Whip, for April of 2015. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine Top Albums	Leisure
Which city was the capital of the ancient nation of Assyria?	x The Magic Whip (On Sale) The new album from Blur, titled The Magic Whip, started life in Hong Kong when the band had an unexpected break in touring in May 2013. It is released by Parlophone Records, 16 years since 13, the band's last record as a four-piece. The recordings for the band's eighth studio album began in Spring 2013 at Avon Studios in Kowloon. Damon Albarn, Graham Coxon, Alex James and Dave Rowntree spent 5 days jamming together and carried on with their live dates while the recordings were put aside and the group finished touring and returned to their respective lives. Dave resumed his day job as a lawyer and Alex returned home to his farm in Oxfordshire from where he writes a regular farming column in The Telegraph and hosts the annual food and music festival The Big Feastival with Jamie Oliver. Graham, who has released eight critically acclaimed solo albums to date, continued to work on his own material and, in 2014, Damon released his Mercury-nominated debut solo album ï¿½Everyday Robots'.Then, in November last year, Graham revisited the tracks and, drafting in Blur's early producer Stephen Street (Leisure, Modern Life is Rubbish, Parklife, The Great Escape, Blur), he worked with the band on the material. Damon then added lyrics and the 12 tracks on The Magic Whip is the result. This title is not eligible for further discount. LP 1 5. Thought I Was A Spaceman 6. I Broadcast 2. There Are Too Many Of Us 3. Ghost Ship x 13 (Special Edition) To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of their debut release, Blurï¿½s sixth album 13 has now been expanded across two discs, cut on heavyweight 180g audiophile vinyl and housed in a replica of the original sleeve artwork. Marking their ten years together as a band, 1999's 13 is the sound of Blur becoming, according to Damon Albarn, ï¿½completely free.ï¿½ The album was created from lengthy improvisations around song structures, recorded and painstakingly edited by producer William Orbit. Lyrically, the songs are rooted in personal and emotional changes, most notably on two of the album's singles, ï¿½Tenderï¿½ and the heartbreaking ï¿½No Distance Left To Run.ï¿½ The album also sees songwriting contributions by guitarist Graham Coxon who takes lead vocal duties on "Coffee & TV." LP1 x Blur (Special Edition) To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of their debut release, Blurï¿½s eponymous fifth album has now been remastered from the original tapes by Frank Arkwright (The Smiths, Arcade Fire, New Order, Joy Division), with the remastering overseen by legendary producer, Stephen Street. Expanded across two discs, the LP format of the Blur remaster is cut on heavyweight180g audiophile vinyl and is housed in a replica of the original sleeve artwork. 1997 saw Blur abandon English character song and look towards left-field American rock for inspiration. Recorded partly in Iceland, Britpop is shunned in favor of abstract experimentalism, abrasive guitars, held together with Damon Albarnï¿½sinstinctive knack for writing memorable tunes. The album features the bandï¿½s second UK #1 single, ï¿½Beetlebumï¿½ and the casually anthemic ï¿½Song 2," the latter finally acquiring Blur transatlantic success. LP1 x Leisure (Special Edition) To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of its original release, Blurï¿½s auspicious debut album Leisure has now been remastered from the original tapes by Frank Arkwright (The Smiths, Arcade Fire, New Order, Joy Division), with the remastering overseen by legendary original producer, Stephen Street. The LP format of the Leisure remaster is cut on heavyweight 180g audiophile vinyl and is housed in a replica of the original sleeve artwork. Blurï¿½s 1991 debut mixed abstract My Bloody Valentine-style noise, psychedelic tunefulness and classic British pop, reflecting the use of a handful of different producers. The album features many songs dating from Blurï¿½s earlier incarnation as Seymour, including ï¿½Singï¿½ and first single ï¿½Sheï¿½s So High,ï¿½ a song written during their first rehearsal together. The band's first UK top ten hit, ï¿½Thereï¿½s No Other Wayï¿½ is also featured, marking the beginning of a long association with producer, Stephen Street. 1. She's So High x Parklife (Special Edition) To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of their debut release, Blurï¿½s breakthrough 1994 album Parklife has now been remastered from the original tapes by Frank Arkwright (The Smiths, Arcade Fire, New Order, Joy Division), with the remastering overseen by legendary original producer, Stephen Street. Expanded across two discs, the LP format of the Parklife remaster is cut on heavyweight 180g audiophile vinyl and is housed in a replica of the original sleeve artwork. British popï¿½s defining record of the 1990′s, Parklife became part of the national consciousness, English vocabulary and was the first of five consecutive #1 albums for Blur. The album continued the lyrical themes of its predecessor, but stylistically reaching further afield featuring torch song balladry, instrumental waltzes, disco and angular new wave. Parklife garnered Blur two top ten singles, four Brit Awards and classic album status LP1 x The Great Escape (Special Edition) To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of their debut release, Blurï¿½s fourth album The Great Escape has now been remastered from the original tapes by Frank Arkwright (The Smiths, Arcade Fire, New Order, Joy Division), with the remastering overseen by legendary original producer, Stephen Street. Expanded across two discs, the LP format of The Great Escape remaster is cut on heavyweight 180g audiophile vinyl and is housed in a replica of the original sleeve artwork. Recorded during Blurï¿½s rapid rise in popularity and tabloid recognition, the third and final chapter in what was referred to as the bandï¿½s ï¿½life trilogyï¿½ sees the band present a dark and lavish look at the modern world, populated by night-shift cab drivers, factory workers, lottery players and swinging couples. Justly awarded five star reviews upon its release in 1995, The Great Escape features Blurï¿½s first #1 single, ï¿½Country Houseï¿½ and the beautiful ï¿½The Universal.ï¿½ LP1 x Think Tank (Special Edition) To celebrate the 21st Anniversary of their debut release, Blurï¿½s last album (to date) Think Tank has now been expanded across two discs, cut on heavyweight 180g audiophile vinyl and housed in a replica of the original sleeve artwork. Sessions for Blur's seventh album began in the bandï¿½s London Studio 13 late in 2001. Recording moved southwards when the band packed up the entire studio and migrated to Marrakech, and finishing touches were added in Devon. The final thirteen tracks were selected from more than twenty-five completed songs. Think Tank is Blurï¿½s only album as a three piece, founding guitarist Graham Coxon was present for the initial sessions and plays on one track, album closer "Battery In Your Leg." LP1	i don't know
Which actor played the title character in the films 'Ed Wood', 'Donnie Brasco' and 'Edward Scissorhands'?	Edward Scissorhands (1990) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error A gentle man, with scissors for hands, is brought into a new community after living in isolation. Director: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC ‘A Series of Unfortunate Events’: Neil Patrick Harris on Playing Four Roles as One Villain and Why He Had to Watch Jim Carrey’s Take 13 January 2017 10:35 AM, -08:00 \| Indiewire Television a list of 37 titles created 23 Oct 2011 a list of 37 titles created 03 Feb 2013 a list of 34 titles created 03 Apr 2013 a list of 43 titles created 10 Apr 2014 a list of 22 titles created 27 Apr 2014 Search for " Edward Scissorhands " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 Oscar. Another 6 wins & 15 nominations. See more awards » Videos The infamous story of Benjamin Barker, AKA Sweeney Todd, who sets up a barber shop down in London which is the basis for a sinister partnership with his fellow tenant, Mrs. Lovett. Based on the hit Broadway musical. Director: Tim Burton Ichabod Crane is sent to Sleepy Hollow to investigate the decapitations of 3 people with the culprit being the legendary apparition, the Headless Horseman. Director: Tim Burton A couple of recently deceased ghosts contract the services of a "bio-exorcist" in order to remove the obnoxious new owners of their house. Director: Tim Burton An imprisoned vampire, Barnabas Collins, is set free and returns to his ancestral home, where his dysfunctional descendants are in need of his protection. Director: Tim Burton The Dark Knight of Gotham City begins his war on crime with his first major enemy being the clownishly homicidal Joker. Director: Tim Burton A frustrated son tries to determine the fact from fiction in his dying father's life. Director: Tim Burton When a corrupt businessman and the grotesque Penguin plot to take control of Gotham City, only Batman can stop them, while the Catwoman has her own agenda. Director: Tim Burton Earth is invaded by Martians with unbeatable weapons and a cruel sense of humor. Director: Tim Burton An ambitious but troubled movie director tries his best to fulfill his dream, despite his lack of support. Director: Tim Burton A writer is accused of plagiarism by a strange man, who then starts haunting him for "justice." Director: David Koepp Three former parapsychology professors set up shop as a unique ghost removal service. Director: Ivan Reitman A vampire tells his epic life story: love, betrayal, loneliness, and hunger. Director: Neil Jordan Edit Storyline In a castle high on top of a hill lives an inventor's greatest creation - Edward, a near-complete person. The creator died before he could finish Edward's hands; instead, he is left with metal scissors for hands. Since then, he has lived alone, until a kind lady called Peg discovers him and welcomes him into her home. At first, everyone welcomes him into the community, but soon things begin to take a change for the worse. Written by FilmFanUK Edward Was Here.... See more » Genres: 14 December 1990 (USA) See more » Also Known As: El joven manos de tijera See more » Filming Locations: 105 min Sound Mix: 70 mm 6-Track (analog 70 mm prints)\| CDS (digital 70 mm prints)\| Dolby Stereo (35 mm prints)\| CDS (digital 35 mm prints) Color: Did You Know? Trivia Edward's amazing topiary aren't real. They're all welded steel armature wrapped with chicken wire, and artificial greens were punched in. See more » Goofs When Peg comes in Kim's room to help Edward put on the white shirt that Peg gave him to change into, the doorway that Peg stands in the yellow mark is still there. See more » Quotes The title "EDWARD SCISSORHANDS" closes together, like a pair of scissors. See more » Connections Referenced in Jarhead (2005) See more » Soundtracks O Little Town of Bethlehem (uncredited) (United States) – See all my reviews I would have to say that Edward Scissorhands is by far one of the best films done by Tim Burton. It is a very beautiful story. They couldn't have chosen a better cast for this movie. Johnny Depp is phenomenal as Edward. He brings the characters in his movies to life so well that it is hard to believe that he is acting. It seems as if when he learns about the movie and goes over the scripts that he transforms in the character. This film is definitely one of them. This movie is nothing short of enchanting. This movie was the reason that I fell in love with Tim Burton and Johnny Depp. If you like movies that leave you bug eyed, make you think, and leave you wanting more then this is the film for you. I highly recommend this movie to anyone who loves a good fairy tale. 35 of 40 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Johnny Depp
Located at the southern end of the Mariana Trench, what is the name given to the deepest point in the Pacific Ocean?	Johnny Depp - Watch Viooz Johnny Depp Owensboro, Kentucky, USA : Biography: John Christopher "Johnny" Depp II (born June 9, 1963) is an American actor and musician. He has won the Golden Globe Award and Screen Actors Guild award for Best Actor. Depp rose to prominence on the 1980s television series 21 Jump Street, becoming a teen idol. Turning to film, he played the title character of Edward Scissorhands (1990), and later found box office success in films such as Sleepy Hollow (1999), Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005), and Rango (2011). He has collaborated with director and friend Tim Burton in seven films, including Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (2007) and Alice in Wonderland (2010). Depp has gained acclaim for his portrayals of people such as Edward D. Wood, Jr., in Ed Wood, Joseph D. Pistone in Donnie Brasco, Hunter S. Thompson in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, George Jung in Blow, and the bank robber John Dillinger in Michael Mann's Public Enemies. Films featuring Depp have grossed over $2.6 billion at the United States box office and over $6 billion worldwide. He has been nominated for top awards many times, winning the Best Actor Awards from the Golden Globes for Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street and from the Screen Actors Guild for Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. He also has garnered a sex symbol status in American cinema, being twice named as the Sexiest man alive by People magazine in 2003 and 2009. Description above from the Wikipedia article Johnny Depp, licensed under CC-BY-SA, full list of contributors on Wikipedia. Film Credits	i don't know
'Nude Descending A Staircase' is perhaps the most famous painting by which 20th century artist?	National Academic Quiz Tournaments, LLC School You Gotta Know These 20th-Century Paintings Below is a list of ten paintings which are frequent quiz bowl topics. This list focuses on individual paintings rather than bodies of work; thus, an artist like Georgia O’Keeffe is not included because no specific one of her familiar cowskull -and- flower paintings is sufficiently prominent. The list is notably skewed toward the first half of the 20th century, as only one work was painted after 1950. Perhaps the earlier paintings have simply had more time to be influential and make their way into the artistic canon. Also, many prominent post-1950 painters, like Jackson Pollock and Mark Rothko , do not have a specific work with a catchy title that has gained particular attention above all others; like O’Keeffe, they are known for their style and collective body of work rather than for any one painting. Guernica , by Pablo Picasso . Guernica was a Basque town bombed by the Germans during the Spanish Civil War in April 1937. Picasso had already been commissioned to paint a mural for the Spanish Pavilion at the World’s Fair, and he completed his massive, black, white, and grey anti-war mural by early June 1937. Picasso’s Cubist approach to portraying the figures adds to the sense of destruction and chaos. Guernica was in the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York until 1981, when it was returned to the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia in Spain. Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 , by Marcel Duchamp . First painted in 1912, Nude Descending a Staircase created a sensation when shown at the 1913 Armory Show in New York, where one critic referred to it as “an explosion in a shingle factory.” Painted in various shades of brown, Nude Descending a Staircase portrays a nude woman in a series of broken planes, capturing motion down several steps in a single image. The painting reflects a Cubist sense of division of space, and its portrait of motion echoes the work of the Futurists. The Persistence of Memory , by Salvador Dalí . First shown in 1931, The Persistence of Memory is probably the most famous of surrealist paintings. The landscape of the scene echoes Port Lligat, Dalí’s home. The ants, flies, clocks, and the Port Lligat landscape are motifs in many other Dalí paintings, and the trompe l’oeil depiction of figures is typical of his works. It currently belongs to MOMA ; its 1951 companion piece, The Disintegration of the Persistence of Memory , hangs at the Salvador Dalí Museum in St. Petersburg, Florida. Les Demoiselles d’Avignon , by Pablo Picasso . This painting depicts five women in a brothel. However, the images of the women are partly broken into disjointed, angular facets. The degree of broken-ness is rather mild compared to later Cubist works, but it was revolutionary in 1907. The rather phallic fruit arrangement in the foreground reflects the influence of Cezanne’s “flattening of the canvas.” The two central figures face the viewer, while the other three have primitive masks as faces, reflecting another of Picasso’s influences. It is currently housed at the MOMA . Broadway Boogie Woogie , by Piet Mondrian . While Les Demoiselles d’Avignon and other Cubist paintings represent an extension of Paul Cezanne’s division-of-space approach to the canvas, Mondrian’s De Stijl works are a still further abstraction, such that the canvas is often divided up into rectangular “tile patterns,” as in Composition with Red, Yellow, and Blue . The painting simultaneously echoes the bright lights of a marquee, resembles a pattern of streets as seen from above, and creates a feeling of vitality and vibrancy, not unlike the music itself. This work can also be found at the MOMA . Campbell’s Soup Can , by Andy Warhol . Pop Art parodies (or perhaps reflects) a world in which celebrities, brand names, and media images have replaced the sacred; Warhol’s series of Campbell’s Soup paintings may be the best illustration of this. Like the object itself, the paintings were often done by the mass-produceable form of serigraphy (silk screening). Also like the subject, the Warhol soup can painting existed in many varieties, with different types of Campbell’s Soup or numbers of cans; painting 32 or 100 or 200 identical cans further emphasized the aspect of mass production aspect in the work. The same approach underlies Warhol’s familiar series of prints of Marilyn Monroe, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, and other pop culture figures. Nighthawks , by Edward Hopper . As is often the case with his works, Hopper uses a realistic approach (including such details as the fluorescent light of the diner, the coffee pots, and the Phillies cigar sign atop the diner) to convey a sense of a loneliness and isolation, even going so far as to depict the corner store without a door connecting to the larger world. Hopper’s wife Jo served as the model for the woman at the bar. Nighthawks is housed at the Art Institute of Chicago . I and the Village , by Marc Chagall . Painted in 1911, I and the Village is among Chagall’s earliest surviving paintings. It is a dreamlike scene that includes many motifs common to Chagall, notably the lamb and peasant life. In addition to the two giant faces—a green face on the right and a lamb’s head on the left—other images include a milkmaid, a reaper, an upside-down peasant woman, a church, and a series of houses, some of them upside-down. I and the Village is currently housed at MOMA . Christina’s World , by Andrew Wyeth . The Christina of the title is Christina Olson, who lived near the Wyeths’ summer home in Cushing, Maine. In the 1948 painting, Christina lays in the cornfield wearing a pink dress, facing away from the viewer, her body partly twisted and hair blowing slightly in the wind. In the far distance is a three-story farmhouse with dual chimneys and two dormers, along with two sheds to its right. A distant barn is near the top middle of the painting. One notable aspect is the subtle pattern of sunlight, which strikes the farmhouse obliquely from the right, shines in the wheel tracks in the upper right, and casts very realistic-looking shadows on Christina’s dress. The Olson house was the subject of many Andrew Wyeth paintings for 30 years, and it was named to the National Register of Historic Places for its place in Christina’s World. American Gothic , by Grant Wood . Wood painted his most famous work after a visit to Eldon, Iowa, when he saw a Carpenter Gothic style house with a distinctive Gothic window in its gable. Upon returning to his studio, he used his sister Nan and his dentist, Dr. Byron McKeeby, as the models for the two figures. The pitchfork and the clothing were more typical of 19th-century farmers than contemporary ones. American Gothic is among the most familiar regionalist paintings, and it is said to be the most parodied of all paintings. It hangs at the Art Institute of Chicago, where it was submitted for a competition by Wood upon its completion in 1930 (Wood won a bronze medal and a $300 prize).	Marcel Duchamp
The 'RMS Titanic' was built at the Harland and Wolff Shipyard, in which city?	Infamy and Influence \| Cleveland Museum of Art Infamy and Influence Indra K. Lacis Curatorial Research Assistant Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) 1912. Marcel Duchamp (French, 1887–1968). Oil on canvas; 147 x 89.2 cm. Philadelphia Museum of Art, The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950-134-59. © Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / Estate of Marcel Duchamp Marcel Duchamp’s iconic masterpiece Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) played a crucial role in spreading European modernism across the United States. A clear view of the painting was nearly impossible during its debut at the New York Armory Show of 1913 as crowds constantly surrounded this peculiar “abstraction.” Boldly breaking with tradition, Duchamp depicted a nude, mechanical-looking figure descending the stairs instead of reclining or lying down as convention dictated. Rendered in brown, black, and beige tones, the skeletal, insect-like figure of ambiguous gender barely resembled typical human contours, an artistic transgression that at the time was considered not just visually confusing, but also an affront to American morals and rules of social decorum. Although the notoriety of this mechanical nude would precede Duchamp’s personal reputation throughout the early decades of his career, its initial reception was one of bewilderment and outrage. Ridiculed by critics and the public alike, the painting was skewered in the press as “an explosion in a shingle factory” and Rude Descending a Staircase (Rush Hour at the Subway). (2) Deftly mixing artistic styles, Duchamp’s painting summarized many of modern art’s concerns: the monochromatic tonalities of splintered Cubist forms, the Futurists’ portrayal of bodies in motion, cinematic freeze frames, growing interest in the space-time continuum, and experiments with time-lapse photography by Étienne-Jules Marey, Eadweard Muybridge, and Thomas Eakins. The difficulty of classifying this enigmatic work only increased its infamy, with some critics comparing its je ne sais quoi with the mysterious intrigue of Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. (3) Nude Descending a Staircase had a troubled history even before it arrived in New York. In the spring of 1912 it was rejected from the Paris Salon des Indépendants by a jury that included the artist’s two brothers and their friends—a painful blow for Duchamp, then only 25 years old. When the painting was exhibited at the Armory a year later, the magazine Art News offered a $10 prize to anyone who could “find the lady,” claiming it would be nearly impossible to discern either a figure or staircase. (4) Readers’ responses published the following week ran the gamut. Some suggested the figure might be male or that the painting should be turned upside down; others accused Duchamp of having defective eyesight or an inability to record accurate impressions, or of simply seeking notoriety. Portrait multiple de Marcel Duchamp (Five-Way Portrait of Marcel Duchamp) 1917. Unidentified photographer. Gelatin silver print. Private collection. Image courtesy Francis M. Naumann Fine Art, New York Such suspicions about Duchamp’s iconoclastic leanings were not entirely incorrect. Nude Descending a Staircase was, in fact, the artist’s first attempt at liberating art from the realm of the purely retinal or visual and returning it to the conceptual and cerebral faculties of the mind. The same year the painting was exhibited in New York, Duchamp created his first “readymade” by mounting a bicycle wheel on a kitchen stool. In the following decades, such works as Bicycle Wheel and Bottle Rack—sculptures that are exactly what their titles describe—altered the course of 20th-century art by calling into question time-honored qualities of originality and craftsmanship. By selecting everyday objects and altering them only minimally, Duchamp rejected the preciousness of individually hand-crafted art in exchange for reproducible works that represented a novel, one-of-a-kind idea. Known to reproduce his own originals, Duchamp is widely credited with introducing three-dimensional multiples into the art market. Three years after Nude Descending a Staircase was purchased by San Francisco art dealer Frederic Torrey for $324 at the close of the Armory exhibition, Duchamp made an exact, full-scale reproduction of the work, which he titled Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 3). (5) Created by superimposing ink, colored pencil, and paint onto a large photograph of the original, Duchamp’s copy was acquired by the artist’s most important patrons, Walter and Louise Arensberg. This opportunity for the Cleveland Museum of Art to display Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) dovetails dynamically with the museum’s relationship to both the painting and the artist. In August 1936, Duchamp was returning home after visiting the Arensbergs in Hollywood when he stopped by the Cleveland Museum of Art to view Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2), his most important and best known oil painting (which he had not seen in 13 years), at the time on loan to the museum for an exhibition commemorating its 20th anniversary. To Duchamp’s delight, a misreading of the abbreviation “ex” as “expired” instead of “exhibition” led to the listing of Duchamp as dead by 1933 in the catalogue; according to the Plain Dealer, however, Duchamp was “immensely entertained” by the misprint. (6) During his daylong visit to the museum, Duchamp made a series of notes about the painting, descriptions that helped guide the hundreds of small replicas he would subsequently produce not only of this painting but of many of his most important works—faithful miniature replicas that he would ultimately assemble to create his portable “museum in a box.” (7) Titled From or by Marcel Duchamp or Rrose Sélavy, Duchamp’s Boîte-en-valise contains small watercolors, scale models, cutouts, and prints cataloguing his life’s work, including Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2). The Cleveland Museum of Art acquired a box from this series in 2007, which—along with other works by Duchamp’s colleagues in the Dada and Surrealist movements—will be on display alongside this notorious painting when it returns to Cleveland on April 9 for the museum’s centennial celebration. Once referred to as “the only painter to awaken an entire continent to a new art,” Duchamp’s succès de scandale in New York continues to remain a key aspect of his artistic identity more than 100 years later. (8) Contemporary artists, including Joseph Kosuth, Sherri Levine, Mike Bidlo, Larry Rivers, and Kira O’Reilly, have produced paintings, sculptures, and performances that appropriate and reinterpret this famous painting. (9) During O’Reilly’s 2009 performance Stair Falling at the Whitworth Art Gallery in Manchester, for example, the artist painstakingly tumbled down a set of stairs completely nude and in slow motion over the course of several hours, creating an entirely new work while also abstracting and reconfiguring Duchamp’s desire to depict movement. While many artists might consider such gestures an affront to the legacy of their work, Duchamp, whohas been described as a “one-man movement,” would surely have been thrilled to know that the reputation of his infamous painting encompasses not just one but many incarnations. (10) From or by Marcel Duchamp or Rrose Sélavy 1935–40, 1963–66 (series F). Marcel Duchamp. Red leather box containing 80 objects (collotypes; letterpress, pochoir, and lithographic prints); gouache, green lacquer, varnish, celluloid, wood; objects of glass, oilcloth, and ceramic; 41.5 x 38.5 x 9.9 cm overall. Andrew R. and Martha Holden Jennings Fund 2007.157. © Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York	i don't know
Milwaukee Deep is the deepest part of the Atlantic Ocean and is located in which oceanic trench?	Milwaukee Depth \| deepest point, Atlantic Ocean \| Britannica.com Milwaukee Depth Cayman Trench Milwaukee Depth, deepest point in the Atlantic Ocean , lying at a depth of 27,493 feet (8,380 m) about 100 miles (160 km) northwest of the island of Puerto Rico . It lies within a submarine depression called the Puerto Rico Trench , located at the southern edge of the North American Basin, between the Puerto Rico Ridge (north) and the North Antillean Arc (south); it is about 7,000 feet (2,100 m) deeper than the adjoining basin floors. The Milwaukee Depth is named after the first ship that sounded it. Its bottom is covered with mud, sand, rock, and shells. Learn More in these related articles: Atlantic Ocean body of salt water covering approximately one-fifth of Earth’s surface and separating the continents of Europe and Africa to the east from those of North and South America to the west. The ocean’s name, derived from Greek mythology, means the “Sea of Atlas.” It is second... Puerto Rico Trench submarine depression in the North Atlantic Ocean, roughly parallel to the northern coast of the island of Puerto Rico and lying about 75 miles (120 km) to the north. The Puerto Rico Trench is about 1,090 miles (1,750 km) long and 60 miles (100 km) wide. The deepest point in the Atlantic Ocean, the... Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: July 20, 1998 URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Milwaukee-Depth Access Date: January 09, 2017 Share	Puerto Rico Trench
'View Of Delft' is one of the best known works of which 17th century artist?	Puerto Rico Trench - 必应亚马逊在线销售正版Lambert M Surhone, Mariam T Tennoe, Susan F HenssonowPuerto Rico Trench，本页面提供Lambert M Surhone, Mariam T Tennoe, Susan F ... https://www.amazon.cn/Puerto-Rico-Trench/dp/6134821144 Puerto Rico Trench, submarine depression in the North Atlantic Ocean, roughly parallel to the northern coast of the island of Puerto Rico and lying about 75 miles ... https://www.britannica.com/place/Puerto-Rico-Trench The North American tectonic plate, which lies north of the trench, is descending under the Puerto Rico and Virgin Island blocks south of the trench. oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03trench Three exploration cruises carried out in the Puerto Rico Trench within the past year have for the first time mapped the morphology of this entire tectonic-plate ... https://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2003/10/fieldwork.html	i don't know
From which English city did the 'RMS Titanic' set sail on its ill-fated voyage to New York?	The Grave of the Titanic The Grave of the Titanic The story of the Titanic and the iceberg has grown into a legend of the sea. It took her discovery in 1985 to begin to find the truth behind the myth. One of the things that makes the Titanic so fascinating is that she represented the best of technology when she set sail on her ill-fated voyage in 1912, and it took the best of technology in the form of sonar, satellite tracking, and deep-dive technology to locate her grave 73 years later. In the early 1900's, waterborne transportation was the norm; today, satellites are taken for granted by our society. But we tend to forget the immense effort that these two technologies require to operate to their maximum potential. Until recently, the technology did not exist to locate, photograph, and explore this ship that rested two and a half miles down on the ocean floor. On April 10, 1912, the RMS Titanic set sail from Southampton on her maiden voyage to New York. At that time, she was the largest and most luxurious ship ever built. At 11:40 PM on April 14, 1912, she struck an iceberg about 400 miles off Newfoundland, Canada. Although her crew had been warned about icebergs several times that evening by other ships navigating through that region, she was traveling at near top speed of about 20.5 knots when one grazed her side. Less than three hours later, the Titanic plunged to the bottom of the sea, taking more than 1500 people with her. Only a fraction of her passengers were saved. The world was stunned to learn of the fate of the unsinkable Titanic. It carried some of the richest, most powerful industrialists of her day. Together, their personal fortunes were worth $600 million in 1912! In addition to wealthy and the middle class passengers, she carried poor emigrants from Europe and the Middle East seeking economic and social freedom in the New World. The remains of the Titanic were found in 1985 by Dr. Robert Ballard, an oceanographer and marine biologist with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. When he located the Titanic, he saw that, as some survivors reported, the ship had broken apart. He believed the weight of the water-filled bow raised the stern out of the water and snapped the ship in two just before it sank. Debris falling out of the ship was strewn over a 1/2 mile across the sea floor. The bow and the stern were found nearly 2000ft. apart. Keeping her location a secret, Bob Ballard used GPS to find theTitanic again when he returned the next year. He hoped to prevent treasure seekers from finding her and plundering the ship for booty such as coffee cups inscribed with RMS Titanic. On this second expedition, he visited the ship several times by submarine. On his last descent, he left a plaque honoring the 1500 victims and asking that subsequent explorers leave their grave undisturbed. Find the Titanic again! 1. Eventually Bob Ballard released the coordinates of the Titanic's location. He recorded her coordinates as, stern section sits on ocean floor at 41o43'35" N, 49o56'54" W, boilers at 41o43'32" N, 49o56'49" W, bow at 41o43'57" N, 49o56'49" W. Find these coordinates and trace the outline of the sunken pieces of the Titanic on a chart of the North Atlantic. 2. How far is it from its plotted course? At the time of the accident, the ship was reported to be at 41o46' N, 50o 14' W. (She was found 13½ miles southeast of the position given in her lastdistress call.) 3. Discuss the fact that satellite technology through GPS can pinpoint any position on Earth to within 30 feet. In 1912, navigation techniques of dead reckoning and celestial navigation could only give one an approximate location within several miles of one's true position.If the Titanic had had better navigational aids, could its passengers have all been saved? Could it even have avoided the iceberg? 4. Track the route she took from England to New York in April, 1912. She started from Southampton, England, and stopped at Cherbourg, France and Queenstown, Ireland to pick up passengers. Her destination was New York. She sank 1000 miles due east of Boston, Massachusetts, and 375 miles southeast of St. John's, Newfoundland. Unsinkable challenge Build an unsinkable boat. What would it be made of? How would it be shaped? How will you test your hypothesis? How much weight ("passengers") could it carry? How far can it tip to the side before it flips? Reliving the moment Draw a picture of the Titanic on that fateful night, using literature connection references. Information that should be incorporated into the work: It was night. There were icebergs. As the bow sank, the stern lifted farther and farther out of the water."Just before the ship disappeared entirely," according to Bob Ballard,"Many eyewitnesses agreed that the ship in fact broke in two, the bow plunging down while the stern briefly righted itself before turning almost vertical and sinking a few moments later." Detail what it might have been like aboard the Titanic between 11:40PM (when the ship gently grazed the iceberg) to 2:18 AM when it disappeared below the sea. Or draw an illustration of Jason finding the bow of the Titanic at the bottom of the sea at a depth of 12,460 ft. The ship was found in several pieces. Draw what the Titanic might look like after another 100 years on the ocean floor. Lifeboats How many lifeboats were needed? TheTitanic was owned by the British White Star Line, flew the British flag,and thus was under the rules and regulations of the British government. Although she was originally designed to carry 42 lifeboats, the ship carried only 20 lifeboats (four more than were required at the time by British regulations) for the 2,228 passengers and crew. (That number could supposedly hold 1,178 people.) The original designer of theTitanic had proposed 50 lifeboats, but the British owners of the White Star Line had decided against it. (If it had been under US Government regulation at the time, 42 lifeboats, enough to accommodate 2,367 persons would have been required for a ship that size.) Only 705 people were rescued; 1523 drowned or froze to death in the icy water. Ironically, most of those who drowned were Americans. Assuming that each lifeboat could hold 65 people, how many lifeboats did they need? Unfortunately, the 20 lifeboats on board were launched in panic before they were filled to capacity, so the number of people rescued was even fewer than could have been accommodated. Only 705 of 2,227 people on board survived. What percentage is that? Women 22% 24% Analyze these statistics. What do these figures tell you about the policy of saving women and children first, how social standing and wealth influenced who was rescued, and the tradition that the crew usually went down with the ship? Many of the poorest people were not aware of the seriousness of the damage to the Titanic until shortly before it sank. (chart source: The Titanic: End of a Dream) Materials Chart of the Atlantic Ocean with latitude/longitude, pencils, rulers, Robert Ballard's Exploring the Titanic or The Discovery of the Titanic More classroom activities on the Titanic: Learn more about the Titanic's last moments and how the Titanic was found using submarines in What's in a Name? Consider how many different professionals assisted in the finding of the Titanic in Get a Job! Learn more about How Satellites Work. For detailed information about the Titanic, crew, passengers, survivors and victims, please see Enclyclopedia Titanica Search the Gulf of Maine Aquarium's extensive site: Gulf of Maine Aquarium	Southampton
Which actor played the title character in the films 'Johnny Suede', 'Meet Joe Black' and 'The Curious Case Of Benjamin Button'?	Billionaire promises to build Titanic II by 2016 - today > travel - TODAY.com Billionaire promises to build Titanic II by 2016 Australian billionaire Clive Palmer planning high-tech replica of original cruise liner Below: Advertise AP In this April 25, 2012 photo provided by Crook Publicity, Australian billionaire Clive Palmer poses in front of an artist impression of the Titanic ll at MGM Studios in Los Angeles, Calif. By ROD McGUIRK + - CANBERRA, Australia — An Australian billionaire said Monday he'll build a high-tech replica of the Titanic at a Chinese shipyard and its maiden voyage in late 2016 will be from England to New York, just like its namesake planned. Weeks after the 100th anniversary of the sinking of the original Titanic, Clive Palmer announced Monday he has signed a memorandum of understanding with state-owned Chinese company CSC Jinling Shipyard to build the Titanic II. "It will be every bit as luxurious as the original Titanic, but ... will have state-of-the-art 21st-century technology and the latest navigation and safety systems," Palmer said in a statement. He called the project "a tribute to the spirit of the men and women who worked on the original Titanic." More than 1,500 people died after the Titanic hit an iceberg in the North Atlantic on its first voyage. It was the world's largest and most luxurious ocean liner at the time. Palmer built a fortune on real estate on Australia's Gold Coast tourist strip before becoming a coal mining magnate. BRW magazine reported he was Australia's fifth-richest person last year with more than 5 billion Australian dollars ($5.2 billion). Palmer said at a news conference that previous attempts to build a Titanic replica failed because proponents failed to raise enough money and commission a shipyard. The Titanic II is the first of four luxury cruise ships Palmer has commissioned CSC Jinling Shipyard to build. Palmer did not provide a cost estimate. He said he had established a new shipping company, Blue Star Line Pty. Ltd., and that design work for the Titanic II has begun with assistance from a historical research team. Advertise The diesel-powered ship will have four smoke stacks like the coal-powered original, but they will be purely decorative. The most obvious changes from the original Titanic would be below the water line, including welding rather than rivets, a bulbous bow for greater fuel efficiency and enlarged rudder and bow thrusters for increased maneuverability, Palmer said. Brett Jardine, general manager for Australia and New Zealand in the industry group International Cruise Council, said Titanic II would be small by modern standards but could prove viable at the top end of the luxury market. "From a marketing point of view, many will embrace it and perhaps there'll be some that wouldn't," Jardine said. "If you've got a niche, it's going to work. Why go out there and try to compete with the mass market products that are out there now?" he added. While the Titanic II would carry around 1,680 passengers, most modern cruise ships create economies of scale by catering for more than 2,000 passengers, he said. Among the world's largest passenger ships, Allure of the Seas is 90 meters (295 feet) longer than the 270-meter (886-foot) Titanic and has 2,700 cabins. Copyright 2012 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. People.com Advertise >>> tomorrow marks the 100th anniversary of the titanic sinking , and for those who survived, the trauma of that night would last a lifetime and for generations to come. nbc's jim maceda met up with an american couple with a deep sense of it. >> reporter: it took years of marriage before the couple stumbled upon a bond. >> we realized we both had relatives on the titanic. >> reporter: bob had settled with his family after graduation. and her great, great grandmother was also in first. both survived when more than 1,500 perished and both left accounts of hair owing hours in the freezing north atlantic after the collision wf the titanic and an iceberg three times their size. from their house in portugal, they shared those stories for the first time. >> the shock of the water took the breath out of my lungs. >> reporter: he had jumped from the titanic before it sank. >> down and down i went in all directions. swimming as hard as i could, hopefully getting away from the ship. >> reporter: he returned to this overturned life boat . >> we fought our way to the darkness. i rode for an hour straight. >> come on, girls, row. >> reporter: her take-charge attitude inspired this scene, "a night to remember." . both made it to safety but another ordeal began. bucknell became withdrawn and never sailed again. he became a successful banker but could never escape survivor 's guilt and at age 50, he took his life. kate and bob prefer to focus on something that when looking back would have never happened. it's their greatest joy in life, their three children. lucy and jack both accomplished musicians and son bobby, a professional pianist. they plan to tell their story no more. for "today," jim acedmaceda, nbc news, portugal. >>> still to come, they remember a popular police chief days before his retirement. but first Related slideshows A memorial of light Swiss light artist Gerry Hofstetter creates a test projection on an iceberg in 2011. Hofstetter has plans to project pictures illustrating the sinking of the Titanic on a giant iceberg for the 100th anniversary of the catastrophe. (Michael Kessler / EPA) Share Back to slideshow navigation Re-creating an era Mary Beth Crocker, left, and her husband, Tom Dearing, from Newport, Ky., pose for pictures in period costume after disembarking the MS Balmoral Titanic memorial cruise ship on April 9 during its first stop in Cobh, Ireland. With 1,309 passengers aboard, the MS Balmoral will follow the same route the Titanic did in 1912, complete with food and music from the era. • Story: Titanic cruise delayed due to strong winds (Lefteris Pitarakis / AP) Share Back to slideshow navigation Just in case.. John Philip of Australia adjusts the life jacket of his sister, Ann Breust, on April 8 during a drill aboard a Titanic memorial cruise from Southampton, England, to New York. (Chris Helgren / Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation And the band played on Passengers on a Titanic memorial cruise, chartered by Miles Morgan Travel, dance to music from a Belgian string band on April 9 after the ship's departure from Cobh, Ireland. Due to rough weather, an April 10 floor show was canceled over concerns about the safety of the performers. (Chris Helgren / Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation Related video Winslet: 'Titanic 3D' overwhelms in right ways Now in 3-D Actress Kate Winslet arrives at the 'Titanic 3D' UK film premiere on March 27 at the Royal Albert Hall in Kensington, West London. The 3-D version of the film has been released for the 100th anniversary of the Titanic's sinking and comes 15 years after 1997's "Titanic" was a huge box office hit. (Joel Ryan / AP) Share Back to slideshow navigation A 'Titanic' attraction An exterior view shows the Titanic Belfast building March 27 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The six-story attraction opened March 31 and tells the story of the Titanic from the ship's construction in Belfast to her sinking in the Atlantic on her maiden voyage 100 years ago. (David Moir / Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation Related interactive Events mark 100th anniversary of Titanic's sinking The sailing that never happened A 1912 advertisement for the British luxury passenger liner Titanic, part of the White Star Line's fleet, announces an April 20, 1912, sailing. Ticket prices and berth descriptions are provided, but the ship never arrived in New York. The Titanic sank April 15, 1912, killing more than 1,500 passenger and crew members. (Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise A ship like no other Workmen stand next to the screws of the RMS Titanic at a shipyard in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in this undated photo. The largest ship afloat at the time, the Titanic sank in the north Atlantic Ocean on April 15, 1912, after colliding with an iceberg during her maiden voyage from Southampton, England, to New York City. (The New York Times / Redux Pictures) Share Back to slideshow navigation Maiden voyage The Titanic leaves Southampton, England, on her ill-fated maiden voyage on April 10, 1912. (AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Captain and dog A handout picture received from Southampton City Council on April 4, 2012, shows Titanic Captain Edward Smith with a dog. (AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise First-class cabin A computer-generated image shows the first-class accommodations that were available aboard the Titanic. The display can be seen at the newly opened Titanic Belfast attraction in Belfast, Northern Ireland. (AFP - Getty Images, New York Tim) Share Back to slideshow navigation Second-class cabin A video projection of passengers in a re-creation of a second-class cabin is displayed at Titanic Belfast. (Peter Macdiarmid / Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Related slideshow Titanic Belfast Third-class cabin A re-creation of a third-class cabin, complete with computer-video projections of passengers, is displayed at Titanic Belfast. (Peter Macdiarmid / Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise A grand entrance A replica of the grand staircase from the sunken Titanic is on exhibition April 2 at the Marina Bay Sands ArtScience Museum in Singapore. The exhibition features about 275 artifacts recovered from the Titanic. (Roslan Rahman / AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Exquisite detail The grand staircase between the boat deck and the promenade deck aboard the RMS Titanic in an undated photo. A replica of the Titanic's grand staircase was seen in James Cameron's 1997 movie, "Titanic." (The New York Times / Redux Pictures) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise A call for help A copy of the last message sent from the Titanic, which tells of passengers being put into lifeboats. (Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Saved Survivors of the sinking of the RMS Titanic approach the RMS Carpathia in this April 15, 1912, photo. The Carpathia rescued hundreds of Titanic passengers. (The New York Times / Redux Pictures) Share Back to slideshow navigation Related interactive Top 10 reasons for the Titanic tragedy Ferried to safety Lifeboats that carried Titanic survivors are uploaded to the RMS Carpathia in the hours after the disaster. (The New York Times / Redux Pictures) Share Back to slideshow navigation In the headlines The front page of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch on April 16, 1912, was devoted to the Titanic disaster. The paper gives the death toll as 1,302 and the number of survivors as 868. Later, official figures were corrected to 1,517 dead and 706 who survived. The main photograph is a montage, placing the Titanic against the Eads Bridge in St Louis, to give an idea of the ship's size. (Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation The aftermath A boat from the ship MacKay-Bennett examines an overturned lifeboat from the Titanic. (Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation An S.O.S.call Rescuers help Titanic radio operator Harold Bride off the Carpathia. Bride's S.O.S. call alerted rescuers to the Titanic's sinking. He stayed at his post until the captain released him as the boat deck started taking on water, according to Encyclopedia Titanica. He was washed overboard and made his way onto an overturned boat, but his feet were badly frozen and crushed. From the Carpathia, Bride continued to send messages and names of those saved to land. (Time Life Pictures / Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise Back home Survivors of the Titanic disaster are greeted by their relatives upon their safe return to Southampton, England. (Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Word of disaster spreads This handout picture received from Southampton City Council on April 4, 2012, shows a newsboy outside White Star Line offices in London after the news of the sinking of the Titanic hit in 1912. (AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise Hometown tragedy The names of those killed in the sinking of the Titanic are posted outside the offices of White Star Line in Southampton, England, in 1912. Nowhere suffered as much from the sinking of the Titanic as Southampton, which lost 549 residents in the disaster. (AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise Those who died Coffins for the recovered bodies from the Titanic are seen in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1912. (Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise Those who survived Crew members who survived the sinking of the RMS Titanic are given dry clothing in New York on April 18, 1912. (The New York Times / Redux Pictures) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise Honoring the heroes This May 29, 1912, photograph shows Mrs. J.J. "Molly" Brown presenting an award to Capt. Arthur Henry Rostron for his service in the rescue of the passengers on Titanic. (Library Of Congress / AP) Share Back to slideshow navigation In Memoriam A commemorative illustration in honor of those who died in the Titanic disaster. (Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Salvaging a shipwreck This 1998 image provided by RMS Titanic, Inc., shows a 17-ton portion of the hull of the RMS Titanic as it is lifted to the surface during an expedition to the site of the shipwreck. The piece, along with 5,500 other artifacts, will be sold at auction as a single collection. (AP) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise At the bottom of the sea Visitors look at a projection showing images of the wreck of the Titanic on March 27 at Titanic Belfast in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Beginning on the 100th anniversary of the sinking, the remains of the Titanic will be covered by a 2001 U.N. convention on the protection of underwater cultural heritage. (Peter Macdiarmid / Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Related video High-tech sub reveals 3-D images of Titanic From the depths Two children look down on March 27, 2012, at an image of the Titanic wreck in the Titanic Belfast visitor center. (Peter Muhly / AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Titanic treasures One of two name boards from a lifeboat on the RMS Titanic is displayed at a 2006 auction at Christie's in New York City. Thousands of artifacts that have been recovered from the wreckage continue to be auctioned off to mark this year's 100th anniversary of the ship's sinking. (Spencer Platt / Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Related video Titanic artifacts on auction block When time stood still The pocket watch belonging to Titanic steward Sidney Sedunary, which has stopped at 1:50, roughly 30 minutes before the Titanic sank, is seen on display April 3, 2012, at the SeaCity Museum in Southampton, England. The watch was found in Sedunary's pocket when his body was recovered a few days after the ship sank. (Justin Tallis / AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation The company The White Star Line logo is seen on a bowl recovered from the Titanic wreck site at the opening of a new exhibition called "The Titanic and Liverpool, the untold story" March 29, 2012, at the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool, England. (Phil Noble / Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation From the Titanic to the auction block A locket belonging to Edward Herbert Keeping, a personal valet who died on the Titanic, is an item with direct ties to the Titanic being auctioned by rrauction.com. The locket was officially recorded by the provincial coroner of Nova Scotia before it was returned to Keeping's wife, and is contained in the record of bodies and effects: passengers and crew of S.S. Titanic in the public archives of Nova Scotia. Keeping’s wife replaced her daughter’s water damaged portrait with one of her husband's and the locket has remained in Keeping’s family continuously until the present. (Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise Titanic memorabilia A prop life vest, deck chair and bronze ship's bell appear on display April 6, 2012, in New York, along with other Titanic memorabilia to be auctioned off. (Frank Franklin Ii / AP) Share Back to slideshow navigation Among items recovered... A pair of shoes recovered from the Titanic is seen April 2, 2012, at an exhibition at Marina Bay Sands ArtScience Museum in Singapore. (Roslan Rahman / AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Advertise A lost child A child's shoes believed to be from the body of an unknown boy and recovered by the crew of the Mackay-Bennett, a cable-laying ship chartered by the White Star Line after the Titanic disaster, are seen Jan. 27, 2012, in the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax, Nova Scotia. (Paul Darrow / Reuters) Share Back to slideshow navigation Remembering those onboard School children in Southampton, England, carry placards featuring each of the victims of the Titanic disaster through the city's center on April 10, 2012. The ill-fated ship set sail on her maiden voyage 100 years ago from Southampton. Reports state that a minute's silence was observed in the city, which had been home to more than 500 of the crew who perished in the disaster. (Chris Ison / EPA) Share Back to slideshow navigation In loving memory A wreath floats in berths 43/44 from where the RMS Titanic set sail on its ill-fated maiden voyage 100 years ago at a Southampton, England, dock during an April 10, 2012, ceremony where descendants of passengers who sailed on the Titanic paid tribute to those who lost their lives. (Ben Stansall / AFP - Getty Images) Share Back to slideshow navigation Editor's note:	i don't know
Which county shares borders with Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire?	Bedfordshire Map - Detailed Road Map of Bedfordshire Bedfordshire Map Bedfordshire map, view the English county of Bedfordshire and its many towns and villages. Detailed Road Map of Bedfordshire Bedfordshire Map: An interactive Bedfordshire map, displaying the county in England, United Kingdom. Use controls for a detailed road map of Bedfordshire. The major towns featured on this Bedfordshire map include Bedford , Kempston, Luton , Sandy, Biggleswade, Dunstable, Leighton Buzzard and Houghton Regis. A historic county of England, Bedfordshire has an area of 477 square miles and a population of around 600,000, it borders Cambridgeshire , Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire and Hertfordshire. Bedfordshire attractions include Dunstable Downs, Bedford Castle, Woburn Abbey, Woburn Safari Park, Whipsnade Zoo, Luton Hoo, Someries Castle, Houghton House, and the Imperial War Museum Duxford. Bedfordshire Towns: Leighton Buzzard - Located in the county of Bedfordshire, the small town of Leighton Buzzard has a population of just under 40,000 and a history going back to Roman times, when the ancient Watling Street (now the A-5) passed by the town. For readers interested in this area we have put in a brief history of Leighton Buzzard and also a handy Leighton Buzzard Map which can be used to find your way around the area. Ampthill Bedfordshire: A small town of almost 7,000 people, Ampthill in Bedfordshire dates from Anglo-Saxon times and is perhaps best known for its weekly market which has been held since the early thirteenth century. Ampthill Map . Sandy - A small Bedfordshire market town situated between Bedford and Cambridge, Sandy has a population of about 11,000, it lies on the River Ivel. Recorded in the Domesday Book, Sandy was settled long before this, and was a significant settlement during the Roman occupation of Britain. Luton - A large town located in the county of Bedfordshire, Luton is famous for its hats, its football team and the production of Vauxhall motor cars. With its population of over 200,000, Luton is located around 32 miles from London and can be accessed from the M1 motorway. Luton Bedfordshire Map . Bedford - The county town of Bedfordshire, Bedford was the burial place of King Offa of Mercia in the 8th century. Bedford stands on the River Great Ouse. Bedford Map . Dunstable - Originating from a Roman posting station on the A5 (Watling Street), Dunstable is located near to Luton in Bedfordshire. Dunstable Map . Houghton Regis - Close to and even older than Dunstable, Houghton Regis was listed as Houstone in the Domesday Book, the village expanded due to "overspill" in the 50's and 60's. Houghton Regis Map . Toddington - A sizeable village to the north-west of Luton in Bedfordshire, Toddington is built around its large village green. Toddington Bedfordshire Map .	Cambridgeshire
Which 20th century novel is subtitled 'The Sacred And Profound Memories Of Captain Charles Ryder'?	The Counties of England \| English County Guide County of Bedfordshire Tourism Website Districts: Bedford, Central Bedfordhsire, Luton Where is Bedfordshire? Bedfordshire borders Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Northamptonshire to the north, Buckinghamshire to the west and Hertfordshire to the south-east. County of Berkshire Tourism Website Districts: West Berkshire, Reading, Wokingham, Bracknell Forest, Windsor and Maidenhead, Slough Where is Berkshire? Berkshire borders Greater London to the East, Buckinghamshire & Oxfordshire to the North, Wiltshire to the West, and Hampshire & Surrey to the SOuth. The royal residence of Windsor Castle is in Berkshire. City of Bristol Tourism Website Districts: Bristol Where is Bristol? Bristol is sandwiched between Gloucestershire to the north and Somerset to the south. Built around the River Avon, the city of Bristol is the most populous city in South West England. County of Buckinghamshire Tourism Website Districts: South Bucks, Chiltern, Wycombe, Aylesbury Vale, Borough of Milton Keynes Where is Buckinghamshire? Buckinghamshire borders 6 counties including Greater London to the south-east, Hertfordshire to the east, and Oxfordshire to the west. County of Cambridgeshire Tourism Website Districts: Cambridge, South Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Fenland, East Cambridgeshire, Peterborough Where is Cambridgeshire? Cambridgeshire lies directly west of Norfolk and Suffolk and has a northen border with Lincolnshire. Cambridgeshire is home to the famous university and the magnificent Ely cathedral. County of Cheshire Tourism Website Districts: Cheshire West & Chester, Cheshire East, Warrington, Halton Where is Cheshire? Cheshire borders Wales to the east and Liverpool & Manchester to the North. Cheshire boasts the beautiful city of Chester, not to mention some very famous cheese. City of London Tourism Website Districts: London postcodes of EC, WC & E1 Where is the City of London? The Square Mile or City of London is in the middle of Greater London on the north side of the Thames between the boroughs of Westminster and Tower hamlets. It is England's smallest ceremonial county. County of Cornwall Tourism Website Districts: Cornwall, Isles of Scilly Where is Cornwall? With Devon to its east, Cornwall is in the far south western corner of the UK and has the longest stretch of continuous coastline in Britain. County of Cumbria Tourism Website Districts: Borough of Barrow-in-Furness, District of South Lakeland, Borough of Copeland, Borough of Allerdale, District of Eden, City of Carlisle Where is Cumbria? Cumbria is in the furthest north western corner of England, with the Scottish Border to the north and the Irish Sea to the west. Cumbria is predominantly rural and includes the Lake District, considered one of England's most outstanding areas of natural beauty. County of Derbyshire Tourism Website Districts: High Peak, Derbyshire Dales, South Derbyshire, Erewash, Amber Valley, North East Derbyshire, Chesterfield, Bolsover, Derby Where is Derbyshire? Derbyshire borders Yorshire to the north, Nottinghamshire to the east, and Staffordshire to the south-west. Derbyshire & the Peak District offers a spectacular landscape in one of the most beautiful & inspiring parts of the British Isles. County of Devon Tourism Website Districts: Exeter, East Devon, Mid Devon, North Devon, Torridge, West Devon, South Hams, Teignbridge, Plymouth, Torbay Where is Devon? Situated between Cornwall to the west and Somerset to the east, Devon is one of the largest English counties and boasts rolling countryside, beautiful beaches and hundreds of events & activities. County of Dorset Tourism Website Districts: Weymouth and Portland, West Dorset, North Dorset, Purbeck, East Dorset, Christchurch, Bournemouth, Poole Where is Dorset? With the English Channel to the south, Dorset's northern borders are with Somerset, Wilshire & Hampshire. Dorset's charming countryside and breathtaking views has been designated as an ï¿½Area of Outstanding Natural Beautyï¿½. County of Durham Tourism Website Districts: County Durham, Hartlepool, Darlington, Stockton-on-Tees Where is Durham? County Durham is a north eastern county of England, bordered by North Yorkshire to the south and Northumberland to the north. County of Yorkshire Tourism Website Districts: East Riding of Yorkshire, Kingston upon Hull Where is the East Riding of Yorkshire? East Riding of Yorkshire is borderd by North & South Yorkshire and also the River Humber along its southern edge. Its county town is Beverley. County of East Sussex Tourism Website Districts: Hastings, Rother, Wealden, Eastbourne, Lewes, Brighton & Hove Where is East Sussex? The county of East Sussex is bordered by its western namesake to the west and Kent to the north & east. County of Essex Tourism Website Districts: Harlow, Epping Forest, Brentwood, Basildon, Castle Point, Rochford, Maldon, Chelmsford, Uttlesford, Braintree, Colchester, Tendring, Thurrock, Southend-on-Sea Where is Essex? Essex is an eastern county of England located to the northwest of London. It's bordered by Cambridge & Suffolk to the north and Hertfordshire to the west. The county town of Essex is Chelmsford. County of Gloucestershire Tourism Website Districts: Gloucester, Tewkesbury, Cheltenham, Cotswold, Stroud, Forest of Dean, South Gloucestershire Where is Gloucestershire? Gloucestershire is a western county of England bordering Herefordhsire & wales to the west and Somerset & Wiltshire to the south. Its county town is the city of Gloucester. Greater London Tourism Website Districts: The 32 London boroughs Where is Greater London? Greater London is in south east England and is surrounded by the Home Counties of Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, Essex, Berkshire, Surrey, & Kent. County of Manchester Tourism Website Districts: Manchester, Stockport, Tameside, Oldham, Rochdale, Bury, Bolton, Wigan, Salford, Trafford Where is Greater Manchester? Greater Manchester borders Lancashire & West Yorkshire to the north, and Cheshire & Derbyshire to the south. County of Hampshire Tourism Website Districts: Gosport, Fareham, Winchester, Havant, East Hampshire, Hart, Rushmoor, Basingstoke and Deane, Test Valley, Eastleigh, New Forest, Southampton, Portsmouth Where is Hampshire? Hampshire borders Sussex & Dorset to its East & West, and Wiltshire, Berkshire & Surrey along its northern edges. County of Herefordshire Tourism Website Districts: Herefordshire Where is Herefordshire? Herefordshire is sandwiched between Herefordhsire to the east and the Welsh border to the west. County of Hertfordshire Tourism Website Districts: Three Rivers, Watford, Hertsmere, Welwyn Hatfield, Broxbourne, East Hertfordshire, Stevenage, North Hertfordshire, St Albans, Dacorum Where is Hertfordshire? Hertfordshire is one of the home counties and is bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west, and Greater London to the south. Isle of White Tourism Website Districts: Isle of Wight Where is the Isle of Wight? The Isle of Wight is located in the English Channel about 4 miles south of the Hampshire coastline County of Kent Tourism Website Districts: Sevenoaks, Dartford, Gravesham, Tonbridge and Malling, Medway, Maidstone, Tunbridge Wells, Swale, Ashford, Canterbury, Shepway, Thanet, Dover Where is Kent? Kent is located in the far south east corner of England and borders Essex & London to the north, and Surrey & East Sussex to the west & south. To the southeast it also has a border with France which is halfway along the Channel Tunnel.> County of Lancashire Tourism Website Districts: West Lancashire, Chorley, South Ribble, Fylde, Preston, Wyre, Lancaster, Ribble Valley, Pendle, Burnley, Rossendale, Hyndburn, Blackpool, Blackburn with Darwen Where is Lancashire? Lancashire borders Greater Manchester to the south, Cumbria to the north and North yorkshire to the east. County of Leicestershire Tourism Website Districts: Charnwood, Melton, Harborough, Oadby and Wigston, Blaby, Hinckley and Bosworth, North West Leicestershire, Leicester Where is Leicestershire? Leicestershire is in the very heart of England and borders no fewer than 7 counties inlcuding Nottinghamshire to the north and Northants to the south. County of Lincolnshire Tourism Website Districts: Lincoln, North Kesteven, South Kesteven, South Holland, Boston, East Lindsey, West Lindsey, North Lincolnshire, North East, Lincolnshire Where is Lincolnshire? Lincolnshire is on the East coast of England with the Humber and the Wash forming part of its northern and southern boundaries respectively. County of Merseyside Tourism Website Districts: Liverpool, Sefton, Knowsley, St Helens, Wirral Where is Merseyside? Merseyside is on the West coast of England surrounded by the counties of of Lancashire, Greater Manchester & Cheshire. Districts: Norwich, South Norfolk, Great Yarmouth, Broadland, North Norfolk, King's Lynn and West Norfolk, Breckland Where is Norfolk? Norfolk borders Suffolk to the south and Lincolnshire & Cambridgeshire to the west. County of North Yorkshire Tourism Website Districts: Selby, Borough of Harrogate, Craven, Richmondshire, Hambleton, Ryedale, Borough of Scarborough, City of York, Redcar and Cleveland, Middlesbrough, Stockton-on-Tees south of the Tees) Where is North Yorkshire? North Yorkshire is a large county in the north of England stretching almost from coast to coast. County of Northamptonshire Tourism Website Districts: South Northamptonshire, Northampton, Daventry, Wellingborough, Kettering, Corby, East Northamptonshire Where is Northamptonshire? Northamptonshire is in the East Midlands region and is bordered by eight other counties including Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Cambridgeshire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire & Lincolnshire. County of Northumberland Tourism Website Districts: Northumberland Where is Northumberland? Northumberland is the northernmost county, bordering Cumbria to the west & County Durham to the south. County of Nottinghamshire Tourism Website Districts: Rushcliffe, Broxtowe, Ashfield, Gedling, Newark and Sherwood, Mansfield, Bassetlaw, Nottingham Where is Nottinghamshire? Nottinghamshire is the northernmost county, bordering Cumbria to the west & County Durham to the south. County of Oxfordshire Tourism Website Districts: Oxford, Cherwell, South Oxfordshire, Vale of White Horse, West Oxfordshire Where is Oxfordshire? Oxfordshire is in the South/Central region of England and borders Warwickshire & Northamptonshire to the north, Buckinghamshire to the east, Berkshire to the south, and Gloucestershire & Wiltshire to the west. County of Rutland Tourism Website Districts: Rutland Where is Rutland? Rutland is a small landlocked county of central England bordered by Leicestershire & Lincolnshire to the north and Northamptonshire & Cambridge to the south. County of Shropshire Tourism Website Districts: Shropshire, Telford and Wrekin Where is Shropshire? Shropshire is a county in the West Midlands region of England bordering Wales to the west. County of Somerset Tourism Website Districts: South Somerset, Taunton Deane, West Somerset, Sedgemoor, Mendip, Bath and North East Somerset, North Somerset Where is Somerset? Somerset is a county in South West England bordering Bristol & Gloucestershire to the north, Wiltshire to the east, Dorset to the south, and Devon to the west. County of Yorkshire Tourism Website Districts: Sheffield, Rotherham, Doncaster, Barnsley Where is South Yorkshire? South Yorkshire is a county in central northern England, bordered by the rest of Yorkshire to the north and Derby, Nottinghamshire & Lincolnshire to the south. County of Staffordshire Tourism Website Districts: Tamworth, Lichfield, Cannock Chase, South Staffordshire, Stafford, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire Moorlands, East Staffordshire, Stoke-on-Trent Where is Staffordshire? Staffordshire is a county in central northern England, bordered by the rest of Yorkshire to the north and Derby, Nottinghamshire & Lincolnshire to the south. County of Suffolk Tourism Website Districts: Ipswich, Suffolk Coastal, Waveney, Mid Suffolk, Babergh, St Edmundsbury, Forest Heath Where is Suffolk? Suffolk is a county in East Anglia and borders Norfolk to the north, The North Sea to the east, Cambridgeshire to the west and Essex to the south. County of Surrey Tourism Website Districts: Spelthorne, Runnymede, Surrey Heath, Woking, Elmbridge, Guildford, Waverley, Mole Valley, Epsom and Ewell, Reigate and Banstead, Tandridge Where is Surrey? Surrey is one of the Home Counties and borders Greater London & Berkshire to the north, Kent to the east, East & West Sussex to the south, and Hampshire to the west. County of Tyne & Wear Tourism Website Districts: Gateshead, Newcastle upon Tyne, North Tyneside, South Tyneside, Sunderland Where is Tyne and Wear? Tyne and Wear Tyne is a county which borders Northumberland to the north, the North Sea to the east, and Durham to the south. County of Warwickshire Tourism Website Districts: North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Bedworth, Rugby, Stratford-on-Avon, Warwick Where is Warwickshire? Warwickshire is a county in the West Midlands region of England bordered by Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire & Staffordshire. County of West Midlands Tourism Website Districts: City of Wolverhampton, Dudley, Walsall, Sandwell, City of Birmingham, Solihull, City of Coventry Where is West Midlands? West Midlands borders Shropshire & Staffordshire to the north and Worcestershire & warwickshire to the south. County of Sussex Tourism Website Districts: Worthing, Arun, Chichester, Horsham, Crawley, Mid Sussex, Adur Where is West Sussex? West Sussex is a coastal county of southern England, bordering Surrey to the north, East Sussex to the south, & Hampshire to the west.	i don't know
Which country was created from the counties of Schellenberg and Vaduz in 1699?	Kingdoms of Germany - Liechtenstein Francis William Maximilian Charles Posthumous Died 1759. 1699 & 1712 The principality's territory passes to the Liechtensteins when Johann Adam I of that house is allowed to purchase from the Hohenems the tiny herrschaft ('lordship' in English) of Schellenberg in 1699 and the county of Vaduz in 1712. These two purchases are vital for Johann in that they are without any feudal lord other than their comital sovereign and suzerain emperor, so enabling his house the chance of finally acquiring a seat in the Holy Roman empire's diet (parliament). The Hohenems-Vaduz house itself continues to exist without any power until the branch becomes extinct in 1766. The principality is now a possession of the House of Liechtenstein . Principality of Liechtenstein AD 1712 - Present Day Generally speaking in reference to Continental Europe, only the north and also the north-western edges have retained older forms of government. Even so, these offer all of the freedoms and liberties available to any other European, which is probably the main reason for their survival. The principality of Liechtenstein is certainly a survivor from an age of pocket territories that emerged from the gradual decline of the Holy Roman empire, and is unusual in being located a little more centrally than most surviving hereditary states. It is fully landlocked, lying in central western Europe's Upper Rhine Valley, with Germany to the north, Austria to the east, Italy to the south, and Switzerland to the west. The principality's territory was initially part of the Roman province of Raetia. It remained an obscure and unimportant part of Austrasia and Swabia until it was formed into a small state (just 167 square kilometres or 62 square miles of mostly mountainous terrain) by the Holy Roman empire in the thirteenth century, during the collapse of East Francia . It is made up of two medieval lordships: Vaduz and Schellenberg, with the latter being a family of ancient Bohemian extraction. The territory remained a lowly county for well over three hundred years before being elevated to a principality in 1608. Then Prince John Adam I of Liechtenstein acquired the two Hohenem family titles of Schellenberg (in 1699) and Vaduz (in 1712). His successor was granted these territories as an hereditary and sovereign principality in 1719, and the state was renamed after the new ruling house. It has so far outlived its founder by well over three hundred years. By 2008, this constitutional monarchy had a population of just 34,247 subjects, but the head of state, Prince Alois, acting as regent for Hans-Adam II, had more power than most surviving monarchs, being able to sack his government if he wished. The country was by now famous for its banks, reputedly being one of the most secretive tax havens in the world. It was also one of the richest, and had a monetary union with Switzerland. (Additional information from Liechtenstein: A Modern History, David Beattie (2004), from Secrets of the Seven Smallest States of Europe, Thomas Eccardt (2005), and from External Links: World Bank Data Catalogue (in US English), and BBC News : Nazi Crimes Taint Liechtenstein, and BBC Country Profiles , and also The Princely House of Liechtenstein .) 1699 / 1712 John Adam I is a descendant of Prince Karl I of Liechtenstein. Karl had been raised the the rank of a prince of the empire in 1608, which position he had retained until his death in 1627. He had been succeeded, in turn by his son, Karl Eusebius I (1627-1684), and then by Karl's son Johann Adam I (1684-1712). Johann Adam completes the purchase of the lordship of Schellenberg in 1699 and the county of Vaduz in 1712, just months before his death. John Adam I was the third prince of the House of Liechtenstein and the first to secure lands adjoining Switzerland that would become a refuge for the family following the collapse of the Austrian empire 1699 / 1712 Johann Adam I / 'Hans-Adam the Rich' Died after completing the purchase of the principality's lands. 1712 - 1718 Heir to Johann Adam who left no surviving male heir himself. 1712 - 1721 Uncle. Confirmed as Prince of Liechtenstein (1719). Died. 1719 On 23 January Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI decrees that Schellenberg and Vaduz are united as a one. The ruler of the new territory is elevated to the rank of prince of the Holy Roman empire, precisely the outcome that Hans-Adam had been working towards. 1721 - 1732 Field Marshal in the Austrian army. 1806 - 1813 The French under Napoleon Bonaparte invade the Holy Roman empire, terminating its existence. Liechtenstein becomes a member of the French-controlled Confederation of the Rhine until its dissolution in 1813. Two years later, the Austrian -presided German Confederation performs much the same role, with the principality once again a member. 1818 Prince John I grants the principality a limited constitution in the same year that his son, Aloysius, becomes the first member of the House of Liechtenstein to set foot in the principality itself rather than governing from a distance - their main seat being at Liechtenstein Castle in Lower Austria . The principality becomes a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament, but not until 1921. 1836 - 1858 Son. 1848 - 1852 In a year of European revolutions in 1848 ( France , Ireland , Lombardy-Ventia , and Wallachia also experience problems), and subsequent to the February Revolution in Paris, liberal tendencies begin to be felt in Liechtenstein. The population demands a liberal constitution in a petition that is addressed to the prince. In his first response, Alois II revokes various duties and feudal taxes and on 7 March 1849 he issues a series of dispositions, enabling the people to take an active part in the configuration of political life. In 1852, after the failure of the French revolution, he revokes all of these regulations, but the final step towards a new constitution after his death in 1858 is not very far away. 1858 - 1929 Son. Remained unmarried and rather anti-social. 1866 Prussia fights the Austro-Prussian War against Austria , essentially as a decider to see which of the two powers will be dominant in Central Europe. Prussia gains the newly-created kingdom of Italy as an ally in the south and several minor German states in the north. Austria and its southern German allies are crushed in just seven weeks (giving the conflict its alternative title of the Seven Weeks' War), and Prussia is now unquestionably dominant. Austria's slow-moving forces were outpaced by Prussia's fully modern army during the Austro-Prussian War, which decided the power balance in Central Europe, as shown in this oil by Georg Bleibtreu 1868 With Austria 's defeat and the end of the German Confederation, the principality is freed from the obligation to maintain a standing army for external service. Its army is disbanded for financial reasons, although the principality is still tied strongly to the Austrian empire. To date the principality has not resurrected any military forces. 1918 The Austro - Hungarian empire is fast failing in the last weeks of the First World War. Realising the inevitability of the break-up of the empire, on 16 October the emperor issues a manifesto to his people that, in effect, transfers the state into a federation of nationalities. He is too late. The Austrian empire soon ceases to exist and Germany now stands alone. Liechtenstein is forced to refocus its own priorities, and soon signs a customs and monetary union with Switzerland . 1929 - 1938 Brother. Died without producing an heir. 1938 - 1989 Francis Joseph / Franz Josef II First cousin twice removed. Born 1906, son of Prince Alois. 1939 - 1945 Liechtenstein's Second World War is a relatively quiet one. It remains neutral alongside its immediate neighbour, Switzerland . However, Jewish slave labourers are alleged to work on Austrian estates that are owned by Liechtenstein's royal family during the war, according to an official report that is delivered in 2005 after four years of preparation. The same report alleges that the royal family also buys property that has been taken from Jews in Nazi-occupied Austria and Czechoslovakia , although in the latter country all of its holdings and possessions are seized by the state at the end of the war, with the same happening to its Polish holdings. But the Alpine principality is not responsible for trading in gold or other valuables that have been looted from Jews. Investigations reveal that neighbouring Switzerland sends thousands of Jewish refugees back to Nazi-occupied Europe and that Swiss companies trade with Nazi Germany . Liechtenstein takes in about four hundred refugees from Nazi-controlled Austria between 1933 and 1945 and turns back a further 165. No works of art that have been plundered by the Nazis can be traced to Liechtenstein collections. 1989 - Present Son. Born 1945. 2000 The principality's status comes under the spotlight when two international reports criticise it for lax financial controls. The reports say that Liechtenstein's banking system has enabled gangs from Russia , Italy , and Colombia to launder money from their criminal activities. 2004 - Present Son and regent. Born 1968. 2008 When international recession takes hold, governments that are being affected by plummeting tax incomes become determined to flush out assets that have been hidden in tax havens, and Liechtenstein comes under considerable pressure to apply greater banking transparency. Stung by the criticism, the principality gradually reforms some of its laws. It reaches tax agreements with several countries - including Germany , the UK and the US - aimed at encouraging the citizens of these countries to come clean about any assets they may have in Liechtenstein's banks.	Liechtenstein
Which 17th century allegorical novel is subtitled 'From This World To That Which Is To Come'?	Europe Missions :: Liechtenstein Liechtenstein History The country of Liechtenstein was officially formed in 1719, when the counties of Vaduz and Schellenberg consolidated under the house of Liechtenstein. Over the next two centuries, Liechtenstein allied itself with the powerful Habsburg monarchy in Austria. After World War I, the Habsburg monarchy was abolished and Liechtenstein formed a connection with Switzerland that continues today. Prince Franz Joseph II became the sovereign ruler of Liechtenstein in 1938. His son, Hans Adam II succeeded him in 1989. Today, two political parties share governing rights in Liechtenstein, even though Switzerland has diplomatically represented it since 1919. Foreign workers comprise nearly one third of the population. Religion Roman Catholics make up about 80 percent of the population, while Protestants comprise only about seven percent. Unfortunately, the Assemblies of God has no presence in Liechtenstein. Additional Facts About Liechtenstein Languages: German (official) and Alemmanic dialect Agriculture: Grains, corn and potatoes Industry: Precision instruments, electronics, textiles and ceramics	i don't know
Which African capital city was formerly known as Christopolis?	History - Monrovia Monrovia History European exploration of the coast of present-day Liberia began in 1461 with the arrival of the Portuguese navigator Pedro de Sintra. He was followed by other Portuguese explorers, who named Cape Mesurado and other geographical features of the area, which became known as the Grain Coast. By the early nineteenth century, anti-slavery sentiment was growing in the United States, and one proposed solution to the problem of accommodating freed slaves was resettlement in Africa. In 1818 representatives of the American Colonization Society, a private U.S. organization, made a trip to the Grain Coast to assess the area. Three years later the society acquired settlement rights for Cape Mesurado through agreements signed with local chieftains. These efforts were aided by the U.S. government under President James Monroe, after whom Monrovia was later named (its original name was Christopolis). The first settlers arrived in 1822, settling on Providence Island. In spite of the formal agreement, the settlers were attacked by local tribes but managed to survive. City Fact Comparison Date the city was founded 1822 Daily costs to visit the city2 Hotel (single occupancy) Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) $14 Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) $202 Number of newspapers serving the city 6 Date largest newspaper was established 1981 1948 1United Nations population estimates for the year 2000. 2The maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. Under the leadership of another American, Jehudi Ashmun, Liberia's first governmental and economic institutions were formed, and additional settlements were begun in nearby coastal areas. Liberia's first governor was appointed in 1839, and the territory proclaimed its independence in 1847. A constitution based on that of the United States was adopted, and during the following decade the new Monrovia was named after the fifth U.S. president James Monroe (1758–1831; president 1817–25). () nation was recognized by most of the world's major powers. A large loan from Britain, necessitated by the withdrawal of aid from American colonization societies following Liberian independence, plunged the new nation into debt later in the century. Unable to meet its obligations, the nation was forced to borrow yet more money; its foreign debt was not paid off until 1952. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, border disputes erupted with the French in neighboring Cote d'Ivoire and the British in Sierra Leone. Early twentieth-century events in Liberia included the establishment of a rubber plantation near Monrovia by the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in 1926 and, a few years later, the resignation of the national government following a scandal over the shipment of African laborers to Fernando Po (in present-day Equatorial Guinea). During World War II (1939–45), Liberia joined the Allies in declaring war on Germany and Japan. As the result of a defense agreement signed with the United States in 1942, an international airport and deepwater harbor were constructed in Monrovia by 1948. In 1964 the free port of Monrovia was placed for the first time under the jurisdiction of the Liberian government. In spite of the economic progress spurred by Monrovia's growing importance as an international port city, Liberia fell prey to economic troubles in the 1960s and 1970s, as the world market for its major exports declined. The economic situation and continuing tensions between the coastal elite, mostly descended from ex-slaves, and the tribal population in the interior of the country, led to the overthrow of the democratically elected government of President William R. Tolbert in 1980 in a military coup led by Samuel K. Doe (1951–90), who ruled Liberia for ten years until civil war erupted in 1989 when rebels under the leadership of Charles Taylor invaded Liberia from Cote d'Ivoire. President Doe, who had barricaded himself in the presidential mansion, was killed, together with many of his supporters, in 1990, after which Monrovia was torn between the remnants of Doe's army and breakaway rebel forces led by Prince Johnson, a former associate of Taylor. Taylor's forces ultimately seized control of about 90 percent of the country and stormed Monrovia in 1992, after which an international peacekeeping force known as ECOMOG (the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group) was stationed in the country. A series of temporary UN-sponsored peace agreements temporarily halted the fighting, and a permanent agreement was A monument dedicated to the first settlers of 1822. () reached in 1996, followed by elections the following year, with Charles Taylor and the National Patriotic Party winning some 75 percent of the vote. Since the area around the capital was the major contested territory during the war, it suffered the greatest damage—to infrastructure and industry. In the late 1990s, however, life in Monrovia was beginning to return to normal, although fears of future violence were raised when ECOMOG troops withdrew in early 1998. As many of the refugees who had fled to neighboring countries poured back into the country, both Liberians and the international community hoped that rebuilding efforts could be undertaken without further bloodshed and brutality. Copyright © 2008 - Advameg Inc.	Monrovia
In which country is the Rugby Union World Cup due to be held in 2011?	History - Monrovia Monrovia History European exploration of the coast of present-day Liberia began in 1461 with the arrival of the Portuguese navigator Pedro de Sintra. He was followed by other Portuguese explorers, who named Cape Mesurado and other geographical features of the area, which became known as the Grain Coast. By the early nineteenth century, anti-slavery sentiment was growing in the United States, and one proposed solution to the problem of accommodating freed slaves was resettlement in Africa. In 1818 representatives of the American Colonization Society, a private U.S. organization, made a trip to the Grain Coast to assess the area. Three years later the society acquired settlement rights for Cape Mesurado through agreements signed with local chieftains. These efforts were aided by the U.S. government under President James Monroe, after whom Monrovia was later named (its original name was Christopolis). The first settlers arrived in 1822, settling on Providence Island. In spite of the formal agreement, the settlers were attacked by local tribes but managed to survive. City Fact Comparison Date the city was founded 1822 Daily costs to visit the city2 Hotel (single occupancy) Incidentals (laundry, dry cleaning, etc.) $14 Total daily costs (hotel, meals, incidentals) $202 Number of newspapers serving the city 6 Date largest newspaper was established 1981 1948 1United Nations population estimates for the year 2000. 2The maximum amount the U.S. Government reimburses its employees for business travel. The lodging portion of the allowance is based on the cost for a single room at a moderately-priced hotel. The meal portion is based on the costs of an average breakfast, lunch, and dinner including taxes, service charges, and customary tips. Incidental travel expenses include such things as laundry and dry cleaning. 3David Maddux, ed. Editor&Publisher International Year Book. New York: The Editor&Publisher Company, 1999. Under the leadership of another American, Jehudi Ashmun, Liberia's first governmental and economic institutions were formed, and additional settlements were begun in nearby coastal areas. Liberia's first governor was appointed in 1839, and the territory proclaimed its independence in 1847. A constitution based on that of the United States was adopted, and during the following decade the new Monrovia was named after the fifth U.S. president James Monroe (1758–1831; president 1817–25). () nation was recognized by most of the world's major powers. A large loan from Britain, necessitated by the withdrawal of aid from American colonization societies following Liberian independence, plunged the new nation into debt later in the century. Unable to meet its obligations, the nation was forced to borrow yet more money; its foreign debt was not paid off until 1952. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, border disputes erupted with the French in neighboring Cote d'Ivoire and the British in Sierra Leone. Early twentieth-century events in Liberia included the establishment of a rubber plantation near Monrovia by the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company in 1926 and, a few years later, the resignation of the national government following a scandal over the shipment of African laborers to Fernando Po (in present-day Equatorial Guinea). During World War II (1939–45), Liberia joined the Allies in declaring war on Germany and Japan. As the result of a defense agreement signed with the United States in 1942, an international airport and deepwater harbor were constructed in Monrovia by 1948. In 1964 the free port of Monrovia was placed for the first time under the jurisdiction of the Liberian government. In spite of the economic progress spurred by Monrovia's growing importance as an international port city, Liberia fell prey to economic troubles in the 1960s and 1970s, as the world market for its major exports declined. The economic situation and continuing tensions between the coastal elite, mostly descended from ex-slaves, and the tribal population in the interior of the country, led to the overthrow of the democratically elected government of President William R. Tolbert in 1980 in a military coup led by Samuel K. Doe (1951–90), who ruled Liberia for ten years until civil war erupted in 1989 when rebels under the leadership of Charles Taylor invaded Liberia from Cote d'Ivoire. President Doe, who had barricaded himself in the presidential mansion, was killed, together with many of his supporters, in 1990, after which Monrovia was torn between the remnants of Doe's army and breakaway rebel forces led by Prince Johnson, a former associate of Taylor. Taylor's forces ultimately seized control of about 90 percent of the country and stormed Monrovia in 1992, after which an international peacekeeping force known as ECOMOG (the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group) was stationed in the country. A series of temporary UN-sponsored peace agreements temporarily halted the fighting, and a permanent agreement was A monument dedicated to the first settlers of 1822. () reached in 1996, followed by elections the following year, with Charles Taylor and the National Patriotic Party winning some 75 percent of the vote. Since the area around the capital was the major contested territory during the war, it suffered the greatest damage—to infrastructure and industry. In the late 1990s, however, life in Monrovia was beginning to return to normal, although fears of future violence were raised when ECOMOG troops withdrew in early 1998. As many of the refugees who had fled to neighboring countries poured back into the country, both Liberians and the international community hoped that rebuilding efforts could be undertaken without further bloodshed and brutality. Copyright © 2008 - Advameg Inc.	i don't know
In which country is the Rugby League World Cup due to be held in 2013?	Four countries will host 2013 Rugby League World Cup matches - BBC Sport BBC Sport Four countries will host 2013 Rugby League World Cup matches 28 Nov 2011 From the section Rugby League Share this page Media playback is not supported on this device Rugby League World Cup 2013 will be shared by four countries - Nigel Wood The 2013 Rugby League World Cup will be held in four countries - England, Wales, Ireland and France. Eighteen stadiums will host matches, with the venues for the semi-finals and final announced in early 2012. Limerick (Ireland), Avignon and Perpignan (France), and Neath and Wrexham (Wales) are among the venues. "We are excited the tournament will visit established rugby league venues and also some new locations," said tournament director Nigel Wood. "It is quite well known that the sport is particularly strong in France, but not so much the progress it has made in Ireland over the last five years. "Limerick recently hosted an international against France and it went well - the enthusiasm for rugby league in that part of the world is overwhelming." New grounds at St Helens, Salford and Whitehaven will be used in England, but the Halton Stadium in Widnes will miss out because its synthetic pitch has not been sanctioned by the Rugby League International Federation. 2013 World Cup venues Avignon, Bristol, Halifax, Huddersfield, Hull (KC Stadium and Craven Park), Leeds, Leigh, Limerick, Perpignan, Neath, Rochdale, Salford, St Helens, Warrington, Whitehaven, Wigan, Wrexham The quarter-finals will be held at Headingley, Wrexham, Warrington and Wigan, and the tournament director said the bidding process had been competitive. "We experienced massive interest in hosting matches from all across Europe and we have had to make some tough decisions," said Wood. "The new locations give us unique opportunities to grow the game and deliver a lasting legacy for our sport. "It has been a fantastic and inspiring bidding process and we have been extremely impressed with the quality, detail and diverse nature of the host bids received." Bolton, Bradford, Manchester, Preston, Widnes and Workington will act as hosts, providing training camps. The tournament will consist of two pools of four and two of three. England have been drawn alongside Australia, Fiji and Ireland in Group A while holders New Zealand will face Papua New Guinea, Samoa and France in Group B. Scotland will face Tonga and Italy in Group C and Wales have been drawn against the Cook Islands and the USA in Group D. "There are 14 great nations competing in this World Cup and two of those - Italy and the USA - have only qualified in the last month or so," said Wood. "The fact those two teams beat countries like Lebanon, Serbia, South Africa and Jamaica to qualify demonstrates the benchmark at entry level is pretty high. "It is the essence of sport that you will get a few surprise results in the competition - that would be terrific." The final will be held on 30 November 2013, with Old Trafford tipped as the likely venue. Share this page	England
In astronomy, what term describes the point in the orbit of a planet or comet at which it is farthest from the Sun?	Why Some Nations Are Better At Rugby Than Others Why Some Nations Are Better at Rugby Than Others Or, why does New Zealand have the best rugby team in the world? Courtesy of Amazon.co.uk. Rugby Expert By Charles Dainoff The 2011 Rugby World Cup - the most important international tournament in the sport - is being held in New Zealand, an island nation in the South Pacific of around 4,000,000 people and a Gross Domestic Product that ranks near that of Belarus. New Zealand is, quite literally, 1,000 miles from anywhere (and by "anywhere," I mean "Australia", itself thousands of miles from Europe, Asia, or North America) and is almost comically difficult to get to. This is the second time New Zealand has hosted the event. Begging the question from the casual observer, "why?" Why does the International Rugby Board, the sport's ruling body, itself situated thousands of miles away in London, England , continually hold its signature event in places like New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and Wales? Why has the United States of America, or China, or Japan never even been seriously considered as an event host? Because when it comes to rugby, only a handful of nations - about 10, maybe 11 - are truly successful. continue reading below our video Greatest Quarterbacks of All Time? For the most part, those countries are England and former English colonies, with England's neighbor France being the only true exception. The Rugby World Cup, started in 1987, has been held in New Zealand (1987 and 2011), Australia (1987, 2003), England (1991), South Africa (1995), Wales (1999), and France (2007), with matches played in Ireland and Scotland in 1991, 1999, and 2007. This list of hosts, with the additions of Argentina and possibly Samoa, doubles as the list of dominant rugby nations in the world, the countries with the best national teams and the most vibrant professional and amateur leagues. These countries turn out the best rugby players in the world, and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Why Them and Not Us? So what, apart from the colonial thing, do these countries have in common that countries like the United States, or Japan, or Russia, or Germany do not? The short answer is "time." The rugby nations have, to put it bluntly, been playing rugby at a higher level for a lot longer than the second-tier nations. Rugby as a sport was basically invented in the 1820s. The first international rugby match was between England and Scotland in 1871. Ireland played its first international match four years later, followed by Wales in 1881, South Africa in 1891, Australia in 1899, New Zealand in 1903, France in 1906, and Argentina in 1910. These are the nine countries that were the first to play international matches, reflecting - at least to an extent - a level of commitment to the sport and a critical mass of players and teams all the more remarkable given how geographically remote some of these countries are. These nine countries also have the most victories in the Rugby World Cup, including all the championships. Even South Africa, whose teams were held out of the Cup for the first two tournaments for political reasons, is still fifth on the list of total wins and have won the Cup itself twice in the four tournaments in which they have competed. The list of the oldest national teams and the most successful national teams matches up almost exactly. Only the Pacific island nations of Samoa and Fiji, both of whom started playing internationally in 1924, have had any significant success in the Cup of the nations who started playing internationally after 1910. Why is Time So Important? Rugby is a deceptively subtle and complicated sport. Despite its public stereotype as a simple contest of brutes bashing into each other like bighorn rams during mating season, rugby actually has many nuances that can take years to learn. A good rugby player has to learn to make decisions quickly in a way that makes these decisions seem almost instinctive, and that sort of process takes a long time to sink in. It helps if, like with most activities, a person learns to play rugby as a very young child, when learning is easy and quick. And in order for a person to learn rugby as a very young child, there must an adult - several adults - there to teach them. And since rugby is a team sport, there must be several other children around to learn at the same time. And for that to happen, there needs to be a community in which rugby is popular enough that they have a league set up in which several teams of children can compete against each other. For such leagues to exist presupposes that the sport has a certain high level of popularity, and that there large numbers of people in the community who love rugby, play rugby, watch rugby, and want their children to play rugby as well. This sort of popularity takes decades to grow; if rugby started in the 1820s, that means there have been eight or nine generations' worth of Englishmen playing rugby. New Zealanders have been playing rugby longer than Americans have been playing football, or baseball, for that matter. And Americans have been playing rugby for a relatively short time, for the most part. Yes, a team of Americans did play its first international match in 1912, and yes, the Americans won the only gold medals in Olympic rugby in 1920 and 1924, but rugby is still a relatively new, relatively unpopular sport in America, and their RWC record reflects that: out of six appearances in the tournament, they have only managed three wins: two against Japan (16 years apart), and one in 2011 against Russia, who themselves only started playing internationally in 1992. The United States team will play their final match of the tournament against Italy, a nation that provides an excellent example of how slow national rugby growth can be. Italy played its first international match in 1929. They have appeared in every RWC, and have managed to win eight matches total (nine if they beat the United States), including victories against Fiji in 1987 and Argentina in 1995. Italy have spent the last 20 years or so slowly improving, joining the Five (now Six, obviously) Nations in tournament in 2000 to give their players better exposure to high-level competition. And it has paid off, to a limited extent. Italy has no chance of making the playoffs again in 2011, but, given 10 or 20 more years, they might be able to. At which point, they'll probably be knocked off in the quarter-finals, probably by somebody like Wales or South Africa. Such is the slow crawl of rugby time.	i don't know
In which town in Greater Manchester is the TV series 'Waterloo Road' set?	Rochdale Set - Waterloo Road TV \| No.1 site for the BBC Drama Waterloo Road TV \| No.1 site for the BBC Drama Contact Us Waterloo Road was originally filmed in Rochdale, Greater Manchester for the first seven series. We visited the set a couple of times during filming and got behind the scenes photos of the set, filming in action and met some of the cast. View everything from the Rochdale Set here. Filming in Action Outside the Set (We met some cast as well!) Untitled Document Copyright (c) 2011 WaterlooRoadTV.com. All rights reserved. Web Design Copyright (c) WaterlooRoadTV 2008. Waterloo Road and associated logos are trademarks of Shed Media and the BBC. All rights reserved. Copyright trademarks and other rights in the material from Shed Media and other services of Shed Media on this website are owned by Shed Media. All rights reserved. This website is neither owned nor operated by Shed Media or the BBC and it is not part of the official Waterloo Road website or any other service or website owned or operated by Shed Media. Shed Media or the BBC are not responsible for any content on this website and the views and opinions expressed herein are not necessarily the views and opinions of Shed Media or the BBC. ✕	Rochdale
In which part of a flower, found on top of a filament, is pollen contained?	Video: Waterloo Road favourites reunite for spin-off show - Manchester Evening News What's On Video: Waterloo Road favourites reunite for spin-off show Interest has never been higher in BBC drama Waterloo Road since its surprise Best Drama win at the National TV Awards last month. Now there are hopes that new spin-off series Waterloo Road Reunited can develop further. Share Tachia Newall, Lucy Dixon, Chelsee Healey and Lauren Thomas star in the new Waterloo Road show Share Get What's On updates directly to your inbox + Subscribe Thank you for subscribing! Could not subscribe, try again laterInvalid Email Ah, school reunions – where everyone gets to find out who has been the biggest success, and, ahem, biggest loser from their former classmates… Now BBC drama Waterloo Road has jumped on the reunion theme, producing a spin-off with a host of characters who’ve now left the Rochdale school. Interest has never been higher in the series since its surprise Best Drama win at the National TV Awards last month and there are hopes that the new Waterloo Road Reunited series can develop into more than the current crop of six, 15-minute episodes. The Diary caught up with a clutch of the show’s most popular ex-schoolmates in Manchester yesterday ahead of the new series going live next week on the red button straight after the next episode on BBC1, or via the show’s website. Scroll down to see our video And the actors tell me there’s lots for fans of the show to catch up on with the class of 2010 now they’ve left Waterloo Road. Tachia Newall, 21, who plays heart-throb Bolton Smilie, says: “There’s a baby, but I’m not saying whose, there’s an MC battle, there’s a mental breakdown and there’s a marriage – so there’s certainly a lot been going on for the guys. “It’s nice to be able to see the characters out of school.” And it sounds like Bolton is the top candidate for biggest success since leaving school. He grins: “Bolton is now a radio DJ and he’s doing well for himself.” However, Lucy Dixon, 20, tells me her character Danielle hasn’t fared quite so well. She laughs: “Danielle basically sits in here knickers all day, stroking her cat and watching Jeremy Kyle. She thinks she’s superior to everyone else and that a job should come to her rather than her finding a job.” Chelsee Healey plays one of Waterloo Road’s most popular characters in the shape of livewire Janeece Bryant, and of course remains on the BBC1 series having returned to the school as a secretary. Chelsee tells me the cast and crew have been buoyed by the NTA victory. She said: “People were saying they were surprised that it won, but it won on the public vote and we have a really loyal fanbase out there. It’s great that people really seem to love our characters and the storylines.” Although Chelsee was gutted that she didn’t get to go to the red carpet bash – as she was filming this new series. She sighs: “I’d bought an amazing bright orange dress as well with a huge bow on the back. I was gutted I couldn’t be there, but we celebrated with a bottle of champers on the set when we found out.” So have the young stars organised school reunions of their own here in Manchester? Chelsee, who went to Canon Williams School in Eccles, says not, and laughs: “We were the naughtiest year, we weren’t even allowed a school prom!” Meanwhile Lauren Thomas, who plays Aleesha, is a former pupil of North Manchester High School and says she’s trying to organise a schol reunion at the moment for her class, while Lucy, who went to Stockport’s Oriel Bank had such a small school – 100 pupils – that they keep in regular touch anyway. The new project uses a combination of scripted episodes, fictional social media networks, audio and interactive fan sites, allowing the audience to extend its relationship with their favourite characters. More at www.bbc.co.uk/waterlooroadreunited from March 2. Like us on Facebook	i don't know
In which English city is the TV series 'Being Human' set?	Being Human (UK) - Season 1 Reviews - Metacritic Log in to finish rating Being Human (UK) Being Human (UK) Generally favorable reviews- based on 71 Ratings Would you like to write a review? Share this? Summary: A werewolf, a vampire, and a ghost try to live together and get along in the new BBC series. Genre(s): Comedy, Drama, Fantasy, Horror, Suspense Season 1 premiere date: Jan 25, 2009 Episode Length: 60 Mixed: 0 out of 8 Negative: 0 out of 8 Reviewed by: Glenn Garvin 80 Reviewed by: Ellen Gray 80 Between "Twilight," HBO's "True Blood" and the WB's upcoming "Vampire Diaries," I'd begun to feel overwhelmed by the undead. Then along came BBC America's Being Human to change my mind. Reviewed by: Mary McNamara 80 Creator Toby Whithouse takes all the themes associated with the cursed and the damned very seriously, and if his exploration of them is less baroque than other franchises, it promises to be even more effective. Reviewed by: Alessandra Stanley 80 All three characters are highly appealing, but the charm of the show lies in the delicate balance of engrossing drama and disarming humor; the series is not campy or self-conscious, it’s witty in an offhand, understated way. Reviewed by: Rob Owen 80 Funny and thoughtful with surprising plot twists, Being Human offers an inviting mix for fans of supernatural stories. Reviewed by: Matt Roush 75 There are times when you don’t whether to scream with fear or laughter. Being Human is frighteningly good. Reviewed by: Jessica Shaw 75 Turner and Tovey get the best material, while Crichlow mopes a lot. Then again, she's a ghost, so let's cut her some slack. Jan 31, 2011 10 The series has a darker edge to it than Twilight (or "Vampire Light" as I like to think of it) and the cast (both permanent and supporting)The series has a darker edge to it than Twilight (or "Vampire Light" as I like to think of it) and the cast (both permanent and supporting) are fabulous and believable in this twist to the usual dysfunctional family unit/group that we usually see on TV. You feel their pain and terror as they come to terms and live with some terrifying secrets. Not every vampire like has to be thin and pale, and that's what's scary about being human. Just who do you trust when even the police who are "supposed to protect and serve" are themselves Vampires? This isn't friends with fangs, but believable characters that feel real in an unbelievable situation/scenario. Terrific TV… Expand Aug 30, 2009 10 This show is the best. I do not know what the critics are talking about. EW says Annie mopes. Well, at first she goes through love, betrayal, This show is the best. I do not know what the critics are talking about. EW says Annie mopes. Well, at first she goes through love, betrayal, defeated, and then finally a force to be reckoned with. Annie is realizing what she can do. Mitchell is the vampire with a heart but he to is hiding what he can do. If he fed, he could be really dangerous. George is very spiritual and believes that strenghth is love. He can battle anyone anytime if he lets that werewolf side out more often. Season 2 will find them being hunted or worse, Nina might be a werewolf, Tully is still out there, and where is Mitchell's first love Josie. Did she die or is she now a vampire? See, this is good.… Expand Jul 25, 2009 10 There's really something to be said for British television when it manages to hit its mark - I watched Being Human several months ago There's really something to be said for British television when it manages to hit its mark - I watched Being Human several months ago and was awed by its ability to take tired, cliched themes (relating somewhat to dreaded vampires) and make them feel fresh and new. By the end of the short series, all three characters have developed admirably and the plot spares no time for dullness. It's an antidote to True Blood and every other vampire failure since Buffy/Angel ended regrettably early. THAT'S how it's done, Stephanie Meyer, Charlaine Harris and fangirls. Blows the Twilight nonsense out of the water. Give it a go - I can't imagine anyone being disappointed.… Expand May 4, 2011 10 Being Human is one of the best series I've been watching ever. The story is set in Bristol, where we find the home of vampire, werewolf and aBeing Human is one of the best series I've been watching ever. The story is set in Bristol, where we find the home of vampire, werewolf and a ghost. The three are trying to be human, to stop being monsters. In their way of becoming humans the characters are developed to something much more than just a ghost, vampire and werewolf. They become persons who you'll like and hate at the same time. They manage to do the most important thing for a story - they make you relate to them. May be the best part about this series is the fact that you can see the personal dilemmas of every single character on screen, even from most of the minor characters. However, there are many funny moments to brake the ice, and believe me, the Brits know how to be fun. Other significant part, at least for me, is the music in the series. We hear some of the best British acts through the series such as Muse, Arctic Monkeys, The Prodigy, Kasabian, etc.… Expand Jan 7, 2011 1 I started watching the series cause the premise seemed interesting, not knowing what to expect. Saw the first 10 minutes and thought what aI started watching the series cause the premise seemed interesting, not knowing what to expect. Saw the first 10 minutes and thought what a boring piece of **** and deleted the torrent. The characters were boring, the acting, direction, story and dialogue rubbish. Main characters all badly developed, concept couldn't be more boring and dull. I don't know if all these positive reviews are from friends of the actors or they just identify with this drivel. It's like taking the boring lives of 20 somethings, and their life style, of any typical twenty something with no depth, and making them into the dullest vampire, warewolf and ghost, amatuerish. Vampire was over acted, the warewolf's thing was rubbing his flabby ass, the ghost was characterless. You have to have character to play a character, of which they all had little. Anything good you can say about a movie or series you can't say about this. Other than they have succeeded if they wanted to make it as dull as possible. 1 point for that just in case...… Expand	Bristol
Which English explorer was responsible for establishing the first English colony in the 'New World', in 1584 at Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina?	Being Human (UK) - Season 1 Reviews - Metacritic Log in to finish rating Being Human (UK) Being Human (UK) Generally favorable reviews- based on 71 Ratings Would you like to write a review? Share this? Summary: A werewolf, a vampire, and a ghost try to live together and get along in the new BBC series. Genre(s): Comedy, Drama, Fantasy, Horror, Suspense Season 1 premiere date: Jan 25, 2009 Episode Length: 60 Mixed: 0 out of 8 Negative: 0 out of 8 Reviewed by: Glenn Garvin 80 Reviewed by: Ellen Gray 80 Between "Twilight," HBO's "True Blood" and the WB's upcoming "Vampire Diaries," I'd begun to feel overwhelmed by the undead. Then along came BBC America's Being Human to change my mind. Reviewed by: Mary McNamara 80 Creator Toby Whithouse takes all the themes associated with the cursed and the damned very seriously, and if his exploration of them is less baroque than other franchises, it promises to be even more effective. Reviewed by: Alessandra Stanley 80 All three characters are highly appealing, but the charm of the show lies in the delicate balance of engrossing drama and disarming humor; the series is not campy or self-conscious, it’s witty in an offhand, understated way. Reviewed by: Rob Owen 80 Funny and thoughtful with surprising plot twists, Being Human offers an inviting mix for fans of supernatural stories. Reviewed by: Matt Roush 75 There are times when you don’t whether to scream with fear or laughter. Being Human is frighteningly good. Reviewed by: Jessica Shaw 75 Turner and Tovey get the best material, while Crichlow mopes a lot. Then again, she's a ghost, so let's cut her some slack. Jan 31, 2011 10 The series has a darker edge to it than Twilight (or "Vampire Light" as I like to think of it) and the cast (both permanent and supporting)The series has a darker edge to it than Twilight (or "Vampire Light" as I like to think of it) and the cast (both permanent and supporting) are fabulous and believable in this twist to the usual dysfunctional family unit/group that we usually see on TV. You feel their pain and terror as they come to terms and live with some terrifying secrets. Not every vampire like has to be thin and pale, and that's what's scary about being human. Just who do you trust when even the police who are "supposed to protect and serve" are themselves Vampires? This isn't friends with fangs, but believable characters that feel real in an unbelievable situation/scenario. Terrific TV… Expand Aug 30, 2009 10 This show is the best. I do not know what the critics are talking about. EW says Annie mopes. Well, at first she goes through love, betrayal, This show is the best. I do not know what the critics are talking about. EW says Annie mopes. Well, at first she goes through love, betrayal, defeated, and then finally a force to be reckoned with. Annie is realizing what she can do. Mitchell is the vampire with a heart but he to is hiding what he can do. If he fed, he could be really dangerous. George is very spiritual and believes that strenghth is love. He can battle anyone anytime if he lets that werewolf side out more often. Season 2 will find them being hunted or worse, Nina might be a werewolf, Tully is still out there, and where is Mitchell's first love Josie. Did she die or is she now a vampire? See, this is good.… Expand Jul 25, 2009 10 There's really something to be said for British television when it manages to hit its mark - I watched Being Human several months ago There's really something to be said for British television when it manages to hit its mark - I watched Being Human several months ago and was awed by its ability to take tired, cliched themes (relating somewhat to dreaded vampires) and make them feel fresh and new. By the end of the short series, all three characters have developed admirably and the plot spares no time for dullness. It's an antidote to True Blood and every other vampire failure since Buffy/Angel ended regrettably early. THAT'S how it's done, Stephanie Meyer, Charlaine Harris and fangirls. Blows the Twilight nonsense out of the water. Give it a go - I can't imagine anyone being disappointed.… Expand May 4, 2011 10 Being Human is one of the best series I've been watching ever. The story is set in Bristol, where we find the home of vampire, werewolf and aBeing Human is one of the best series I've been watching ever. The story is set in Bristol, where we find the home of vampire, werewolf and a ghost. The three are trying to be human, to stop being monsters. In their way of becoming humans the characters are developed to something much more than just a ghost, vampire and werewolf. They become persons who you'll like and hate at the same time. They manage to do the most important thing for a story - they make you relate to them. May be the best part about this series is the fact that you can see the personal dilemmas of every single character on screen, even from most of the minor characters. However, there are many funny moments to brake the ice, and believe me, the Brits know how to be fun. Other significant part, at least for me, is the music in the series. We hear some of the best British acts through the series such as Muse, Arctic Monkeys, The Prodigy, Kasabian, etc.… Expand Jan 7, 2011 1 I started watching the series cause the premise seemed interesting, not knowing what to expect. Saw the first 10 minutes and thought what aI started watching the series cause the premise seemed interesting, not knowing what to expect. Saw the first 10 minutes and thought what a boring piece of **** and deleted the torrent. The characters were boring, the acting, direction, story and dialogue rubbish. Main characters all badly developed, concept couldn't be more boring and dull. I don't know if all these positive reviews are from friends of the actors or they just identify with this drivel. It's like taking the boring lives of 20 somethings, and their life style, of any typical twenty something with no depth, and making them into the dullest vampire, warewolf and ghost, amatuerish. Vampire was over acted, the warewolf's thing was rubbing his flabby ass, the ghost was characterless. You have to have character to play a character, of which they all had little. Anything good you can say about a movie or series you can't say about this. Other than they have succeeded if they wanted to make it as dull as possible. 1 point for that just in case...… Expand	i don't know
Sugar Loaf Mountain overlooks which city?	51 Photos - Sugar Loaf Mountain (Pao de Acucar) \| Viator Sugar Loaf Mountain (Pao de Acucar) Rio de Janeiro ATTRACTIONS See all Sugar Loaf Mountain (Pao de Acucar) You’ll see stunning views of Rio from atop Sugar Loaf Mountain (or Pão de Acúcar) which rises at the point where Guanabara Bay meets the Atlantic Ocean. Whichever way you look the city is a delight of sweeping beaches, sparkling water ... Michael United States of America January 2017 Michael United States of America January 2017 Michael United States of America January 2017 Michael United States of America January 2017 Michael United States of America January 2017 Subscribe to our email newsletter Sign up Some content licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. © 1997–2017 Viator, Inc. CUR015 - 330208 All rights reserved. Viator is a registered trademark of Viator, Inc. is a Service Mark of Viator, Inc. Travel with an Insider is a Service Mark of Viator, Inc. Use of this website constitutes acceptance of Viator's Terms & Conditions . Viator uses cookies to improve your experience on our website. Learn more about how we use cookies and how to change your cookie settings \| Close message	Rio de Janeiro
Which American invented the computer mouse whilst working at the Stamford Research Institute in 1964?	Sugarloaf \| RIO.com Sugarloaf Search for hotels in Rio de Janeiro : Loading... Search for Flights to Rio de Janeiro : Round-trip Sign up to receive exclusive offers from Rio.com Subscribe Rio.com / Rio de Janeiro Tours and Attractions / Sugarloaf Sugarloaf Ascent is made in two stages: first to the top of Urca Hill, travelling from Praia Vermelha to a height of 220 meters above sea level and then the cable car goes all the wayto the top of Sugar Loaf Mountain, for a breathtaking 360 degree view of Rio de Janeiro, Guanabara Bay, the city of Niteroi and the blue waters of the Atlantic Ocean. × Rio Tips! Sugarloaf Mountain is a peak that rises 396 meters high and presents a bird’s eye view of Rio de Janeiro from the mouth of Guanabara Bay . More than a million tourists visit Sugarloaf every year to enjoy a breathtaking view of surrounding beaches , mountains and forests. Tickets are sold at the station located at Praia Vermelha (Red Beach). The cable car service runs between 8 am and 9 pm each 20 minutes of interval! But note that you can buy your ticket only till 7.50 pm! At this base-station you will can find few souvenirs stores and you also can buy them at the Urca Mountain (there is a big Havaianas ’store, Bars where you can take a Caipirinha ) and the same at Sugar Loaf! Remember that the best time to visit the Sugar Loaf, is the time of Sunset…It is a incredible picture!! Urca Mountain – The First Leg The first leg of the trip is from Avenida Pasteur in Praia Vermelha, the Red Beach District, which takes you to the top of Urca Mountain . The one kilometer ride gives you the first aerial view of Copacabana , the Christ statue , Niteroi Bridge and Guanabara Bay. There are some gift shops, restaurants and a small theater with informational videos. Don’t forget to carry your camera to record some of the most spectacular views of the region. There a number of trials through the thick vegetation and natural observation posts put up at different heights. Pão de Açúcar – A View from the Top The second cable car takes you from Urca to the top of Sugarloaf with an amazing 360-degree view of the region. You can sit down and enjoy the view from one of the fast-food shops around the area. Alternatively, you can follow a trail around the top of the hill. Be there at sunset and you will be treated to the most spectacular scenery on the planet. Undoubtedly, the overlooks on Sugarloaf provide some jaw-dropping views of the ocean and the city as well. Those sensitive to heights better beware. Once you are back on solid ground at the bottom, spend time walking around Praia Vermelha beach and the residential area which has an eclectic mix of art-deco and contemporary houses with beautifully landscaped gardens. Aftrerwards why not take a cab towards the Bar Urca, Situated on the shores of Guanabara Bay on one of the most beautiful postcards of the world overlooking the Christ and the entrance to historic São João Fort, a region favored by the tranquility and safety. Or maybe, before the visit a lunch at Porcão Rios , our favourite “ churrascaria ” situated at Flamengo, Park , overlooking the bay, Niterói and your next stop – Sugar Loaf!	i don't know
What name is given to the short bands of tough fibrous connective tissue composed mainly of long, stringy collagen fibres that connect bones to one another?	What is Connective Tissue? (with pictures) What is Connective Tissue? Last Modified Date: 08 December 2016 Copyright Protected: Top 10 facts about the world Connective tissue is one of the four traditionally classified types of biological tissue. There are many different kinds, and they mainly serve as structure and support, often connecting two other types of tissue to each other. This tissue usually derives from the mesoderm, the middle of three layers in an animal embryo . Its characteristics are largely derived from the extracellular matrix, non-living material that surrounds and supports the living cells. The older classification of this tissue had two subtypes: proper, which covered areolar and fibrous tissue, and specialized, which included bone, blood, cartilage , adipose (fat) tissue, and reticular tissue. The newer classification has four categories: loose connective tissue, dense connective tissue, cartilage, and other. Loose connective tissue includes areolar, adipose, and reticular tissue. Areolar tissue is a mesh-like tissue with a fluid matrix that supports the epithelium, tissue that makes up the skin and other membranes. Adipose tissue is fat, which provides cushioning and insulation, lubrication in some areas, and energy storage. Reticular tissue is similar to areolar tissue, but contains only reticular fibers made of type-III collagen in its matrix. Reticular tissue supports a number of bodily structures, notably the organs of the lymphatic system. Dense connective tissue is divided into regular and irregular types. Both have a matrix composed mainly of collagen fibers, although dense regular tissue has a matrix of parallel collagen fibers. It is very strong and connects other tissue types to each other; tendons connect muscle to bone and ligaments connect bone to bone. Dense irregular tissue has irregularly arranged collagen fibers and comprises the lower layers of the dermis , or skin. Cartilage makes up nearly the entire skeleton of some animals, while in others, including humans, it serves mainly to cushion the joints. There are three types of cartilage: elastic , hyaline, and fibrocartilage. Elastic cartilage in rich in elastin and is found in the outer ear, the Eustachian tubes, and the epiglottis. Hyaline cartilage is characterized by a large amount of collagen and is the hardest type of cartilage. It is found on the ends on bones, in the nose and larynx , and between the ribs and sternum . Fibrocartilage contains even more collagen than hyaline cartilage, particularly type-I collagen. It is tough, heavy, white, and found in areas of high stress, such as the intervertebral discs. The "other" category includes bone, which makes up the majority of the skeleton in adult vertebrates; blood, which transports nutrients and hormones throughout the body; and lymphatic tissues, which help transport nutrients between the blood and other cells and produce immune cells. Ad Bill Benton Post 9 In a simplified scheme, connective tissue includes integument (skin), muscles, bones, tendons, ligaments, fascia, and various types of "filler material." It surprises me that some authorities omit muscles entirely. What were they thinking? Thomas H., D.C., Los Angeles anon110607 Post 7 @Bop66: A torn ligament takes a very long time to heal. If he had torn his ulnar ligament, it would take him at least 6 months to a year to heal. I suggest him not to play football because a torn ligament has to go through a processes of healing and regenerating. No, he should not play. If he keeps playing with a torn ligament, that ligament will take much longer to heal and it could cause a permanent damage to his axillary in the future. anon105756 Post 6 it was good but i want the definition of connective tissue, its classification groups then verification of its various groups. in short i want a full encyclopedia or total verification of connective tissue. anon91252 Post 5 Anon50566, there are several ways to deal with scar tissue. As mentioned in one of the above posts, the healing process should not be disturbed and best to talk with your doctor before proceeding to your next level of healing. However, most doctors have no idea how to deal with the affects of scar tissue. Eliminating scar tissue completely would mean it would have to get reabsorbed back into the body and eliminated. By taking systemic enzymes that are high in serapeptase, protease, amylase and lipase, usually taken on an empty stomach can help with the break down and reabsorption of scar tissue. You can look up Arthur Andrew Medical Inc. Medical Enzyme Development. They have some incredible formulas and I am sure you will be able to consult with someone there. Also, be aware if you have ulcers or have a weak stomach you should consult your doctor first before taking systemic enzymes. Yes, massage is great, but if you combine massage, or, myofascial release together with therapeutic dosages of systemic enzymes you will get superior results. Another option for you to look at - and again, be sure to get a "green light" from your doctor, is a machine called "Endermologie". It is a form of "skin rolling". Many high end spas offer that treatment. Make sure you go to someone who is highly skilled. You can also find someone who does "Lypossage" or "Rolfing", since both of these modalities involve myofascial release. I would say Rolfing would be the better choice in your case. These are highly skilled practitioners. Find someone who has been around for a while. One more thing, there is a machine called "Ondamed". This is an electromagnetic device that can energetically help to release the "blockages" or "lack of energy flow" in areas that have scar tissue. It is non invasive and does not involve hands on. Look it up and you will find a practitioner in your area. Hope this helps! anon51447 Post 4 To answer your question anon50566, there is a way to help eliminate the scar tissue from your back surgery, but it cannot be removed. I am studying to be a massage therapist, and one of the key benefits of massage is to reduce the formation of scar tissue. It is a natural way of spreading the tissues around and eliminating the buildup of unnecessary tissue. I would wait until you are cleared by your doctor because sometimes this method can interrupt the healing process, so it is better to clear it first. The good news is that it will go away, but it will take time and effort from both your therapist and yourself. Good luck! anon50566 Post 3	Ligament
Table Mountain overlooks which city?	KNEE JOINT PROSTHESIS AND HYALURONATE COMPOSITIONS FOR TREATMENT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS - Intersect Partners, LLC KNEE JOINT PROSTHESIS AND HYALURONATE COMPOSITIONS FOR TREATMENT OF OSTEOARTHRITIS United States Patent Application 20130138209 Kind Code: A1 Abstract: A medical device and methods to relieve joint pain and adapted for knee joint repair, replacement and augmentation. The invention discloses joint lubricant, particularly hyaluronate compositions and methods for treatment of osteoarthritis. Inventors: Cragg, Andrew H. (Edina, MN, US) Greff, Richard J. (St. Pete Beach, FL, US) Wallace, George (Coto de Caza, CA, US) Socci, Robert J. (San Juan Capistrano, CA, US) Kagan, Jonathan (Hopkins, MN, US) Quijano, Rodolfo C. (Laguna Hills, CA, US) Tu, Hosheng (Newport Beach, CA, US) Application Number: Intersect Partners, LLC (San Clemente, CA, US) Primary Class: Claims: What is claimed is: 1. A meniscal device comprising a support structure around circumference of a meniscus in a patient, wherein the support structure comprises a body with an exterior surface characterized with enhanced boundary lubrication, the body being made of biocompatible material selected from the group consisting of PVA hydrogel, elastomers, polypropylene, polyethylene, PEEK, and metals. 2. The device of claim 1, wherein said device comprises a meniscal collar device. 3. The device of claim 1, wherein said device comprises a meniscal wafer device. 4. The device of claim 1, wherein said enhanced boundary lubrication comprises means for attracting or adsorbing a surface-active phospholipid. 5. The device of claim 1, wherein said enhanced boundary lubrication comprises means for coating a functional phospholipid on said device. 6. The device of claim 1, wherein said enhanced boundary lubrication comprises means for coating a reactable phospholipid of phosphorylcholine. 7. The device of claim 1, wherein said enhanced boundary lubrication comprises means for coating a reactable acrylate polymer with phospholipid side chains. 8. A method of meniscal augmentation comprising administering a meniscal bulking agent to increase a volume of said meniscus. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein said meniscal bulking agent is administered by injection. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said injection step is applied using imaging guidance or arthroscopically under direct viewing. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein said meniscal bulking agent comprises a biodegradable hydrogel. 12. The method of claim 8, wherein said meniscal bulking agent comprises a crosslinkable hydrogel with a first molecular weight, said crosslinked hydrogel having a second molecular weight higher than said first molecular weight. 13. The method of claim 8, wherein said meniscal bulking agent is a liquid with a first viscosity index before an administering step, said meniscal bulking agent having a second viscosity index after the administering step, wherein the second viscosity index is higher than the first viscosity index. 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the bulking agent has a first volume before an administering step and expands to a second volume after the administering step. 15. The method of claim 8, wherein the bulking agent further comprises a scaffold seeded with autologous cells. 16. A method for treatment of osteoarthritis of a patient, the method comprising injecting a suspension of HA microparticles into a joint space of the patient, wherein said microparticles have a hardness number less than the hardness number of a cartilage within said joint space. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein said microparticles comprise lyophilized HA, the lyophilized HA reconstitutes in situ after being injected into said joint space. 18. The method of claim 16, wherein the joint space comprises bursa. 19. The method of claim 16, wherein said microparticles have plural concentric layers and plural concentric compartments separated by said layers, each compartment being filled with said HA, wherein an outer layer of said concentric layers is configured with a higher degradation rate than a second degradation rate of an inner layer. 20. The method of claim 16, wherein said nanoparticles further comprise steroids. Description: CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/949,204 filed Nov. 18, 2010 which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/974,538 filed Oct. 15, 2007, which claims the priority benefits of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/852,885 filed Oct. 19, 2006 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/919,305 filed Mar. 20, 2007. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is generally related to therapies for treating a joint or other body parts of a patient. More particularly, the present invention is related to a medical device, hyaluronic compositions, and methods for treatment of osteoarthritis or relieving joint pain adapted for knee joint repair, replacement and augmentation. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The knee is very complex and includes many components with many functions. The knee problems may be related to meniscus, pain, cartilage, shock absorption, synovial fluids, articular cartilage, ligaments/tendons and/or preserving normal biomechanics. Available therapy currently includes chronic synovial lubrication, acute synovial lubrication, meniscal protection, meniscal augmentation, partial meniscal replacement, total meniscal replacement, and partial or total knee prosthesis. The menisci are crescents roughly triangular incross section, covering one-half to two thirds of the articular surface of the corresponding tibial plateau. The outer rims of the menisci are convex and attached to the knee joint capsule. The inner edges are concave, thin and free. The anatomy of menisci and knee joints can be found in any anatomy book, for example, Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body, 20th edition, New York, Bartleby.com 2000. The menisci extend the superior tibial surface, improving its congruency with the femoral condyles. Both menisci are fibrocartilaginous and wedge shaped in the coronal plane. The medial meniscus is crescent shaped, and the lateral meniscus is more circular. The superior portions of the menisci are concave, enabling effective articulation with their respective convex condyles, whereas the inferior surfaces are flat to conform to the tibial plateaus. Anterior and posterior meniscal horns attach to the intercondylar eminence of the tibial plateau. The coronary ligaments provide peripheral attachments between the tibial plateau and the” perimeter of both menisci. The medial meniscus is also attached to the medial collateral ligament, which limits its mobility. The lateral meniscus is connected to the femur via the anterior and posterior meniscofemoral ligaments, which can tension its posterior horn anteriorly and medially with increasing knee flexion. The transverse ligament provides a connection between the anterior aspects of both menisci. The increased stability provided by the ligamentous attachments prevents the menisci from being extruded out of the joint during compression. The knee joint is innervated by the posterior articular branch of the posterior tibial nerve and the terminal branches of the obturator and femoral nerves. Nerve fibers generally penetrate the joint capsule, along with the vascular supply and service the substance of the menisci. Vascular supply is crucial to meniscal healing. The medial, lateral, and middle geniculate arteries, which branch off the popliteal artery, provide the major vascularization to the inferior and superior aspects of each meniscus. Only 10% to 30% of the peripheral medial meniscus border and 10% to 25% of the lateral meniscus border receive direct blood supply. The remaining portion of each meniscus receives nourishment only from the synovial fluid via diffusion or mechanical pumping. The latter mechanism derives from intermittent compression of the tissue during function. Mechanical pumping through joint flexion may be essential for continued nutrition. The major meniscal functions are to distribute stress across the knee during weight bearing, provide shock absorption, serve as secondary joint stabilizers, provide articular cartilage nutrition and lubrication, facilitate joint gliding, prevent hyperextension, and protect the joint margins. During knee flexion, the femoral condyles glide posteriorly on the tibial plateau in conjunction with tibial internal rotation. The lateral meniscus undergoes twice the anteroposterior translation of the medial meniscus during knee flexion. Type I collagen fibers provide the primary meniscal structural scaffolding; this predominance of type I collagen is one of the major differences between the menisci and hyaline, or articular, cartilage, which is composed of predominantly type II collagen. Three collagen fiber layers are specifically arranged to convert compressive loads into circumferential or “hoop” stresses. In the superficial layer, the fibers travel radially, serving as “ties” that resist shearing or splitting. In the middle layer, the fibers run parallel or circumferentially to resist hoop stress during weight bearing. Lastly, there is a deep layer of collagen bundles that are aligned parallel to the periphery. Osteoarthritis (OA, also known as degenerative arthritis or degenerative joint disease) is a condition in which low-grade inflammation results in pain in the joints, caused by wearing of the cartilage that covers and acts as a cushion inside joints. As the bone surfaces become less well protected by cartilage, the patient experiences pain upon weight bearing, including walking and standing. Due to decreased movement because of the pain, regional muscles may atrophy, and ligaments may become more lax. OA is the most common form of arthritis. The main symptom is chronic pain, causing loss of mobility and often stiffness. “Pain” is generally described as a sharp ache, or a burning sensation in the associated muscles and tendons. Humid weather increases the pain in many patients. OA commonly affects the hand, feet, spine, and the large weight-bearing joints, such as the hips and knees, although in theory, any joint in the body can be affected. As OA progresses, the affected joints appear larger, are stiff and painful, and usually feel worse, the more they are used throughout the day, thus distinguishing it from rheumatoid arthritis. The primary osteoarthritis is caused by aging. As a person ages, the water content of the cartilage decreases, and the protein composition in it degenerates, thus degenerating the cartilage through repetitive use or misuse. Inflammation can also occur, and stimulate new bone outgrowths, called “spurs” (osteophyte), to form around the joints. Sufferers find their every movement so painful and debilitating that it can also affect them emotionally and psychologically. The secondary osteoarthritis is caused by one or more of the following conditions or diseases: (1) congenital disorders, such as congenital hip luxation; (2) cracking joints; (3) diabetes; (4) Inflammatory diseases, such as Perthes' disease, and all chronic forms of arthritis (e.g. costochondritis, gout, and rheumatoid arthritis); (5) injury to joints; (6) ligamentous deterioration of instability; (7) hormonal disorders; (8) obesity; (9) osteopetrosis; (10) sports injury; and (11) surgery to the joint structures. Heatley reported that repair of incisions in the central part of the meniscus on rabbits has demonstrated after surgical excision of the peripheral rim (J bone Joint Surg 1980; 62-B:397-402). Healing took place via a highly cellular but relatively avascular fibrous tissue stroma which proliferated from the synovial margin and invaded along the cut edge of the meniscus. Suturing facilitated this healing process by providing stability and possibly by supplying bridges for synovial cells to migrate onto the meniscus. U.S. Pat. No. 4,344,193 issued on Aug. 17, 1982, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a meniscus prosthetic device for a human knee joint so that the articulating cartilage in the knee totally remains intact. The prosthesis device translates between the articulating cartilages during normal knee movement. Insertion of the prosthetic device is accomplished by applying force on the ends of the device, thereby elastically spreading them, and placing the device between the tibial articulating cartilage and one of the femoral condyles. Prominences on the ends of the device may superiorly extend into the space defined by the femoral condyles, thereby securing the device in place. U.S. Pat. No. 4,502,161 issued on Mar. 5, 1985, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a prosthetic meniscus that is located between the natural articular surfaces of the bones of a joint. The prosthetic meniscus includes a body portion formed of a resilient material and further defines an extra-articular extension which is attached to the surface of the bone outside the joint. A reinforcing fabric or mesh is embedded in the resilient material to give the meniscus strength and shape. U.S. Pat. No. 4,693,722 issued on Sep. 15, 1987, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a prosthetic device for a temporomandibular joint comprising a prosthetic condyle and a prosthetic meniscus. The prosthetic condyle comprises two plates that are clamped about the ramus of the mandible wherein one of the plates extends upwardly into a convex surface thereby forming the condyle. The prosthetic meniscus comprising a resilient insert which is inserted into the joint capsule and has a reinforcing mesh embedded therein, and an extension for attaching the meniscus to the temporal bone. U.S. Pat. No. 4,795,468 issued on Jan. 3, 1989, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a mechanism and method for locking or securing a bearing insert to the base of a prosthetic implant. The prosthetic implant is for replacement of a portion of natural bone at the point of articulation. The implant includes a locking mechanism which enables the bearing insert to be removably secured to the base support. The locking mechanism includes a resilient locking clip which is predisposed on one side of either the bearing insert or the base support such that when the bearing insert and base support are assembled together, the clip extends between both the insert and the support to secure the two components together. To insert and/or remove the bearing insert from the support, the clip is caused to substantially fully recede into the component in which it is predisposed. U.S. Pat. No. 4,919,667 issued on Apr. 24, 1990, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a soft tissue implant in the form of a meniscus cartilage replacement for a patient. Appropriately shaped top and bottom layers sandwich therebetween at least one intermediate felted layer. A resilient bonding material coats the layers and holds same in a laminated condition. The top layer is contoured, to provide a wedge shaped cross section and a contoured three dimensional shape. A fabric member is bonded to the thickened edge of the laminant and is porous to invite ingrowth of patient tissue to anchor the implant eventually in place. U.S. Pat. No. 5,067,964 issued on Nov. 26, 1991, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses an articular cartilage repair piece to substitute for a cut-out piece of damaged articular cartilage on a bone in an articulated joint. The repair piece includes a backing layer of non-woven, felted fibrous material which is conformable to flat and curved surfaces. U.S. Pat. No. 5,092,894 issued on Mar. 3, 1992, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a meniscus prosthetic device replacing natural components of a condylar joint. The body of the device is of biocompatible, deformable, flexible and resilient material for bearing compressive loads and for translating the loads to tensile stress. The tail of the device is also biocompatible material and extends as a continuation of the body from a first end to a second end of the body. The tail provides a continuous loop circuit for the propagation of hoop tensile stresses from the body, and provides stabilization of the knee joint and proprioceptive feedback. The prosthesis is implanted in a human knee in a position to take the place of a naturally occurring meniscus between the femoral condyle and the corresponding tibia, and the tail is placed into contact with bone associated with the knee. U.S. Pat. No. 5,158,574 issued on Oct. 27, 1992, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a prosthetic meniscus implanted in a human knee where it can act as a scaffold. for regrowth of native meniscal tissues. The meniscus comprises a dry, porous, matrix of biocompatible and bioresorbable fibers, at least a portion of which may be crosslinked. The fibers include natural polymers, analogs, or mixtures thereof. The matrix is adapted to have in vivo an outer surface contour substantially the same as that of a natural meniscus. With this configuration, the matrix establishes an at least partially bioresorbable scaffold adapted for ingrowth of meniscal fibrochondrocytes. U.S. Pat. No. 5,344,459 issued on Sep. 6, 1994, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a prosthetic device which is arthroscopically implantable into a joint. The device has a ring or a pair of rings sized and shaped to fit within the joint. The ring or rings are comprised of a polymeric substance and may contain one or more compartments which are inflatable or expandable with air, a liquid or a semi-solid, through an arthroscope coupling means. U.S. Pat. No. 6,046,379 issued on Apr. 4, 2000, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses an article of manufacture comprising a substantially non-immunogenic knee meniscal xenograft for implantation into humans. The invention further provides methods for preparing a knee meniscal xenograft by removing at least a portion of a meniscus from a non-human animal to provide a xenograft; washing the xenograft in saline and alcohol; and subjecting the xenograft to at least one treatment selected from the group consisting of exposure to ultraviolet radiation, immersion in alcohol, ozonation, and freeze/thaw cycling. U.S. Pat. No. 5,171,322 issued on Dec. 15, 1992, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a meniscus prosthetic device including a body and a tail. The body is of biocompatible, deformable, flexible and resilient material for bearing compressive loads and for translating the loads to tensile stress. The tail is also biocompatible material and extends as a continuation of the body from a first end to a second end of the body. The tail provides a continuous loop circuit for the propagation of tensile (hoop) stresses from the body, and provides stabilization of the knee joint and proprioceptive feedback. U.S. Pat. No. 5,807,303 issued on Sep. 15, 1998, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a device for relieving synovial fluid pressure in a capsule surrounding a body joint including a valve for placement in the capsule surrounding the joint for regulating passage of synovial fluid from the capsule. The valve can include a valve housing defining a passage between an interior and exterior of the capsule and a valve member disposed within the valve housing for regulating synovial fluid pressure within the capsule by permitting synovial fluid to drain from the capsule when a predetermined synovial fluid pressure is exceeded. The valve housing can be secured to the capsule with inlet and outlet flanges disposed at opposite ends of the housing and, additionally, by use of openings formed in the outlet flange to allow passage of sutures and to promote integral tissue fixation over time. U.S. Pat. No. 6,005,161 issued on Dec. 21, 1999, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a biodegradable device for facilitating healing of structural voids in bone, cartilage as well as soft tissue in the most preferred form including a porous macrostructure made from a biodegradable polymer and a chemotactic ground substance in the form of an RGD attachment moiety of fibronectin formed as a porous microstructure. For repair of articular cartilage, harvested precursor cells are secured to the biodegradable carrier which is shaped for press fitting into the articular cartilage lesion. In the most preferred form, biological modifiers such as transforming growth factor β and basic fibroblastic growth factor is incorporated in the biodegradable device to mediate cellular activity and regulate cellular functions. U.S. Pat. No. 6,132,468 issued on Oct. 17, 2000, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a flexible scaffold envelope which can be used to replace damaged cartilage. Designed for use in arthroscopic surgery, the envelope is sufficiently flexible to allow it to be rolled up or folded and inserted into a knee joint via a small skin incision. After the envelope is inserted into the joint, it is unfolded, positioned properly, and anchored and cemented to a bone surface. After anchoring, the envelope is filled via an inlet tube with a polymeric substance that will set and solidify at body temperature. During filling and setting, the surgeon can manipulate the exterior shape of the scaffold envelope, to ensure that the implant will have a proper final shape after the polymer has cured into fully solidified form. U.S. Pat. No. 6,176,880 issued on Jan. 23, 2001, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a reconstructive structure for a cartilaginous element having a plurality of superimposed layers of intestinal submucosa tissue compressed and secured together and shaped to provide a reconstructive structure having the anatomical shape of the cartilaginous element to be reconstructed is described. The method of forming the reconstructive structure includes superimposing the planar layers of the intestinal submucosa tissue, securing the layers to form a multi-layered structure and cutting the resulting multi-layered structure to the desired shape. U.S. Pat. No. 6,352,558 issued on Mar. 5, 2002, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method of promoting regeneration of surface cartilage of a joint including the steps of forming punctures in a subchondral plate of an area of the joint to be treated, covering the puncture and the area to be treated with a chondrocyte-free patch made of a sheet of collagen membrane material without adding chondrocytes to the area to be treated, fixing the patch over the area to be treated, and allowing the area to be treated to regenerate cartilage without adding chondrocytes to the area to be treated. U.S. Pat. No. 6,530,956 issued on Mar. 11, 2003, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a load-sharing resorbable scaffold used to help transplanted chondrocytes or other cells generate new cartilage in a damaged joint such as a knee, hip, or shoulder. These scaffolds use two distinct matrix materials. One is a relatively stiff matrix material, designed to withstand and resist a compressive articulating load placed on the joint during the convalescent period, shortly after surgery. The second material comprises a more open and porous matrix, designed to promote maximal rapid generation of new cartilage. The scaffold would support the membrane with a degree of stiffness and resiliency that allows the membrane to mimic a healthy cartilage surface. U.S. Pat. No. 6,629,997 issued on Oct. 7, 2003, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a device for surgical implantation to replace damaged tissue in a joint (such as a meniscus in a knee) that is created from a hydrogel that is reinforced by a three-dimensional flexible fibrous mesh. In a meniscal implant, the mesh is exposed at one or more locations around the periphery, to provide anchoring attachments that can be sutured, pinned, or otherwise securely affixed to tissue that surrounds the implant. Articulating surfaces which will rub and slide against cartilage should be coated with a hydrogel layer that is completely smooth and nonabrasive, and made of a material that remains constantly wet. U.S. Pat. No. 6,800,298 issued on Oct. 5, 2004, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses fluid compositions containing a dextran-based hydrogel with lipids that provides enhanced rheological and tribological properties of such a fluid. Phospholipids are particularly useful in dextran-based compositions for synovial fluid. One phospholipid that can be used advantageously in synovial fluid is dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine. U.S. Pat. No. 6,893,463 issued on May 17, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses an implantable knee prosthesis including a two-piece body having a substantially elliptical shape in plane and including a first piece and a second piece. The first piece is a tibial piece including a tibial surface. The second piece is a femoral piece including a femoral surface. The first piece and the second piece are mutually slidably engagable and separable. U.S. Pat. No. 6,905,514 issued on Jun. 14, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a replacement device for resurfacing a joint surface of a femur. The custom replacement device is designed to substantially fit the trochlear groove surface of an individual femur. Thereby creating a “customized” replacement device for that individual femur and maintaining the original kinematics of the joint. The top surface is designed so as to maintain centrally directed tracking of the patella perpendicular to the plane established by the distal end of the femoral condyles and aligned with the center of the femoral head. U.S. Pat. No. 6,960,617 issued on Nov. 1, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses hydrogels having improved elasticity and mechanical strength properties by subjecting a hydrogel formulation containing a strengthening agent to chemical or physical crosslinking conditions subsequent to initial gel formation. Superporous hydro gels having improved elasticity and mechanical strength properties are similarly obtained whenever the hydrogel formulation is provided with a foaming agent. Interpenetrating networks of polymer chains comprised of primary polymer and strengthening polymer are thereby formed. The primary polymer affords capillary-based water absorption properties while the strengthening polymer imparts significantly enhanced mechanical strength and elasticity to the hydrogel or superporous hydrogel. Suitable strengthening agents can be natural or synthetic polymers, polyelectrolytes, or neutral, hydrophilic polymers. U.S. Pat. No. 6,994,730 issued on Feb. 7, 2006, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method for resurfacing a joint capsule having cartilage and meniscal surfaces such as a knee joint including resecting a central portion of the joint cartilage on one joint member such as the tibia while leaving a meniscal rim attached to the peripheral joint capsule. A cavity is then formed in the bone underlying the central portion of the joint surface such as the lateral tibial surface. A resurfacing implant is then coupled, by cementing for example, to the cavity. A soft prosthetic meniscal implant is then coupled to the remaining meniscal ring such as by suturing. U.S. Pat. No. 7,008,635 issued on Mar. 7, 2006, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses hydrogels intended for orthopedic applications with a hydrogel formulation which has high strength, toughness, a suitable mechanical modulus and low equilibrium hydration. It may have controlled porosity or degradation time. It can be made to polymerize in situ with high adherence to target tissue or surfaces. A preferred formulation for forming such gels comprises 40 to 80% by weight of a low-molecular weight polar monomer and 30 to 10% of a hydrophilic macromeric crosslinker. U.S. Pat. No. 7,060,074 issued on Jun. 13, 2006, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses instrumentation for use in minimally invasive unicompartmental knee replacement including a tibial cutting guide for establishing a planar surface along a tibial plateau and a tibial stylus having an anatomic contour for controlling the depth of the planar surface along the tibial plateau. The instrumentation further comprises a posterior resection block for preparing a posterior femoral resection, with a forward portion of the posterior resection block having a configuration corresponding to the configuration of a prosthetic femoral component. Instrumentation comprising a resection block and a resurfacing guide are provided for surgically preparing a femoral condyle to receive a prosthetic femoral component. The instrumentation further includes a resurfacing guide and a resurfacing instrument for resurfacing a femoral condyle to a controlled depth. U.S. Application publication No. 2001/10043913 published on Nov. 12, 2001, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a meniscal implant biomaterial made of a novel in situ produced macroporous biomedical polyurethane-amide material based on chain extended isocyanate terminated polyester prepolymer units, wherein the chain extension has been done with at least one dicarboxylic acid or a hydroxy-carboxylic acid. U.S. Application publication No. 2002/0022884 published on Feb. 21, 2002, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a device designed for surgical implantation to replace damaged tissue (such as a meniscus in a knee) having a hydrogel component reinforced by a three-dimensional mesh. The mesh component provides strength and structural support for the implant, which has at least one articulating surface, and at least one anchoring surface. In one embodiment, the mesh emerges from one or more selected locations around the peripheral rim of a meniscal implant, to provide anchoring attachments that can be sutured, pinned, clipped, or otherwise securely affixed to the fibrous capsule that surrounds the knee. This composite structure, with hydrogel layers surrounding an embedded mesh component, provides a joint-repair implant with improved anchoring, strength, and performance compared to implants of the prior art. U.S. Application publication No. 2002/0127264 published on Sep. 12, 2002, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method and system for the creation or modification of the wear surface of orthopedic joints, involving the preparation and use of one or more partially or fully preformed and procured components, adapted for insertion and placement into the body and at the joint site. In a preferred embodiment, component(s) can be partially cured and generally formed ex vivo and further formed in vivo at the joint site to enhance conformance and improve long-term performance. In another embodiment, a preformed balloon or composite material can be inserted into the joint site and filled with a flowable biomaterial in situ to conform to the joint site. U.S. Application publication No. 2004/0133275 published on Jul. 8, 2004, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a permanent non-resorbable implant allowing surgical replacement of cartilage in articulating joints, using a hydrogel material (such as a synthetic polyacrylonitrile polymer) reinforced by a flexible fibrous matrix. Articulating hydrogel surface(s) are chemically treated to provide a negative electrical charge that emulates the negative charge of natural cartilage, and also can be treated with halogenating, cross-linking, or other chemical agents for greater strength. U.S. Application publication No. 2004/0195727 published on Oct. 7, 2004, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method of making a lubricious polyacrylonitrile knee meniscus implant of a predetermined form and the resulting product. U.S. Application publication No. 2004/0267371 published on Dec. 30, 2004, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a prosthetic tibial component for a prosthetic total knee joint, that comprises two constructs, one being a metal base construct that engages the bone and the other being a polyethylene bearing construct that attaches to the metal base construct and articulates with a femoral prosthetic component on the opposing side of the joint. The metal base construct is composed of two different metals, one of which engages the bone surface and the other of which engages the polyethylene bearing construct. The first metal (i.e., the one that engages the bone surface) is selected so as to provide a superior bone-engaging face, while the second metal (i.e., the one that engages the polyethylene bearing construct) is selected so as to provide a superior polyethylene-engaging face. U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0027307 published on Feb. 3, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses unitary surgical devices having a pair of fixating mechanisms connected to a base with suture, anchors or pre-formed holes in the base and further including extracellular matrix material either as part of the base or supported on the base. The extracellular matrix material serves as tissue regenerating material. The devices can be used either as an insert to be placed between and approximated to the inner surfaces of the tear or as an insert to replace a void in the meniscus left after a meniscectomy. U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0033424 published on Feb. 10, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a prosthesis for implantation into a knee joint compartment between a femoral condyle and its corresponding tibial plateau which reduces any excessive prosthesis motion. The prosthesis includes a hard body having a generally elliptical shape in plan and a pair of opposed surfaces including a bottom surface and an opposed top surface, the top surface having a first portion which is generally flat. U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0043808 published on Feb. 24, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a method and related composition and apparatus for repairing a tissue site. The method involves the use of a curable polyurethane biomaterial composition having a plurality of parts adapted to be mixed at the time of use in order to provide a flowable composition and to initiate cure. The flowable composition can be delivered using minimally invasive means to a tissue site and there fully cured provide a permanent and biocompatible prosthesis for repair of the tissue site. Further provided are a mold apparatus, e.g., in the form of a balloon or tubular cavity, for receiving a biomaterial composition, and a method for delivering and filling the mold apparatus with a curable composition in situ to provide a prosthesis for tissue repair. U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0055101 published on Mar. 10, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses an endoprosthesis having improved self-lubrication mechanisms, the ability to filter the particles from the debris produced by the moving parts, and a new viscoelastic behavior under loading which reduce the transmitted forces. This has been achieved with the use of compressible materials and mechanisms between the fixed bearing and the tibial component, allowing the endoprosthesis to have compressibility under loading, which allows it also to receive or create chambers with an exit to the surface articulating with the femoral condyles. U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0113840 published on May 26, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses various method and apparatuses used to perform a resection of a portion of the anatomy for preparation of the implants of a prosthetic. Various resecting member can be used to assist in the resection of an anatomy to provide for implantation of a prosthetic. U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0137708 published on Jun. 23, 2005, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a knee joint resurfacing including femoral implant and tibial implant components. The femoral implant components may be attached to the femur using screws or other fixation devices. The femoral implant component may be configured to share loads between cortical and cancellous bone material. The tibial implant components are formed in modular portions which may be assembled within the knee joint and may be free-floating or fixed to the tibial surface. U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0064169 published on Mar. 23, 2006, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses numerous joint replacement implant embodiments including a total knee replacement implant including a femoral component having a wheel; and a tibial component including a shock-adsorbing component with a piston assembly and spring. The implants contain a cushioning or shock-absorbing member to dampen axial loads and other forces. In many embodiments, fluid is forced rapidly from the device wherein compression and dampening is achieved by valves or other pathways that allow for a slower return of the fluid back into the implant as the pressure is relieved. U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0155380 published on Jul. 13, 2006, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses a femoral component for a total knee joint replacement having a modular structure including a number of segments, each of the segments having a femoral fixation surface for attachment to the distal end of a femur and at least one assembly surface for joining with an adjacent segment of the modular femoral component. U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0178497 published on Aug. 10, 2006, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference, discloses implantable devices that include biocompatible polyurethane materials. In particular, the disclosed polyurethane materials can maintain desired elastomeric characteristics while exhibiting thermoset-like behavior and can exhibit improved characteristics so as to be suitable in load-bearing applications such as in artificial joints, including total joint replacement applications. Oka and his associates reported that polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel (PVA-H), ‘a rubber-like gel’, shows its usefulness as an artificial articular cartilage (Proc Inst Mech Eng 2000; 214:59-68). As compared to polyethylene (PE), the PVA-H had a thicker fluid film under higher pressures than polyethylene (PE) did, and PVA-H had a better damping effect and better I wear factor. The artificial articular cartilage made from PVA-H could be attached to the underlying bone using a composite osteochondral device made from titanium fibre mesh. The composite osteochondral device became rapidly attached to host bone by ingrowth into the supporting mesh. Hyaluronic acid and hyaluronates (HA's), such as Synvisc, Hyalgan, Supartz, Orthovisc, Neovisc, Euflexxa/Nuflexxz, Durolane, Fermathron, Suplaysn, are available for injection into joint spaces to provide additional lubrication and treat pain associated with osteoarthritis. HA's in solution are very viscous and therefore the amount of HA per injection (about 2.0 ml) is limited by viscosity. Although injections appear to be effective, these products require multiple injections (usually 3-5) and the effectiveness lasts only for 3-6 months. The present technology is to increase molecular weight of the HA or to crosslink the HA to retard its degradation and clearance from the joint space. Hence, repairing or replacing a torn meniscus with a meniscus wafer is suggested as a means to relieve the joint pain and to treat the knee joint accordingly. The current invention also discloses devices, methods, formulations, and instruments for treating a joint of a body. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The primary goal for treatment of osteoarthritis using hyaluronate compositions are to increase the duration of effectiveness in lubrication and pain reduction, and to reduce the number of injections required. The secondary goal for treatment of osteoarthritis using hyaluronate compositions are to improve the effectiveness (i.e. reduce the coefficient of friction) in lubrication and pain reduction, and to provide a therapy which can have applicability in joints with relatively healthy (and therefore stiffer) cartilage as well as older and degenerated (and therefore softer) cartilage. These objectives can be attained by increasing the residence time (half-life) of the injected HA in the joint space; improving/supplementing the lubrication efficacy of HA in the joint space; and/or increasing the amount of HA per the injection. In accordance with preferred embodiments of the present invention, some aspects of the invention provide a support structure around the circumference of the meniscus in a patient configured like a collar around a neck (“meniscal collar”), wherein the support structure comprises a body with an exterior surface characterized with enhanced boundary lubrication properties, the body being durable and abrasiveless that is made of biocompatible material selected from the group consisting of PVA hydrogel, elastomers, polypropylene, polyethylene, PEEK, and metals. Some aspects of the invention provide meniscal augmentation using meniscal bulking agent to increase the volume of the meniscus either by injection or other filling means. The bulking agent may include biodegradable or non-biodegradable hydro gels, crosslinkable hydrogels having a higher molecular weight than those of pre-crosslinked hydro gels, and the solidifiable hydrogels having a higher viscosity index than those of pre-administered hydrogels. The bulking agent may also include the scaffold, scaffold material or scaffoldable biomaterial with cell seeding, ingrowth and regeneration capabilities. In one aspect, the mesenchymal stem cells or regenerative cells are included in the product formulation of the bulking agent. Further, some aspects of the invention provide cartilage augmentation as a process' of increasing the volume of the cartilage by injection, substitution or grafting. The above cited method could be applied using imaging guidance or arthroscopically under direct viewing. Some aspects of the invention provide a meniscal wafer, a generally planar construct, to fit between the tibial plateau/meniscus and the femoral condyle. In one embodiment, a meniscal wafer is an implant adapted to encourage tissue healing and/or mitigate pain. In one embodiment, the meniscal wafer comprises a surface antistick agent or characterized with boundary lubrication configured to reduce physical adhesion. In another embodiment, the meniscal wafer comprises an impregnated/entrapped chemical marker that is leachable or exposable as a warning after a predefined thickness of the wafer is worn out. Some aspects of the invention provide a composite meniscus comprising a multiple component or layer structure that serves as a replacement meniscus. Components may be selected from the group consisting of metals (stainless steel, NiTi, titanium, porous titanium, and the like), lubricious polymers (PE, crosslinked PE, PP, and the like), shape memory material (polymer and metal), biodegradable polymers (PLA, PVA, PGA, PU and the like), hydrogels or hydrophilic (PVA hydrogel, polyacrylamide, and the like), and reinforcing support (porous substrate, woven fibers, filaments, and the like). Layer configurations may be selected from the group consisting of sliding layer, transition layer, ingrowth layer, backing layer, and combinations thereof. The materials and constructions disclosed herein also apply to the wafer. As disclosed herein, a meniscal wafer differs from a replacement meniscus by (1) generally being thinner and (2) attaching to or abutting the meniscus vs. the tibia or tibial cartilage. Some aspects of the invention provide a condyle cap sized and configured to cover the femoral condoyle, the condyle cap fitting like a cap (e.g. a form fitting knit hat) over the condylar cartilage or bone. Further, some aspects of the invention provide an articular bumper sized and configured as a cap covering the tibial plateau that either may cover the meniscus or includes a replacement meniscus. Some aspects of the invention provide a method for treating a joint by assembling the implant in-situ, wherein the implant comprises two or more components. Further, some aspects of the invention provide formed-in-place implants. In one embodiment, the method to achieve a functional low friction joint is to form one or more components out of a malleable or incompletely cured (e.g., polymerized) material in vivo or in vitro. The material is then placed in the joint space (e.g., the location of the meniscus) and then the joint cycled under load (full or partial) so the material forms into a shape appropriate to the motion. Some aspects of the invention provide a method for manufacturing a customized anatomic implant by applying data from modem imaging modalities such as CAT and MRI to create custom implants (or tooling to manufacturing implants) with surfaces that match the anatomy and the retained natural surface. Some aspects of the invention provide a synovial lubricant comprising phospholipids selected from the group consisting of phosphoglycerides, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidyl serine, diphosphatidyl glycerol, and the like. Some aspects of the invention provide a material or a surface of the device that preferentially attracts and/or adsorbs SAPL, the surface comprising a lipid or fatty surface. In one embodiment of placing a functional phospholipid coating on a device, one may prepare the surface (e.g. plasma etch or chemically treat the surface of the device), and then expose the surface to a reactable phospholipid, such as a phosphoryl choline which contains an additional acrylic double bond, or a reactable acrylate polymer with phospholipid side chains. The phospholipid is chemically, covalently bonded to the surface of the device and to itself. One aspect of the invention provides a material for prosthetic articular surface that has high affinity to adsorb SAPL or SAPL-like surfactant. Another aspect of this invention provides for this affinity to absorb SAPL to be incorporated into the bearing/lubricating surface of any of the devices described herein. Some aspects of the invention provide a particulate-containing synovial lubricant that is specifically designed to overcome some of the limitations of fluids such as HA, wherein the preferred size range is' about. 50-150 microns with 50-100 microns considered normal desired size. The particles could be made of any biodegradable polymer, such as PLA or other hydrogel. The particles could be less than 60A (shore durometer scale) hardness. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Additional objects and features of the present invention will become more apparent and the invention itself will be best understood from the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments, when read with reference to the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 shows a method of positioning of an inserted meniscal liner according to the principles of the present invention. FIG. 2 shows a method of attachment of a meniscal liner using sutures. FIG. 3A shows insertion of a meniscal liner implant using a delivery cannula; and FIGS. 3B-3C show embodiments of implants folded and rolled within a delivery cannula. FIG. 4 shows insertion of a meniscal liner without use of an insertion cannula. FIGS. 5A-5D show placement of a meniscal implant. FIGS. 6A-6D show embodiments of a combined meniscal-tibial implant. FIGS. 7A1-7B2 show top and side view of an exemplary meniscal liner and an exemplary combined meniscal-tibia liner. FIGS. 8A-8C show various views and components of a prototype of meniscus replacement. FIGS. 9A-9C shows meniscus liner variations. FIG. 10 shows a condylar cover. FIG. 11 shows a flowchart for manufacturing a custom anatomic implant. FIGS. 12A-12D show load transmission in various embodiments of meniscal collars. FIG. 13A shows a layer configuration of a meniscal prosthesis; and FIGS. 13B1-B3 show embodiments of the structure of a meniscal prosthesis. FIGS. 14A-C show a process of repetitive surface coating on an artificial cartilage. FIG. 15 shows an illustration of a composite meniscus. FIGS. 16A and 16B show embodiments of a simple layer configuration and a cone/frustum sliding layer construct of a meniscal prosthesis. FIG. 17 shows a semi-lunar meniscus having a support collar and an inner collar. FIG. 18 shows a meniscus liner having prongs or anchors. FIG. 19 shows a meniscus liner having screw or nail like anchors. FIGS. 20A and 20B show magnetic unloading mechanism of a joint by configuring a femur having plural curved magnets which follow the arc of the femoral condyle. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The preferred embodiments of the present invention described below relate particularly to medical devices for treating a joint, for example a knee join. Joints are the place where two bones meet. All of our bones, except for one (the hyoid bone in our neck), form a joint with another bone. Joints hold our bones together and allow our rigid skeleton to move. While the description sets forth various embodiment specific details, it will be appreciated that the description is illustrative only and should not be construed in any way as limiting the invention. Furthermore, various applications of the invention, and modifications thereto, which may occur to those who are skilled in the art, are also encompassed by the general concepts described below. To better describe the invention, some terms are defined herein as follows. “Meniscal collar” in this invention is meant to refer to a support structure around the circumference of the meniscus like a collar around a neck. “Meniscal augmentation” (or “meniscal bulking agent”) in this invention is meant to refer to a process of increasing the volume of the meniscus either by injection or other means. “Meniscal liner” (“meniscal wafer” or “joint interface sheet”) in this invention is meant to refer to a generally planar construct that fits between the tibial plateau/meniscus and the femoral condyle. Meniscal liners are implants adapted to encourage tissue healing and/or mitigate pain. The terms meniscal liner, meniscal wafer or joint interface sheet can refer to devices that (1) cover the meniscus (only), (2) cover the tibial plateau (only) or (3) cover both. “Composite meniscus” in this invention is meant to refer to a multiple component or layer structure that serves as a replacement meniscus. “Condyle cap” in this invention is meant to refer to a prosthesis covering the femoral condoyle, fitting like a cap (hat) over the condylar cartilage or bone. “Cartilage augmentation” in this invention is meant to refer to a process of increasing the volume of the cartilage by substitution or grafting. “Articular bumper” is meant to refer to a cap covering the tibial plateau that may either cover the meniscus or include a replacement meniscus. Most of our joints are “synovial joints”. They are movable joints containing a lubricating liquid called synovial fluid. Synovial joints are predominant in our limbs where mobility is important. Ligaments help provide their stability and muscles contract to produce movement. The knee includes many components (such as the bones, the cartilage, the meniscus, and others) with many functions, including the weight bearing, flexing, and walking. Femoral and tibial condyles are the hard bones underlying the gliding surfaces of the joint. Cartilage (articular hyaline) covers the bearing surfaces of the bone and forms the primary bearing surfaces in a healthy joint. Meniscus is a secondary bearing surface between the femoral and tibial cartilages, is a cushioning layer and is a contoured surface to help guide the joint as it flexes. The bone joint includes medial and lateral compartments that essentially create two separate, though not independent, bearing surfaces. Synovial fluid serves to lubricate, and in some cases, nourish the tissue and surfaces of the joint. A ligament is a short band of tough fibrous connective tissue composed mainly of long, stringy collagen fibres. Ligaments connect bones to other bones to form a joint. Capsular ligaments are part of the articular capsule that surrounds synovial joints. They act as mechanical reinforcements. Extra-capsular ligaments join bones together and provide joint stability. Ligaments are slightly elastic; when under tension, they gradually lengthen. This is one reason why dislocated joints must be set as quickly as possible: if the ligaments lengthen too much, then the joint will be weakened, becoming prone to future dislocations. Athletes, gymnasts, dancers, and martial artists perform stretching exercises to lengthen their ligaments, making their joints suppler. Some ligaments limit the mobility of articulations, or prevent certain movements altogether. New approaches to knee surgery include surgical procedures as well as apparatus. One current method includes total or partial replacement of the knee joint using open surgery and arthroscopic surgery (primarily the work on cartilage, including the meniscus and ligaments). Current joint replacement surgery uses standardized, in some cases modular, component inserted through an incision. Even the procedure called “mini open” uses a 4 to 6 inches incision. Current arthroscopic procedures are performed through small ports but are limited and not useful in the treatment of osteoarthritis. These current procedures can be substantially improved. The following outline some methods which could be applied to treat osteoarthritis and possibly other conditions of the knee. (1) Minimally invasive joint replacement with an implant that can be assembled in-situ: (a) by assembling the implant in-situ, smaller openings are used to prepare the implant and install the implant; (b) this requires specialized implants which can include components traditionally made of one piece now made of 2 or more pieces to allow passage through smaller openings; (c) assemble components (ideally self-aligning when assembled), particularly when seams occur on bearing surfaces; and (d) this should have the capability of achieving an identical clinical result to current procedures with the benefit of decreased morbidity and the potential cost of a decreased implant life. (2) Customized anatomic implants: (a) current total knee replacement replaces all surfaces of the knee. Historically, and in some cases presently, replacement of selective bearing surfaces of the knee with standardized components has or is being attempted; (b) in a partial replacement where only one of a match pair of bearing surfaces is replaced and surface mismatch can lead to early failure; and (c) this method will apply data from modem imaging modalities such as CAT and MRI to create custom implants (or tooling to manufacturing implants) with surfaces that match the anatomy and the retained natural surface; (d) this method can be applied to implants which replace and/or augment existing anatomic structures; (e) these implants can be manufactured as used or in forms that can be assembled or otherwise deployed in-situ. FIG. 11 shows a flowchart for manufacturing a custom anatomic implant. This method can optionally be enhanced by use of a replaceable or regeneratable bearing surface. (3) Formed in place implants. Another method to achieve a functional low friction joint is to form one or more components out of a malleable or incompletely cured (e.g., polymerized) material. The material is then placed in the joint space (e.g., the location of the meniscus) and then the joint cycled under load (full or partial) so the material forms into a shape appropriate to the motion. As an alternative to motion under load, a temporary mold of form can be inserted in the joint or the joint motion can be defined by an external brace or other mechanism to achieve shaping. Alternately, the material can be placed in the joint space within completely of partially preshaped forms. (4) Internal augmentation. This method augments/supports/supplements existing structures with internal support while maintaining and/or supplementing existing bearing surfaces. Bulky cartilage or filling a bone defect could be examples of this method. This method could be applied using imaging guidance or arthroscopically under direct viewing. (5) External augmentation. Augmentation differs from other implant schemes in that it uses rather than replaces existing structures, particularly bearing surfaces. External augmentation could include surface treatment (e.g., smoothing, coating, capping or some other means of enhancing a surface while essentially maintaining its existing structure and/or shape). This could also include minor additions/corrections/adjustments of the surfaces. (6) Implant preparation. One significant aspect of knee joint procedures is the criticality of the alignment of the bearing surfaces as well as the quality of their attachment to underlying structures. This can be of particular interest with customized implants manufactured from imaging. Similarly externally manufactured surface implants must align with the existing structures they are designed to overlay. Systems to either artificially create or naturally identify landmarks during both imaging/design and implantation are necessary, methods and/or structures for aligning the bones and other anatomic structures may also be appropriate. Osteotomy is an accepted treatment for knee problems. In this case, a cut is made in a bone (usually the tibia) to allow the angle of the knee joint (e.g., the tibial plateau) to be adjusted with appropriate joint alignment. The principle can be applied to other approaches, for example, the meniscal liner described herein can have varying thickness (e.g., thicker on the medial side) to readjust the angle of the joint and its bearing surfaces (see FIG. 9). This could also be applied to a knee prosthesis such as a uni-knee where the side of the knee which was not replaced may show wear, thereby providing an opportunity for improved function by (1) reducing the height of the uni-knee or (2) increasing the height of the opposite side by the insertion of a spacer (for example a meniscus liner). In both these cases, aligning the joint to distribute load over both the lateral and medial side of the joint will improve joint function/longevity and/or reducing pain. FIGS. 9A-9C shows meniscal wafer variations. One aspect of the invention (FIG. 9A) relates to a meniscal wafer with optional tibial plateau cover. This example of the meniscal wafer is shown including a tibial plateau cover. It is shown as having no special attachment means and is intended for a free-floating application. However, it could be sutured or adhesively bonded in place. Exemplary prototypes of this configuration have been assembled using 2 mm thick hydrogel adhesively bonded to a 0.5 mm thick relatively rigid polymer backing layer. In this case, the polymer backing layer was formed using vacuum forming techniques as known in the art. A second aspect of the invention (FIG. 9B) relates to a meniscal wafer with optional meniscal retaining wing. This example of the meniscal wafer is shown including tibial plateau cover and a retention wing to extend the backing layer so it curves over and around the outer circumference of the meniscus. Though this example shows the retention wing around the entire circumference of the meniscus, partial retention wings may be also clinically indicated in certain situations. Exemplary prototypes of this configuration have been assembled from vacuum formed polymers of varying thicknesses and durometers as well as structures as described. A third aspect of the invention (FIG. 9C) relates to a meniscal wafer with optional tibial attachment wing. This example of the meniscal wafer is shown including tibial plateau cover and a retention wing to extend the backing layer so it curves over the meniscus and extends down where it can be attached directly to the tibia (for reference, U.S. Pat. No. 4,502,161 “Prosthetic meniscus for the repair of joints” issued to Wall on Mar. 5, 1985). Exemplary prototypes of this configuration have been assembled as described. One issue relating to meniscus treatment is the understanding of the process of meniscal degradation and sensitivity of imaging methodologies for detection of meniscal degradation. In general the peripheral border of each meniscus is thick, convex, and attached to the inside capsule of the joint. The opposite border tapers to a thin free edge. The proximal surfaces of the menisci are concave and in contact with the condyles of the femur. The distal surfaces are flat and rest on the head of the tibia. The medial meniscus (MM) is somewhat semicircular in form and is approximately 3.5 cm in length in the anteroposterior direction and considerably wider posteriorly than it is anteriorly. The anterior horn of the medial meniscus is attached to the tibial plateau in the area of the anterior intercondylar fossa in front of the anterior cruciate ligaments. The posterior fibers of the anterior horn attachment merge with the transverse ligament, which connects the anterior horns of the medial and lateral meniscus. The posterior horn of the medial meniscus is firmly attached to the posterior intercondylar fossa of the tibia between the attachments of the lateral meniscus. The periphery of the medial meniscus is attached to the joint capsule throughout its length. At its mid-point, the MM is more firmly attached to the femur and tibia though a condensation in the joint capsule known as the deep medial collateral ligament (MCL). On the other hand, the lateral meniscus (LM) is almost circular and covers a larger portion of the tibial articular surface than the MM. It is approximately the same width from front to back. The anterior horn of the LM is attached to the tibia in front of the intercondylar eminence and behind the attachment of the ACL, with which it partially blends. The posterior horn of the LM is attached behind the intercondylar eminence of the tibia in front of the posterior end of the MM. There is no attachment of the LM to the lateral collateral ligament (LCL) but there is a loose peripheral attachment. The posterior horn of the LM is also attached to the femur by means of the meniscofemoral ligament. The meniscofemoral ligament is an accessory ligament of the knee. During knee flexion, the meniscofemoral ligament pulls the posterior horn of the LM anteriorly, increasing the congruity between the meniscotibial socket and the lateral femoral condyle. It has been demonstrated that for meniscus lesions to heal, the lesion must communicate with the peripheral blood supply. After injury within the peripheral vascular zone, a clot forms rich in inflammatory cells. This is a fibrin scaffold that eventually gets filled with cellular fibrovascular scar tissue that glues wound edges together. It becomes continuous with normal meniscus. The extracellular matrix of menisci is composed primarily of the fibrous elements, collagen and elastin, the proteoglycans, the non-collagenous matrix proteins, and water with dissolved solutes. The water content of menisci is about 74%. The dry meniscus is composed of about 75% collagen, 8%-13% non-collagenous proteins and 1% hexosamine. Collagen fibers dominate both the morphology and composition of the meniscus. Fibers are critical for the relationship of structure and function of the tissue. The tissue called fibrocartilage because of the dominance of collagen fibers. This is apparent both at gross inspection and microscopic inspection of the tissue. The non-fibrous proteoglycans are also important for structure and function but also to the metabolism of the menisci. The combination of low compressive stiffness and low permeability suggests that the menisci, as structures, should function as highly efficient shock absorbers. Since the combined mass of the menisci is much greater than that of the articular cartilage bearing load across the femoromeniscotibial articulation it is likely that most of the mechanical shocks generated in the knee joint by the loading is absorbed by the menisci. The deformation nature of the menisci with this low compressive (and shear) stiffness and permeability show them to distribute load well in the knee. The strong ligaments, (cruciates and collaterals) menisci and capsule, and the musculature constitute the primary stabilizers of the knee. These structures and muscles around the knee constitute a complete biomechanical system in which the tibia can move with respect to the femur in many planes, yet also support the high loads (more than 5 times body weight) commonly found in the joint during daily activities. Congruency is important in load transmission through the femoromeniscotibial articulation. It has been reported that the meniscus bears 50-80% of the compressive load of the knee joint. It was reported that removal of 15-34% of the meniscus increases contact pressure by more than 350%. The meniscal collar is a minimally invasive implant device intended to augment the function of the meniscus. The basic idea is a “collar” or rim placed around one or both of the menisci. One embodiment is shown in FIG. 12 for illustration. The meniscal collar (MC) can be placed in an open procedure, arthroscopically using a percutaneous procedure, or a combination thereof. In a percutaneous approach, a guidewire would be passed around the meniscus and then the MC could be pulled into position by the wire or, with an appropriate lumen incorporated into the MC, pushed over the wire into position. FIG. 1 shows positioning of an inserted meniscal liner. Though the technique shown in FIG. 1 is for positioning a meniscal liner, the similar technique can also be used in positioning a meniscal collar. The MC can be constructed from metal such as stainless steel or tantalum, a lubricious polymer such as polyethylene (PE) or crosslinked polyethylene or from a lubricating hydrogel such as polyvinyl alcohol. The MC could optionally have reinforcing mesh or wire or load transmitting wire or a removable wire that could be placed in a lumen such as a guidewire lumen. The MC could also be constructed, wholly, in combination or in part, from a shape memory and/or biodegradable polymer such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,720,402 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,160,084, entire contents of both are incorporated herein by reference. The MC could have a variety of cross-section shapes including round, oblong or custom shapes to mimic the load bearing surfaces of the meniscus. The MC could be a single continuous shape or change over the perimeter of the meniscus. The MC could be smooth, contoured, or notched. Notched construction can facilitate flexing of the MC if constructed by a more rigid polymer. An MC could be constructed in many configurations, such as a lateral medial construct, a combined heart construct, or a combined pretzel construct. Various shapes can accomplish certain goals such as avoiding the cruciate ligaments or transmit greater forces (the “pretzel” shape as shown above can have legs that can be locked and/or tightened). These means to effect locking and/or tightening can be optionally reversible and could use structures such as a ratchet similar to that used in a “zip-tie”, a series of balls with one or more mating sockets or other means well known in the fastener art. The meniscal collar may function directly (by providing a load bearing surface) or indirectly (by deforming and/or containing) to supplement the meniscus so it can better support loads. Or the meniscal collar may function both in combination. One issue related to the use of a meniscal collar is the fact that meniscal innervation and vasculature is on its periphery. MC design should optionally incorporate means such as cushioning (e.g., a hydrogel lining) or dimensioning (e.g., sizing to avoid constant pressure on the meniscus) to avoid pain and/or ischemia. Reinforcing of the MC can be, for example, NiTi, stainless steel, other rigid polymers, or shape memory material. Additionally the capsule of the knee joint surrounds the meniscus (as well as the rest of the joint). Though in most clinical situations the meniscal collar would be placed within the joint capsule, if clinically indicated, certain configurations of a meniscal collar (not the pretzel) could be placed on the exterior surface of the capsule. The MC design and shapes could be asymmetric in the support of the knee and could work in extension, flexion or both. The MC can be “free floating” or attached to the tibial and/or the meniscus. The MC could be constructed of layered material where some layers are optimized for their lubricious load bearing (for example, PE) while other layers could be used for cushioning (e.g., a hydrogel or polyurethane). Attachment can be using fasteners or ingrowth where a portion of the device in contact with the tibial plateau can be, for example, sintered porous tantalum. Meniscal Wafer/Liner Some special characteristics of one example of the proposed meniscal wafer of the present invention are shown below: (1) a PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) backing plate with appropriate hydrogels (for example, a PVA hydrogel) such that when wet, the hydrogels are very slippery and the hydro gels provide good cushioning; (2) the meniscal wafer might have an attachment wing (in some cases); (3) the meniscal wafer might have a crescent-shaped NiTi reinforcement (or reinforced by other material, configuration, or composite characteristics) around the periphery of the hydrogel; (4) the thickness of the meniscal wafer could be at least 1 mm, preferably 3 mm or more; (5) the backing plate is material that can be manufactured as an integral or chemically compatible (for bonding) to the hydrogel with desired mechanical integrity and properties. FIG. 8 shows a combined meniscal-tibial implant whereas FIGS. 7 A-7B shows an exemplary meniscal liner and an exemplary combined meniscal-tibial liner of the present invention. The meniscal-tibial implant is herein meant to be the same as the replacement meniscus with combined meniscus-tibia. For illustration, FIGS. 5 and 6 show the three variations of the meniscal, tibial and combined liners. A meniscal wafer/liner of this construction can be constructed of materials with flexibility to allow implantation through a small skin incision. By ways of illustration, FIGS. 5B-5D and 6B-6D show placement of a meniscal liner, where FIGS. 5A and 6A show the corresponding anatomy with no implant. Sutures, or a wing if included in the device, can be grasped from another port or incision and used to pull the device through the skin and into position in the knee. FIG. 2 shows attachment of a meniscal liner using sutures. A meniscus liner can also be inserted with a delivery catheter (see FIG. 3) or without use of an insertion cannula (see FIG. 4). Example No. 1 Meniscal Wafer Manufacturing A meniscal wafer (MW) is a medical device implanted via an arthroscope into the knee joint space (see FIG. 1) to act as a support and bearing wear surface between the femoral condyle and the meniscus/tibial plateau. It is for (1) use in partial or total meniscectomy to supplement or provide meniscus function and articulating surface (to minimize joint degradation), (2) use in place of partial or total meniscectomy (to delay joint degradation), (3) use after arthroscopic clean-up of osteoarthritis (OA) joint to provide fresh articulating surface and improve biomechanics (to delay total knee replacement, for example), and/or (4) to adjust the alignment of the joint though height supplementation. Meniscal wafers can be used on the medial, lateral or both sides of one or both joints. Meniscal wafers can (i) cover the meniscus (only), (ii) cover the tibial plateau (only) or (iii) cover both. FIG. 5 (B-D) shows placement of a meniscal wafer. The manufactured meniscal wafer has one or some of the following characteristics: Insertion via an arthroscope and through a cannula (folded or rolled configuration as shown in FIG. 3) or through a skin incision (as demonstrated in FIG. 4, where arthroscope and tools are omitted for clarity); Permanent, non-biodegradable device with a functional lifetime of 3+ years; —Non-fixed or floating design, limited in movement by mechanical/physical means, such as a passive stopper configuration at a periphery of the meniscal wafer; —Medial, lateral and dual compartment designs for various indications/presentations; able to be trimmed (or malleable) by physicians; Materials can be polymeric (e.g. crystalline PVA, crosslinked PU, PEEK, UHMW PE) or a soft metal (e.g. Ti, non-ferrous, alloy). Reinforcing mesh (e.g. carbon fiber) may be required for tear strength or combinations of the above; Lubricious materials (e.g. hydrogel or surfactant) or coating on device surface by adsorption, chemical bonding (e.g. phospholipids) or ion implantation (sputtering); Sterilization by ETO, H202, or radiation (gamma or e-beam); and Shelf life of about 2 years or more. FIG. 7B shows a combined meniscalltibial liner for reference. The meniscal wafer or liner may need to be well attached, particularly to resist shear forces. The anatomy might make it difficult to secure at the perimeter. One approach is to have a prong or interlocking fiber filled backing, like Velcro that will stick to tissue when implanted as one approach for anchoring purposes. An ingrowth encouraging material as described above (e.g. sintered porous tantalum) may be appropriate. if, in a specific clinical condition, it is desirable to fix the device to the tibial plateau. The attachment means can be over all or part of the area of the meniscal wafer (MW). Alternately, the meniscal wafer may be sutured to the meniscus (see FIG. 2). It is possible that a sheet would fragment, probably painfully, when it fails. Fiber reinforced sheet may require replacement before it wears to the reinforcing layer which will be abrasive. A sheet constructed from metal may fail too and would probably accelerate cartilage degradation. It may be desirable for a meniscal wafer to have the property of degradation-on-demand or other means described herein to facilitate device removal. This may comprise a step of injecting a medically compatible solvent, for example DMSO, into the knee that will quickly degrade the implant (but preserve the surrounding tissue) so it can be removed by flushing. Active electronic detection could be built in for detection of incipient failure. One example is to incorporate radiopaque and/or MRI readable layers so device thickness and/or wear can be seen at a routine doctor visit (for example, with ferromagnetic tags) or wear releases something easily (and painlessly) detectable, for example, methylene blue which turns urine blue. In the past, porous material made of an aromatic polyurethane were successfully used for meniscal reconstruction in dogs. An aliphatic PU network, synthesized by crosslinking poly(ε-caprolactone) and 1,4-trans-cyclohexane diisocyanate with glycerol, was used (Biomaterial, September 1995). Dislocation caused by tearing out of the sutures was found to be a problem because the tear resistance of the material was relatively low. Meniscal prosthesis turned out to induce fibrocartilage upon implantation, and degeneration of articular cartilage was less severe than after meniscectomy. In the following embodiment, simple layers are shown with a porous, woven or filamentous layer for ingrowth (see FIG. 13B). Sintered porous materials such as tantalum are well known in the art. They are created by compressing and bonding the particles so there are a series of connected voids (or open pores) between the particles. The size of the voids are related to the size and shape of the particles as well as the processing (sintering) parameters. By ways of illustration, an exemplary meniscal liner and an exemplary combined meniscal-tibia liner have been shown in FIG. 7 A and FIG. 7B. Lubricating Fluid The synovium (synovial membrane) generates and contains the synovial fluid. The inner membrane of synovial joints is called the synovial membrane, which secrets synovial fluid into the joint cavity. This fluid forms a thin layer (approximately 50 micrometers) at the surface of cartilage, but also seeps into the articular cartilage filling any empty space. The fluid within articular cartilage effectively serves as a synovial fluid reserve. During normal movement, the synovial fluid held within the cartilage is squeezed out mechanically (so-called weeping lubrication) to maintain a layer of fluid on the cartilage surface. There is about 3.5 ml of synovial fluid bathes the knee joint. Some lubricant or lubricant component is adsorbed by the articular cartilage and then released under pressure. Lubrication may be categorized as hydrodynamic lubrication, elastic-hydrodynamic lubrication, transition from hydrodynamic to elasto-hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication, and boundary lubrication. Any substance acting as a boundary lubricant must first be adsorbed or otherwise bound to the surface before it can impart solid-to-solid boundary lubrication. The stronger the binding and the more cohesive the adsorbed lining, the better is the lubrication and resistance to wear under load. Synovial fluid is believed to act as a vehicle for transporting the boundary lubricant to its site of adsorption. Hyaluronic acid is often injected into joints to provide “visco-supplementation”, which would enhance hydrodynamic lubrication in nonload-bearing joints and other joints when not subjected to load. Basically, it possesses no load-bearing capability unless surface-active phospholipid (SAPL) or equivalent is incorporated. Some aspects of the invention relate to a meniscal device comprising a support structure around circumference of a meniscus in a patient, wherein the support structure comprises a body with an exterior surface characterized with enhanced boundary lubrication, the body being made of biocompatible material selected from the group consisting of PVA hydrogel, elastomers, polypropylene, polyethylene, PEEK, and metals. In one embodiment, the device comprises a meniscal collar device, a meniscal wafer device, a meniscal liner device and the like. In one preferred embodiment, the enhanced boundary lubrication comprises means for attracting or adsorbing a surface-active phospholipid, for coating a functional phospholipid on the device, and for coating a reactable acrylate polymer with phospholipid side chains. One group of substances much used in the physical sciences as boundary lubricants for transforming hydrophilic subphases to hydrophobic surfaces are surfactants. Moreover, SAPL, known as a surfactant in the lung, is present in the SF of normal joints in appreciable quantities. These small molecules bind to amino acid groups that comprise the protein chains in proteoglycans such as lubricin. The lipid content of cartilage amounts to 0.3 to 4% and lipid is composed of three basic components, cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids. The first two predominate in most sites in which fat is located in the body. In the normal joint and in the lung, the major component (about 60%) is phospholipid, whereas a major sub-fraction of phospholipid is phosphatidylcholine. Phospholipids are a class of lipids formed from four components: fatty acids, a negatively-charged phosphate group, nitrogen containing alcohol and a backbone. Phospholipids with a glycerol backbone are known as glycerophospholipids or phosphoglycerides. There is only one type of phospholipid with a sphingosine backbone; sphingomyelin. Phospholipids are a major component of all biological membranes, along with glycolipids and cholesterol. In phosphoglycerides, the carboxyl group of each fatty acid is esterified to the hydroxyl groups on carbon-1 and carbon-2. The phosphate group is attached to carbon-3 by an ester link. This molecule, known as aphosphatidate, is present in small quantities in membranes, but is also a precursor for the other phosphoglycerides. One aspect of the invention relate to a synovial lubricant comprising phospholipids selected from the group consisting of phosphoglycerides, phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, phosphatidyl inositol, phosphatidyl serine, diphosphatidyl glycerol, and the like. Phosphatidyl choline is the major component of lecithin. It is also a source for choline in the synthesis of acetylcholine in cholinergic neurons. Phosphatidyl ethanolamine is the major component of cephalin. In phosphoglyceride synthesis, phosphatidates must be activated first. Phospholipids can be formed from an activated diacylglycerol or an activated alcohol. Phosphatidyl serine and phosphatidyl inositol are formed from a phosphoester linkage between the hydroxyl of an alcohol (serine or inositol) and cytidine diphosphodiacylglycerol (CDP-diacylglycerol). Some aspects of the invention relate to a material or a surface of the device that preferentially attracts and/or adsorbs SAPL, comprising a lipid or fatty surface. In one embodiment of placing a functional phospholipid coating on a device, one must prepare the surface (e.g. plasma etch or chemically treat the surface of the device), and then expose the surface to a reactable phospholipid, such as a phosphoryl choline which contains an additional acrylic double bond, or a reactable acrylate polymer with phospholipid side chains. The phosphatidylserine could also be used. The phospholipid must be chemically, covalently bonded to the surface of the device and to itself. Without a good covalent bonding, the coating will rub off. Hydrophilic coatings are applied in the same manner to the device surface. Phospholipids (PL's) are naturally present in blood, plasma, serum, etc. A mixed protein layer is deposited on a device's surface within minutes to hours after body contact. PL's will adsorb on the surface of a device soon after deposition of the protein layer. Investigators have dip coated PL's from solution onto an artificial surface and then exposed the device to blood or plasma to get an even richer PL layer. However, this coating will not be sturdy enough for a wear surface. The capability of SAPL to act as a boundary lubricant was first recognized in the thoracic cavity, in which frictionless sliding of the lungs is needed to reduce the work of breathing. SAPL also acts as a release (antistick) agent. If two normal articular surfaces are clamped together, they do not stick. However, if the SAPL lining (the outermost phospholipid zone) of the articular cartilage is removed by a lipid solvent, then they would stick. Some aspects of the invention relate to a meniscal wafer, meniscal liner or a meniscal implant that comprises a surface antistick agent or characterized with boundary lubrication configured to reduce physical adhesion. Thus, a nonstick lining of SAPL-like surfactant would prevent adhesive wear of the device of the invention. One aspect of the invention provides a material for prosthetic articular surface that has high affinity to adsorb SAPL like surfactant. Another aspect of this invention provides for this affinity to absorb SAPL to be incorporated into the bearing/lubricating surface of any of the devices described herein. It is speculated that changes in synovial fluid properties accelerate meniscal degradation. The purpose of lubricating the joint is to relieve pain, not to mask pain. Synovial fluid can be classified into normal, non-inflammatory, inflammatory, septic and hemorrhagic fluids. Osteoarthritis and trauma are in the non-inflammatory class. Rheumatoid arthritis is inflammatory whereas trauma can also be hemorrhagic. To improve lubrication of the joints, it is one embodiment of the present invention to insert a minimal invasive recirculation pump. Articular cartilage is elastic, fluid-filled, and backed by a relatively impervious layer of calcified cartilage and bone. This means that load-induced compression of cartilage would force interstitial fluid to flow laterally within the tissue and to surface through adjacent cartilage. As that area, in turn, becomes load bearing, it is partially protected by the newly expressed fluid above it. This is a special form of hydrodynamic lubrication, so-called because the dynamic motion of the bearing areas produces an aqueous layer that separates and protects the contact points. Boundary layer lubrication is the second major low-friction characteristic of normal joints. Some investigators have speculated that the critical factor is a small glycoprotein called lubricin. The lubricating properties of this synovium-derived molecule are highly specific and depend on its ability to bind to articular cartilage where it retains a protective layer of water molecules. Lubricin is not effective in artificial systems and thus does not lubricate artificial joints. Joints such as the knee are bathed in lubricating synovial fluid. If additional synovial fluid could be directed into the space within the meniscus between the condyle and tibial plateau, improved lubrication could be achieved. Similarly, if the synovial fluid can be maintained in and around the surface of the meniscus and/or between the cartilage of the femoral condyle and tibial plateau during gait, improved lubrication could be achieved. Similarly, if the synovial fluid in the meniscus (between the condyle and the tibial plateau) could be pressurized, force would be applied to separate and reduce the friction between the condyle and tibial plateau (as with pressurized “air” bearings). And thereby, the same effect as improved lubrication can be achieved. Valves have been proposed for use with synovial fluid. U.S. Pat. No. 5,870,303 proposes a valve to relieve excess pressure in synovial fluid. U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0064169 proposes a valved cushion where valves control the entrance and/or exit of fluid into/out of a reservoir and thereby control a cushioning effect during gait. Some aspects of the invention relate to a system including valves and a reservoir as described in U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0064169 with fluid being forced from the reservoir into the meniscal space between the condyle and tibial plateau for the purposes of improved lubrication. The pumping of synovial fluid for the purposes of lubrication could be optionally improved by: (1) providing any piston type means to increase the pressure of the pumped fluid over the pressure between the meniscus, condyle and tibial plateau by sizing the piston with an area smaller than the tibial plateau and meniscus so the weight of walking acts over a smaller area and generating a higher pressure and (2) using a meniscal collar or other means to entrap the pressurized fluid within the tibial plateau and meniscus. An advantage of the use of such piston means is that controlling the piston areas in a two chamber pump can allow pressure multiplication to provide high pressure synovial fluid within the joint. These pumps could be externally powered, indirectly powered by gait (for example a piezoelectric crystal could generate energy to power a pump) or directly powered by gait such as the above referenced U.S. Application publication No. 2006/0064169. Alternately, other pumping and/or entrapment means such as described below can be used to accomplish improved lubrication. Though higher pressure pumping can be advantageous, pumping additional synovial fluid into the joint space when unloaded or open during the gait cycle can also result in improved lubrication. One such lower pressure embodiment illustrates a non-piston meniscal pump being placed in meniscus to pump synovial fluid into meniscus. An extension of the meniscal pump disclosed above could be an entire replacement meniscus designed to be a pump. The synovial fluid saturated compressive pumping layer stores fluid until compression forces the fluid out on to the tibial plateau. Relief of compressing refills the layer. In one embodiment, a device surface may contain sponge interstices to transiently store synovial fluid or made lipophilic to attract SAPL by treating the surface with reactable chemicals containing lipid components or by dip-coating lipids onto the surface. The cartilage-like mechanical properties of the device will reside with the core material. The outflow valve is shown as a thinned portion of the bearing surface which allows it to move upward and thereby open under internal pressure when weight is applied. The thinned area also has room to move because it does not come in contact with the condyle. The inflow valve deflects inward and would seal under internal pressure. The inflow flap would incorporate means to restrict its outward movement and create a seal when internal pressure is created by compression of the meniscus. The lubrication of the knee joints provided by synovial fluid is necessary for joint function and longevity. It has been reported that the lubricating ability of synovial fluid can change due to or in response to, e.g., acute injury or arthritis. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is used clinically to improve the lubricating ability of synovial fluid. However, its effectiveness and length of action (time wise) has been questioned or is not as long as desired. Burdick et al. in U.S. Application publication No. 2005/0164981 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,800,298 proposed a combination of a dextran hydrogel and a phospholipid. Some aspects of the invention relate to a particulate synovial lubricant that is specifically designed to overcome some of the limitations of fluids such as HA which have very limited half-lives when injected into joints. The invention is unique in that (1) it recognizes that one aspect of creating an artificial lubricant, can be the criticality of particle size for function and longevity; (2) it provides for material specifically different fluid than dextran and phospholipid; and (3) it defines preferred material parameters. For size consideration, particles should be greater than 10 microns to avoid macrophage phagocytosis and greater than 30-40 microns to avoid particles escaping into the capillaries or other vasculature. As mentioned herein, the typical SAPL lubricating layer is approximately 50 microns. It is suggested that large particle sizes (100 microns) may keep an artificial lubricant out of the bursae. The bursae are synovial fluid filled sacs which form a lubricating interface between soft tissue and bone; e.g. between the patellar tendon and the underlying bone. Bursae occur at sites of shearing in subcutaneous tissue or between deeper tissues such as muscle groups and fascia. Many bursae develop during growth but new or adventitious bursae can occur at sites of occupational friction. The preferred size range is 50-150 microns with 50-100 microns considered normal desired size. F or materials consideration, though longevity of treatment is desirable it is expected that any such lubricant would have a limited life and therefore safe biodegradation to allow re-treatment is desirable. An example of a possible material is poly(lactic acid) (PLA) or derivative, a well known material which is (1) biodegradable (with control over degradation rate by compounding); (2) available/processible as a solid particle, a hollow particle or a hydrogel; (3) available in different forces with controllable hardness; (4) readily accepting other materials attached/grafted or otherwise incorporated. In one embodiment, the configuration is a central (3-D) core with attached long chain (1-D) hydrophilic molecules. Alternatively, these attached long chain molecules could be lipids, e.g. SAPL's, other PL's or hydrophilic molecules. The material composite core and long chains would have effective particle sizes in the desired range. This is another advantage of PLA in that it can be made into particles of various sizes, for example PLA particles of <0.2 micron have been reported. This combined with the added long chain hydrophilic or lipophilic molecules would allow manufacture of particles in the desired size range. A lubricant works by reducing friction between bearing surfaces in the knee. The bearing surfaces of greatest interest are the femoral condyles and the tibial plateau/meniscus. The lubricant can function as a thin film (such as when walking) or in a static squeezed flat mode (such as when initiating motion after standing still) certain properties of an optimal lubricant will address each and/or both of these situations. It would not be desirable for any particles present between bearing surface to be harder than the bearing surfaces since this could cause the hard particles to dig into or score the bearing surfaces under load. This would suggest that the particles should be less than the 60A (shore durometer scale) hardness for healthy cartilage. If used with damaged or degraded cartilage, the material with lower durometers may be indicated. This lubricant which is composed of (a) particles, (b) long water or lipid trapping chain, and (c) a carrier fluid, saline or preferably or an inert water soluble gel with the viscosity and osmolarity of synovial fluid, will behave as (and in fact is) a non-Newtonian fluid This will help to address the needs of static and dynamic lubrication in that (i) the particle will help to keep a small separation space between bearing surfaces under static loading; (ii) long chains will trap water or lipids which, in combination with the long chains, will create a lubricity layer for dynamic motion; and (iii) the carrier will assist with injection of the lubricant, and in the case of inflammation, can help restore synovial fluid viscosity. One aspect of a lubricant is that it functions when in place between load bearing layers. In other words, this is between the femoral condyle and the meniscus and tibial plateau. Herein the improvement of lubrication by pumping lubricant into this portion of the joint has been discussed. It would alternately and/or additionally be desirable to attract, and possibly attach, lubricating molecules/particles to the bearing surfaces of the joint whether natural and/or artificial. It could be desirable to have the bearing surface had an inherent attraction to the particles. This could be accomplished, for example, by having the surfaces and the lubricating molecules/particles being of opposite charge. In the case of an artificial bearing surface a magnetic bearing surface could attract ferrous, or otherwise magnetically susceptible, lubricating. It is possible that these effects could be externally controlled by the application of external magnetic field or be intrinsic properties of the materials. These attractive effects can be used alone or in combination with chemical bonding, for example as described herein applying to SAPL or other PL lubricants. Similarly, it would be possible to create particles of materials which mimic the properties of the bearing layer itself. This could create a self-healing and/or self lubricating bearing surface where the combination of the loading and tracking of the surfaces and the deposition and entrapment of new material could mimic the living cartilage. Surface coating can be repeated by a repeat application of artificial cartilage or lubricant particles circulating in the SF (as shown in FIG. 14). Materials for this could include the PLA or PVA hydrogel and other materials, including the particulate lubricant described herein. The PVA, or other hydrogel, could optionally be treated as described herein to create a lipid attracting volume. Particles for this application could be the same size as the lubricant described above or could be larger depending upon the clinical situation. The receptive bearing layer base could be natural cartilage or an artificial material as described herein. Optionally have an increased surface roughness or other treatment to increase the adherence of the particles to the surface. Artificial cartilage materials could mimic the properties of natural cartilage and have, for example, durometer of 30A-60A; a SF lubricated static friction of 0.20-0.40 (or 0.10-0.100); and a SF lubricated dynamic friction of 0.03-0.05 (or 0.01-0.010). This method of replenishing and/or replacing the cartilage could be adjusted to use materials which are liquid when in synovial fluid but then form a gel or hydrogel in-situ. This is a variation on the form in place methodology as it can be used to selectively deposit/create material on a surface from a circulating biocompatible liquid. For example, Chitosan, a polysaccharide which is nontoxic, biocompatible and biodegradable can be formulated to gel at physiologic pH (7.4). Furthermore, Chitosan can be processed to combine with fatty acyl chlorides to form a hydrogel. Carriers can be used to attract the Chitosan to the bearing surfaces or a negatively charges bearing surface base could attract positively charged Chitosan molecules. Composite Meniscus The meniscal replacement shown herein is one embodiment of a composite meniscus. Current replacement menisci are homogenous. The basic composite meniscus can have 2, 3, 4 or more layer/components as shown below. Materials can be selected or optimized for their specific function. The bearing layer should be durable (resist shear forces) and be lubricious. Crosslinked HDPE is one example of a material candidate for this layer. This layer can be further coated to improve its lubricity with a hydrophilic or lipophilic coating, e.g. a SAPL absorbing or adsorptive coating. FIG. 8 shows a replacement Meniscus, with optional tibial plateau cover. This example of the replacement meniscus is shown including a tibial plateau cover. A soft meniscal portion is molded from a polymer of appropriate durometer. It can be optionally reinforced in a uni, bi or triaxial manner to resist flex and/or prevent tearing or fragmentation. This can be accomplished using fibers and or metal reinforcing bands or wires. This is then optionally attached to a backing plate for mounting and interfacing with the tibial plateau. The replacement meniscus can be attached to the backing plate along all or a portion of its circumference. In certain clinical situations, the “horns” of the meniscus are not bonded to the backing plate to allow flexing during gait. The backing plate can be attached to the tibial plateau using screw type fasteners, adhesives or other means know in the art. Exemplary prototypes of this configuration have been assembled using a molded 50A silicone rubber adhesively bonded to a 0.25 mm thick metal backing layer. The area of the tibial cover included a layer of a fiber reinforced lubricious fluoropolymer. Though not included on these particular prototypes, a hydrogel coating for the silicone layer was also available. The lateral restraint would be to stabilize the knee as it bends and this component would be expected to have been selected for controlled resistance to deflection. High density polyethylene (HDPE) or a fiber reinforced medium density polyethylene (MDPE) are examples of the types of materials which could be used for this application. The cushioning layer would be selected for its ability to deform under load and absorb shocks; a low density polyethylene (LDPE) or PE/EVA blend could be appropriate for this layer. The mounting layer would be selected for rigidity to facilitate interlocking (e.g., with a dovetail) with the optional separable tibial base (e.g., SS or Ti) and for its ability to be bonded to and integrated with the other components (e.g., HDPE). The mounting layer could also include means such as fiber reinforcement to facilitate attachment, and resist pull out by sutures or other means such as darts or anchors The materials described are all polyethylene, for purposes of illustration. The materials can be thermally bonded together and the bearing layer is the material often used in knee prostheses. Alternate materials may be selected from a variety of sources: biodegradable (e.g., PLA, PVA, PGA, PU and the like), hydrogels or hydrophilic (e.g., PVA hydrogel, polyacrylamide, and the like), scaffold for cell growth (e.g., PU, collagen, and the like) and metals such as porous Tantalum, SS and NiTi or the like. The material can combine the above properties and/or components and/or materials to achieve the desired device useful life and properties. A Meniscal liner or cartilage prosthesis, e.g. a meniscal or condylar prosthesis, consisting of multiple layers (see FIG. 13A) is illustrated in an exemplary embodiment with three layers as shown here: 1. Backing Layer a. For mounting to the bone/cartilage surface i. (Optionally) to hold the device in place e.g. by ingrowth into a porous surface as described herein ii. (Optionally) to allow motion relative to the bone/cartilage surface iii. (Optionally) to incorporate barbs, screws, cement or other means to hold the backing layer to the bone/cartilage iv. (Optionally) to incorporate reinforcement to facilitate attachment using sutures, darts, anchors et al. b. For lateral support (resistance to wrinkling due to lateral forces) c. As a “last line of protection” of the bone/cartilage surface i. (Optionally) stronger and/or lower wear than the other layers ii. May compromise properties which prevent damage to mating surface for increased strength iii. Ideally, if exposed by wear of the other surfaces, to function and be lubricious with natural synovial fluid 2. Transition Layer d. To provide a transition between the backing and sliding layers i. Optionally (1) to be of intermediate wear and/or strength; (2) to incorporate a wear indicator; (3) to be formed from a material with mechanical properties identical to the sliding layer; (4) to be formed from the same material as the sliding layer modified/adjusted to have different mechanical properties e. To have properties that will induce little or no damage to its mating surface i. May compromise properties which prevent damage to mating surface for increased strength ii. When exposed by wear of the sliding surface, to function and be lubricious with natural synovial fluid f. To provide cushioning i. May resist deformation more (or less) than the sliding layer 3. Sliding Interface Layer g. To provide a low wear low friction sliding surface i. In the case of the meniscus to allow the femoral condyle to slide ii. To function and compatible with natural synovial fluid iii. (Optionally) to incorporate a wear indicator h. To have properties that will NOT damage its mating surface i. To provide cushioning An exemplary combined meniscal-tibia liner is shown in FIG. 7B which applies some of the above-identified specifications. In the following embodiment, simple layers are shown in FIG. 16. In the above cone/frustum embodiment the sliding layer can be radiopaque or MRI opaque. With lucent transition and backing layers when the device is viewed from above, and when the opaque layer is worn away, lucent circles become visible or more visible. The location of the circles will indicate the location of the wear while the diameter of the circles will indicate the degree of wear. Wear past the depth of the cones will be visible as a widening non-opaque area. This can alternately or additionally be accomplished by using colorants if wear detection by direct (arthroscopic) vision is desired. Double sided devices for placement between cartilage surfaces (e.g. one embodiment of a meniscus liner) can be created similarly using, for example, a 5-layer structure: 1. sliding layer; 2. transition layer; 3. backing layer; 4. transition layer; and 5. sliding layer. In the above exemplary embodiment, the materials for the device could be as follows: 1. Backing Layer a. A PVA hydrogel, slightly stiffer than the PVA-PVP of the sliding layer 3. Sliding Layer a. PVA-PVP i. As described by Katta et al (Bioengineering Conference, 2004. Proceedings of the IEEE 30th Annual Northeast, Publication Date: 17-18 Apr. 2004. pp. 142-143) ii. Including an MRI-opaque ferromagnetic additive An exemplary meniscal liner is shown in FIG. 7A which applies some or all of the above-identified specifications. In another embodiment, the backing layer can be or can mate with a bone interface layer that allows total or partial relative motion of the meniscal layers relative to the bone interface layers. An example of this could be a metal tibial cover with a multilayer meniscus anchored to the tibial cover at its lateral or mid portion while the horns of the meniscal layers are allowed to flex and/or move as the joint extends and flexes. In this case, the metal layer not covered by the semi-lunar shaped meniscal prosthesis would be covered with a stationary lubricious low wear surface (e.g. a phospholipid coating or a multilayer structure as defined herein). Metal backings can optionally be attached or use ingrowth for anchoring as previously described herein. In these or other embodiments (and other types of meniscal prostheses or meniscal wafer/liner type devices), as an alternative or in addition to anchoring as described herein, the flexing and deformation of the horns or periphery of a device may be controlled by inclusion of a “C” or “O” shaped collar incorporated in the periphery of the device. These support collars can also provide tension on the device to resist lateral forces. These collars can be metal (e.g. NiTi or SS) or a polymer (e.g. PEEK) or a metal polymer combination. If an inner collar is used (as shown in FIG. 17) it must be configured not to create high spots or stress concentrations when impinged by the mating joint surface (if in the area of joint surface). Kobayashi and associates reported that artificial meniscus replacement using PVA hydrogel can supplement the meniscus function 2 years after implantation (Biomaterials 2005; 26:3243-3248). Neither wear, dislocation, nor breakage of the PYA hydrogel meniscus implant (90% water content) was observed. They also proposed a composite meniscus of PVA hydrogel and the tissue inducing polymer binding to surrounding peri-meniscus area. Meniscus Liner Anchoring An implanted ML will be exposed to both normal (perpendicular to the plane of the ML) and lateral (in the plane of the ML) forces. While normal forces would tend to compress the ML between the femoral condyle and the meniscus/tibial plateau, lateral forces can induce lateral or sliding (or gliding) motion of the MIL relative to the meniscus/tibial plateau. Note that in some clinical conditions, the ML is intended to remain stationary relative to the meniscus/tibial plateau while the femoral condyle slides over the surface of the ML. To prevent lateral motion of the ML relative to the meniscus/tibial plateau there are a number of structures which can be employed as follows: (1) prongs/anchors—Prongs or anchors extending out of the plane of the ML where they can (i) extend into the cartilage/meniscus, (ii) extend through the cartilage into the tibial plateau (TP) as shown in FIG. 18. Optionally the anchors can be angled to improve their resistance to lateral forces/motion. Forces will be primarily front to back but they can/will also be side to side. (2) Ingrowth—tissue ingrowth is a well known method for establishing an implant. A porous metal such as sintered Tantalum or a felt type material or other tissue ingrowth material may be secured to the meniscal/TP side of the ML or the ML material itself may be configured to encourage ingrowth, optionally chemical means such as growth factors or autologous blood clot may be used. Optionally the meniscus/TP may be prepared to encourage ingrowth by being pierced/scored or other equivalent means to the point of bleeding to provide clots (blood cells, endothelial growth factors, platelet derived growth factors, other growth factors, and fibrin etc.) and a healing response to encourage ingrowth. (3) Screw/Nail/Anchors—In some cases, a 2-stage anchoring process may be desirable. In this case, the meniscus/TP is prepared by the placement of one or more primary anchors to which the ML is thus attached (see FIG. 19). This attachment can be with a peg or socket or other means known in the art. The primary anchor can screw or by other means be secured in the TP and/or meniscal. Note that forces on the primary anchor will, for the most part, be lateral and front to back in particular, and the anchor should be optimized for resistance to front to back lateral motion. An example of this could be something similar to an arrowhead with blade surrounding a socket. In this case, the broad side of the arrowhead would be oriented to resist front to back motion. Use of individual pegs to resist lateral motion of a meniscal liner can have additional benefits by allowing or (by using a concave or concave shape) encouraging separation between the liner and the underlining tissue. The combination of this separation and the motion/compression due to gait and joint flexion and elongation can effectively improve circulation of synovial fluid by pumping the synovial fluid under the device to the living cartilage. One aspect of an ML type implant is that it would be subject to wear and may fail mechanically as a result of wear and/or the stresses imposed by normal and/or athletic activities. Since it is likely that an ML would have a finite useful life it is desirable that as the implant nears the end of its life it is not subject to catastrophic failure in the event, it is not removed prior to the end of its useful (undamaged) life. For the purposes of this discussion, we would grade some primary failure modes as follows: device fragmentation (worst), splitting or tearing (bad), or thinning/wearing through (most desirable failure mode). Cast or extruded polymeric sheets can be prone to fragmentation as a failure mode. This can be reduced by the inclusion of fibers as reinforcement. Fiber reinforcement can be accomplished, for example, by adding chopped fibers, woven strands, or layered strands. Inclusion of chopped fibers in a polymer matrix can reduce and/or delay failure but the failure mode of this type of reinforcement can still be fragmentation. Woven fabric incorporated into and/or coated by a polymer can be the most resistant to fragmentation; however, the over and under nature of the fabric weave can be abrasive once the overlying polymer has worn away. This can be minimized by selecting fibers which are softer than the condyle cartilage which will be sliding over the weave fibers. Layers of parallel fibers will be likely to be weaker than a woven fabric when used in a polymer composite construction as an ML. However, if the top layer of fibers is aligned with the primary motion of the condyle over the TP, exposed fibers will be less likely to abrade the cartilage. In clinical situations, material selection and the ability to detect the progress of wear of an ML will be factors in determining the appropriate structure/reinforcing of an ML. Further, detection of the wear progression or wear on an implant before failure or before wear becomes detrimental to the patient can be desirable. The defining parameter of an ML is its height or thickness. The thickness of an ML defines the height (or separation) of the knee joints. As the ML wears, it would be expected that the thickness and height would be reduced. Though significant height change can be detected using known imaging techniques (e.g., MRI), greater precision could be desirable. For example, in the case of a fabric reinforced ML, it would be desirable to know when a certain thickness of polymer remained above the fabric. This could be accomplished by creating a layered polymer above the fabric where for example radiopaque and radiolucent layers of 0.5 mm could be alternated. Similarly, ferromagnetic particles could be used to create such a structure that could be visualized using an MRI. Another alternative would be to have a radiopaque or Ferro-opaque layer 0.5 mm above the fabric in which case the distance between the opaque layer and the bone vs. the known preoperative distance corresponding to the articular cartilage would indicate the wear limit had been reached. Please note that the strategies can be used in many scenarios, in addition to the fabric reinforced polymers. Another approach would be to have a layer or defined zone of the material subject to wear been impregnated with a chemical marker. This chemical marker would be compatible and inert in that it could have no effect on the body means of detection and could be by a routine blood test or other diagnostic means. One embodiment of this type of detector could be a material such as methylene blue, a well known medical dye. This material has been known to turn urine blue when ingested. If impregnation and wear does not release sufficient material to be detected, then marker material can be deposited in a small pocket or reservoir in the implant which will be released by wear. One other aspect of an implant relating to wear is the issue of replacement. Removal of an implant can be a problemic part of the replacement procedure. The idea of degrade-on-demand (DOD) is that, when a naturally wearing or degrading implant should be removed, the materials would allow quick and easy replacement by accelerating the wear/degradation by causing the device to rapidly degrade to allow reabsorbance and/or removal (for example, by flushing). For example, an ML may be constructed of a polymer which is soluble in DMSO at body temperature. When wear is detected, the knee joint may be flushed with DMSO until the ML degrades and is flushed out of the knee joint by the flush fluid (DMSO). This can then allow immediate replacement of the ML. Similarly, anchors used to retain the ML in place may be soluble in DMSO or some other biocompatible solvent. This would facilitate release of the ML from its attachment to speed up or ease removal. Another aspect of degradation on demand could be automatic degradation. This could be an embodiment of a multilayer construction as described herein. In this case, for example, an inner layer made of gelatin or some other rapidly dissolving material would be surrounded and sealed by a water impervious layer which could then be combined with a primary outer layer composed of a hydrogel. The inner layers could provide bulk and/or support to the softer outer layer which will be of low friction and the primary load bearing interface layer. Wear of the device through the water impervious layer would allow water to attack the gelatin layer and a rapid decrease in the size and stiffness of the device. Though this may be a painful means of informing the patient that it is time to remove/replace the device, its removal will be simplified by the dissolution of the inner layer. Magnetic Unloading and/or Alignment The knee joints bear the weight of the body and have transient loading more than double the body static weight. The weight translates to normal forces on the bearing surfaces of the joint. Reducing these normal forces can reduce the load, and therefore the wear of the joint. It is suggested herein that opposing magnets placed in or on the femoral condyle and tibial plateau could be used to reduce these normal forces. Since it is desirable for this force reduction to occur during gait and not only when standing, it is preferable that this magnetic opposition occurs while the joint flexes or extends. The following options include both means to preserve and/or replace the bearing surfaces of the joint. In the case of replacement of the bearing surfaces (e.g., in a total knee replacement) all or part of the femoral and tibial components which are anchored to the bone are typically metal and could include and/or be constructed from or include magnetic materials. For example, rare earth magnets could be used with both components having like poles (e.g., negative) facing each other. If it is desired to unload the joint while preserving the bearing surfaces of the knee, the mechanism as shown in FIG. 20 can be applied. In this case, the femur has two or more curved magnets which follow the arc of motion of the femoral condyle as it slides along the tibial plateau. Opposing bones in the tibia, shown here as opposing pairs, can be straight or curved depending upon clinical requirements. Though the opposing magnets are intended to provide a reduction in the upward normal forces, geometric relationships can be selected to include lateral force vectors to help stabilize the joint. It is understood that lateral forces can be used to stabilize a joint. These forces can, by their orientation, help to align the path of the elongation and flexion of the knee. Thought the rods should be parallel to each other for proper tracking they can be angled to the left or right from the natural axis of the relative (e.g. femoral vs. tibial) bending of the joint. In certain clinical situations, it may be desirable to change this relative angle. The gentle magnetic bias imposed by these off axis magnets can result in a reorientation of the relative bending angle. In other clinical situations, it may be desirable to adjust the left-right (inside-outside) angle of the joint. Use of magnets on one (not both) sides of the knee would result in biasing forces which could result in realignment of the side to side tracking of the knee. Meniscal Allografting One aspect of the partial meniscectomy, particularly in the case of an acute injury to a young patient, is that the tissue removed is basically healthy. During the partial meniscectomy procedure, the tissue can be collected, prepared and then reimplanted into the meniscus as an allograft. Collection could be performed using an arthroscopic shaver (which will result in relatively small chunks) or other methods can be used to remove the tissue block. Tissue allograft preparation could consist of one or more of the following: (a) slicing, dicing, grinding, (b) and optionally mixing with other components such as blood/clot, growth factors and/or other agents, (c) preparation for implantation could be as simple as loading in a syringe alternately the tissue could be loaded into a miniature sausage casing (optionally biodegradable). Sausage casing implies porosity with porosity optimized for nutrients and possibly blood cells. Re-implantation could be as simple as injecting the tissue back into the remaining meniscus as a bulking agent or if loaded in a sausage casing could be all or partially implanted. Though it is not necessary that the autograft sausage traverse the meniscus from outside-in (or inside-out), this has advantages in that at least a portion of the autograft is exposed to the vascularized meniscal rim. Therefore, the autograft itself may serve as a conduit for nutrients et al. from the outer rim to the inside portions of the meniscus. The exposed portion of the autograft may be protected by an ML as an option. Similarly, multiple auto grafts may be used to form a replacement for the tissue removed. Also additional autogeneous material may be added to the meniscal tissue to enable use of a larger number of autograft plugs. Other Aspect-Custom Condyle Caps The custom condyle cap (CCC) is based upon the concept of covering the existing surface(s) at the femoral condyle with a custom made form fitting prosthesis. One example is a half red blood cell shape that covers the condyle to relieve pain. For simplicity, the following examples would model the condyle as a hemisphere. The CCC is a customized anatomic implant. The CCC may be made of a metal, such as NiTi as follows: (a) image the condyle or condyles; (b) create male & female tools; (c) stamp and clamp a sheet of metal between the tools; (d) trim the sheet as appropriate (this step may precede step c above); (e) if integral retainer tabs are included with design, position tabs in their final intended position; (f) heat the metal sheet and tools above the transition temperature (about 1000° F.) to the austenitic phase; (g) after an appropriate time at the desired temperature, remove CCC from tools and cool below the metal austenitic/martinesetic transition temperature of about 90° F. (Note: the metal NiTi is selected to achieve this austenitic/martinestic transition temperature); (h) reform the CCC to be optimal for the desired surgical procedure for implantation/attachment; (i) maintain CCC below the transition temperature until implantation; and G) implant and allow CCC to achieve its final shape on the face of the femoral condyle. Note that with shape memory CCC's, it is critical that the CCC be maintained at temperature until positioned for attachment to the condyle and maintained in position until shape change is complete. At any stage, generally after (e) or (h), the metal can be coated on one or both sides with an appropriate polymer (e.g. a PE or Fluoropolyment or a hydrogel) or other coating. If applied after (f) or (g) and before G) it must have sufficient flexibility deformability to accommodate the shape change at step (j). If applied before step (f), the coating must withstand the processing temperature and have the flexibility/deformability previously mentioned. If applied in-situ using attraction deposition as mentioned herein, the metal should be made receptive/attractive to the coating. FIG. 10 shows a condylar cap with a lubricious bearing surface and surfaces on the side to hold the cap in place. Though this example of the condylar cap is intended to represent a custom anatomically designed specifically fit on this individual patient's anatomy, it could be also a standard implant placed on a prepared surface. In this example, a 3-layer structure is employed with a flexible middle land a top sliding layers limited to the load bearing regions of the device. The backing layer has additional material which extends around the femoral condyle to retain the device in place. Optionally additional fastenings and/or adhesives can be used to hold the device in place. Use of a shape change material for a CCC is exemplary. Stainless steel, titanium or other materials (alloy with suitable fabrication techniques) can be used. Materials used for CCC's may have an impact on surgical procedures. Flexible or shape changing implants may allow implantation through a smaller incision or even arthroscopically. NiTi can be used to make a superelastic CCC also. The concept of a custom cap of this invention may apply to other implant caps beyond the standardized shaped and sized condylar caps. One aspect of the CCC is that it is ideally of a relatively thin thickness or cross-section. Another aspect is that it requires little or no removal of bone. Cartilage overlying the condyle is optionally or non-optionally removed. The CCC designs can include coating and/or layer(s) which would simulate or substitute for the cartilage. This artificial cartilage may be designed to be replaceable. It can be PE, crosslinked PE, hydrogel or other suitable material. This artificial cartilage layer can also optionally include self-healing capability as described above. In an extremely superelastic CCC, the CCC may be formed and then rolled into a cylinder which can be passed through an arthroscopic portal into the knee. The CCC then would unroll and be positioned accordingly. The procedure/method as outlined should include the step of preparing the condyle or condyles for receiving the CCC implant. CCC design may also include spikes or pegs to attach them to the femur and prevent shifting or slipping. Cement or other adhesives can also be used. Tibial/meniscal cover devices (for medial or lateral compartment menisci) may be constructed as an artificial cartilage covered metal plate over the tibia/meniscus with wings for attachment. In one embodiment, the backing should be directly over the tibia and include a total meniscus replacement. In another embodiment, the above-identified plate is without wings. If needed, the mounting of the cover device is on or very close to the tibial face, possibly under the meniscus replacement. Similarly, a condyle cover may be consisted of a tin backing plate with wings for attachment to an artificial cartilage sliding surface. Other Solutions-Localization or Relocalization One aspect of implants which are custom constructed for existing anatomy is the desire or need to match and/or duplicate the geometry of the joint from which the implant was designed with the geometry of the joint into which the implant is placed. This can be an issue when minimally sized incisions or portals are used to place an implant. Current technology for open total knee replacement and especially mini open procedures makes use of cutting guides to correctly position components of the implant. This is also the practice with partial knee replacements such as uni-component (or uni-knee) prosthesis. One of the advantages that may be achieved with a custom constructed implant is the minimization or elimination of cutting notches in the bone to position the implant. Absent notches cut in the bone or in a situation where an implant is designed and/or constructed using an anatomy dependent notch which may be defined (but not formed) at a procedure other than the procedure in which the implant is placed, other methods and apparatus are needed. Some aspects of the invention relate to a method and apparatus involving: (1) using an external frame to position markers on the femur and tibia prior to performing an imaging study; (2) at a later date replacing the frame at the same location on the femur and tibia to match the localization of the initial imaging with the implant procedure. Apparatus of the marking would be matched to the imaging modality, e.g., radiopaque for CAT scan marking must be sufficient to define the location in space—specifically a minimum of 3 points on each bone or 2 lines on each bone. Marker should be designed so as to facilitate relocation, that is, precise relocation of the frame at the follow up procedure. Markers would prefer to be biodegradable or removable. This can be accomplished by having an opening in the bottom of the marker into which a hydrogel or barbed removal tool can be placed. In one embodiment, the removal tool is part of the frame used for the second procedure (not the first) so removal at the frame removes the marker. Three markers can have the advantage of surrounding the limb. Two line type markers can accept and restrain elongated pines that can allow the use of a guide frame that does not need to surround the limbs. The above shows the most basic frame where it is used only to accurately localize and relocalize the limbs. Additional arms or beams attached to the frame can be used to guide placement of an implant or cutting a notch in a base. The meniscus bears a great deal of the load which is borne by the knee. Replacement menisci have had mixed result while arthroscopic procedures on the meniscus are effective. In an effort to preserve and supplement the performance of the meniscus, the idea of injecting materials into tissue to augment the appearance or function of tissue is well known. U.S. Pat. No. 6,390,096 is an example of where a needle is used to implant a solid prosthesis into the palate to alter the mechanical response of the palate to air flow. The idea of meniscal augmentation or bulking would involve using a needle system, similar to U.S. Pat. No. 6,390,096 to inject a hydrogel or other polymer into the meniscus. Based upon the clinical situation, it can be beneficial to use a system with a non-coring type needle as is well known in the art. Similarly, use of a needle with a little or no cutting (like a taper style surgical needle) can be beneficial in some cases. The implant which is placed in the cavity formed by the needle penetrating into the meniscus. Then serves to build up, i.e., expand the volume of the meniscus and thereby provide additional support to the joint. Multiple implants can be inserted and repeat procedures can be performed. Implant material can be optionally biodegradable or bioresorbable. Implant material can be relatively rigid or soft and springy as would be a hydrogel which will cyclically absorb and expel fluid due to changes in external stress. This would duplicate the performance of natural cartilage. Elastomers such as silicone or polyurethane may also be useful in this application. One advantage of this type of implant is that it maintains the meniscus tissue as the bearing material in contact with cartilage and bone. Optionally, the bulking implant can be a growth encouraging scaffold which would facilitate growth and regeneration of meniscal cells. Optionally, the building implant can be biodegradable. Fixed or variably curved implantation needles may enable/facilitate implantation around the circumference of a crescent shaped meniscus. For the mechanic, one approach to extending the life of a worn bearing is to replace or resurface the worn bearing surface. This can be accomplished through the use of a replaceable liner or added sleeve placed within an existing liner. In the case of the knee, some have considered the meniscus as a replaceable bearing liner and have contemplated replacing the meniscus (for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,893,463, entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference). The idea of the meniscal liner (ML, also referred to herein as meniscal wafer MW) is more akin to the concept of placing a sleeve within an existing bearing liner. A sleeve type liner placed over the existing meniscus and/or tibial plateau could achieve multiple objectives: (1) It can isolate the meniscus from tear inducing shear stresses; (2) It can provide a fresh smooth lubricious bearing surface; (3) It can optionally add height to the joint by adjusting the thickness at the liner; and (4) It can optionally adjust or modify the shape/configuration of the bearing surface of the joint. The ML can be constructed in a number of manners. One example would be to make a positive mold of the meniscus from CAT or MRI data. This mold could then be used with standard vacuum form equipment. After forming, the liner could be trimmed and optionally modified, coated and/or otherwise prepared for implantation before sterilization. The liner could be made from many materials (some of the following can be thermoformed: PE, PP, acrylic, PU et al., biodegradable materials such as PLA, PGA etc.). The ML can also be used as an adjunct to a meniscal tissue engineering procedure. In this case, the ML is used to provide a bearing surface for the joint while a paste graft, collagen (or other) scaffold or other collagen regenerating procedure is performed. In some cases, an ML made from a biodegradable material would be used for this application. In some cases, an ML made from or coated with a hydrogel material would be used for this application. The ML can be a totally separate component or can be integrated with the graft/scaffold/collagen. In certain clinical situations, a key of the use of the ML can be that it protects a regenerating meniscus. It should be noted that though described as being specific to the knee, the devices and methods might apply to other joints, such as hip and shoulder. The meniscal liner can optionally include a liner that covers the tibial plateau in addition to the meniscus. Optionally the ML can be porous to allow passage of synovial fluids. Optionally the ML can be made from a hydrogel and/or lipophilic material where the trapped/absorbed water or lipids could improve the lubricity of the ML surface. A mock up meniscal liner was prepared using 0.5 mm PP and a dental thermoforming machine. The ML was trimmed and removed from a meniscus mold. A plastic knee model was then reassembled with the ML in place. Prototypes were also constructed using hydrogel layers of varying thicknesses on the PP backing layer. In bench-top experiments, the knee articulated appropriately with the polypropylene and PP/Hydrogel ML mock-up sheets in place. The bearing surfaces at the knee include the condyles (their articular cartilage lining), the meniscus and the tibial plateau. The surfaces can be improved in a number of manners using a number of technologies/techniques that differ from improvement of their lubricating synovial fluid. The surfaces could be improved by: (1) making them smoother and harder (to reduce friction and resist wear and damage); (2) making them more lubricious (to reduce friction); (3) making them softer to avoid damage to the natural surfaces; and (4) making them tougher (to resist tears and other damage). The surface improvement could be accomplished by: (1) attaching a material or lubricant directly to the cartilage using a chemical bond; (2) attaching the material or lubricant directly to the cartilage using a photo activated bond; (3) attaching the material or lubricant to the cartilage using a carrier material; (4) attaching an intermediate material to the cartilage which will scavenge and bond active particles, moieties or ingredient circulating in the synovial fluid; and (5) placing an active particles, moiety/molecule in the synovial fluid where it is absorbed by the cartilage. Long chain hydrophilic or 3-D hydrogel materials may be other candidates for a lubricious coating material. Coating of interpenetrating and/or crosslinking long chains may serve to protect the area and isolate the meniscus from tear-inducing shear stresses while similar coatings may be optimized for hardness and/or load distribution. In many situations, it would be desirable for these coatings to be porous to some degree to allow nutrients and other active agents from the synovial fluid to penetrate to the cartilage underlying the coating. One method for surface coating the joints could include steps: removing the synovial fluid (SF), replacing the SF with another fluid, drying the interior of the joint, applying a first agent, applying a second agent, applying activity energy (e.g. light, UV light, RF energy), applying a third agent, rinsing the joint and replacing the SF. One aspect of the invention relates to activated coating active components of the synovial fluid, such as SAPL and the like, onto a joint or onto implantable devices (such as a meniscal liner, meniscal wafer, meniscal collar, composite meniscus, condyle cap, cartilage cap, articular bumper, meniscal bulking agent, and the like). The following prior art is incorporated herein by reference: U.S. Pat. No. 4,722,906 issued on Feb. 2, 1988, U.S. Pat. No. 5,512,320 issued on Apr. 30, 1996, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,077,698 issued on Jun. 20, 2000. Meniscus augmentation is a subset of the idea of cartilage augmentation (CA). Augmenting or bulking (these terms are used interchangeably) agents can be: (a) rigid, elastomeric, porous; (b) biostable or biodegradable (used interchangeably with the term bioresorbable); (c) coated, impregnated or seeded with cells or bioactive agents; (d) biological materials such as cells (e.g., cartilage cells) from the patient or other sources; or (e) combinations thereof. The bulking agent can be biocompatible and/or serves as a scaffold for the growth and regeneration of cells/tissue. To scaffold, a material must have a combination of surfaces and voids. The voids should communicate as in an open cell form or a matrix of round pellets. The scaffold could be a combination e.g., particles of open cell foam. Scaffold material should be compatible with the cells which are desired to colonize the scaffold and regenerate the desired tissue. Hydrogels can be used as scaffolds and can act in a manner similar to an open cell foam. In addition to compatibility, it can be desirable in some situations to encourage this colonization and regeneration. Some aspects of the invention relate to a method of meniscal augmentation comprising administering a meniscal bulking agent to increase a volume of the meniscus, wherein the meniscal bulking agent is preferably administered by injection. In one embodiment, the injection step is applied using imaging guidance or arthroscopically under direct viewing. In one embodiment, the meniscal bulking agent comprises a biodegradable hydrogel. In another embodiment, the meniscal bulking agent comprises a crosslinkable hydrogel with a first molecular weight, the crosslinked hydrogel having a second molecular weight higher than the first molecular weight. In still another embodiment, the meniscal bulking agent is a liquid with a first viscosity index before an administering step, the meniscal bulking agent having a second viscosity index after the administering step, wherein the second viscosity index is higher than the first viscosity index. In a further embodiment, the bulking agent has a first volume before an administering step and expands to a second volume after the administering step. In a preferred embodiment, the bulking agent further comprises a scaffold seeded with autologous cells, mesenchymal stem cells or regenerative cells. This can be done with coatings, impregnation and/or preseeding the material with cells of the desired type. Alternately, some materials (e.g., collagen and PU) inherently or through additives as other types of surface treatment encourage colonization and cell growth. One exemplary CA agent could be a biodegradable foam that would act as a scaffold. This material could be injected into the cartilage as a liquid and form the foam in-situ as described in U.S. Application publication No. 2001/0043913 AI. Alternately, small pieces of foam material can be passed through a cannula to the implant site. Examples of this could be foams formed from PU, PLA, PGA or other materials commonly used to make biodegradable structures. Foam particles could also be made from a hydrogel. An example of material to be added to or incorporated into a CA agent to encourage cell growth and regeneration could be growth factors or allograft cells such as described in Arthroscopy 2006; 22(3):291-299. The combination of the foam scaffold which has been designed and/or selected to provide mechanical support of the cartilage before it degrades and while the cells infiltrate the scaffold and regeneration. Cartilage Augmentation Methods: One of the aspects of tissue augmentation is matching the augmenting material to the tissue/anatomy being augmented. Specifically soft tissues are augmented by relatively soft materials and hard tissues. Different tissues also require different methods for implantation. Soft tissues allow material to be injected directly into tissue where the injection pressure creates space in the tissue. In the case of hard tissue, means to create space in the tissue must be developed. In one embodiment, a balloon was used to create space in bone to allow implantation of cement in the space created within a vertebrate. Cartilage, articular and meniscal, are intermediate tissues softer than bone but harder than soft tissue such as muscle. Furthermore, both the meniscus and most articular cartilage (e.g., that overlying the femoral condyle) are attached on one side to bone. In the knee and other joints, one or more of the non-attached surfaces are lubricated bearing surfaces. These cartilaginous tissues also are compressible and serve to cushion loads transmitted within and through the joint. Furthermore, some cartilage, in particular the meniscus, is known to be prone to tearing and other mechanical failure. These aspects of the function and properties of cartilage suggest that any material/method for CA address one or more of the following issues: (1) do not result in the cartilage detaching from the surface of the bone; (2) do not split or tear the collagen or create stress concentrations; (3) do not adversely impact the surface smoothness or lubricious nature of the bearing surface of the cartilage; (4) do have properties that match the cushioning of the natural materials—mechanical augmentation; (5) do have the ability to be implanted in a manner to increase the size/volume of the cartilage—volume augmentation; (6) optionally provide a surface or surfaces to allow cell growth and regeneration—biologic augmentation; (7) optionally accelerate/facilitate biological augmentation by drugs, cell seeding et al.; and (8) do encourage/enable healing and ultimate fusing and re-attachment of the augmented tissue. The following is an example of a detailed CA procedure. Some optimal steps and alternatives are included to provide a better understanding of some of the issues involved in CA: (1) advance a needle into the cartilage along the margin between the cartilage and its underlying bone; (2) (alternately) slide a trocar cannula over the needle, or optionally remove the cannula after it has dilated the cartilage; (3a) (alternately) slide a trephine over the needle and spin the trephine to cut into the cartilage and/or the bone; (3b) remove the trephine and optionally collect any cartilage and bone tissue from the trephine; (3c) optionally suction and/or flush around the needle to collect additional tissue; (3d) optionally set aside the collected tissue and optionally remove any excess liquid and optionally mercerize the tissue into a paste; (4) optionally pass a balloon over the needle and inflate to deflect the cartilage and create space between the cartilage and bone; (5) select a material for placement in the created space (in this case, we may select particles of open cell foam of PU, PV A et al.); (6) optionally mix the foam with the previously collected cells; (7) optionally add growth factors; (8) insert a thin cannula over the needle; (9) remove the needle; (10) insert the foam cell mixture through the cannula into the space created by the balloon; and (11) insert a plug through the cannula or suture, close the defect in the cartilage. Certain aspects of this procedure are optimized for cell regeneration as outlined below: (1) The use of the trephine in step 3 in the above paragraph is to collect tissue for this purpose; (2) Sliding the trephine over the needle along the bone/cartilage border (step 3) allows collection of both cartilage and bone cells. Furthermore, this can optionally cut deep into the bone to cause bleeding; (3) The use of a porous foam; (4) In step 4, the foam provides mechanical support to the cartilage and would also flex to cushion loads in addition to facilitate/accelerate the cell growth and regeneration; and (5) The use of a plug or suture to close the defect at the implant site is to prevent escape of the material from the implant site. As the materials are expected to be pressurized as the cartilage deflects, this step improves the augmentation by providing escape of the cells or the augmenting foam. Biomaterials for Meniscal Liner Biomaterials for implantable knee devices, wafer, liner, meniscal/tibial cover, condylar cover may include: (1) Core Material: (a) High Modulus (>300,000 psi) Metals—ferrous/non-ferrous metals, metal alloys (stainless steels, cobalt steels, cobalt chromium alloys, Nitinol) Ceramics—zirconium Polymers polysulfones, polycarbonates, polyesters, epoxies, PEEK, polyimides (b) Moderate Modulus (50,000-300,000 psi) Polymers—nylons, polyurethanes, polypropylenes, polyethylenes, polyesters, polyureas, polyacrylates, polyvinyl alcohol, polymer blends, natural polymers (collagen) (2) Optional Reinforcement: (woven or non-woven) Polyester Fibers (3) Optional Lubricious Surface Coating: Hydrogels—polyacrylates, PVP, PEO Lipids—phospholipids (phosphatidyl choline) Protein—tribonectins, glycoproteins There are many biocompatible polymers, such as PVA, polyurethanes, polyolefins, that can meet requirements for the core of the device, (e.g. shore hardness of 70A to 60D, or a compressive modulus about 400 kPa). It is noted that the materials challenge is in the wear/friction surface against the natural tissues. Without causing tissue degradation, the device must stand up to the repeated frictional forces in the knee joint, and give acceptable wear with minimal particulate generation. A tough, wear resistant, lubricious surface is needed. HA Microparticles The goals for treatment of osteoarthritis using hyaluronate compositions, hyaluronic acid and hyaluronates (collectively herein called as “HA”), can be met by injection of a suspension of HA microparticles into the joint space. The particles will act as depots for supply of soluble HA's in the joint space—a slow or time release of HA's. Suspensions have viscosities similar to that of the carrier fluid, such as saline, therefore injection of large loading doses of HA's are possible. Injection needle can be e.g. 18-22 ga. Microparticles can be made by known techniques such as spray evaporation, precipitation, emulsification and filtration, or grinding. Particle size needs to be >10μ, preferably >25μ to minimize inflammation and diffusive leaching. A preferred range is 50-1000μ. In some clinical situations, this preferred range could be 100-200μ. High molecular weight of the HA is preferred and MW should be at least 500,000. In some clinical situations MW>1,000,000 or even >10,000,000 may be indicated. Bacterial sourced HA may be preferred to minimize pathogenic contamination and allergic reactions. Since the HA particle is soluble, it will initially become hydrated and soft, thereby further acting as a cushioning agent within the joint space. HA particles can form in-situ from a liquid injection. Methods for self agglutination of this type have been described by Bell et al. Alternately, HA can be bound or otherwise attached to a molecule which will aggregate into particles in situ. Water soluble radiopaque agents (RO) such as metrizamide may be added to the composition to allow visualization upon injection to insure the target joint space is successfully treated. RO ingredient could alternately be biodegradable and/or MRI visible. MRI visible agents can be, for example ferromagnetic. RO ingredients, such as gadolinium complexes, could alternately enhance MRI visibility. RO agents can be optionally incorporated in particles and/or bound to HA molecules. RO agents can optionally be excretable through the kidneys such as diatrizoate meglumine Dissolution rates can be adjusted. Rates can be decreased with larger particle sizes or incorporation of additives to retard dissolution, such as lactic and/or glycolic acid polymers, PEG, collagen, gelatin, etc. Use of the free HA acid or the partial salt of HA (sodium, calcium, ferric) or cross-linking may also decrease dissolution times. Other methods e.g. cross-linking can also be used to control the dissolution of HA. Cross-linking is an example of a method that is known to effect the hardness (durometer) and durability of materials. Crosslinking can be induced, for example, chemically or by radiation. HA can be formed into particles of various durometer hardnesses. In most clinical situations it will be desirable that the HA particles be softer (with lower durometer numbers) than the cartilage to avoid damaging the cartilage. Bae et al. have published data indicating the durometer of young healthy cartilage can be on the order of 60 Shore A while the durometer of older or unhealthy cartilage can be on the order of 30 Shore A. The preferred durometer of the HA particles would range from 10 Shore A to 50 Shore A depending upon the clinical situation. This invention also includes a method by which the durometer of the cartilage will be measured, and a HA particle durometer selected based upon the durometer of the cartilage. Therapeutic medications, such as steroids, growth factors, etc., can also be incorporated into the HA particle. Lubrication enhancers, such as proteins, e.g. lubricin or phospholipids, e.g. dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine may also be incorporated in the formulation will initially become hydrated and soft, thereby further acting as a cushioning agent within the joint space. Alternate Embodiments Another approach is to inject and form a large depot of HA within a space in the joint capsule (bursa), similar to slow release (3 to 6 month) drug delivery depots such as Depot Provera and Lupron Depot. The HA would be formulated with a slow dissolving agent, such as a PEG or a copolymer of lactic and glycolic acids, and injected into a joint cavity to form an in situ depot for HA. An approach to provide for a greater concentration of HA per injection is to employ a biocompatible co-solvent in the normally aqueous (saline) HA solution for injection. The co-solvent, such as DMSO, ethanol, ethyl lactate, is a “poor” solvent for the HA. Therefore, the solution viscosity with the co-solvent will be substantially reduced from that of an aqueous solution. This will permit a significantly greater concentration of HA for a given viscosity. A two part product may be manufactured, which consists of the HA/polymer microparticles in a vial (part A) and a second vial containing the liquid vehicle (part B). The liquid from vial A would be injected into the powder in vial B to produce the suspension, and then the suspension injected into the patient. The product could be a dual chamber syringe, with the dry or lyophilized HA/polymer microparticle in one chamber and the liquid vehicle, such as phosphate buffered saline, in the second chamber. The two chambers are mixed to create the suspension immediately before injection. Alternately, the lyophilized HA can reconstitute in situ after being injected as a powder or injected after being pelletized (e.g. compressed) into particles. Some aspects of the invention relate a method for treatment of osteoarthritis of a patient, the method comprising injecting a suspension of HA microparticles into a joint space of the patient, wherein the microparticles have a hardness number less than the hardness number of a cartilage within the joint space. In one embodiment, the HA nanoparticles are suspended in aqueous solution. In another embodiment, the HA nanoparticles are suspended in a co-solvent that is a poor solvent for the nanoparticles so that the HA component inside nanoparticles are controllably released from the nanoparticles after being injected. In an alternate embodiment, the microparticles comprise lyophilized HA, the lyophilized HA reconstitutes in situ after being injected into the joint space. An alternate approach would be to use the tissue within the joint as the depot for slow release of the HA. It is known that the cartilage can absorb HA. It is also known that absorption is an equilibrium phenomenon. Typically, 1% HA is injected into joints while 3% HA has been injected in toxicity studies. For example, injecting HA at 3% and maintaining this high concentration of HA until equilibrium is achieved would turn the cartilage into a depot containing 3% HA that could then leach out over time. Dosages for Slow Release Microparticle Hyaluronates (HA) Available HA visco supplementation products (10 to 15 mg HA/ml) provide 20 to 30 mg of HA (sodium salt) per injection, using 2.0 to 2.5 ml per injection. A total of 3 to 5 injections are given once per week. Present average dosage of four commercially available HA products over a course of treatment is 101 mg HA over 4.25 weeks. Synovial fluid volume in a typical knee joint is 3.0 to 3.5 ml. HA concentration in normal joint synovial fluid is 3 to 4 mg HA/ml. The half-life of HA in the joint space is reported to be about 20 hours with “complete” elimination from the joint by about 4 days. For an equivalent dosage of a single injection of microparticles, inject 100 mg of HA in the form of slow release microparticles in a suitable carrier, i.e. saline or phosphate buffered saline. The HA should completely dissolve by the end of week four. For extended therapy, proportionately more HA can be injected that possess longer dissolution times, e.g. 300 mg HA that dissolves within twelve weeks. Alternatively, more aggressive therapy can be administered by increasing the amount of HA that is injected within a fixed dissolution time, e.g. 300 mg HA that dissolves within four weeks. Note that dosage regimens with current soluble HA injections are restricted, due to high solution viscosity limitations, and synovial fluid concentration spikes upon each new injection. These disadvantages are overcome with the use of slow release microparticles. In one embodiment, the various microparticles may have distinct biodegradation rates over a duration of biodegradation to 3 months or longer. In another embodiment, the HA-containing microparticles comprise at least two distinct subgroups of microparticles, the first subgroup has its average biodegradation rate that is different from that of the second subgroup. TABLE 1	i don't know
Which 17th century Italian scientist is best remembered for inventing the Mercury Barometer?	Evangelista Torricelli - The History of the Barometer The History of the Barometer The History of the Barometer Evangelista Torricelli invented the mercurial barometer Malcolm Piers/ The Image Bank/ Getty Images By Mary Bellis Updated February 03, 2016. Barometer - Pronunciation: [b u rom´ u t u r] - a barometer is an instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. Two common types are the aneroid barometer and the mercurial barometer (invented first). Evangelista Torricelli invented the first barometer, known as the "Torricelli's tube". Biography - Evangelista Torricelli Evangelista Torricelli was born October 15, 1608, in Faenza, Italy and died October 22, 1647 in Florence, Italy. He was a physicist and mathematician. In 1641, Evangelista Torricelli moved to Florence to assist the astronomer Galileo . The Barometer It was Galileo that suggested Evangelista Torricelli use mercury in his vacuum experiments. Torricelli filled a four-foot long glass tube with mercury and inverted the tube into a dish. Some of the mercury did not escape from the tube and Torricelli observed the vacuum that was created. Evangelista Torricelli became the first scientist to create a sustained vacuum and to discover the principle of a barometer. continue reading below our video What to Do If You Can't Pay Your Student Loans Torricelli realized that the variation of the height of the mercury from day to day was caused by changes in the atmospheric pressure. Torricelli built the first mercury barometer around 1644. Evangelista Torricelli - Other Research Evangelista Torricelli also wrote on the quadrature of the cycloid and conics, the rectifications of the logarithmic spiral, the theory of the barometer, the value of gravity found by observing the motion of two weights connected by a string passing over a fixed pulley, the theory of projectiles and the motion of fluids. Lucien Vidie - Aneroid Barometer In 1843, the French scientist Lucien Vidie invented the aneroid barometer. A aneroid barometer "registers the change in the shape of an evacuated metal cell to measure variations on the atmospheric pressure." Aneriod means fluidless, no liquids are used, the metal cell is usually made of phosphor bronze or beryllium copper. Related Instruments An altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures altitude. Meteorologists use an altimeter that measures the altitude with respect to sea level pressure. A barograph is an aneroid barometer that gives a continuous reading of atmospheric pressures on graph paper.	Evangelista Torricelli
What name is given to the cord of strong fibrous tissue that attaches a muscle to a bone?	A brief history of the pneumatic tube transport systems that never were A brief history of the pneumatic tube transport systems that never were Go to permalink Imagine, if you will, a secret community dwelling beneath the streets of New York City, its inhabitants never allowed to travel to the surface or to interact in any way with the dreaded "Topsiders." That's the premise of an award-winning 1999 YA novel by Neal Shusterman called Downsiders , exploring what happens when a 14-year-old Downsider named Talon defies the prohibition and ends up falling in love with a Topsider named Lindsay. Together, they uncover the mysterious origins of the Downsiders: a forgotten inventor named Alfred Ely Beach who created the array of tunnels over a century ago. Advertisement This is an instance where science fiction bumps up briefly against science fact, because Shusterman's inspiration for his subterranean world is based on an actual person. Alfred Ely Beach is best known for his invention of New York City's first concept for a subway: the Beach Pneumatic Transit, which would move people rapidly from one place to another in "cars" propelled along long tubes by compressed air. Beach was also the publisher of Scientific American starting in 1845, when he purchased it (at the ripe old age of 20) with a fellow investor, so it seems a fitting topic for my inaugural post on that magazine's fledgling blog network. ( According to Wikipedia , inventor Rufus Porter actually founded the magazine, but sold it to Beach after a mere 10 months.) Tunnels and pneumatic transportation systems are a staple of classic science fiction, starting with Jules Verne's Paris in the 20th Century, published in 1863, in which the author envisions tube trains stretching across the ocean. In 1882, Albert Robida described not only tube trains, but pneumatic postal delivery systems in his novel, The Twentieth Century. Those authors were quite prescient: versions of such systems were actually built, and some still exist today. Advertisement When I was a kid, I remember my mom using the banking drive-through teller to deposit checks, withdraw cash, etc., through a pneumatic system employing metal canisters. Some of those systems still exist, despite the proliferation of ATMs. Hospitals, factories, and large stores use internal pneumatic transport systems to rapidly move physical objects (drugs, documents, cash, even spare parts) from one location to another. And it all emerged from a vacuum — specifically, vacuum physics. Nature Abhors a Vacuum (Note: This section adapted from a 2007 post .) The first recorded experiments on the existence of vacuum were apparently conducted by an Arab philosopher named Al-Farabi in the 9th century AD, using handheld plungers in water. That's when he realized that the volume of air would expand to fill any available space. Later scientists figured out how to create better and better artificial vacuums, thanks to the principle he delineated. It's pretty simple: by expanding the volume of a given container, pressure is reduced and a partial vacuum is created. It's temporary and is soon filled by air pushing inside by atmospheric pressure, but if the container is repeatedly sealed, the air pumped out, expanded again, and closed off, it's possible to create a sealed vacuum chamber. Vacuum is measured in units of pressure. Technically, the standard unit of pressure is the Pascal, but scientists can't possibly let things be so simple, so they came up with a new unit for vacuum pressure, the Torr, named after 17th century Italian physicist Evangelista Torricelli, best known for inventing the barometer. He was trying to figure out how to raise water levels in a suction pump to more than 32 feet in height — the limit pumpmakers had been able to reach using simple suction pumping. Sponsored It seemed that perhaps Nature truly did abhor a vacuum, but Galileo Galilei cheekily suggested that perhaps the abhorrence only extended to 32 feet. Galileo knew a little something about the weight of air versus other substances, and thought it might be possible to overcome the obstacle using something heavier than water. Inspired by Galileo's insight, in 1643, Torricelli hit on the notion of using mercury, which is 14 times heavier than water, in a simple experiment: he filled a three-foot-long tube with mercury and sealed it on one end, then set it vertically into a basin of mercury with the open end submerged. The column of mercury fell about 28 inches, leaving an empty space above its level — an early version of a sustained manmade vacuum. Torricelli further realized that (a) the mercury would rise to the same level regardless of how tilted the tube became because the pressure of the mercury would balance the weight of the air, and (2) the height of the column of mercury rose and fell according to changing atmospheric pressure. Voila! The first barometer. Seven years later, a German scientist named Otto von Guericke built a contraption known as the Magdeburg hemispheres — the world's first artificial vacuum. He took two large copper hemispheres with rims that fit tightly together, sealed the rims with grease, and pumped out all the air. To do so, he had to invent a vacuum pump; his version used a piston and cylinder with flap valves, powered by people turning a crank arm that was connected to the pump. Once all the air was removed from within the hemispheres, they were still held together by the air pressure of the surrounding atmosphere because the artificial vacuum inside provided no opposing pressure to balance things out. Advertisement Advertisement It was a pretty powerful hold, too: von Guericke harnessed a team of eight horses to one hemisphere of the big coppery globe, and another eight horses to the other hemisphere, and then set the horses to pulling the two hemispheres apart by moving in opposite directions — to no avail. News of the experiment quickly spread throughout Europe, eventually reaching the ears of Robert Boyle, founder of modern chemistry, in England. Few scientists were able to replicate von Guericke's feat because it was an expensive apparatus. But Boyle had the 17th century equivalent of a trust fund, being the son of the Earl of Cork, so he cheerfully set about building his own "pneumatic engine," cost be damned. To do so, he enlisted the aid of Robert Hooke of Micrographia fame, then Boyle's humble assistant. Hooke had a gift for instrumentation, which is a good thing, because Boyle's design was a clunky, difficult to operate device, and sometimes Hooke was the only one who could get the thing to work properly. Boyle conducted many different experiments to determine the properties of air, specifically how "rarefied air" affected things like combustion, magnetism, sound, barometers, and various substances. He carefully detailed his observations for posterity in a very thick book ponderously titled, New Experiments Physico-Mechanicall, Touching the Spring of the Air, and its Effects (Made, for the Most Part, in a New Pneumatical Engine). He clearly lacked the gift of catchy titles. Jen-Luc Piquant would have called it something more dramatic, like Asphyxiated! Staring Into the Void of the New Pneumatical Engine. Suck and Blow Advertisement It was only a matter of time before scientists and engineers figured out how to exploit vacuum technology in their inventions, most notably pneumatic tube transport systems to deliver messages or small parcels to various linked hubs. A Scottish engineer named William Murdoch first conceived of the notion in the early 19th century. As the 19th century drew to close, most major cities used some kind of pneumatic tube transport system. One of the earliest linked the London Stock Exchange to the city's main telegraph station, built in 1853, followed by the London Pneumatic Despatch Company linking the Euston railway station to the city's main post office. Berlin, Paris, Vienna, Prague, Chicago, and New York City all built similar networks, many of which remained operation until the 1950s. The one in Paris was operational until 1984, and apparently the UK House of Commons still has a pneumatic tube system in place for its telephone and computer exchange. And you can find older office buildings in New York with the remains of internal pneumatic mail systems still in place. Advertisement Prague's pneumatic post is probably the last surviving such system in the world, housed in an annex to the city's Central Post Office. Completed in 1899, it's a complicated network of pneumatic pipes snaking out through the city's underground for roughly 34 miles. Initially it was used to forward telegrams from telegraph offices to postal offices, but the network was later extended to include government and other office buildings. This came in handy during the notorious Prague Uprising, when the city's pneumatic postal system helped bring supplies to a besieged Czech radio headquarters. At its peak, in the 1970s, the system made over one million deliveries a year, although that number had fallen to a dismal 6000 or so deliveries per year — hardly a profitable venture, but it's such an unusual piece of Czech history. Alas, massive flooding in Europe in August 2002 damaged the system and shut it down; it has yet to come back online. Part of the problem is that because the mechanical system has never been modernized, it's tough to find the component parts needed to repair it. (The Berlin factory that used to supply those parts closed down a good 60 years ago.) Modern pneumatic transport systems can vary in their complexity, but fundamentally, the concept is quite simple . You have a "sending station" — say, a cashier's checkout post — linked to a receiving station — perhaps a locked box in the store manager's office — via a tube. There is an air compressor pump attached to the tube on the receiving end which has two basic modes of operation: "suck" and "blow." Advertisement If you want to send cash from the register from the sending to the receiving station, you'd simply load the it into the metal canister, place it in the tube, and close the door, effectively sealing off the tube. The air compressor would be set to "suck" mode, acting just like your average vacuum cleaner, sucking the air along the tube to create a partial vacuum in front of the canister. The canister can then be emptied, and returned to the sending station via the "blow" mode — the air compressor literally pushes the canister through the tube by blowing air behind it. We might have more efficient means nowadays of delivering messages (email, twitter, text messaging, etc.) but some folks still think pneumatic tube systems could be useful for, say, delivering food via pipeline. That's the concept behind Foodtubes, a UK-based project that proposes the creation of high-speed pneumatic pipelines connecting every major city in the UK. Food items would be placed in canisters and sent zipping along the nearly 2000 miles of pneumatic tubes. It would be a major capital investment, to be sure, but would definitely cut down on the number of delivery trucks currently clogging up London's roadways. I'd bet the consortium members are fans of Edward Bellamy's 1888 novel Looking Backward, which predicted a vast interlinked system of delivering goods via pneumatic tubes by the year 2000. This sort of thing is not unprecedented: until this year, there was a McDonald's in Edina, Minnesota, that prided itself on being "The World's Only Pneumatic Air Drive-Thru." Customers would place their orders in the drive-thru — located in the middle of a parking lot — and their Big Macs, fries, and Chicken McNuggets would be delivered via pneumatic tubes. (One assumes sodas and shakes were delivered this way, too, but the risk of spillage seems rather high.) Sub-Rosa Subway Advertisement Advertisement In 1812, a man named George Medhurst speculated that perhaps it might be possible to blow carriages laden with passengers through a tunnel, but he never got around to building anything. He lacked a pump with enough power to generate the requisite air pressure. In the mid-1850s, there were several rudimentary "atmospheric railways" — in Ireland, London, and Paris — and while the London Pneumatic Despatch system was intended to transport parcels, it was large enough to handle people. In fact, the Duke of Buckingham and several members of the company's board of directors were transported through the pneumatic system on October 10, 1865, to mark the opening of a new station. And a prototype pneumatic railway was exhibited at the Crystal Palace in 1864, with plans to build a version connecting Waterloo and Charing Cross by running under the Thames. Those early efforts in London inspired Beach back in the US. He first published an 1849 article in Scientific American suggesting building an underground subway along Broadway in Manhattan, employing horse-drawn cars to carry passengers. Then he discovered pneumatics: "A tube, a car, a revolving fan! Little more is required!" he exclaimed in 1870. The idea was to put people in carriages underground and propel them through the rubes using air pressure generated by gigantic fans. He first built a prototype above-ground model, which debuted at the 1867 American Institute Fair. It was little more than large wooden tube (roughly six feet in diameter and 100 feet long) capable of holding a small vehicle with a ten-person capacity. That car was then pushed through the tube by air pressure created by a giant fan. But he couldn't get permission from the city to construct an underground system. (Accounts differ as to whether "Boss" Tweed or wealthy inhabitants of the neighborhood blocked his efforts.) Advertisement Was Beach at all daunted? He was not. He sneakily built the underground pneumatic subway anyway, pretending he was really building a pneumatic mail delivery system, and he did right under the noses of City Hall: beneath a rented store front across the street. In February 1870, Beach unveiled his masterpiece, and it was an immediate novelty attraction for the public, especially given the luxury of the station: it boasted a grand piano, chandeliers, and a fully operational fountain stocked with goldfish. He charged 25 cents for a block long ride, and fought for the next three years to get a construction permit to extend the line uptown all the way to Central Park. Alas, while he ultimately succeeded on that score, a stock market crash (the "Panic of 1873") crushed his dream for good. Beach's failure didn't keep others from speculating on the potential value of so-called "vactrains" (vacuum tube trains). The US government considered the possibility in the 1960s of running a vactrain (combining pneumatic tubes with maglev technology) between Philadelphia and New York City, but the project was deemed prohibitively expensive, and was scrapped. Advertisement Advertisement An engineer with Lockheed named L.K. Edwards proposed a Bay Area Gravity-Vacuum Transit system for California in 1967, designed to run in tandem with San Francisco's BART system, then under construction. It, too, was never built. Nor was the system of underground Very High Speed Transportation conceived by Robert M. Salter of RAND in the 1970s to run along what we now call the Northeast Corridor. Beach might not have lived to see his pneumatic subway system built — he caught pneumonia and died on January 1, 1896 — but his vision is still influencing engineers looking for transportation solutions in the 21st century, most notably researchers in the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering. The claim is that traveling through networks of these vacuum tubes enables supersonic speeds without the drawback of sonic booms that plague supersonic jets, making the trip from London to New York in less than an hour. (Those of us who are increasingly disgruntled with the airline industry, and long for teleportation, might welcome such an alternative.) And Beach's dream has been immortalized in a song by a Canadian progressive rock band called Klaatu : "Sub-Rosa Subway" ( lyrics are here ). Nearly three minutes into the tune, you can hear a bit of Morse Code in the background, which one bandmember has since helpfully translated for their fans: "From Alfred, heed thy sharpened ear — A message we do bring — Starship appears upon our sphere — Through London's sky comes spring." Top image of Alfred Ely Beach's pneumatic tube model from 1867. This post originally appeared on Cocktail Party Physics , which can also be found at Scientific American . Gear from Kinja Deals	i don't know
Which English navigator, who dies in 1596, was buried at sea in a lead coffin off the coast of Panama?	Sir Francis Drake's body 'close to being found off Panama' - BBC News BBC News Sir Francis Drake's body 'close to being found off Panama' 25 October 2011 Close share panel Image caption The expedition hopes to find the remains of Sir Francis Drake The owner of an American pirate museum claims to be close to finding the remains of Sir Francis Drake, the Elizabethan sailor and navigator. Drake died at sea in 1596 and his body, clad in a full suit of armour and in a lead coffin, is thought to be off the coast of Panama. He was knighted for his successful exploits around the world. Pat Croce claims he has located two ships which were scuttled shortly after Drake died of dysentery. "This is absolutely a dream come true - to find the ships of the most successful pirate in history, who single-handedly wreaked havoc on Spain's New Empire," said Mr Croce, who is blogging on the expedition live from Panama. They are now hoping to find Drake's lead-lined coffin, which may still contain his body, which was reportedly buried in a full suit of armour. Mr Croce said the remains of the ships, the Elizabeth and the Delight, had been discovered at the bottom of Portobelo Bay. Defeated Armada Drake is credited for defeating the Spanish Armada's invasion of England in 1588 and also became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. After a career as naval officer, Drake drifted into piracy and was also one of the earliest exponents of the slave trade, bringing African men and women to work in the English colonies of North America in the 16th Century. Image caption Sir Francis Drake is described by some as a hero and by others as a pirate Mr Croce, who runs the St Augustine Pirate & Treasure Museum in Florida, said they had found the burnt timbers of Elizabeth and Delight, which sank shortly after Drake's death. The team's marine archaeologist, Jim Sinclair, said: "Finding the Elizabeth and Delight near where Sir Francis Drake is buried is as exciting to me as helping discover the (Spanish galleon, Nuestra Senora de) Atocha and diving the RMS Titanic." The expedition focused on Portobelo Bay after hiring London-based researcher Trevor McEniry to pinpoint areas where the ships might have gone down. The Drake expedition once again highlights a grey area when it comes to the protection of British shipwrecks. Under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 British naval vessels anywhere in the world are protected from exploitation. But the act only covers certain ships which sunk since 1914 and only British citizens can be prosecuted under it. The Joint Nautical Archaeology Policy Committee has been pressing the UK government for years to ratify the Unesco Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage. The JNAPC's chairman, Robert Yorke, told the BBC: "If they are Drake's ships they are presumably sovereign immune so why isn't the British government telling these people to go away? "If we had ratified the convention we could make sure they were properly conserved and looked after." But as Panama has ratified the convention its government might be expected to act to protect the wrecks of the ships.	Francis Drake
At which stadium did Derby County play their home games prior to moving to Pride Park?	1000+ images about Sir Francis Drake and The Spanish Armada on Pinterest \| Drums, Pirates and Sea captain Forward Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral (1540 – 27 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He also carried out the second circumnavigation of the world, from 1577 to 1580. He died of dysentery in January 1596 after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico. See More	i don't know
From which fruit is the Balkan brandy Slivovitz made?	Fruit Brandy Guide - Slivovitz And Other Spirits May 8, 2015 It began, like so many things, with stories about my grandfather. It goes that as his children (my father and aunt) were starving to break the fast on Yom Kippur, they'd peer out the apartment window, waiting to spot him walking back from synagogue. He'd take his sweet time, pull off his coat and hat, open a rarely used cabinet, blow the dust off an old bottle, take a sip of something, make a face, then announce that everyone could eat. Advertisement - Continue Reading Below That old bottle contained a liquid known as Slivovitz, which is pronounced differently all over Central and Eastern Europe, but in my family we call it "Shleeve-O-Wits." I'm not saying we pronounced it correctly, and frankly, when we refer to it at all, we usually call it "that rocket fuel." Slivovitz is a type of high-proof plum brandy that was popular with Jewish grandfathers because it's not only kosher, but since it contains no grain, it's also kosher-for-Passover (which is, like, extra kosher.) The only mention of it in any American movie I can think of is in Barry Levinson's Avalon, where they are reminiscing about the long-deceased family patriarch. Now, Slivovitz is, at first taste, absolutely repulsive, but it is a window into a galaxy of exciting, robust liquors that don't get much play in the United States. Luckily I'm here to help you sort it out, because it can get confusing. Most Popular We can broadly categorize Slivovitz and the other strange spirits I'm about to offer up as fruit brandies, but don't let that connote anything sweet or syrupy. In Germany, the catch-all term is Schnapps, which, again, may suggest an ultra-sugary dessert you sip over a game of bridge. The French call it Eau-de-Vie, which means "water of life," but don't confuse it with Scandinavian Aquavit or Irish tub whiskey. In Balkan countries they call it Rakia, which is easily confused with the anise-based Turkish drink Raki, and the Hungarians call it Pálinka. It's really just a distilled, fermented fruit beverage with an alcoholic punch that could knock a Cossack off his horse. They're almost always 80 proof or more, but the fruit flavoring isn't there to mask the alcohol. It adds a taste sensation that's all about being bright and present and opening your eyes real wide and making you say "whooooaaaaaaaaaa!" before you pass the bottle to your friend to dare him to take as big of a sip. Have we got all that? Okay! Now, friends of mine know I've been tasting and collecting Central European fruit brandies for years—to the point that few can escape my home without me shoving a shot of something exotically, gloriously putrid in their face. It's not like you have to take a test of strength to darken my doorstep – it's that there's an easily conjured conviviality, not to mention earned respect, in quaffing something so potent and unique. There's a little bit of pleasure in pain, especially if you can share it with pals. Here's what you are likely to taste if you ever come by: The most common Slivovitz hails from Serbia, but I brought back a bottle from Budapest for my home. The opaque ceramic container makes it look like something friendly, but inside there lurks the liquid of a demon. The clear potion inside has a whiff of plum and instantly transports you to impoverished villages from days of yore. My ancestors suffered, and now you must, too. Trust me, you'll get used to it and even kinda like it. Advertisement - Continue Reading Below Hungarian Pálinka comes in all sorts of flavors, but I prefer the apricot flavor, Barack, and not just because I'm loyal to our President. (It's actually pronounced BAH-rahstk in Magyar... Magyar is the Hungarian word for Hungarian.) The hint of sour apricot adds a spiky, tangy spin compared to the resting heat of the sweet plum of Slivovitz. If you are lucky you can find a bottle decorated with some shriveled up apricot slivers floating around, like a jam-ready Mezcal worm. Let me introduce what might be my all-time favorite fruit brandy. In the southern regions of France, like Provence and the place where that girl wandered around and froze in Agnes Varda's movie Vagabond, you can get a high-proof pear-based liquor known as Poire William. (The William pear is the same as what we call a Bartlett pear.) Now, they serve this in some of the Western regions of Germany, too, but the French take the design level to near Rococo-levels. They wrap the bottles around budding pear trees, so the fruit can grow into the vessel. Then they pour the fermented spirit into these bottles. It makes for an outstanding bit of furniture art—that is if you can find any. You can get Poire William without the whole fruit all over France, but I once spent the better part of an afternoon wandering around Cannes (a fancy town!) and every liquor store showed me the door. I did, however, end up spending a lot of Euros on a Framboise (raspberry) eau-de-vie that was so strong it almost made my eyes bleed. I also got a "fruits de la Forêt" which had a lovely label, but I confess that my palate was not quite refined enough to distinguish the blueberry and blackberry from the pure scorching alcohol. But here's a funny story. After ringing every fancy pants shop in Manhattan I still couldn't find one of these nifty fruit-in-bottle Poire Williams. I was this close to dropping a serious amount of cash to order one online before reason kicked in. Then one day I was in the Italian section of the Bronx (Arthur Avenue) and was marveling at just how many Limoncellos they had. (We're not going to talk about Limoncello today–that stuff, while tasty, is for old ladies.) I was yapping with the owner about Poire William and, voila, for fifty bucks I had a bottle. That bobbing pear looked real cute, but whenever friends dared take a sip they ended up having to take a cab home. The Czechs have a pear liquor, too, called Kruskovac, but it's got a lot of sweetness added, and a lower alcohol percentage. Despite being only 56 proof, none of these fruit brandies have ever made me sicker than Kruskovac. I've got some other neat stuff on my shelf right now–Serbian Quince Brandy (Dunja) that's bold, sour and not that gross, and an Albanian Grape Brandy that should probably be used as an industrial strength floor wax. (Grape Brandy is not to be confused with Italian Grappa, which is based from the pomace and not the fruit.) But before I close I want to offer you your gateway to this wild world of European fruit brandies. Let's raft over to Croatia's Dalmatian Coast. The town of Zadar on the Adriatic (not far from where they film Game of Thrones!) is where you are most likely to find cultivation of the Marasca Cherry—a rich, sour cherry that is used to make Maraschino. No, not those candied maraschino cherries you get atop a sundae—but that is where the name comes from. Maraschino is a delicious but deadly clear, sweet, sticky liquor that is really fun to bring out at parties. At 64 proof it can still do some damage, but is so tasty that revelers can sometimes get too cocky around it. Also from Zadar, and bringing us back to kosher drinks, is Wishniak. My grandparents called it "Vish-Nick," but if you want to pronounce it another way I'm not going to stop you. If you grew up in or around Philly you may call all black cherry sodas Wishniak. (You also probably call subs "hoagies," so you've got a lot of problems.) Anyway, black cherry is what it is—a dark, Robitussin-like libation that, at 62 proof, doesn't burn at all going down, and can therefore cause untold destruction. I've brought out bottles of this stuff and offered warnings, yet folks still start carelessly tossing this back. Then they end up sleeping on my kitchen floor. So be careful around the Croatian cherries, friends. The other stuff is upfront with its fortitude (most Serbian Slivovitz is 90 proof minimum) but be adventurous in your travels. If you find something fruity that also has a distinct aftertaste of paint thinner, please invite me over. More from Esquire:	Charles Plumier
In 'Star Wars', what was 'Darth Vader's' name before he was seduced by the 'Dark Side of the Force'?	1000+ images about Slivovitz on Pinterest \| American wedding, Liquor and Drinks Proizvedena i odnegnovana u ograničenim količinama u porodičnoj destileriji, u kojoj se recepti prenose decenijama sa oca na sina. Šljivovica Flores Serbia - Buy Yellow wasp slivovitz, White wasp plum brandy and Yellow Gentian Plum Brandy See More	i don't know
What is the name of the Parisian cemetery at which Jim Morrison, Oscar Wilde and Edith Piaf are buried?	Edith Piaf's Grave, Pere Lachaise Cemetery, Paris - Travel Past 50 Stumble Shares 10 We visited the Pere Lachaise Cemetery in Paris on November 11, which is still known as Armistice Day or Remembrance Day in Europe. It’s a day in which not only the war dead, but all who have passed are remembered. Of all graves of the famous buried there, including Oscar Wilde, Jim Morrison, Moliere, Chopin, and Sarah Bernhardt, none seemed to be as genuinely missed or as flower bedecked as Edith Piaf ‘s. Piaf was the great French cabaret singer, who led a very hard and controversial life. She was active in Paris during the German occupation, singing in cabarets and brothels which were reserved only for German officers and collaborating French. After the war, she was reviled by many, but her reputation was revived when it turned out she was surreptitiously working to provide false ID photos which allowed many French prisoners to escape German captivity. One of her songs was featured in the film Saving Private Ryan , which, I’m sure, is the first most Americans of our generation had heard of her. I don’t remember when I first heard her, but I think it was in college. Her voice is unforgettable. Not only for me, but it seems for the French who crowd around and decorate her grave. More from Travel Past 50	Père Lachaise Cemetery
What was the Japanese name, meaning 'divine wind', that was given to the tornadoes of 1274 and 1281 that destroyed the Mongol fleets carrying Kublai Khan's invasion armies?	Oscar Wilde, Jim Morrison, Paris, France, Author Gravesites \| Literary Traveler “They say, Lady Hunstanton, that when good Americans die they go to Paris.” ~ Oscar Wilde, “A Woman of No Importance” Oscar Wilde was not an American, but he came to Paris to die nevertheless. 71 years later so too did Jim Morrison. The pair share in eternity at the Cimetiere du Pere-Lachaise with a whole company of France’s own writers and artists, stretching through the ages from Moliere to Edith Piaf. Wilde himself died on November 30th 1900 at the Hotel d’Alsace, with bon mots, a clever remark, on his lips to the very end. “My wallpaper and I are fighting a duel to the death,” he is said to have announced, “one or the other of us has to go.” He had come to France three years earlier following his release of his poem “Reading Gaol.” Although he found himself in penniless exile he still managed to sip champagne on his deathbed. As he put it, he died as he had lived — beyond his means. He was first buried in a pauper’s grave at the Cimetiere de Bagneux outside of Paris, but his close friend Robbie Ross arranged for him to be moved to the rather more celebrated environs of Pere-Lachaise in 1909. A century later, it’s a clear, crisp morning in Paris and I pull the collar of my coat up to keep the chill out. I alight at the Metro station named Philippe Auguste. When I find myself standing before the grand entrance of Pere-Lachaise a Smiths lyric falls irresistibly off my tongue: “A dreaded sunny day / So I meet you at the cemetery gates / Keats and Yeats are on your side / While Wilde is on mine.” I discreetly check to see whether Morrissey is waiting for me before making my way inside. After passing through the gates, I pause at a dignified sign which points to the final resting places of Chopin, Proust and a litany of other immortal names. I locate Wilde’s plot, on the far side of the grounds, and set off down the Avenue Principale, the broad road that runs towards the centre of the grounds. It is immediately apparent why Ross worked so hard to get Oscar moved here. From the moment I stepped within the high walls of the cemetery I felt as if modern-day Paris had been left far behind. The tombs that line the road look at first glance like small houses, and narrow side streets stretch off in all directions. The cobbled paths are lined with trees, and there are road signs at the intersections. The impression is not of being in a graveyard, but in a small town. Indeed, when I had first announced my intention to visit the cemetery a Parisian had referred to it as “une ville dans la ville.” That is as good a description of the place as any. The sprawling necropolis of Pere-Lachaise is a city within a city, and one that has seemingly been cast adrift from another time. It’s easy to imagine Wilde as a visitor. He first came here in his 20s, while splitting those formative years between Paris and London. After his successful lecture tour of America in 1882 he settled in London and established his reputation as a writer with his journalism and essays as well as the publication of his only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray in 1890. The book tells the story of a handsome young man who never ages, despite his decadent lifestyle, after his likeness is captured in a portrait. I can’t help but think of Dorian when I take a detour to visit the grave of Jim Morrison. It’s a simple memorial, but it’s strewn with roses and those unavoidable, iconic pictures. Morrison’s young death at 27, accelerated by hedonistic excess, means that he will forever be the Adonis with high cheekbones captured in that black-and-white photograph. Morrison’s grave seems to draw even more visitors than Wilde’s, and it was the small knot of devoted fans which initially alerted me to its presence. The plot itself is tucked away, hidden from the path, and the grave bears only a small plaque showing his full name; James Douglas Morrison, his dates; 1943-1971, and an inscription in Greek: KATA TON AAIMONA EAYTOY. It translates roughly as “true to his own demon,” a sentiment Wilde, with his prescient understanding of contemporary celebrity, would have understood only too well. Leaving the gaggle of Doors fans behind me I climb a narrow path shrouded in trees and walk back towards the centre of the grounds. The sun is climbing higher in the sky now and the multitude of statues and monuments cast dappled shadows on the paving stones. The grounds, which spread over nearly 120 acres, are home to around 5,000 trees. It makes Pere-Lachaise a surprising oasis of green, as much a park as a cemetery. It is easy to lose hours here, reading the stones and enjoying the quiet air of contemplation. After settling in London, Wilde missed the romance of Paris and he returned here in 1891 following the success of The Picture of Dorian Gray. It was here that he wrote his play Salome in French, and later translated it into English. However, rehearsals in London were halted by the Lord Chamberlain due to a ban on depicting Biblical characters on stage. It would not be performed until 1896, when it was finally staged in its original French at the Comedie-Parisienne. Wilde could not attend. By this time he was in prison, serving out a sentence of two years hard labour. He had been convicted of gross indecency after the exposure of his homosexual relationships. He had already been left bankrupt by the preceding libel case, which he had brought himself against the Marquess of Queensbury, the father of his lover Lord Alfred Douglas. When he was released, he had little choice but to return to France where he travelled under an assumed name, Sebastian Melmoth. In 1897, he used his experience of prison life to write “The Ballad of Reading Gaol,” a poem which fiercely criticised the brutalizing nature of the criminal justice system. It was to be his final significant work, as tragedy stalked the final years of his life. Despite his hardships, he was never alone. Robbie Ross, who is thought to have been his first male lover, was with him during this time and stayed by his side until the end of his life. Wilde was just 46 when he succumbed to meningitis brought on by an ear infection in a dingy hotel room by the Seine. Arrangements were made at his initial burial for him to be placed in quicklime to ease the later transfer of his body. Ross, as loyal in death as in life, was already making plans to ensure that Wilde would in time be given a fitting memorial. When I find Wilde’s tomb, it is clear that Ross got his wish. Located on the Avenue Carette, it is utterly impossible to miss. An imposing sandstone block looms over me, and I study the modernist sculpture carved into it by Jacob Epstein. It depicts an angel in flight and was intended to be as dazzling as the man it memorialized, and just as scandalous. The original was complete with male genitals, but these were wrenched away as long ago as 1922, presumably by souvenir-hunters but reportedly to the relief of the conservative cemetery authorities. The genitals may be gone, but the kisses remain. Every inch of this huge monument is covered in lipstick traces. At first I am unsure as to whether they have simply been drawn on, but before long a pair of Japanese girls arrive to show me how it is done. Giggling as they approach the monument, they apply their thick red lipstick and each take a turn to press their lips to the stone. An unusual sign of devotion, but one of which Wilde would no doubt have approved. He would have been just as pleased by the countless scrawled messages from his legion of fans. As I decipher them it’s soon clear that while they seem to have come from every country on the globe, the sentiments are universal: “We love you, Oscar!” says one, “Je t’aime Wilde,” adds another, while another hand has clearly marked “L’importanza di essere Oscar!” Even in a cemetery full of eye-catching monuments and heart-rending sculptures, Wilde’s is defiantly ostentatious. Ross, who also became Wilde’s literary executor after his death, charged himself with ensuring that his dear friend Oscar would be remembered in all his glory, and he seems to have succeeded. Ross’ reward is that he is here as well. At his request, Wilde’s tomb contains a small compartment where his own ashes were placed in 1950. I watch the other visitors come and go and realise that although Pere-Lachaise is a cemetery it never feels oppressive, sombre or maudlin. It’s a tranquil corner of Paris, where Oscar Wilde and many others who strove for immortality through their work have, in some way, found it. I look again at the etched reminders of his pilgrim travelers and smile. For Oscar, of course, the only thing worse than being talked about is not being talked about, so he would have adored these notes of kinship. Wilde’s work is characterized by his overarching humanity, and beneath the surface wit, there lies a tragic wisdom. In one of his most famous short stories, “The Canterville Ghost,” he wrote these words: Death must be so beautiful. To lie in the soft brown earth, with the grasses waving above one’s head, and listen to silence. To have no yesterday, and no tomorrow. To forget time, to forgive life, to be at peace. Here in Pere-Lachaise, where the high walls keep the frenzy of Paris at bay, Oscar Wilde has found the peace that eluded him in life. White Day In South Korea About Literary Traveler Literary Traveler is dedicated to the exploration of the literary imagination. We hope to bring you inspiring, informative articles about writers, creative artists, and the places that they lived and traveled. Literary Traveler was launched in March of 1998 by the husband and wife team of Francis and Linda McGovern. The McGoverns met while studying English at Suffolk University, in Boston. … Learn more Our Story…. At Literary Traveler we help readers explore their literary imagination. Since 1998, Literary Traveler has provided informative and inspiring travel writing featuring writers and the places that they have traveled. We also have featured a wide variety of literary tours , and literary events to help readers find exciting and interesting places to visit. We have offered unique tours with organizations like Classical Pursuits the National Trust for Historic Preservation. In the past we have promoted and participated in literary tours and cruises on The Delta Queen and The Queen Mary 2. Please check out our travel videos and travel blogs . If you are interesting in writing for Literary Traveler please see our travel writing guidelines . If you are interested in advertising or listing your tours, please contact us at 1-855-LIT-TRVL, 1-855-548- 8785 or use our contact form to request our updated Media Kit for 2015. We also consult with various destination marketing organizations, tour companies and hotels and resorts. 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In the animated TV show 'The Simpsons', what was 'Marge Simpson's' maiden name?	D'oh! Homer and Marge split on 'The Simpsons' - CNN.com 1 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Dan Castellaneta supplies the voices of Homer Simpson, Barney Gumble, Grampa Simpson and Mayor Quimby, not to mention Krusty the Klown and Groundskeeper Willie. Hide Caption 2 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Julie Kavner is Marge Simpson and Marge's sisters, the scourges of the Springfield DMV, Patty and Selma Bouvier. Hide Caption 3 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Nancy Cartwright gives voice to Bart Simpson, Nelson Muntz and Ralph Wiggum, as well as others. Hide Caption Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Yeardley Smith supplies the voice of Lisa Simpson. Hide Caption 5 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Where would "The Simpsons" be without Hank Azaria? The versatile voice actor does Apu, Comic Book Guy, Chief Wiggum and Moe -- as well as Dr. Nick, Snake Jailbird and the always entertaining Bumblebee Man. Hide Caption 6 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Pamela Hayden gives voice to two boys on opposite ends of the charm spectrum: Milhouse Van Houten and Jimbo Jones. She's also the person behind Rod Flanders, Janey Powell and Malibu Stacy. Hide Caption Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Tress MacNeille's characters include Crazy Cat Lady and Dolph Starbeam. Hide Caption 8 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Maggie Roswell is the voice of Milhouse's mother, Luann, as well as such figures as Helen Lovejoy and the late Maude Flanders. Hide Caption 9 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters The urbane tones of Kelsey Grammer provide the wit and glory of Sideshow Bob, who's been known to sing a Gilbert & Sullivan operetta or two. Hide Caption Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters Joe Montegna drops by "The Simpsons" to do the voice of occasional character Fat Tony. Hide Caption 11 of 12 Photos: 'Simpsons' voice actors and their characters The late Marcia Wallace supplied the voice of Mrs. Edna Krabappel for many years. Her character, like those of the late Phil Hartman (Troy McClure, Lionel Hutz), was essentially retired upon her death. Hide Caption	Augustus Jules Bouvier
Geoffrey Rush won the 1996 Academy Award for Best Actor for playing a mentally handicapped piano player in which film?	The Chase - Wikisimpsons, the Simpsons Wiki The Chase Wikisimpsons - The Simpsons Wiki The Chase is a British game show broadcast on ITV . Several times on the program, questions are asked which reference The Simpsons in some way. This section is incomplete. Please improve the article, or discuss the issue on the talk page . What is missing is: More questions need to be added, especially from the show's early series. Episode name (November 14, 2012) 281 A question was asked in the Quick Fire Round: "In The Simpsons, what's the name of the groundskeeper of the Springfield school?" The question was answered correctly: " Groundskeeper Willie ". Series Six, Episode 36 (December 20, 2012) 304 The question "The TV characters Chandler Bing and Krusty the Clown were born with what feature?" was asked. The three answers the contestant could choose from were: "Square belly-button", "Extra toe on one foot" and "Third nipple", the latter being the correct answer. The player answered correctly and then moved further down the board. Also, after the answer to the question "Which of these fish is considered a delicacy in Japan, even though eating parts of it can be fatal?" was revealed ("Puffer fish"), it was mentioned by the same contestant that Homer ate a poisonous part of a puffer fish in one episode. Homer actually ate the poisonous part of a blowfish in the episode " One Fish, Two Fish, Blowfish, Blue Fish ". Series Six, Episode 50 (January 16, 2013) 318 A question was asked in the Quick Fire Round: "Disco Stu is an occasional character of what animated series?" The question was answered correctly: "The Simpsons". Series Seven, Episode 16 (September 17, 2013) 428 The question "Which fictional TV family sang on a Number One hit with Gareth Bates" was asked; the answers to chose from were "The Dingles", "The Kumars" and "The Simpsons". The answer was "The Kumars", and the contestant answered correctly. Series Seven, Episode 22 (September 25, 2013) 434 The last question of the Final Chase was: "What is Marge Simpson's maiden name?", which was answered correctly, the answer being "Bouvier", and therefore the team were beaten by the Chaser. Series Seven, Episode 30 (October 7, 2013) 442 A question in the Final Chase was "How many children do Homer and Marge Simpson have?", the answer being "Three;" the Chaser answered the question correctly. Series Seven, Episode 43 (October 24, 2013) 445 The question was "In 'The Simpsons' cartoon, which member of the family is voiced by Nancy Cartwright?" The answers were "Bart", "Lisa" and "Marge". The contestant chose the correct answer, "Bart", and successfully won his round. Series Seven, Episode 92 (March 13, 2014) 494 Bradley Walsh began to read out a question beginning with "In The Simpsons..." but was truncated by the 'time's-up' klaxon. It was the end of the contestant's round on the Final Chase.	i don't know
In C.S. Lewis' 'The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe', what is the name of the faun who befriends 'Lucy' when she first enters 'Narnia'?	Character Profiles - The Chronicles of Narnia: CBN.com Susan Pevensie As the second oldest, Susan takes on the role of mother for her younger brother and sister. Her wisdom helps reaffirm Peter's decision to remain in Narnia and search for Mr. Tumnus. Susan is unlike her brothers and sister, Lucy, in that she is cautious and more likely to take the safer road than the more adventurous. Edmund Pevensie A complainer, Edmund constantly receives reprimands from his older brother, Peter. The jealously he holds against his siblings is fueled when the White Witch convinces him that she will make him a prince. His selfishness and desire to avenge his pride leads him to betray his brother and sister, a decision that causes him and many others pain. Lucy Pevensie The youngest of the four Pevensie children, Lucy is the first to open the wardrobe door and enter the magical world of Narnia. During her visit, she befriends Mr. Tumnus, a faun. Her loyalty is evident when she determines to rescue him from the White Witch. Lucy's strong belief in Aslan causes her to have a special bond with him. Aslan, the Great Lion Founder of Narnia, Aslan travels from kingdom to kingdom, and comes when there is a great need. His presence in Narnia interrupts the Witch Witch's power over the land. Aslan is a big and terrifying beast that also can be gentle, as he is with the four Pevensie children.	Mr. Tumnus
Which island in the Malay archipelago is divided politically between Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei?	SparkNotes: The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe: Important Quotations Explained Important Quotations Explained The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe C. S. Lewis Key Facts "The White Witch?" said Edmund; "who's she?" "She is a perfectly terrible person," said Lucy. "She calls herself the Queen of Narnia thought she has no right to be queen at all, and all the Fauns and Dryands and Naiads and Dwarfs and Animals—at least all the good ones—simply hate her. And she can turn people into stone and do all kinds of horrible things. And she has made a magic so that it is always winter in Narnia—always winter, but it never gets to Christmas. And she drives about on a sledge, drawn by reindeer, with her wand in her hand and a crown on her head." Edmund was already feeling uncomfortable from having eaten too many sweets, and when he heard that the Lady he had made friends with was a dangerous witch he felt even more uncomfortable. But he still wanted to taste that Turkish Delight more than he wanted anything else. This quotation comes at the end of Chapter 4, during Edmund's first visit to Narnia. Edmund finally finds Lucy after first encountering the Witch and eating Turkish Delight. This passage represents the moment when Edmund chooses the Witch's side, instead of the good side. Throughout the rest of the book, Edmund tries to rationalize his belief in the Witch, he deceives himself and ignores all the stories that portray the Witch as evil. He thinks to himself that the Witch was kind to him, instead of trusting his siblings or Aslan This quotation shows that Edmund has full knowledge of the situation and exercises free will. Edmund does not suspect Lucy of lying to him and accepts what she tells him as the truth. Edmund thinks about his greed and then consciously rejects the idea that the Witch is a dangerous foe. This passage crystallizes the moment that Edmund willfully decides to side with the Witch, and shows that his later excuses are just that—excuses. And now a very curious thing happened. None of the children knew who Aslan was any more than you do; but the moment the Beaver had spoken [his name] everyone felt quite different.... At the name of Aslan each one of the children felt something jump in its inside. Edmund felt a sensation of mysterious horror. Peter felt suddenly brave and adventurous. Susan felt as if some delicious smell or some delightful strain of music had just floated by her. And Lucy got the feeling you have when you wake up in the morning and realize that it is the beginning of the holidays or the beginning of summer. This passage occurs in Chapter 7, and describes the first time that the children hear the name Aslan. The children's sudden strong reactions demonstrate the mystical power of Aslan. Aslan immediately becomes a mysterious, mystical entity. To Peter, Susan, and Lucy, Aslan feels comfortable and powerful, whereas Edmund grows uneasy at the mention of Aslan. The children have never actually met Aslan, yet they have powerful reactions, contributing to a theme of god-like mystique surrounding Aslan. The differing reactions of the children illustrate the idea of faith. The believers—those with faith—revere Aslan right away, while the skeptic, Edmund, distrusts him. This passage also reinforces the idea that faith is intensely personal. For example, the childrens' unique reactions to Aslan reflect their individual personalities. Edmund reacts with horror because Edmund sides with the White Witch, an enemy of Aslan. Peter feels brave and adventurous after he hears Aslan's name because Peter is a courageous person. Susan has a sweet and gentle nature, and she reacts to Aslan's name as if it is a beautiful, sensual pleasure. Lucy—kind, honest and gay—feels the deep excitement and joy that only a child can understand. It is as if she just woke up on the first day of summer vacation, or Christmas morning, the two greatest pleasures for a child. The childrens' reactions also express the effect that faith in God, or Aslan, will have on each of them throughout the story. "Aslan?" said Mr. Beaver. "Why, don't you know? He's the King. He's the Lord of the whole wood, but not often here, you understand. Never in my time or my father's time. But the word has reached us that he has come back. He is in Narnia at this moment. He'll settle the White Queen all right. It is he, not you, that will save Mr. Tumnus." "Is—is he a man?" asked Lucy. "Aslan a man!" Mr. Beaver said sternly. "Certainly not. I tell you he is the King of the wood and the son of the great Emperor-Beyond-the-Sea. Don't you know who is the King of Beasts? Aslan is a lion—the Lion, the great Lion." "Ooh!" said Susan, "I'd thought he was a man. Is he—quite safe? I shall feel rather nervous about meeting a lion." "That you will, dearie, and no mistake," said Mrs. Beaver; "if there's anyone who can appear before Aslan without their knees knocking, they're either braver than most or else just silly." This quotation comes near the beginning of Chapter 8 and it is our first real introduction to Aslan. According to the passage, Aslan is a type of god-like figure because of his longevity, immense power, and benevolence. Lewis deliberately keeps the parallel vague, contributing to Aslan's mystique. Lewis's vagueness allows us to form an opinion of Aslan before we see him as a Christian symbol. Lewis purposely wants to provide a different perspective to what many people during his time perceive as an aging faith. Aslan's actions and motivations are similar to those of Christ. Lewis wants us to realize that there is no harm in believing in Aslan, just as there is no harm in following Christ. The physical form of the lion does not matter. Lewis uses the form of the lion because of a child's vision of the lion as scary and ferocious. By making Aslan a gentle, courageous lion, Lewis alters the child's stereotype of a lion. Simlarly, Lewis seeks to alter our stereotypes about Jesus Christ and can understand Him on a more tangible level. Mrs. Beaver's comment demonstrates that while we should not be afraid of Aslan, we should still revere and respect him. Jesus, explains Lewis, is someone to awe, but also someone to trust. "Have you forgotten the Deep Magic?" asked the Witch. "Let us say I have forgotten it," answered Aslan gravely. "Tell us of this Deep Magic." "Tell you?" said the Witch, her voice growing suddenly shriller. "Tell you what is written on that very Table of Stone which stands beside us? Tell you what is written in letters deep as a spear is long on the fire-stones on the Secret Hill? Tell you what is engraved on the scepter of the Emperor-Beyond-the-Sea? You at least know the Magic which the Emperor put into Narnia at the very beginning. You know that every traitor belongs to me as my lawful prey and that for every treachery I have a right to kill.... And so that human creature is mine. His life is forfeit to me. His blood is my property... unless I have blood as the Law says all Narnia will be overturned and perish in fire and water." "It is very true," said Aslan, "I do not deny it." This quotation appears near the end of Chapter 13. The passage demonstrates that the gods of Narnia do not forgive sins, and every traitor's life is forfeit the Witch. In Narnia, there is no question of whether people believe or do not believe in this rule. They do not question the existence of a higher being or a belief in a rule that requires a life to be forfeit. Lewis illustrates the rigidity and immutability of the laws of the Emperor-Beyond-the-Sea. The Emperor resembles the God described in the Old Testament. Lewis suggests that it is through Aslan's, or Jesus's, death that God becomes merciful. At that moment they heard from behind them a loud noise—a great cracking, deafening noise as if a giant had broken a giant's plate.... The Stone Table was broken into two pieces by a great crack that ran down it from end to end; and there was no Aslan. "Who's done it?" cried Susan. "What does it mean? Is it more magic?" "Yes!" said a great voice from behind their backs. "It is more magic." They looked round. There, shining in the sunrise, larger than they had seen him before, shaking his mane (for it had apparently grown again) stood Aslan himself. "Oh, Aslan!" cried both the children, staring up at him, almost as much frightened as they were glad.... "But what does it all mean?" asked Susan when they were somewhat calmer. "It means," said Aslan, "that though the Witch knew the Deep Magic, there is a magic deeper still which she did not know. Her knowledge goes back only to the dawn of time. But if she could have looked a little further back, into the stillness and the darkness before Time dawned, she would have read there a different incantation. She would have known that when a willing victim who had committed no treachery was killed in a traitor's stead, the Table would crack and Death itself would start working backward." This scene, which occurs in Chapter 15, is possibly the most important in the book. Aslan's resurrection is the backbone both of the literal plot of the novel and the Christian allegory. The breaking of the Stone Table signifies the shattering of old, severe traditions. A new age dawns as literally the sun rises in the book. Lewis consistently refers to spiritual and mystical experiences as magic. Using the idea of magic, Lewis couches the story of Christ in terms that children can easily grasp, and he makes the story more vibrant and accessible. Although the old magic, or traditional religion, of Narnia is Deep Magic, deeper still is the magic that Aslan uses when he sacrifices himself. Aslan does not defy the Emperor's magic. Instead, Aslan follows the tradition and submits himself to the Witch. Aslan's resurrection does not occur because he helps redeem Edmund or Narnia, but because he obeys the Emperor's rules. Aslan follows the old tradition, and is therefore able to then reform the traditions and save Narnia. More Help	i don't know
Which Belgian city is known as the 'diamond cutting capital of the world'?	Diamond Industry \| About Belgium \| Beer Tourism Diamond Industry The city of Antwerp is the capital of Flanders but it is also the current capital of the diamond industry, being home to around 1,500 diamond firms, the largest concentration in the world. Diamond manufacturing in Antwerp © BeerTourism.com These businesses include rough diamond producers and dealers, manufacturers and polished diamond wholesalers. As soon as you get of the train you will be see dozens of diamond shops and jewellers all located very nearby in the city's diamond quarter, which is right outside the beautiful Central Station. The world’s two largest diamond banks have their headquarters in the city too, also within the diamond quarter. “Cut in Antwerp” is still an internationally recognised quality label when we’re talking 'bling', and the city’s strong affiliation with diamonds goes back centuries . Diamonds are indeed, one of Belgium's best friends and how deep the love goes is clearly exhibited in the diamond museums of the famous, medieval cities of Antwerp and Bruges. If you are tempted to put theory into practice be sure to look for a quality jeweler and get the best possible advice on what promises to be a quite substantial purchase as well as the ultimate Belgian souvenir. Curious Pebbles Diamonds were first discovered in India and Alexander the Great was the first to bring them to Europe in 327 BC. In 1725 miners panning for gold in Brazil came across what Diamond mine © BeerTourism.com they described as “curious pebbles”, which turned out to be diamonds. The first alluvial diamonds (stones which have been washed out of the rocks which originally held them) were discovered in South Africa in 1859. Ten years later mining began in the hard rock sources from which these river bed gems had sprung. Today, in addition to South Africa, diamonds are mined in Botswana, Namibia, Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Russia and Australia. A peculiarity of the diamond industry is the remarkable geographic concentration of the trade in gem quality diamonds; both the wholesale and diamond cutting businesses are limited to just a few locations. Diamonds are actually the world’s hardest known natural substance and can only be cut by another diamond. As they are composed of carbon they will burn if heated to a bright red. A diamond in the rough They occur naturally, but are extremely rare compared to other minerals. It is thought that they are formed deep inside the Earth in conditions of extreme heat and pressure and volcanic eruptions later bring them to the surface. After the softer volcanic rock has eroded, the diamonds are often found in alluvial deposits. In the end it doesn't really matter how they are formed, it is an undeniable fact that since their discovery diamonds have been so desired that, sadly enough, during the course of history they have also been the source of suffering and bloodshed. Nowadays the precious gems have even become no less than essential to modern day industry. Diamonds & Belgium There are of course other large diamond centres, such as the Indian cities of Mumbai and Surat. Israel is another trade centre and mainly supplies the North American market, while Dubai is the regional Antwerp © BeerTourism.com diamond distributor for the Middle East. Nevertheless, for well over 500 years the city of Antwerp and the diamond industry have been synonymous and in spite of competition from centres in the developing world its commercial future seems secure. The reason for Antwerp’s significance to the diamond trade is interesting. The stones originally come from India and as long ago as the time of the Roman Empire a flourishing trade in diamonds between eastern Asia and Europe was established. An important city on this trade route was Venice and as a result the Italian city state became the most important mercantile city in the western world. Venice had the monopoly of the diamond trade, sending the gems on their way to the rich markets of southern Germany. At the far end of this route was Bruges, which gradually developed into the pre-eminent diamond-cutting centre. At that time Bruges was an important port, but the river Cut dimonds © BeerTourism.com which gave it access to the sea began to silt up and the city’s fortunes began to decline. Antwerp was the beneficiary, with many of Bruges’s economic interests shifting to its port where newer and better communication and exchange facilities were developed. Before long Antwerp was the commercial hub for the whole of Europe; approximately 40% of world trade passed through the port, including the most valuable trade of all. But the rival city of Amsterdam, with its religious and civil liberties, was a rising star as a trading centre. By the end of the 17th century the Dutch capital had taken much of Antwerp’s trade and had a near monopoly in the diamond industry. Amsterdam supplied Antwerp with diamonds, but kept the best ones for its own diamond cutters. But the skilful craftsmen of Antwerp were able to use this to their advantage by transforming these apparently small and mediocre stones into finely worked finished gems. The Setback In the 1860s, after the start of diamond mining in South Africa, there was a huge influx of rough diamonds into Europe. Many of these came to Antwerp and it New York Stock Exchange (1929) © BeerTourism.com only took a few months for the diamond trade in the city to rise back towards its pre-eminent position. This revival in production created an even greater demand for gemstones, but it was a fragile business. The Great Depression of the 1930s saw a serious decline in the Antwerp diamond trade, forcing many cutting shops to close. Things took a turn for the worse with the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Many of the diamond industry’s leading figures were Jewish and large numbers of diamond traders and craftsmen fled to the United States, Portugal or the UK. In an attempt to save as much as possible of their existing stock and prevent it from falling into German hands, the 500 dealers who had fled to London transferred their diamonds there. An agreement was made with the British government to keep them safe for the duration of the war and to return them to Antwerp Deportation of Antwerp Jews © Das Bundesarchiv once hostilities were over. Tragically, many of these traders did not manage to get away in time and the first anti-Jewish measures were introduced soon after the German invasion. Although between 1942 and 1945 about 800 Jews were sheltered safely in the city of Antwerp alone, figures indicate that during that time around 30,000 Belgian Jews perished. Despite the Nazi's thorough efforts to destroy an entire community as well as the city's inhabitants' brave actions to harbour their Jewish fellow citizens half a millennium of tradition wasn't erased. Nore the horrors of war nore the massive loss in life could break the trading spirit and the city proved its resilience as it was only a matter of time before Antwerp’s blooming diamond trade would rise again... Antwerp Rocks It is said that what New York is to the world’s money markets, Antwerp is to the global diamond trade. Antwerp is also the centre of the secondary or rough diamond market. Diamond merchants Antwerp diamond gallery © BeerTourism.com from all over the world visit Antwerp, often on a monthly basis. For most people, the diamond trade means De Beers. The mines owned by De Beers and its subsidiary companies are responsible for 40% of annual world diamond production and Antwerp has the largest concentration of De Beers clients. The Diamond Trade Company, which is the distribution arm of De Beers, sorts and distributes 45% of the world’s supply and much of the remainder ends up in Antwerp too. More than 50% of global production of rough, polished, cut and industrial diamonds passes through Antwerp. Around 80% of the world’s rough diamonds are handled in Antwerp generating an annual turnover of some €30 billion. The most valuable diamonds are usually cut in Antwerp , but as the economy globalises Antwerp remains a nerve centre with much of the actual diamonds shipped out to other, cheaper locations. Antwerp Diamond Quarter © BeerTourism.com Rough diamonds are first sorted and graded, before being dispatched from Antwerp to cutting plants around the globe. They will then return as polished diamonds when they are classified again, according to the “Four Cs”: cut, clarity, colour and carat weight. They will then be sold to the jewellery markets, generally through wholesalers. Antwerp is home to hundreds of wholesale offices dealing in polished diamonds and of the four diamond exchanges in the city, three primarily serve the polished diamond trade. It will come as no surprise that this close to the raw material there are many diamond retailers and jewellers in and around the city to tempt diamond fans. The Four C's The sorting of rough diamonds is based on their shape, size, colour, cuttability and quality. The weight of a diamond is measured in carats, with one carat being the equivalent of 0.2 grams. These carats Diamond cutting © BeerTourism.com are not the same as the measure of purity use for gold, which Americans spell with a K to avoid this confusion. After it has been cut and polished, a one-carat diamond will measure about 6.5 millimetres across. Large diamonds are extremely rare and therefore extremely valuable. To take one well known example, the Koo-i-Noor, which sits proudly in the British crown, is a 105.6 carat diamond. One of the legendary stones of the Antwerp industry is the 137.27 carat Florentine Diamond, which was cut and polished by the great Flemish jeweller Lodewyk van Berken for its owner Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. If you fancy tracking it down, it’s believed to have been recut and sold in America after World War I . When it comes to colour the perfect diamond is purely transparent, or white, and the colour grades used in the industry measure the amount of yellow in a stone. The majority of diamonds fall within a small colour range, either colourless or with a faint yellow or brown tint. Coloured diamonds with a bright pink, blue or green Old diamond advertising © BeerTourism.com appearance are very rare and known in the trade as “fancies”. With clarity and as with colour many of these distinctions will only be visible to a trained professional with some serious magnification to help them. Of course, a flawless diamond is rarest and most valuable, and after being crushed into being miles beneath the earth’s surface very few stones are flawless. Finally we come to the cut which is the hardest to judge of all the grading scales of diamonds. Diamonds aren’t all that great to look at when they’re discovered – remember those ‘pebbles’ – and polishing and cutting are needed to bring out their best. Cutting is an incredibly complex business and The Antwerp Diamond Games trophy © BeerTourism.com one that still develops. As diamonds can only be cut with other diamonds it wasn’t until the late Middle Ages that diamond cutting started to develop as an art. Cutting diamonds also means lopping off a hell of a lot of valuable material – usually around half – so it’s a responsible and, when it comes to the great stones, often controversial job. The most common cut is the 58 facet round brilliant. Fashion too can play its part – oval cuts emphasise long fingers and so are favoured in some ring designs. Last but not least Antwerp's "brilliant" image used to be emphasised even more with the "Antwerp Diamond Games", a WTA-tournament that was organised each year before it was taken off the WTA calendar in 2008 . Any tennis player that succeeded in winning the title three times in five years won a gold and diamond racket worth a whopping million Euros, French Amélie Mauresmo (and not Kim Clijsters or Justine Henin!) was the only one ever to pull it off. Related Pages	Antwerp
On which planet in our solar system would you find the Maxwell Montes mountains?	Hotels In Antwerp \| TRYP by Wyndham Antwerp TRYP by Wyndham Antwerp Plantin en Moretuslei 136, 2018, Antwerpen, Belgium Tel.: 32 3 2710700 - Fax: 32 3 2723800 E-mail: [email protected] STAY IN THE HEART OF IT ALL TRYP Antwerp is a hotel designed to meet the needs of business and leisure travelers. We bring you 176 (non-smoking) rooms, each with a different mood, fully appointed to meet your wishes. Each room includes complimentary high speed Wifi (naturally) and a hospitality corner. The TRYP Antwerp is located within a good stroll of the center of Antwerp. It's around the corner from the historical city center and right on the border of the most charming 'Art Nouveau' district of Zurenborg. If you're looking for bars & restaurants exuding style, look here! History meets a trendy lifestyle at the TRYP by Wyndham Antwerp in the charming district of Zurenborg. Situated in the center of Antwerp, Belgium, our hotel provides easy access to the downtown area as well as Central Station and Antwerp Airport. Visitors to the TRYP by Wyndham Antwerp will discover a world of charm, style and luxury in this famous Art Nouveau District, surrounded by beautiful squares, restaurants, bars and shopping opportunities. Our hotel offers sleek accommodations with amenities that include a mini bar, free WiFi and a free safe. Our hotel is also close to the Antwerp Zoo and the Diamond District, making it the ideal choice for both business and leisure guests. IMMERSE YOURSELF IN CULTURE Antwerp is well known as the world center for diamonds, and the Diamond District features countless jewelry shops as well as the Antwerp Diamond Exchange, the most important financial center of the world’s diamond industry. Families will enjoy a visit Antwerp Zoo, the oldest animal park in the country with over 4,000 animals. Visitors are also welcome to step into the shoes of leading Baroque artist Peter Paul Rubens at Rubenshuis, a museum that includes a charming garden along with Rubens’ workshop. Other nearby attractions include City Park and the stunning Cathedral of our Lady. CONVENIENT AND EXCITING CUISINE AWAITS Start your morning at Sir Plantin’s Restaurant with a sumptuous breakfast, or join us in our on-site Lounge & Bar Moretus for cocktails before heading out for the evening. Nearby Brasserie Van Loock is a classic restaurant with Belgian dishes, while Cuichine is a modern Chinese restaurant with inventive fare. ALWAYS READY FOR BUSINESS From executive conferences to social occasions, the cutting edge meeting space at the TRYP by Wyndham Antwerp can accommodate groups of up to 100 attendees. Allow our experienced event planning team to create a conference package tailored to your unique business needs. HOTEL AMENITIES Complimentary WiFi throughout the hotel Ideally located around the corner from the historical city center and on the border of the 'Art Nouveau' district of Zurenborg 10-minute drive to the Antwerp Exhibition Center & Antwerp Airport Explore one of the world's greatest train stations, less than 1 km from TRYP Antwerp Premium Breakfast Buffet Breakfast restaurant, bar & living room Contemporary TRYP Rooms, Premium Rooms, Connecting rooms & Rooms for physically challenged guests (twin/queen) 1 well equipped function room (110 M²) Antwerp-inspired Art throughout the hotel Individually controlled air conditioning	i don't know
According to Greek mythology, who was the woman who fell in love with Theseus and supplied him with the ball of thread by which he found his way out of the Labyrinth?	Meet Theseus, the greatest hero of Athens Home Theseus, the legendary king of Athens Befitting Athens, a city renowned for its thinkers, Theseus, the chief hero of Athenian legends, was known more for his quick wits than his strength. His cleverness made him - along with heroes such as Hercules, Perseus and Odysseus - one of the great monster slayers of greek mythology. The hero earned a reputation not only for his daring and intelligence, but also for his fairness. An early king of Athens, he was one of the first rulers to reform the government in the direction of democracy. As both a king and an adventurer, he defended the oppressed and consistently fought for the ideal of justice. Click on the following links to go directly to the relevant chapter: Early Youth On his mother side, Theseus descended from Pelops, the great king of Pisa, whom the gods restored to life after his father Tantalus had tried to serve him to them in a stew. On his father's side, he was the son of either a king (Aegeus) or a god (Poseidon). King Aegeus of Athens had long wanted a child, but his efforts in two marriages had proved fruitless. He at last decided to consult the oracle at Delphi, where he received a cryptic instruction: "Do not unloose the foot of your wineskin until you return to Athens". The king was puzzled by this, failing to decipher the meaning. Instead of returning directly to Athens, Aegeus headed for the small town of Troezen in Argolis. Aegeus hoped that his friend Pittheus - the king of Troezen - would help him solve the riddle of the oracle. Although the latter immediately interpreted the oracle - which of course had a sexual metaphorical meaning as you will see below - he did not share his interpretation with his friend, since he had other plans for him. That night, Pittheus got Aegeus drunk and led him to the bed of his daughter Aethra. Later that same night, Poseidon lay down with Aethra too - but neither Pittheus nor Aegeus knew of this coupling. The next morning, Aegeus buried his sword and his sandals under a massive rock near Troezen. He told Aethra that if she gave birth to his son and that boy grew strong enough to push aside the stone, she should send him with these items to Athens. In this way, Aegeus would recognize him as his son. Aethra did have a son and named him Theseus. The boy soon demonstrated both strength and cleverness. As a young wrestler, he is credited with transforming the sport of wrestling from a contest of brute strength into an art that blended fighting skills with agility and quick wits. At age sixteen, Theseus managed to move the stone, put on Aegeus's sandals and sword and set off for Athens. He ignored his grandfather's and mother's advice to sail across the Saronic Gulf. Instead, he chose to traverse the hazardous land route across the Isthmus of Corinthus. The adventurous journey to Athens The road to Athens was filled with horrible monsters, who terrorized the travelers, killing them in brutal ways. The hero encountered his first opponent near Epidaurus. This was the notorious Periphetes nicknamed Corynetes (meaning "Clubman"), son of the god Hephaestus, who killed travelers with a club (coryne). Theseus killed him and took his club as a trophy. A little further along the road, the hero came across Sinis, who was also known as Pityocamptes (meaning "Pine Bender"). Sinis would bend back two pines, then capture travelers and tie each of their legs to each tree. He would then let the pines snap back into place, thus tearing the traveler apart. Theseus beat Sinis and punished him with the same treatment he had reserved for strangers. While he was there, Theseus had his first erotic contact with Sinis's daughter, Perigune. A son, Melanippus, was born from their union. The hero had not gone much further when a ferocious sow rushed out at him. This wild pig had long ravaged the town of Crommyon. Named Phaea after the old woman who bred or owned her, the beast was yet another monstrous offspring of Typhon and Echidna. The hero used both sword and spear to kill the beast. Near Corinth, by a location now known as "Kakia Skala" (meaning "Evil Ladder"), Theseus encountered Sciron, also a son of Poseidon, who would force travelers to wash his feet. As they bent over, he would toss them over the cliff into the Saronic Gulf, where the poor victims would be devoured by a huge sea turtle. The hero agreed to wash Sciron's feet, but when he bent down, he managed to grab him by the ankles and hurl him down the cliff, thus becoming the last victim of the man eating turtle. Outside Eleusis, the hero fought and killed another son of Poseidon, Gercyon, who forced travelers to wrestle with him to death. Once again, he used wits, quickness and agility to defeat brute strength. At the end of the match, he lifted Gercyon up and smashed him to the ground, killing him instantly. The final monster encountered on the way to Athens, was named Procrustes. The father of Sinis the Pine Bender and son of Hephaestus, Procrustes would invite all weary travelers to rest at his home. But after his guests fell asleep, he would torture them:If their legs hung over the end of the bed, he would chop them off. If they were too short, he would attach weights to their arms and legs and would stretch them to size. As he had done with all the monsters he had encountered before, Theseus gave Procrustes a taste of his own medicine, by killing him the same way he used himself on his victims. Click here to see on a map, all the locations where the hero confronted his adversaries. Arriving in Athens When the hero reached the outskirts of Athens, he offered a sacrifice to Zeus Meilichius and was purified of the killings he had committed on the way. Tales of his feats had already reached the palace of Aegeus, who at the time was living with Medea. Being a sorceress and having recognized the identity of the young hero, she talked the king into poisoning the young stranger, in an attempt to prevent Aegeus from recognizing his son so that her own son Medus, would be assured of accessing the throne. Aegeus thus invited Theseus to a symposium. During the meal, Theseus pulled out a knife to cut the meat. Aegeus immediately recognized it, as being the same one that he hid under the rock in Troezen, a long time ago. As soon as he realized that the young man he had before him was his son, he immediately poured out the tainted wine, officially recognized Theseus as his son and banished Medea and her son. After being declared the heir to the throne of Athens, Theseus faced and defeated his cousins, the sons of Pallas (Aegeus's brother), who had decided to kill the hero, as his sudden appearance had spoiled his plan to succeed his brother on the Athenian throne. The expedition to Crete The happy reunion of Aegeus and his son did not last long. Eighteen years earlier, king Minos of Crete had attacked Athens to avenge the death of his son Androgeus, who was killed by the Marathon Bull, following an order from Aegeus. Athens, weakened by the plague, succumbed to Minos and Aegeus averted the invasion by agreeing to pay a terrible price. Every nine years, Minos came to Athens to collect his awful payment: Seven boys and seven virgin girls to be offered as food to the savage Minotaur. Now, the time came for the third tribute. The Minotaur, a monster with a bull's head and a man's body, was the offspring of Mino's wife, Pasiphae, and a handsome bull. At the beginning of Minos's reign, the king wanted to discourage any challenges to the throne by proving his divine right to rule Crete. He prayed to Poseidon to send him a sign, a bull which he promised to sacrifice. When the beast emerged from the sea, Minos admired it so much, that he substituted another one for the sacrifice. Poseidon, enraged, he avenged by making Pasiphae fall in love with the beast. Thus, the queen petitioned Daedalus, a brilliant inventor, to help her consummate her love. Daedalus constructed a hollow wooden cow and covered it with cow hides. The fake cow was so convincing, that it fooled the bull. Pasiphae, who was hidden inside the child, thus conceived a monstrous child, Minotaur. Daedalus then designed the labyrinth, a maze like prison in which the Minotaur lived. No one - except its builder Daedalus - had ever got into the maze and managed to get out. Despite his father's protests, Theseus volunteered to join the group to be sent to Crete for the sacrifice. His plan was to kill the beast and thus end the payment of the tribute to Crete. Concerned about his son, Aegeus made him promise that, on his return home he would signal his survival by replacing the black sails of the ship with white ones. When the shipload of Athenian sacrifices arrived in Crete, Ariadne - a daughter of Minos - fell in love with Theseus. She resolved to help him escape by giving him a spool of thread and a sword. When he entered the Labyrinth, he attached one end of the thread to the entrance. He then unraveled the ball as he explored the maze. Eventually, he found his way to the center of the maze, where he slew the mighty beast with the sword that Ariadne had given him. Afterwards, he wound the thread back to the ball, thus following its trail back to the entrance. The ship with the Athenians and Ariadne immediately set sail for Athens, thus escaping from Crete. They then made a stop at Naxos, a greek island. Myth tellers disagree on the final fate of Ariadne: One myth says that Theseus abandoned her on the island Naxos. Ariadne, enraged when she found out, cursed him to forget to change the sails of the ship from black to white, thus driving his father Aegeus to death. Another myth says, that god Dionysus , fascinated by her beauty, appeared in Naxos and stole Ariadne away to make her his bride. Still, a third version suggests that Ariadne died while giving birth to Theseus's child Ammathounta (Ammochostos) in Cyprus, where the ship was wrecked during a storm. She was buried in a woods consecrated to Aphrodite Ariadne. Neglecting to change the sails of his ship, Theseus sailed on to Athens. Aegeus, who was eager to learn about his son's fate, saw the black sails of the ship from afar while he was standing on a clip overlooking the sea. Assuming that his son was dead, he leaped from the cliff to his death. The sea that claimed his body was named thereafter the Aegean Sea, in honor of his name. Adventure with the Amazons After his father's death, Theseus became king of Athens. As a king, he made significant moves towards establishing democracy and laying the foundations for the Athenian hegemony, which would reach its pinnacle in the fifth century BC. Being a king, however, did not discourage him from continuing his adventurous life. Some say he joined the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece. He also took part in the Calydon boar hunt. He also contributed significantly to the victory of Hercules over the Amazons, in the relevant labor. While he was with Hercules in the land of the Amazons, Antiope, one of the Amazon queens, fell in love with him. Betraying her sisters, she followed Theseus on his way back to Greece. The Amazons pursued the hero and Antiope to Athens, where they engaged in a fierce battle. Hippolyte, defeated, escaped to Megara, where she died. Antiope and Theseus had a son, Hippolytus. Storytellers disagree on the way she died:Some say she was killed by an Amazon warrior, while others say that she was accidentally killed by an Amazon ally of hers, Penthesilia, while they were battling against the other Amazons. Some even insist that Theseus himself killed her, when she attacked the guests at his wedding to Phaedra. Phaedra and Hippolytus Theseus was then married to Phaedra, who was Ariadne's sister. Out of wedlock, the king and queen had two sons: Acamas and Demophon. Theseus intended his sons to succeed him in ruling Athens, so he sent Hippolytus, his son from Antiope, to Troezen, where he would succeed the hero's grandfather, Pittheus. When Phaedra met once Hippolytus in Troezen, she fell in love with him. But the youth did not respond to her advances, because he was devoted to the goddess Artemis and was indifferent to women. Devastated, Phaedra killed herself, leaving a letter to Theseus, who was away on a trip, in which she claimed that Hippolytus raped her. Theseus refused to listen to his son's version of the story. Enraged, he called for his son's death by invoking one of the three curses that his father Poseidon had once bestowed upon him. As Hippolytus rode away along the coast in his chariot, a bull rose out of the sea and spooked the horses. The horses upset the chariot and dragged Hippolytus, who had become entangled in the reins, to his death. The goddess Artemis later appeared before Theseus, explaining to him the true version of the story. The real culprit behind the plot was the goddess Aphrodite, who wanted to punish Hippolytus for neglecting her and choosing Artemis over her. The tragic story of Phaedra and Hippolytus is the central theme of a drama by the ancient Greek playwright Euripides called "Hippolytus". His Roman counterpart Seneca also told a similar story in his "Phaedra". The Abduction of Helen Not taken aback from the tragic end of his amorous adventures in the past (Ariadne, Antiope and Phaedra), Theseus was set on finding a suitable wife. His choice was princess Helen of Sparta, the same one who later sparked the Trojan War. At that time, Helen was in the age of 10-11, while Theseus was reaching fifty. As the myth goes, Helen was a daughter of Zeus and was the sister of the twins, Castor and Polydeuces. In this new adventure, he was assisted by his long time friend Peirithous, king of the Lapithae, a tribe who lived in Thessaly (northeastern Greece). Perithous first met Theseus when he tried to steal cattle from him, in an attempt to challenge the hero and see whether his fame for being a hero held to be true. When the two men met, they grew font of each other and became close friends. Peirithous was especially grateful to Theseus when he helped him battle against the Centaurs - half brothers of Peirithous since allegedly they all had Zeus as their father -, when, under the influence of alcohol, they created havoc at Peiritous's wedding with Hippodameia, at which they were invited as guests. In the ensuing war that broke out, Peirithous with the assistance of his friend Theseus managed to drive away all the Centaurs from Thessaly. After the two friend abducted Helen from Sparta, they left her with Theseus's mother Aethra in the town of Aphidnae and then set out to find and capture Perithous's choice of wife: Persephone , who at the time was residing in the Underworld with Hades . The two heroes joined to make the perilous journey to the Underworld. When they met Hades, he unexpectedly greeted them with hospitality and offered them to sit on stone chairs. To their amazement, their flesh became fastened to the chair and on top of this, they lost memory of their identity and what they were doing there altogether. To Theseus good fortune, he was released from his Chair of Forgetfulness, when Hercules visited Hades to accomplish his last labor, the capturing of Cerberus. However, Hercules was unable to free Peirithous, as he had to leave Hades in a hurry, due to an earthquake. Brought back to the living, Theseus found out that during his absence, the Dioscuri (Castor and Polydeuces, the twin brothers of Helen) had attacked Aphidnae, rescued their sister and abducted and enslaved Aethra. Athenians were furious with Theseus, holding him responsible for all the disasters that he brought upon them. By the time Theseus returned from the kingdom of death, they had ousted them as their king and put in his place Menestheus, who according to the historian Plutarch was a direct descendant of the great legendary Athenian king Erectheus. The Shameful Death Unable to win back the throne, Theseus took refuge in the Aegean island of Scyrus. There, king Lycomedes, perhaps fearing that his renowned visitor would take away the throne from him, drove the hero to his death, by pushing him over a steep cliff into the sea, while they were having a walk. Long after his death, the image of Theseus, fully armed, arose and helped Athenians to victory, during the battle of Marathon (490 BC). When the Persian Wars ended, the bones of the hero were restored to Athens for burial. They were placed in the city center at the Theseion, which became a refuge for the weak, for slaves and for all those oppressed by the powerful. The renowned king of Athens and the monster slayer hero was finally placed in the honorary position that he deserved, despite the foolish adventures that he forced his fellow citizens to endure during his reign.	Ariadne
In 1971, Isaac Hayes became the first black man to win an Academy Award for Best Original Song with his theme from which 1971 film?	Quia - Mythology Java Games: Flashcards, matching, concentration, and word search. Mythology A B His home was a marvelous golden palace, adorned with corals and sea flowers, lit with a phosphorescent glow. Neptune (or Poseidon) Who was the Greek god of love? Eros Roman goddess of death. Morta This messenger god of Greek myth became Apollo's close friend after inventing the seven-stringed lyre and giving it to Apollo who loved music. Hermes Who is Dionysus? Greek god of wine Paris killed this Greek hero with a fatal shot from a bow and arrow to his only weak spot Achilles Roman symbol of the earth; wife of Uranus. Terra One of Hercules' 12 Labors was to obtain the girdle of this Amazon queen. Hippolyta This unfortunate and confused fellow unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Oedipus This Titan was mother to the sun (Helios), moon (Selene) and the dawn (Eos). Thea This Roman deity, whose name means "good ending," was god of success in business. Eventus Bonus Unending stream of water encircling the earth. Oceanus In Roman mythology, this creature sprang from the spot where blood from Medusa's head sank into the earth. Pegasus Latin name of the goddess called Rhea and Ops by the Greeks; she is often shown by artists in the company of lions. Cybele This possession of Pandora's has come to symbolize any object or situation that has the potential for great evil. Pandora's box (or her box) Soothsayers predicited that this son of Priam would bring about the destruction of Troy. Paris Hebe served as waitress on Mt. Olympus, bringing this drink to gods and goddesses. nectar According to Greek myth, Andromeda died and became one of these. a constellation King Minos' palace on this island was built atop the legendary Labyrinth. Crete A number of myths describe her ruthless hostility towards her husband's many mistresses. Hera Representing the most brutal and violent aspects of war, this god was not highly respected by the Greeks, who placed little value on these traits. Ares The Roman archaic triad, or old group, included Quininus and these two "planetary" gods. Jupiter and Mars The most beautiful of all the gods. Apollo Her intense curiousity led her to open a box from which all manner of evil escaped into the world. Pandora Name two categories into which most myths fall. creation and explanatory These story poems relate the deeds and adventures of a hero. epics City that became the center of the cult of Artemis. Ephesus This city took its name from the Greek goddess of wisdom. Athens Formed the basis of classical Greek mythology. Dorian and Mycenaean myths Zeus was hidden on this island to protect him from his father. Crete He wrote the Heroides, fictitious letters written by famous women in mythology to their husbands. Ovid Romans believed that the family of this ruler descended from Venus. Julius Caesar In Metamorphoses, the Roman poet Ovid retold the story of this Greek sculptor who fell in love with the ivory statue of a beautiful woman he had carved. Pygmalion Juno was one of three deities enshrined in temples on this site. Capitoline Hill The deaths of her husband and several of their children during the Trojan war caused this second wife of Priam great suffering. Hecuba In the center of Aegis was the head of this gorgon Medusa This fearful fire-breathing monster was a mixture of lion, goat and dragon. Chimaera Paris, left to die as an infant, was rescued by a kindly man of this profession. shepherd Name the mythical place that was the eternal home of humans who lived virtuous lives. Isle of the Blessed Many authors portray her as the innocent victim of her own great beauty. Helen The Hero Bellerophon tamed Pegasus with this gift from Athena. golden bridle The love child of Aphrodite and Ares. Eros This Roman god of the heavens is often associated with Zeus. Jupiter The sweet singing of these sea nymphs lured sailors to their destruction on their island's rocky shores. Sirens Hera honored this mythical monster upon its death by putting its 100 eyes on the tail of her favorite bird, the peacock. Argus These myths try to explain the origins of the world. creation myths Gods and goddesses made their home here. Mt. Olympus Zeus led his brothers and sisters in a war against whom? Cronus and the Titans Name for the one-eyed giants of Greek mythology. Cyclops Hers was the face that launched a thousand ships. Helen Whose face could turn a man to stone? Medusa The adventures of this hero are chronicled in the Odyssey. Odysseus The bewitching Circe turned Odysseus' men into these creatures. pigs She remained faithful to her husband throughout his twenty-year absence. Penelope In Greek myth, Lethe, the river of this, flowed through the cave of Hypnos. forgetfulness Rome is named for him Romulus She represents the righteous anger of the gods, especially toward the insolent or proud. Nemesis Myths tell of the actions of whom? gods and heroes What is six of each (or six of 12)? Number of gods and goddesses in the top rank of the Olympians What did Helios' flaming chariot symbolize? the sun Name for nymphs living in the forests. dryads The followers of Jason. Argonauts This Roman god resembled the Greek god Ares, but Ares had less religious and moral significance for Greeks and Romans. Mars The Greeks used the myth of this handsome youth to explain why the seasons changed; they honored him by cultivating plants that grew and died quickly. Adonis Number of nearly impossible tasks that Psyche was required to perform as the slave of Venus. 4 Although most of his best known works were modeled on the works of Greek poets, he is considered the greatest poet of ancient Rome and one of the outstanding poets of the world. Virgil Hera sent a gadfly to torment this mistress of Zeus who was disguised as a heifer; according to myth, she fled over the whole earth from its pursuit. Europa Greek mythology is full of these part-mortal, part-divine beings; for example, Hercules. demigods This mythical creature was a monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man. Minotaur The words commerce, merchandise, and merchant are related to the name of this crafty Roman messenger god. Mercury Jupiter used Aegis to create it. thunder The Greek god of love Eros Sorceress wife of the Roman hero Jason. Medea They tended the sacred fire in the temple of Vesta. Vestal Virgins As a demigod, he symbolized strength and physical endurance. Hercules A person shot with one of his arrows supposedly fell in love. Cupid How did ancient societies believe a person died? the act of a mythical being Which Greek god drove a flaming chariot across the sky? Helios Who fed Cronus a stone to save her sixth child from being swallowed? Rhea All wild animals, especially deer, were sacred to her. Artemis (or Diana) This muse of epic poetry must have been a favorite of Homer. Calliope This goddess was the gatekeeper of Mt. Olympus. Seasons This famous Greek warrior had only one weak spot -- his heel. Achilles He kidnapped Persephone and made her his wife. Pluto or Hades Who are the children of Gaea (earth) and Uranus (sky)? Titans He freed Prometheus from the mountain to which Zeus had bound him. Hercules Hercules' wife was attacked by a mythical creature that was half man and half horse. Centaur This son of the Roman goddess of love lived in a fairyland palace of gold and gems. Cupid This Roman deity, similar to Pan, was worshiped as the god of shepherds and fields. Faunus As punishment for stealing fire, Prometheus was tortured daily by this creature. an eagle The nine Greek/Roman goddesses who inspired art, poetry and learning. Muses Aphrodite promised Paris this if he would choose her as the "fairest" of the goddessess. the most beautiful woman in the world Perseus married this beautiful maiden after rescuing her from a giant sea monster. Andromeda Beautiful enchantress of Greek mythology who had the power to turn men into beasts. Circe Artists portray Neptune riding in this vehicle and accompanied by dolphins. A chariot pulled by seahorses Some of these mythical creatures resembled human beings but had supernatural powers. gods and goddesses In Greek mythology, she was the first woman, created by Zeus as a punishment for man. Pandora Blind poet and author of the Illiad and the Odyssey; no, his last name is NOT Simpson. Homer In Greek mythology, this god of the sea was also god of earthquakes and horses. Poseidon This three-headed watchdog of the underworld was captured by Hercules. Cerberus She was the goddess of flowers and is sometimes paired with fauna. Flora The modern symbol for the medical profession comes from the Greek god of healing. Aesculapius The actions of which god portrayed the ideal of moderation in all things? Apollo This ancient work, attributed to Homer, recounts the seige of the city of Troy. The Illiad In Roman myth, he was replaced as ruler of the universe by his son Jupiter. Uranus This Greek hero led a band of heroes on a quest for the mythical Golden Fleece. Jason In Greek mythology, various parts of nature were guarded by these beautiful maidens. nymphs The interior of the Pantheon is lit by this opening in the top of the dome. An oculus Fifty beautiful Nereids lived under the sea but surfaced occasionally for this purpose. To dance in the waves Which Titan attacked his father with a sickle and replaced him as king of the sky? Cronus Aeneas was the son of a mortal father and this Greek goddess. Aphrodite The Greeks won the Trojan War with the help of what? Trojan Horse This Greek poet described Prometheus as a trickster and troublemaker. Hesiod This "wise" and "crafty" Roman goddess was also the goddess of war. Minerva Jupiter destroyed Bellerophon for attempting to do this. Fly up into heaven on Pegasus In Greek mythology, the souls of the dead live here. Hades Term for the state of emptiness in which the universe began Chaos What has twelve signs and is a Greek word meaning "circle of little animals"? Zodiac Name given to the ship built for Jason's quest. Argo This protector of marrige and women was also the wife of Zeus. Hera Gaea arose out of Chaos and immeadiately gave birth to this king of the sky. Uranus The Greeks believed these were tears shed by Aurora for her son Memnon. Dew drops Of Greek or Roman, deity names used most often in art and poetry. Roman This mythical creature was an immortal winged horse. Pegasus This Greek hero was commander in chief of Greek forces in the Trojan War. Agamemnon In Roman mythology, these three goddesses punished criminals who escaped publicc justice. Furies The Hesperides were helped in their task of guarding the Golden Apples by this mythical creature. A sleepless dragon These goddesses ruled over the banquet, the dance and all social enjoyments and elegant arts. Graces Uranus feared his children would overthrow him so he imprisoned them here. Tartarus He was condemned to bear the weight of the heavens upon his shoulders. Atlas This god gave Odysseus a magic herb that protected him from Circe's spells. Hermes After being deserted by Theseus, Ariadne married this Greek god. Dionysus This heroic son of Zeus slew medusa the Gorgon. Perseus Arachne was changed into this web-spinning creature after angering Minerva. A spider "When my sheep needed greener pastures, I prayed to him." Pan What is the weapon of choice for the Greek god Zeus? Thunderbolts Pantheon comes from the Greek word meaning this. Place for all gods Site of the main temple of Jupiter and one of Rome's legendary Seven Hills. Capitoline Hill Odysseus was the prisoner of this sea nymph for seven years. Calypso Poseidon's anger at Odysseus is a major theme of the Odyssey and stemmed from this event. The blinding of Polyphemus It's the spot his mother missed when she dipped Achilles in the River Styx; it would prove to be a fatal error. His heel The ancient Greeks believed that this city was sacred to Apollo; his Temple, containing the famous oracle, is also here. Delphi These mythical creatures were said to be covered with bristly hair, to have goat feet and short horns on their heads. Fauns According to Roman mythology, Romulus was the first of this number of Rome's first kings. Seven Sisyphus was so clever he even managed to capture Thantos, or this, and bind him in chains. Death These nine sisters attended festivals on Mt. Olympus, where they entertained the othr gods with their wit and charm. Muses Justitia, the Roman goddess of this, is often shown blindfolded, holding scales and a sword. Justice The constellation Sagittarius is one of these celebrated in half-man, half-horse monsters of ancient myth. Centaur Atlanta, swift of foot and good with bow, dedicated herself to this Greek guardian of wild things, vowing to remain unwed. Artemis This god was a kind and gentle youth who had the power to lull even the mightiest god to sleep. Hypnos This African queen commited suicide after Jupiter ordered Aeneas to leave her and continue on his way. Dido Praying for escape from Apollo, Daphne was tranformed into this tree, which Apollo made sacred and whose leaves he wore as a crown. Laurel The story of Cupid and Psyche (whose name means soul) has been interpreted as symbolic of the human soul's encounter with love and passion (Cupid) and its struggle to achieve this. Immortality For his crime against Cassandra the prophet, this hero of the Trojan war evoked the anger of Minerva and Neptune, one of whom killed him for his defience. Ajax This Roman messenger god is often shown wearing winged shoes, a winged hat and carrying a winged staff entwined with snakes. Mercury twins born of a mortal mother and the Roman god of war, they are the mythical founders of Rome. Romulus and Remus Originally the gift of this Roman god, the Golden Fleece found rest under the watchful eye of a sleepless dragon. Mercury This winged creature attended Zeus as a minister of his will; for example, it ate Prometheus' liver. An eagle Titan born brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus who allied with Cronos against Zeus and was later given a "heavy" punishment. Atlas The myth of this Phoenician founder of Thebes and brother of Europa explains how the alphabet came to the Greeks. Cadmus Roman women especially worshiped this goddess of marrige and children, was also queen of the gods and the most powerful of all goddesses. Juno The Romans worshiped this goddess for her association with the city's early history and dedicated some of Rome's most powerful temples to her. Venus Using his wits alone, Oedpius defeated this monster, which had the body of a lion, the face of a woman and vexed travelers on the road to Thebes. Sphinx "For this bountifulharvest, we give thanks to..." htis Greek goddess of growing things In Greek and Roman mythology, these persons have a divine father and a mortal mother. Demigods (or heroes) Ovid considered this narrative poem that include more than 200 tales taken from the favorite myths and legends of the ancient world his greatest work. Metamorphoses Most of these human-like followers of Pan and Dionysus had some animal features. Their favorite occupations included drinking wine and pursuing nymphs. Satyrs The souls of people guilty of serious offenses were tormented by these three goddesses of Greek mythology. Furies This fiery god's masterpieces included the armor of the warrior Achilles and the golden throne of Zeus. Hephaestus With the help of their father, Hercules obtained these tempting life-giving treasures from the Hesperides nymphs. Golden Apples Homer, Virgil, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides all wrote works inspired by this conflict, once believed entirely fictional. Trojan War One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Colossus of Rhodes was a monument to him. Helios The gods and goddesses adorned Pandora with all manner of gifts; it's not suprising that her name means this. All gifts or gift to the world. Page and cupbearer for Zeus, this boy was so beautiful that Zeus had him stolen from Mt. Ida to make him immortal in heaven. Ganymede Odysseus visited the island of these people whose magical food made visitors forget their homeland. The lotus-eaters Most of our knowledge of this war, once thought completely mythical, comes from the works of Homer. Trojan War Youth who, with Aphrodite's help, defeated Atlanta in a footrace and thus won her hand in marrige. Hippomenes Like her Greek counterpart, this Roman goddess was her father's favorite child and the embodiment of wisdom, reason and purity. Minerva It expresses ancient Rome's highest moral and religiious ideals and so serves as an important source for understanding Roman civilization. Aeneid This Titan helped Hercules complete one of his 12 labors; in exchange, Hercules took a bit of weight off his shoulders.e Atlas What massive creatures were born of the blood of Uranus, father of the Titans? Giants What Titan felt compassion for mankind and stole fire from the altar of Zeus to give to man? Prometheus The six-thousand offspring of the Titans, Oceanus and Tethys. Oceanids This Titan of justice and order fought with Zeus against the other Titans and was mother to the Fates. Themis Fearing a hostile takeover, he swallowed each of his children immediately after their birth. Cronus Heroes were given a special place of rest after death in this paradise located in the underworld. Elysian Fields The name the ancient Romans gave to any aged woman who could supposedly foretell the future. Sibyl These gods have the same name in both Roman and Greek myths. Apollo and Uranus (and in some texts, Pluto) This Roman goddess of wisdom is said to have leaped forth from the brain of Jupiter mature and in full armor. Minerva This temple in the center of Rome was built during the reign of Hadrian to honor all gods. Pantheon Unlike his Greek counterpart, this Roman god of wine is viewed as the promoter of civilization, a lawgiver and a lover of peace. Bacchus According to the Illiad, this Greek god of war was wounded in battle by the hero Diomedes, with a little help from Athena. Ares Zeus chose Paris to judge a contest between Athena, Aphrodite, and Hera in which this was the prize. a golden apple Wife of the Roman god Neptune. Amphitrite Number of books in the Aeneid. 12 A wonder of the ancient world located at Ephesus. Temple of Artemis. Three areas in art and science represented by the Greek Muses. dance, astronomy, or astrology, poetry (love poems and epic poetry), music (sacred music, song and flute playing), history, tragedy, comedy Legendary island home of the lovely maidens whose music enchanted Odysseus. Island of Calypso Plato wrote of this legendary continent that disappeared into the sea in one day and one night. Atlantis Vesta is said to have safeguarded the households of the early kings of this city. Rome His epic poem the Aeneid is modeled after Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Virgil What two works did Homer write? Iliad and the Odyssey What poem by Hesiod describes the origins of earth and history of gods. Theogony She gave the hero Triptolemus a bag of seeds and sent him throughout the world in a magic chariot to teach the people how to farm. Demeter King Augeas's stables had not been cleaned for thirty years; nevertheless, Hercules cleaned them in a single day by using these two rivers. Alpheus and Peneus Greek god of fire and the forge, also the blacksmith of the gods and patron of metalworkers. Hephaestus Because the Greeks associated Hephaestus with volcanic regions, he was worshiped on this volcanic island. Limnos or Lemnos Heartbroken over the loss of her daughter, this goddess of agriculture took revenge by refusing to let crops grow. Ceres At the temple of Vesta in the Forum at Rome burned a permanent one that symbolized Roman belief in the eternity of the city. A sacred flame Vulcan made the shield Aegis for this chief Roman god, who then allowed his daughter Minerva to carry it when she went on missions for him. Jupiter Upon returning to Mt. Olympus, Pegasus was given this job. Carrying Zeus' lightning and thunderbolts She gave Theseus, whom she loved, a ball of thread as he entered the Labyrinth so that he could find his way out. Ariadne Scylla lived in a cave opposite this dangerous mythical whirlpool. Charybdis Almost as important as divinities in Greek mythology, these men were largely or entirely mortal. Heroes Artists depict this Roman goddess wearing hunting clothes, carrying a bow and quiver of arrows, and accompanied by forest nymphs and hunting dogs. Diana According to ancient myths, this beautiful princess and wife of Cupid was so beautiful that people turned to worshiping her instead of Venus. Psyche Both Apollo's love for her and that she did not return his love were the direct result of Cupid's malice. Daphne As a natonal hero, he symbolized the perfect Roman--a person willing to sacrifice his own pleasure to attain his goals. Aeneas This many-headed serpent of Greek mythology lived in Lake Lerna and was killed by Hercules. Hydra Hades may have been god of the dead, but this god was death itself. Thanatos Every Roman home had a shrine that honored this goddess, whose symbol was fire in the hearth. Vesta This bird of Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom, has traditionally been viewed as wise. Owl The Romans copied and preserved almost all myths about Hades and his underworld kingdom; however, they changed his name to this. Pluto Perhaps to compensate for his physical imperfection, all items produced by this Roman blacksmith god were perfect; some even had magic qualities. Vulcan This jealous suitor of Lavinia was killed in single combat by Aeneas. Turnus His "golden touch" was a gift from Bacchus as reward for the kindness he showed Bacchus's foster father. Midas The affair of Zeus and this Titaness of all wisdom resulted in the birth of Athena; however, she is rarely mentioned as Athena's mother. Metis In this ancient work, Hesiod examined human life, set forth his moral values and explained that life is difficult and people must work hard, despite the rule of Zeus. Works and Days The story of this daughter of Oedipus, who defied the king's order and buried her brotheer, has come to represent personal courage and conscience, especially in opposing the unjust use of power by by the state. Antigone Because the ancient Romans were seafaring people who imported much of their food and other necessities by ship, this god played an important role in their daily lives. Neptune The Greek god of purity could tell you that the way to a lady's heart was through flowery words and love songs because he was also the god of this. poetry and music To cross this best known river in Hades, a soul was ferried by the boatman Charon, who always demanded payment. For this reason, the Greeks placed coins in the mouths of their dead. Styx Among the wisest, gentlest and most learned of creatures, this centaur son of Cronos was asked to tutor several of the greatest Greek heroes: for example, Achilles, Jason and Hercules. Cheiron (Chiron) In the language of mythology, these creatures had unnatural proportions or parts, were usually regarded with terror, and often possesed great strength and ferocity, used to injure or annoy man. monsters At the beginning of the Aeneid, the goddess Juno persuades this keeper of the winds to release the winds that scatter Aeneas's fleet. Aeolus This Roman goddess of grain and the harvest, worshiped by the common people of Rome and farmers outside the city, was honored in a yearly April festival called Ceralia. Ceres Once a beautiful nymph, she was transformed by Circe into a sea monster, part woman part fish, with the heads of dogs growing out of her waist. Scylla The Roman hero Aeneas disappeared in a battle with this people and, according to some stories, was taken to heavan and became a god. Etruscans The Aeneid traces the wandering of this Trojan hero who escaped un harmed from the burning city of Troy. Aeneas Eleusis, near Athens, was an important center of worship to this Greek goddess of earth, agriculture, fertility and grain. Demeter This neutral region under the earth was reserved for souls of people who deserved neither punishment nor reward upon death. Hades Although depicted as lame and deformed, Hephaestus won the hand of this beautiful goddess of love; their marriage symbolized the union of beauty and art. Aphrodite This half-man half-fish son of Poseidon often blew his conch shell horn to stir up or calm the seas. Triton Greeks believed that the destiny of every man was controlled by these three goddesses Fates This son of Apollo and Calliope knew that "music has charms to soothe a savage breast"; his skill with a lyre was said to charm even the rocks and the trees Orpheus Respectively, these Titan brothers were wise and stupid; one name meaning "forethought," the other "afterthought". Prometheus and Epimetheus This city, founded by Cadmus, was populated by sowing dragon's teeth that promptly sprouted into warriors. Thebes These mythical monsters, with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle, were said to build nests of pure gold, making them a tempting target for hunters. Griffin The ancient story of these lovers may have been the basis for Shakespare's Romeo and Juliet; his A Midsummer Night's Dream includes a comic adaptation of this same legend. Pyramus and Thisbe According to Greek myth, this city was founded by Sisyphus, a notorius trickster who deceived even the gods. Corinth In Greek and Roman mythology, the story of this beautiful goddess explains the cycle of fertility in nature. Persephone or Proserpina According to Greek mythology, this fabled prize was believed to be the pure gold wool of a sacred ram. Golden Fleece	i don't know
Which lake and UNESCO World Heritage Site straddles the border between Macedonia and Albania?	Ohrid Lake Ohrid Lake Ohrid Lake Being the largest and most beautiful out of Macedonia’s three tectonic lakes, Lake Ohrid is about 30 kilometers (18 miles) long and round 288 meters (945 feet) deep. Its astonishingly clean and clear waters, together with the serene stillness of its mountain settings have captivated visitors since prehistoric times. While the lake is filled up by water from three rivers, most of Ohrid’s water comes from another lake - Prespa which is located on the other side of Mountain Galicica. Due to the high elevation, Prespa spills its water down to Ohrid through mountain springs, the most important ones being Ostrovo and Biljana, located near the monastery of St. Naum and Ohrid town, respectively. With its unique flora and fauna characteristic of the tertiary period (2-4 million years ago), Ohrid is one of Europe’s great biological reserves. Most of the lake’s plant and animal species are endemic and unique to Ohrid. The most famous among these are two types of the Ohrid trout, named letnica and belvica. Other unique Ohrid creatures include two types of eel, and the bleak whose scales are used for making the well-known Ohrid pearl. This treasured jewel is produced according to a secret method which was passed on from generation to generation. Sport fishing attracts many passionate fishermen from Macedonia, Europe and even from the world. Lake Ohrid, straddles the mountainous border between southwestern Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, preserving a unique aquatic ecosystem that is of worldwide importance, with more than 200 endemic species. The importance of the lake was further emphasized when it was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1979 and when, in 2010, NASA decided to name one of Titan's lakes after Lake Ohrid. The towns situated at the lakeside are Pogradec in Albania, along with Ohrid and Struga in Macedonia. The Ohrid and Prespa Lakes belong to a group of Dessaret basins that originated from a geotectonic depression during the Pliocene epoch up to five million years ago on the western side of the Dinaric Alps. Worldwide, there are only a few lakes with similarly remote origins with Lake Baikal and Lake Tanganyika being the most famous. Most other, short-lived lakes have a life span of less than 100,000 years before they are eventually filled up with sediments. It is believed that in the case of Lake Ohrid this process was delayed by its great depth and small sediment input from its filtered spring inflows. Moreover the Ohrid-Korca graben to the south of the lake is still tectonically active and might compensate sedimentation by subduction. In contrast to Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa is likely to have turned dry several times in its history, as a result of its karstic underground. In 2008, Macedonian media reported that international experts will be researching the lake in order to determine its age. Travel with a bus If you considering to go with a bus you have a dozen of buses between Ohrid and Skopje.Time travel is 3 hours.Price for one way ticket is 500 denars/8 EUR and two way tickets is 700 denars/ 11.3 EUR. Time of departure from Skopje: 05:30, 06:00, 08:00,10:00,11:00,13:00,14:00,14:45,15:30,16:00,16:30,18:30,19:30. Note: If you considering travelling on weekend and holidays please contact the bus station for any changes of the lines. Travel by train	Lake Ohrid
Who was the wife of the Greek hero Agamemnon who murdered him on his return from Troy?	Lake Ohrid \| Sightseeing \| Things to do \| travelmacedonia.info Map Lake Ohrid (Macedonian: Охридско Езеро), straddles the mountainous border between southwestern Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, preserving a unique aquatic ecosystem that is of worldwide importance, with more than 200 endemic species.[1] The importance of the lake was further emphasized when it was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1979 and when, in 2010, NASA decided to name one of Titan's lakes after Lake Ohrid.[2] In 2014, the Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Reserve between Albania and Macedonia was added to UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves.[3] The towns situated at the lakeside are Pogradec in Albania, along with Ohrid and Struga in Macedonia. The lake is otherwise densely surrounded by settlements in the form of villages and resorts - in both basin countries. Recommended	i don't know
In which Central American country is Derian, the oldest European colony on the American continent?	Central America – Travel guide at Wikivoyage Itineraries[ edit ] Ruta del Tránsito this inter-oceanic voyage through southern Nicaragua once was part of the fastest way from the East Coast of the US to California Understand[ edit ] The five countries that formed the United provinces of Central-America (Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Guatemala) in the first half of the 19th century, a first short lived attempt on the -since then - ever elusive dream of a unified Central America, still have a lot in common and consider each other pueblos hermanos (brother peoples). One attempt at unity that is notable to tourists is the CA4-agreement that (in theory) allows free movement for everyone between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Guatemala in a similar vein to the European Schengen agreement. Since about the 1850s Central America was seen as the "backyard" of the United States and American influence in the region has ranged from corporate interests (United Fruit), private "fillibuster" expeditions seizing government control (most famously William Walker who at the head of a 250 men private army declared himself president of Nicaragua and launched an invasion of Costa Rica in the 1850s and was shot by firing squad in Honduras on his third attempt to unite Central America under his rule), and outright interventions (toppling of the Guatemalan government in the 1950s, Iran Contra in the 1980s, and several interventions in Nicaragua in the 1930s). Panama's very existence is often ascribed to US influence as the government of Colombia (Panama being part of Colombia back then) refused to grant the US the rights to build a canal and the US then proceeded to sign a treaty with Panama. During the cold war this overt and covert US influence reached an infamous maximum as a guerrilla war was fought in Nicaragua (left wing government vs. CIA backed rebels) and El Salvador (right wing military government vs. Cuban/Soviet/Nicaraguan backed rebels) and various administrations backed the less than democratic right-wing regimes in Guatemala. In Panama the unelected strongman Manuel Noriega established a US-backed regime that was heavily involved in the drug trade, only to be removed from power in the late 1980s after falling out of US favor in operation "just cause" (the "just cause" being the removal of a regime involved in the drug trade). Notably different was the development in Costa Rica where - after a short civil war - the President abolished the army altogether in 1948 and the country has enjoyed a relatively stable, peaceful democracy with free and fair elections ever since. Belize on the other hand managed to stay out of trouble by continuing to be a British colony until 1980 (as British Honduras) and after a peaceful transition independent Belize was never important enough for cold-war proxy fighting. This dark political and social situation changed with the end of the Cold War and after the signing of peace agreements at the beginning of the 1990s. However a constitutional crisis / coup d'etat (i.e. the President being unseated by the constitutional court and the military and forced to leave the country against his will) in Honduras in 2009 raised fears of unstable and / or delegitimized governments once more returning to the region. As of 2015 these fears have proven groundless and while the political situation is well shy of perfect uncorrupted democracies (most recently the Guatemalan government stepped down in the course of a corruption scandal), political developments are unlikely to in any way negatively affect travellers. Now the region is living a process of change and reforms that will hopefully allow travelers to discover an interesting and relatively cheap travel destination. Generally, the people of Central America are kind and warm, and welcoming to foreigners. There is a diversity of culture from one end of Central America to the other, and indigenous culture plays an important role in the region, especially in Guatemala , Caribbean Nicaragua and Honduras . The Caribbean side saw more British than Spanish influence (with parts of the East coast of Nicaragua and Honduras forming a de facto British protectorate and Belize an outright colony under the name "British Honduras") This is still notable in the culture, language and (sadly) lacking infrastructure in parts of the region. The region is also a very popular destination for retiring abroad , and several governments in the region offer special long-term visas specifically for retirees. Talk[ edit ] Due to the extensive Spanish colonial presence in the region, American dialects of Spanish are the primary language, especially of the government and in the cities. (English is the official language of Belize , a former UK colony, but you will still find yourself speaking a lot of Spanish in the country). Native languages are still spoken in many rural areas. English is co-official in Nicaragua's Caribbean coast, along with indigenous languages. English speaking people can be found on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Panama. Note that the English spoken at the Caribbean coast of these countries is heavily Creole (if you are unfamiliar think Jamaican Patois for a rough approximation of what to expect) and sometimes hard or even impossible to understand for those unaccustomed to it. The most widely spoken indigenous language is Miskito, a language spoken mostly on the Caribbean coasts of Honduras and Nicaragua. Several Maya languages are spoken in the North of Central America and the South of Mexico, sometimes even by people who work in the tourism sector (though they invariably speak Spanish and often other languages as well). Get in[ edit ] People from industrialized countries should have no problem in crossing borders and might expect a border fee from around $2–20 depending on country. When crossing the border, no one will flag you down to get your stamp. You will need to find the immigration office on your own and get your stamp. A visa ahead of time is usually not required. Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Guatemala are parties to the CA4 (Central America 4) border agreement, that similarly to the European Schengen agreement allows visa-free travel between the countries. Once you have entered any of those four countries, visa- and fee-free travel to any of the other three should not be a problem (but there are reports of border officials collecting mysterious "fees", regardless). By plane[ edit ] Regular cheap flights are available from the United States to Central Americas airports. Very regular buses run from Chetumal in Mexico to the town of Corozal in Belize, a journey lasting one hour and costing around $4 US. You may have to pay an exit tax, or a fee to validate your Mexican visa for multiple entries when you leave Mexico, and there is also an exit tax when you leave Belize. Juan Santamaría airport in Costa Rica also gets flights, from Europe (Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Madrid; USA (Miami, Los Angeles, Dallas, New York City, Houston, Phoenix, Charlotte, Orlando, etc.). Augusto C. Sandino International Airport in Nicaragua and Comalapa Airport in El Salvador also have many destinations. Because flights directly to Central America from outside the Western Hemisphere are very expensive, it is often cheaper to fly via the U.S. For example, a flight Sydney->Mexico City costs about $2500. If you fly with Jetstar to Hawaii , then with Hawaiian to Los Angeles , and afterwards by bus (or plane) to Mexico City, it will cost much less. By bus[ edit ] It is actually much easier to bus from the United States to Central America than most imagine. It is a distance of about 1000 miles from the US border at Brownsville to the Guatemalan/Mexican border. The trip can be done in one full day (strongly not recommended), instead the wise traveller would take his time and enjoy the many interesting sites along the way such as Real de Catorce , Veracruz , Xalapa , San Cristobal de las Casas , Palenque etc. From the Guatemalan Border, one can take a bus like the Tica Bus to get to Panama or any of the CA-4 countries for around 130 USD or less. There are no roads leading to Colombia from Central America. By plane[ edit ] If you have money to burn or you're in a real hurry, both Avianca and Copa Airlines offer point to point connections throughout Central America but are relatively expensive due to the lack of competition. As of late 2014 Veca Airlines began service out of San Salvador to Guatemala City, San Jose Costa Rica, and Panama City on two Airbus A319 jets. If they are successful with their current operation they have plans to further expand service to other cities in Central America and up to North America and south to South America to further compete against Avianca Holdings, LAN and Copa. There are talks for expansion from other smaller carriers from Costa Rica and Honduras to enter the market, though there is no confirmation either way as of March 2015. By boat[ edit ] A regular boat service exists between Corinto (Nicaragua) and La Union (El Salvador). You can also cross the Nicaraguan/ Costa Rican border by boat from San Carlos (Nicaragua) to Los Chiles (Costa Rica). The boat goes through a scenic jungle, but both sides of the crossing are a bit off the beaten path. A boat also connects Eastern Honduras and Belize. By road[ edit ] International travel routes are mostly on the Pacific (west) side of Central America. The highway basically starts on its journey north in Panama City , crosses on the Pacific side into Costa Rica , passes by San José , crosses again at the Pacific coast into Nicaragua . It's possible to cross the Costa Rican / Panaman border at the Caribbean coast but it takes longer and the border is just open during the day. Between Costa Rica and Nicaragua there are two official border crossings. The more frequented one is "Peñas Blancas" at the Pacific side and the other one is between Los Chiles and San Carlos (so far boat only, however a bridge is already completed and has been opened with provisional border facilities in May 2015). Between Nicaragua and Honduras three border-crossings exist. Honduras and El Salvador share various border-crossings as well as Honduras and Guatemala and El Salvador . Chicken bus in Nicaragua. Yes the name comes from locals who carry actual live chicken on them. In case you were wondering Tica Bus connects all of the Central American countries except Belize. Driving rental vehicles across borders is not allowed by most central American car-rental companies and even driving your own car across the border requires some advance planning, as the used car markets are tightly controlled in most countries of the area and you have to prove that you haven't sold your car when you leave and that you don't intend to when you enter. However every year many people do just that, so it is anything but impossible. By train[ edit ] The region has long neglected its train lines and no trains cross any international borders. For the most part trains are at best entertainment, but not really faster or cheaper than the bus. The main exceptions to this are found in Panama, where the Panama Canal Railway links Atlantic and Pacific and in Costa Rica where a commitment to expanded train service exists and several lines radiate out of San José with more to come in the future, including a link to the airport just outside Alajuela. Panama City also boasts a metro, which is also currently undergoing expansion. See[ edit ] Jungle trail in La Amistad National Park, Panama The Cloud Forest of Cusuco National Park in Honduras . A biodiversity hot spot visited by Operation Wallacea scientific expeditions. The Cloud Forests of Panama in Boquete . Many hotels are actually within the cloud forest; or you can take a tour high in to the mountains, through the clouds. Lake Atitlan in Guatemala . One of the most beautiful spots on the planet. A volcanic lake with three volcanoes around it. Surf, especially in Honduras , Nicaragua , Costa Rica , and El Salvador . National Natural Parks, especially in El Salvador , Costa Rica , Panama and Nicaragua which has the 2nd largest rainforest in the Western Hemisphere, after Brazil. Volcanoes in Guatemala such as those framing the southern shores of Lake Atitlán considered by some to be one of the most beautiful places on the planet. Semuc Champey and the Lanquin caves in the Alta Verapaz District of Guatemala are unmissable. All these make this region a great yet undiscovered and affordable treasure which is worth visiting. Do[ edit ] Someone once quipped you can do anything but skiing in this part of the world, but thanks to volcano boarding this is not entirely true any more! Buy[ edit ] Just about every country in Central America accepts the U.S. Dollar. Other currencies are difficult to exchange. You can exchange Mexican Pesos at the Belizean or Guatemalan Border but that is about it. The U.S. Dollar is the official currency of El Salvador and Panama so there is no need to exchange money in these countries, if you're from the US. You can buy pretty much anything or any service in U.S. dollars, but it is often cheaper to use local currency. Currencies such as the Córdoba or the Lempira are usually highly inflated so only get what you need (the Cordoba for example loses about 5% of its value every year compared to the US Dollar). Nearly all banks change money from U.S. Dollar to the local currency and a passport is usually required to do this. Beyond border towns, currencies are always useless when brought outside the country, so change money with official money changers at borders. If bringing U.S. Cash to Central America, make sure that the bills are new, clean and not torn or it may not be exchanged. Many stores that generally accept US Dollars do not accept 100$ bills for fear of counterfeiting, banks however will accept them. $2 bills are considered lucky so bring some for tips. Banks in Belize do not exchange the Guatemalan Quetzal; they must be changed at the border or at some travel agents and tour operators. Euros are becoming more and more accepted, but the exchange rate you get for them is always worse than for US-Dollars. The same goes for other currencies if and where they are accepted at all (not all that common). ATM's can be found in banks and in major towns but in the country side it is often hard to find working ATM's. Most ATM's dispense the local currency and U.S. dollars. In Central America, you can often find cheap buys from gifts to personal necessities. Almost everything can be bargained for except for upscale department stores. Tourists will usually pay a higher price so this is where your haggling will be useful. More often than not speaking the local language (usually Spanish) may get you a small reduction in price or at least more sympathy when haggling. Eat[ edit ] Pupusas in El Salvador Guatemala is the country of tamales, there are regular tamales made out of corn "masa" with either meat, chicken, turkey or pork filling and tomato, and sometimes "chile". "Black tamales" are similar to the former ones but are sweet, "paches" are tamales made out of potatoes, "tamales de cambray" are small sweet "masa" balls", tamales de "chipilin", and many others; rellenitos (sweet fried bean-stuffed banana bonbons) are a tasty dessert sold on street-corners. Black beans are the main staple after corn of course. There is a variety of soups ("caldos"). Guatemalan cuisine is a mixture of Mayan and Spanish dishes. Gallo pinto is a mixture of rice and beans with a little cilantro or onion thrown in, it is the national dish of Nicaragua and Costa Rica This mixture is called Casamiento ("marriage") in El Salvador and Guatemala. And on the Caribbean side of Nicaragua and Honduras it is made with coconut milk. While one might presume that rice and beans are the same anywhere there are subtle differences that locals will tell you about and a traveller spending some time in the region will notice Costa Rica uses another type of beans than Nicaragua, for example. On the Caribbean side of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Honduras coconut milk is the not-so-secret ingredient in almost everything. Try coconut bread, Gallo Pinto with Coconut or fish in Coconut sauce. Seafood is also worth a try and often remarkably cheap for international standards ($8 Lobster, anybody?). Pupusas and "chicharron con yuca" (pork skin & yucca) are very popular dishes originated in El Salvador. Nacatamales, which are big tamales containing pork, potato, rice, chile, tomato, and masa is steamed in platano leaves, they originate from Nicaragua and can be bought in the colonial city of Granada. Oven tamales, wrapped with platano leaves, are very good in Costa Rica. Grilled octopus is a very tasty dish in Panama. The fresh fruit is delicious but avoid fruit that you don't peel before you eat because if you are not used to Central America's food standards you may become ill. Generally follow the peel it, wash it, cook it or reject it rule when it comes to food to greatly reduce the risk of travellers' diarrhea . Drink[ edit ] Horchata is a drink made out of rice and it is of Spanish origin. It is drunk in most Latin American countries. A popular drink in most Central American countries is "Rosa de Jamaica" (Hibiscus sabdariffa). "Tamarindo" also makes a very popular drink Piña Colada, a drink made from pineapple juice, coconut cream, crushed ice and rum, is drunk all around the Atlantic islands. There are two major rum producers in Guatemala, distilling some of the best rums of the region, Ron Zacapa Centenario (aged to 12 and 23 years) and Ron Botran añejo (25 years). In Nicaragua there is Flor de Caña, rated one of the best rums in Latin America and also commonly exported to countries such as Costa Rica. It is made in Chichigalpa, Nicaragua. Trips can also be made to visit the Flor de Caña factory. Costa Rica's domestic guaro the widely available Cacique is not bad, but notably not as good as the rum offered by its northern neighbors. This is however offset somewhat by various international liquors (including Flor de Caña) being widely available in supermarkets and bars, though at a notably higher price than domestic fare. None of these countries is a traditional beer nation as the low temperatures needed for proper beer-production were unobtainable in the region prior to the invention of artificial refrigeration in the late 19th century. Notable brands include Imperial (Costa Rica) Brahva, Victoria and Toña (Nicaragua). Stay safe[ edit ] Nicaragua , Panama and Costa Rica are generally safer than Honduras , Guatemala , El Salvador , and Belize , which suffer from the maras (street gangs) and also have the highest crime rates in the region. The police are often not seen as reliable or trustworthy. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights reported last year that Guatemala had the highest murder rate in all of Latin America , with 70.0 homicides per 100,000. In comparison, the murder rate in the United States is 5.6 homicides per 100,000 while the murder rate in most of Europe is lower than that of the US roughly by a factor of ten. Night travel is dangerous anywhere in Central America, especially in national capitals. Illegal drugs and their trafficking are common in the region and most countries have a zero tolerance approach even towards cannabis for personal consumption. As the drug trade does turn violent from time to time simply avoiding people engaged in it (and in fact the topic altogether) may be your best bet, especially on the Caribbean side of most countries in the region. Various underdeveloped rural areas (e.g. the Nicaraguan east) are a major area of operation for various drug related enterprises (mostly cocaine-trafficking) influencing the security situation, especially if you choose to consume or buy/sell (not advisable at all, not least because of the harsh prison sentences that face even first time offenders) Crossing into South America overland might seem like a good idea when you look at a world map, however, it's not. The border to Colombia in Panama's Darien province is surrounded by a dangerous wilderness and the only break in the Pan-American Highway . Known as the Darien Gap, this is the playground of ruthless drug smugglers and militias who will be happy to kidnap or kill you. Unless you're a movie Predator, stay away. Stay healthy[ edit ] Toilets are not always as readily available as what you may be used to in your own country, so take advantage of places where they are such as museums and restaurants. In many cases toilet paper will not be provided so it is best not to be caught short and carry your own. Water to wash hands is not always available so carrying antiseptic hand gel is a good idea. Trash cans are provided in all toilets for the disposal of toilet paper because the sewage systems in Central America cannot cope with it. Mosquitoes are quite common even in the dry season and bug spray is often hard to come by. Bring a spray high in DEET. To be extra safe, bring a bug net to sleep under. Malaria pills are a good idea but often expensive. That being said, the Malaria strains in this part of the world are notably less dangerous than those in Africa or many parts of Asia, as they have less resistances. For 90% of travellers taking standby medication is not advisable, but if you are insecure ask a tropical-medicine specialist before you head out. Remember to mention your travel to the region to your doctor if you have fever or other symptoms, as Malaria parasites can remain dormant for up to a year and cause people to fall ill months after infection. Dengue is another concern. It is transmitted by mostly day-active mosquitoes and causes a high fever for about ten days the first time you get it. There is no known treatment or vaccination besides anti-fever medication, but a first time infection is usually not problematic as long as you stay hydrated and the fever is kept under control. However if you have already been infected by one strain, being reinfected by another strain of Dengue-fever may cause it to become a hemorrhagic fever with significantly worse prognosis that is known to be occasionally fatal. Dogs are plentiful and not entirely rabies-free, so it is a good idea to get vaccinated, as rabies is one of the deadliest diseases and an anti-rabies shot after being bitten is usually effective when administered in time, but that is not always possible. Don't take chances when bitten by a dog go to the next hospital and get an emergency rabies vaccination and antibodies. See Tips for travel in developing countries This region travel guide to Central America is an outline and may need more content. It has a template , but there is not enough information present. If there are Cities and Other destinations listed, they may not all be at usable status or there may not be a valid regional structure and a "Get in" section describing all of the typical ways to get here. Please plunge forward and help it grow !	Panama (cryptography)
'Tom and Maggie Tulliver' are the central characters in which of George Eliot's novels?	Central America Archives - Passport ProgramsPassport Programs February 6, 2013 Antigua and Barbuda is located to southeast of Puerto Rico, between the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The country consists of two larger islands (Antigua and Barbuda) and a number of smaller islands, such as Guinea, Long, Redonda, Great Bird, Maiden, Green and York Islands. Antigua and Barbuda lie east of St. Kitts and Nevis, northeast of Montserrat, north of Guadeloupe, and southeast of Anguilla. The total territory of two islands is 171 sq mi (443 sq km). Antigua is a bigger island. The total population of Antigua and Barbuda is 89,018 inhabitants (the 2012 survey). The capital and the largest city of the country is St. Johns with an estimated population of 25,000 people. It is located on Antigua; and serves as a commercial center and a major port of the island. Other significant cities of Antigua and Barbuda are All Saints, Liberta, Bolands, Potters Village, and Parham. The official language of Antigua and Barbuda is English. There are several local dialects used in certain areas of the islands. The ethnic groups include predominantly black (over 91%), mixed (4.4%), white (over 1.5%) and others (3%). The main religion in the islands is Christianity (mostly Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and other Christian religions). The climate of Antigua and Barbuda is tropical maritime, with little seasonal temperature variations. The highest average temperature is 80 °F (27 °C) in July and August, while the lowest average temperature is 75 °F (24 °C) in January. The average maximum temperature is 88 °F (31 °C), while the average minimum temperature is 73 °F (23 °C). The driest months of year are between December and April (with only 2.04 in monthly), while the wettest months are from August to November. There is a period of hurricanes in Antigua and Barbuda that lasts from June to November. The best time to visit the islands for tourism is during the dry season. The average annual precipitation in Antigua and Barbuda is 45 in (1150 mm) that is considered to be quite dry according to the Caribbean standards. History and Government The two islands were first settled during the Archaic Age by Amerindian hunters and gatherers around 3100 B.C. Later, during the Ceramic Age, Amerindian tribes were forced to leave the islands by a more successful Arawak-speaking Saladoid tribes, who came from modern-day Colombia. The new population started to use the fertile lands of Antigua and Barbuda. They introduced agriculture and cattle breeding. Among the main crops were corn, sweet potatoes, pineapples, tobacco, guava, cotton and other vegetables and fruit. The Arawak tribes succeeded in making great seagoing vessels. As a result, they colonized and settled in other islands of the Caribbean Sea. The Arawaks tribes were conquered by a war-like, powerful Caribs. The Caribs enslaved most of the remained Arawaks, forced them from the island, and, as they say, even practiced cannibalism. First Europeans sailed to the islands in the 15th century, brining various diseases (especially smallpox) that local population couldn’t fight. In combination with malnutrition, constant fights and slavery, the local tribe’s population reduced almost four times. Christopher Columbus, who “discovered” Antigua, named it “Santa Maria la Antigua” after the Spanish Seville Cathedral icon. The island, however, wasn’t settled by Europeans for a long time, because it lacked fresh water, and partially, because the Caribs were quite aggressive towards aliens. Antigua attracted European’s attention only in 1632 century, when first Englishmen established there first sugar cane plantations. Barbuda was settled 40 years later. Sugar industry became so profitable that many wealthier Europeans replaced their regular crops with sugar cane plantations. Europeans brought many African slaves as a work force to grow sugar cane on the islands. Great Britain began using Antigua as the headquarters of the British Royal Navy fleet in the Caribbean in the 18th century. In the 19th century all slaves were emancipated, but with no money, they still remained quite economically dependent upon their sugar cane owners. Only in 1939 former slaves got some economic flexibility and freedom, when the first trade unions were formed. Since then, the islands formed various political parties, worked on the islands’ sovereignty and freedom. In 1981 Antigua and Barbuda gained their independence from the United Kingdom. Today, the country remains a part of the Commonwealth of Nations with the English monarch as the head of state. Read More Taxation Individual income tax in Antigua and Barbuda is progressive up to 25%. Both resident employees and resident self-employed individuals are taxed in the following ways: ECD $0—$36,000 with 0% ECD $36,001—$48,000 with 10% ECD $48,001—$120,000 with 15% ECD $120,001—$180,000 with 20% ECD $ 180,000 and over with 25% A person is considered Antigua and Barbuda resident, if he/she has his/her permanent place of abode on the islands or is present in the country for 183 days and more in a year. Non-residents are usually taxed at a flat rate of 20% only on income, derived from Antigua and Barbuda sources. Married couples are taxed separately. Read More Visitor/Visa Requirements A passport is required to enter Antigua and Barbuda. Make sure that the validity of your passport is at least 180 days following your departure from the islands. Three unused, clean pages are required in Visa Section of your passport for entrance/exit stamps. A visa is not required for tourist and business stays up to 180 days for nationals from Albania, Andorra, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Cuba, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Denmark, Dominica, Estonia, Fiji, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Grenada, Guyana, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malawi, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, (Western) Samoa, San Marino, Seychelles, Singapore, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenadines, Suriname, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the UK Overseas Territories, the United States of America, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela, and Zambia. !!!All nationals, however, are required to be in possession of onward and return tickets, sufficient funds, valid passport (at least 180 days) and confirmed accommodation to enter Antigua and Barbuda!!! Other nationals whose countries are not mentioned above will have to obtain a visa at their local Antigua and Barbuda embassy or consulate prior their departure to the islands. You may need the following documents to obtain Antigua and Barbuda visas: A valid passport (with at least 6 months’ validity) An application form, completed and signed One passport-size recent photo in colour Paid visa fees Proof of accommodation (must cover your entire stay on the islands) with a letter of invitation from your host/owner Proof of sufficient funds + recent bank statements with one copy Travel health insurance (must cover the entire stay in the islands) + one copy Onward/return tickets (NOTE that you will be granted a multi-entry visa, only if you can provide evidence of multiple entries into the islands) Clean police record (should include a police statement not older than 4 months proving your clean police history) * If travel on business purposes, provide a letter from your employer that will state the purpose and duration of your trip * If travel on tourist purposes, provide hotel reservations (+ one copy) * Return registered postage fees of £7.00 (if applied within Europe). Please, note that the fees may vary and change. Always contact the embassy or consulate for updated information. An in transit (airport) visa is not required for any nationals, provided they travel within the same day, have proof of onward ticket to the third country destination and do not leave the controlled area of the airport. If you intend to stay on the territory of the airport longer than 24 hours, you will have to obtain an airport visa before entering the islands. A cruise ship visitor visa … Read More Residence and Citizenship If you are willing to stay in Antigua and Barbuda longer than your visa or visa-waiver program allows, you will have to obtain a residence permit. To attract more foreign wealthy nationals, in 1995 Antigua and Barbuda government established a permanent residence permit. It allows foreign nationals to establish tax residence and enjoy local tax-free policy. If you want to obtain the permanent residence, you will need to meet the following requirements: To reside in Antigua and Barbuda for at least 70 days in any calendar year for the next five years, if they want to renew their Antigua and Barbuda passports To maintain a permanent place of abode in the islands (this usually requires a purchase of a house or an apartment in Antigua and Barbuda) To obtain an alien land holding license (it will cost 5% of your property value) To pay an annual levy of US $20,000 To pay a purchaser’s stamp duty of 2.5% There are other ways to get permanent residence in Antigua and Barbuda. It is an easy process, but possible. If you enter the country on a work, student or tourist visa, you can apply for a visa extension, and get a temporary residence permit, provided you meet all the requirements. After a certain period of time, you are eligible for a permanent residence permit. It can be granted to you, if you can prove sufficient funds (preferable to have local employment), have proof of accommodation and close ties to the country. Unfortunately, the information on residence through naturalization is quite limited. We continue to work on it, and will update it as soon as it will become available. Antigua and Barbuda recognizes dual citizenship. This rule works both ways: for foreign nationals obtaining Antigua and Barbuda citizenship and Antigua and Barbuda citizens acquiring the citizenship of another country. Antigua and Barbuda citizenship can be obtained in the following ways: 1. by birth 3. by registration 4. by investment 1. A person born in the territory of Antigua and Barbuda acquires its citizenship by birth, regardless of his/her parents’ nationality. The only exception applies to children of diplomatic personnel on duty on the islands. 2. A person born outside of Antigua and Barbuda to at least one parent who is Antigua and Barbuda national acquires its citizenship by descent. 3. A foreign national can be eligible for Antigua and Barbuda citizenship by registration, if he/she belongs to one of the following groups: a) has been married to an Antigua and Barbuda national for at least three years, and the marriage is still in power; b) is a Commonwealth citizen, who has resided in the islands for seven years; c) is non-Commonwealth citizen, who has resided in Antigua and Barbuda for seven years. 4. Antigua and Barbuda citizenship by investment program is a great opportunity for foreign nationals to obtain second citizenship for themselves and their families, secure their income and assets, eliminate any income, wealth and death taxes, get visa-free travel to more than 100 countries, including the EU, and have an exclusive chance to invest into a fast growing economy. At the beginning of 2013 Antigua and Barbuda is going to launch the citizenship by investment program. This new program partially will mirror St. Kitts and Nevis citizenship by investment program (investment into Antigua and Barbuda real estate, donation or investment into a new business). Foreign nationals will have four options… Read More Conclusion Antigua and Barbuda today is a member of AOSIS, CARICOM, CELAC, FAO, G-77, IDA, IFAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, ITU, MIGA, OECS, OPANAL, Petrocaribe, UN, UNESCO, WHO and WTO to name a few. Antigua and Barbuda’s economy is dependent on tourism. It contributes to over 60% of annual GDP. Also tourism attracts over 40% of total investments into the country. Over 300 beaches with white sand, 3,000 high-end hotels with 5-star developed service, convenient location and relative proximity to both Europe and North America and great warm climate with little season variations make Antigua and Barbuda one of the most visited islands in the Caribbean Sea. Over 82% of the population is employed in the service sector, 11% is in industry and 7% is in agriculture. There is no population that lives below poverty line, however, approximately 11% of Antiguan and Barbadians are unemployed. That’s why the government has adopted the citizenship by investment program, planning to get over US $200 million in revenues in the first three years. Already the inflation rate in consumer prices went down from 3.3% in 2011 to 1.4% in 2012 that is a good indication of a healthy-recovering economy. Antigua and Barbuda grows fruit (mostly bananas, mangoes, and coconuts), vegetables, cotton, sugarcane; and livestock. February 2, 2013 Dominica, officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island in the Caribbean Sea, half way between Trinidad and Tobago and Puerto Rico. It is located south of Guadeloupe and north of Martinique. The country has access to the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Caribbean Sea to the west. Antigua and Barbuda, St. Lucia and Barbados are also nearby. The entire coastline is 148 km. The total territory of Dominica is 290 sq mi (751 sq km), and the total population is 73,126 inhabitants (according to the July 2012 survey). The capital and the largest city of Dominica is Roseau with an approximate population in the metro area of over 16,500 people. Other larger cities of the country are Portsmouth, Marigot, Berekua, Mahaut and Saint Joseph to name a few. The official language of Dominica is English. French is spoken in certain regions. The ethnic groups include black (over 86%), mixed (9%), Carib Amerindian (3%), white (less than 1%) and others (less than 0.5%). The predominant religion is Catholicism (Roman Catholics, Protestants, Jehovah’s Witnesses and others). The climate of Dominica is mostly tropical with heavy rainfalls and cooler northeast trade winds. The average temperature varies from 78.8 °F (26 °C) in January to 89.6 °F (32 °C) in July and August. The lowest average temperature is 77-78 °F (24.5-25 °C) in January, February and March, while the highest average temperature is 83 °F (28.3 °C) in July and August. The average annual precipitation is over 196 in (around 5000 mm) on the east coast, and only 70.9 in (1800 mm) on the west coast. Mountain regions receive over 354 in (9000 mm) of precipitation annually. The relative humidity varies between 70% and 90%. The driest months are from March to May, while the wettest season is during summer. History and Government The island of Dominica was inhabited by the Arawaks who came from South America, but were overthrown by the war-like and more powerful Kalinago in the 14th century. Christopher Columbus discovered the island in 1493, during his second voyage to the new continent, and he named it “Domenica” (that means “Sunday” in Italian), because the date of discovery fell on November 3, 1493, a Sunday. European expansion didn’t start on the island until the 17th century, because the Spaniards didn’t find any gold there and additionally faced very fierce resistance from the local tribes. First regular European visits began between 1650 and 1660, when the French claimed Dominica and nearby islands as French territories. But later, it was agreed between France and England to leave Dominica and Saint Vincent to local Carib tribes. It saved the island for the next century from European invasions, but the temptation was high, as Dominica had many valuable natural resources (timber to name a main attraction). By the beginning of the 18th century, there were many foreign foresters who harvested the island and established their first permanent settlements. Already in 1727 the French organized the first local government and administration, and officially proclaimed the island the French colony. In 1763 Dominica became a British colony due to the 1763 Treaty of Paris. France made several attempts to get the island back as a colony, but failed. The British accepted a legislative assembly, which in reality represented only the white population. Non-whites managed to confer first political rights only 80 years after. In 1871 Dominica joined the Leeward Island Federation, where stayed until 1940. In 1940 the country became a part of the Windwards, where stayed until 1958. Same year, Dominica joined West Indies Federation for 3 years. From 1967 to 1978 Dominica was an associated part of Great Britain. In 1978 the country was granted independence from the United Kingdom. The new era of sovereignty and independence wasn’t easy for Dominica, as the country experienced a lot of social and economic problems that combined with hurricanes decimating the economy. It led to further deepening of existing problems. At the end of 1980s Dominica economy started to recover, but collapsed again in early 1990s, when the prices for bananas rapidly decreased. In 2000s Dominica had the lowest GDP among other Eastern Caribbean countries, but in 2006 its economy began recovering from almost two decades of crises. Tourism, offshore investments and services, construction and improvement in banana business contributed to slow growth in the economic sector of Dominica. The government adopted a tax-free policy for all offshore companies registered in the island; and recent changes in visa/visitor requirements law allowed Dominica passport holders travel visa-free to all EU countries. The country offers great economic citizenship programs that can help foreign nationals get second passport within several months. Read More Taxation Individual income tax in Dominica is progressive up to 38%. The taxes are calculated in Eastern Caribbean dollar (ECD): ECD 0—20,000 with 18% ECD 20,000—50,000 with 28% ECD 50,000 and over with 38% All Dominica residents are taxed on their worldwide income, while non-residents are taxed only on income derived from Dominica sources. All self-employed residents have to pay income tax on the net profit of their businesses. It is their responsibility to calculate and pay taxes. Read More Visitor/Visa Requirements A passport is required to enter Dominica. Make sure that the validity of your passport is at least 6 months prior your departure from the island. Three unused pages in Visa Section of your passport are required for entrance/exit stamps. A visa is not required to enter Dominica for nationals of the Commonwealth of Nations (except for countries marked with “”). They are Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Botswana, Brunei, Cameroon, Canada, Cyprus, the Gambia, Ghana, Grenada, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, New Zealand, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Swaziland, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Uganda, the UK, Vanuatu, and Zambia. However, nationals from Nigeria and other some other countries (please, check your Dominica home country embassy or consulate for updated information) will require proof of Dominica visa from third countries to disembark as in-transit visitors in these states. A visa is not required to enter Dominica for tourist and business stays up to 180 days for nationals from Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Christmas Island, Cocos Islands, Cook Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Guam, Montserrat, Niue, Norfolk Islands, Pitcairn Islands, Puerto Rico, Saint Helena, Saint Lucia, Suriname, Tokelau, US Virgin Islands, A visa is not required for tourist and business stays up to 90 days for nationals from Argentina, Belgium, Costa Rica, Denmark, Faroe Islands, France, French Guyana, French Polynesia, Germany, Greece, Greenland, Guadeloupe, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, Martinique, Mayotte, Mexico, the Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, New Caledonia, Reunion, Norway, Portugal, Saint Martin, Saint Pierre Miquelon, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Tahiti, Taiwan, the USA, Venezuela, and Wallis Futuna Islands. A visa is not required for tourist stays up to 21 days for nationals from… Read More Residence and Citizenship If you want to stay in Dominica longer than your visa or visa-free program allows or intend to reside in the country, you will need to apply for a residence permit. If you also want to work in Dominica, you will need to obtain a work permit as well. To start with, after you come to Dominica, you will need to contact the Ministry of Tourism and Legal Affairs, where you will be given instruction on how to get a residence permit. The residence-citizenship structure works this way: 5-year residence—2-year permanent residence—citizenship. All residence permits are valid for one-year, and can be renewed on yearly basis up to five years. After five years of legal residence, you are eligible for permanent residence. Usually, after two years of permanent residence, you can apply for Dominica citizenship. When applying for a residence permit, you will be asked to provide the following documents: A valid passport (with at least 180 days of validity) Two passport-size recent photos in colour Extension of stay (that proves your legal stay on the island) Two application forms, completed and signed A medical form (with your HIV-test and chest X-ray results) Proof of sufficient funds Two proof of character references (one of them has to be from your previous employer) Clean police record Marriage certificate (if applicable) Application fees (paid/ you will be required to make a photocopy of the receipt to prove the payment) Proof of return ticket (or a deposit made to cover the cost of the ticket to your place of residence) A letter from your family member or friend, who will guarantee and accept responsibility for you Cover letter from you requesting a residence permit in Dominica After legally residing in Dominica for five years, you are allowed to apply for a permanent residence permit. You will be required to provide the following documents: You valid passport An application form, completed and signed A medical examination, proving you are in good physical and mental health Proof of sufficient funds Clean police record Two testimonials (from people in Dominica who have known you while you have lived in the country) Financial guarantor’s statement (can be either your current employer or a reputable banker) or from a family member/friend, if you are not employed Application fees (with the receipt proving the payment) Marriage certificate (if applicable) Copies of resident permits (must be all 5 permits) and work permits (if any), since you have been to Dominica Dominica has traditional citizenship programs, such as citizenship by birth, by descent and naturalization. However, there is a better and easier way to become a Dominica’s citizen—the economic citizenship. The economic citizenship by investment program was adopted in 1993, and it is based on the Dominica constitution. According to this citizenship program, foreign nationals make direct non-refundable payment to the Government of Dominica in exchange to Dominica citizenship. This program works for both investors and their families (spouses and dependent children under 18 years of age). Read More Conclusion Dominica today is a member of AOSIS, CARICOM, CELAC, Commonwealth of Nations, FAO, G-77, IBRD, IFAD, ILO, IMF, Interpol, MIGA, OECS, OPCW, Petrocaribe, UN, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO and WTO to name a few. Today, Dominica offers a visa-free travel to more than 100 countries worldwide. And very soon, Dominica citizens will no longer require to have a visa to travel to European Union! Dominica’s economy is dependent on tourism and agriculture. The country has always been one of the largest banana exporters in the world, but after Europe rapidly dropped down the prices, Dominica focused mostly on traditional tourism and ecotourism. Today, it annually contributes to almost US $50 million, over 250,000 people from all over the world visit the island, and approximately 80,000 people become stay-over visitors. In comparison to other Caribbean islands, Dominica’s tourism is still in its infancy, as it wasn’t too popular with tourists until the middle of 1990s. The main peculiarity of Dominica tourism is mountain and eco-tourism (hiking, visit of rain forests, volcanos, waterfalls, hot springs, diving spots and etc). Over 40% of the population is employed in the agricultural sector, 28% is in service and 32% is in industry. The unemployment rate was 23% in 2000 (there isn’t newer updates/ author’s note). The population that lives below poverty line was 29% (according to the 2009 survey). Dominica grows bananas, fruit (mangos, citrus, coconuts, cocoa, root crops), while the industrial sector produces furniture, soaps, coconut oil, cement blocks and shoes. The main export-partners of Dominica are Japan, Antigua and Barbuda, Jamaica, Guyana, and Trinidad and Tobago. The main import-partners are Japan, the USA, Trinidad and Tobago, Singapore and China. The island has developed infrastructure. There are two airports, one major highway, diverse governmental institutions (including Dominica’s own state college), business hubs and entertainment centers. January 28, 2013 Saint Kitts and Nevis, officially the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis or the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis, is located in the Leeward Islands, in the West Indies. It is surrounded by the Caribbean Sea to the west and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. St. Kitts and Nevis’s neighboring countries are Antigua and Barbuda, to the east, Montserrat and Guadeloupe to the south, Anguilla and Virgin Islands to the north. The country consists of two islands and is considered the smallest state by territory and by population in both North and South Americas. The total territory of St. Kitts and Nevis is 104 sq mi (261 sq km) and the total population is 50,726 inhabitants (the 2012 estimation). The total coastline is 84 mi (135 km). The capital and the largest city of St. Kitts and Nevis is Basseterre that is located on St. Kitts Island. Basseterre has an approximate population of 16,000 people. The city serves as the headquarters of government, has its own international airport and modern harbor that can host cruise ships. The official language in St. Kitts and Nevis is English. The ethnic groups include mostly black, some Portuguese, British and Lebanese. The predominant religion is Anglicanism, Christianity and Protestantism. The climate in St. Kitts and Nevis is tropical, tempered by permanent sea breezes. There is small seasonal temperature variation, but with certain dry/wet season differentiation. The average annual temperature varies between 74 °F and 88 °F (23 °C and 31 °C). The average highest temperature is 87 °F (30.5 °C) from July until the middle of October. The average lowest temperature is between 74 °F and 83 °F (23 °C and 28 °C) from December until the end of March. The average precipitation is 41% from July to October, and 34% from December to March. The rainy season lasts from May to November, when the country gets around light rain and thunderstorms. On average, the islands get 16 in (406 mm) of precipitation in the coastal areas, and over 60 in (1,524 mm) inland and in the central mountain ranges. The longest days are from April to August with more than 13 daylight hours, while the shortest days are from November to January with about 9 daylight hours. History and Government The first stable settlements appeared in St. Kitts and Nevis over 3,000 years BC, when archaic people moved to the islands from modern Florida. They were mostly hunters-gatherers, and didn’t know any primitive agriculture. In just couple hundred years, they disappeared from the islands. 2000 years later, the first agriculture people inhabited two islands, migrating from other Caribbean islands and Venezuela. In 800 A.D, the Arawak tribes from Orinoco replaced Saladoid people and established a large population of about 5,000 people. The peaceful Arawak tribes were moved by the war-like Kalinago (tribes from southern West Indies) in 1300 AD. They named modern St. Kitts as “Liamuiga” (means “fertile island”) and modern Nevis as “Oualie” (means “land of beautiful waters”) and organized trades between Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The first Europeans came to the islands in 1493, when Christopher Columbus and his team made a second voyage to the Caribbean. In the 16th centuries, the French tried to establish first non-Spanish settlements in Saint Kitts, but were raided by Spaniards. At the beginning of the 17th century Captain John Smith stopped on the islands and made the first detailed description of them. He pointed out at the numerous hot water springs with extra-curative abilities, fertile soils and rich flora. In 1623 the English Captain Sir Thomas Warner founded the first British settlement in St. Kitts and Nevis due to its nice climate and almost endless water resources. Two years later, the French Captain Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc made an attempt to establish a French colony in the islands, but was attacked by the Spanish navy. But the Englishmen allowed the French to build their first colony on the islands. Local tribes didn’t like new guests, and they grew hostile to Europeans. The Kalinago and the Tegremante tribes decided to attack Europeans, but the plan was revealed by an Igneri slave-wife woman, who fell in love with Warner and shared the secret. A lot of people were killed, for weeks their bodies flowed down the river. After the Kalinago Genocide of 1626, the British and the French divided two islands between each other. Later both of them started colonizing neighboring islands as well. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the relations between England and France sharpen, and the French took control over the English settlements in 1665—1667. But the English part of St. Kitts was given back to England couple years later.In 1671, Saint Kitts, Nevis, Antigua and Montserrat formed the Leeward Caribee Island Government. The history of Nevis wasn’t as wild as St. Kitts’s. The island was colonized by British, and turned into a prosperous tobacco land. During the Anglo-Spanish War, both islands were occupied by Spanish, but the English got island back according to the Treaty of Madrid of 1630. 10 years later, Nevis focused on producing and exporting sugar cane, and it brought the island’s gross profit to a high level relative to its size and neighbors. In 1690 the island experienced the greatest massive earthquake that provoked huge tsunami that destroyed the capital city of Jamestown. Anyways, Nevis got it over pretty quickly, and the sugar cane business bounced back again. Both islands were governed as two separate independent states until the late 19th century, when St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla were forcibly untied by Great Britain. Sugar cane production remained a major source of income for islanders. During the Great Depression, the prices for sugar cane rapidly dropped, and this caused the worker labour movements in the 1930s. Both islands remained in the Leeward Islands Federation, until they joined the West Indies Federation that collapsed in just four years in 1962. In five years St. Kitts and Nevis became a part of Great Britain. Several attempts were made, but only Anguilla succeeded and became independent. Only in 1983 the federation was granted independence from Great Britain. Today, St. Kitts and Nevis focuses mostly on tourism, as it replaced less flourishing sugar cane and tobacco production. Read More Taxation There is no individual income tax in St. Kitts and Nevis. However, all foreign nationals, who work in the country, have to pay a work permit annual charge of ECD 1,500 (it is approximately 635 US dollars). There is an individual tax progressive of up to 12% for certain social security contributions. Corporate income tax in the islands is 35%. The property tax rate in the country is 5%. Read More Visitor/Visa Requirements A passport is required to enter St. Kitts and Nevis. Make sure that the validity of your passport is at least 6 months prior your departure from the country. Three unused, clean pages are required in Visa Section of your passport for entrance/exit stamps. A visa is not required to enter St. Kitts and Nevis for tourist/business stays up to 90 days for nationals from Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Austria, the Bahamas, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Belgium, Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Cuba, Denmark, Dominica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Estonia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gambia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, India, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kiribati, Latvia, Lithuania, Lesotho, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macau, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Nauru, the Netherlands, Netherlands Antilles, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Saint Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovenia, Slovak Republic, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Swaziland, Switzerland, Sweden, Taiwan, Tanzania, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey, Tuvalu, Uganda, the UK and its Dependencies, the USA, Uruguay, Vanuatu, Vatican City, Venezuela, Western Samoa, and Zambia. Other nationals whose countries are not mentioned above will have to obtain a visa at the nearest St. Kitts and Nevis embassy or consulate. You will require certain documents to apply for a tourist or business visas. A tourist visa is issued to foreign nationals who want to visit the country on tourist purposes. A list of documents includes… Read More Residence and Citizenship St. Kitts and Nevis is the country that attracts thousands of people by its amazing citizenship opportunities. There is no such a thing as “residence” in the country. If you want to apply for St. Kitts and Nevis citizenship, you don’t need to wait a certain amount of time to be naturalized; you just invest into the country and enjoy a tax-free life and a great passport that opens almost unlimited travel opportunities. The entire process of getting a new passport takes only up to 7 months. It is probably the quickest naturalization in the world. The Citizenship for Investment Program of St Kitts and Nevis was established in 1984, and nowadays it is considered one of the oldest programs of this kind. There are two possible investment programs in the country: a) investment in real estate and b) the SIDF program. The Investment in real estate citizenship program is based on both the purchase of real estate property in St. Kitts and Nevis (investment) and donation. The first step includes the required minimum amount of investment of US $400,000 in the project approved by the country’s government. The second step is to pay a purchase cost of 5% to 6%+a flat fee of US $50,000 (per each applicant) and US $25,000 (per each dependent). The third step includes a payment of due diligence fees of US $7,500 (per main applicant) and US $4,000 (per each dependent, aged 18 and older). It totals to about US $550,000—600,000 per family of 4. The processing times may vary, depending on the purchased property. Usually it takes up to 7 months. One of the important conditions of you getting and keeping your St. Kitts and Nevis citizenship is that you are not allowed to sell your property during the first five years after the purchase, as otherwise, you will lose your citizenship. The SIDF program (the Sugar Industry Diversification Foundation) is based on… Read More Conclusion St Kitts and Nevis today is a member of ACP, Caricom, CELAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IFAD, ILO, IMF, Interpol, MIGA, NAM, OECS, OPANAL, Petrocaribe, UN, UNESCO, UNIDO, WHO, and WTO to name a few. The country’s economy is based on tourism, agriculture and several manufacturing industries. Citizenship for investment programs and tourism contribute to St. Kitts and Nevis GDP greatly (over 80% of annual GDP). Over 250,000 people visit two islands every year, while wealthy foreign national invest or donate to the country to get a valuable passport and tax-free life. Over 81% of the population is employed in the service sector, around 16% is in industry and over 2% is in agriculture. Although the country has the highest public debt of 200% GDP, there is no population that lives below poverty line, and the unemployment rate varies between 4% and 4.5%. St. Kitts and Nevis grow sugar cane, yams, rice, vegetables and fruit (mostly bananas). There is a developed fish industry as well. The main export-partners of two islands are the USA, Canada, Russia and Germany, while the major import-partners are Algeria, the USA, and Trinidad and Tobago. November 23, 2012 Panama, officially the Republic of Panama, is located in southern part of Central America. It borders Costa Rica to the west, Columbia to the south, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest and the Caribbean Sea to the east. Panama has the great location between North and South America, as well as possesses the Panama Canal that links the Atlantic Ocean through the Caribbean Sea with the Pacific Ocean. The total territory of the country is 30,193 sq mi (78,200 sq km), where live over 3,360,500 people. The official language in Panama is Spanish, although many Panamanians are bilingual and speak English too. The capital and the largest city of the country is Panama City. It serves as the administrative and political center of Panama, as well as a hub for international trade and banking. Ethnic groups are diverse in the country: Mestizo (over 70%), Amerindians and mixed (primarily Indian) 14%, white (10%), and Amerindians (6%). The climate of Panama is tropical, with average daily rainfall of approximately 1 in (28 cm) during winter. Temperatures have little seasonal variation and usually quite high. The average temperature is about 81 °F (27 °C) with high humidity level. The warmest average temperature varies between 90—94 °F (32—33 °C) in February, March and April, while the coolest temperature is 72 °F (22 °C) in January and the beginning of February. The annual precipitation in the country is 75 in (1904 mm). The wettest month is October with over 12 in (305 mm) of sleet, rain and hail, the driest month is March with only 0.4 in (10 mm) of rain. There are 2240 sunshine hours in the country annually, or 4.4 hours per day in June and 9,0 hours per day in January. History and Government The earliest inhabitants of Panama were the Cocle and the Cuevas—indigenous tribes who lived in eastern Panama and were completely killed out between 1510 and 1535 by Spanish colonizers. Prior to the European invasion, the country was widely settled by other big tribes, such as Chibchan and Chocoan. First European ships touched Panama’s coast in 1501.One year later, Christopher Columbus visited the territory and established a temporary settlement in the Darien region. Read More Taxation Individual income tax rate in Panama is progressive up to 27%. Those, whose income exceed US$60,000 may be required to compute an extra minimum tax of 6%. Read More Visitor/ Visa Requirements A passport is required to enter Panama. Make sure your passport is valid for at least 180 days after your departure to Panama. At least two un-used (clean) pages are required in a Visa Section of your passport for entrance/ exit stamps. A visa is not required to enter the country for tourist stays up to 90 days for nationals from… Read More Residence A foreigner, who wants to stay in Panama for longer than 90 days or reside there indefinitely, will have to obtain a temporary or a permanent residence permit. Panama offers a wide variety of visas and permits for foreign nationals anywhere in the world. The main immigration visas and permits are the following: Temporary permits for labor reasons The Pensionado program 1. A temporary permit for labor reasons is issued to foreigners who are… Read More Citizenship Officially, dual citizenship is not recognized in Panama, but when a foreign national is naturalized in Panama, the government officials don’t require any evidence of renunciation of previous citizenship and don’t make a person surrender his/ her non-Panamanian passport. There are several ways to get Panamanian citizenship… Read More Conclusion Panama today is a member of FAO, G-77, ICAO, IMF, Interpol, UN, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, WHO and WTO to name a few. Panamanian economy is dollar-based economy with highly-developed services sector that contributes to more than three quarters of national GDP. The country belongs to the third largest economy in Central America, as well as the fastest growing, largest per capita economy and the second most competitive economy in Latin America. Over 64% of population work in service, over 17% is employed in agriculture and 18% are in industrial sector. The revenue from the Panama Canal contributes to an essential portion of the country’s GDP. That’s why the government invests a lot of money into its development and improvement. Tourism plays an important role into Panamanian economy. There are over 1.3 million tourists coming to Panama to enjoy its manicured beaches, comfortable climate and tax and price discounts. November 21, 2012 Nicaragua, officially the Republic of Nicaragua, is located in Central America and borders Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country has access to both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean. The total territory of Nicaragua is 49,998 sq mi (129,429 sq km) with an approximate population of 5,892,000 inhabitants. The capital and the largest city is Managua with the population above 2,200,000 people. The official language is Spanish for more than 97% of local population. There are other recognized languages, such as Miskito (1.7%), English and indigenous languages of the Atlantic coast. Ethnic groups are various: Mestizo (69%), white (17%), black (9%), Amerindian (over 5%). The climate in the country is tropical in lowlands, cooler in highlands. There are two seasons in Nicaragua: wet and dry. A wet season lasts from May to December, while a dry season occurs between January and April. The average summer temperature is 80—85 °F (27—30 °C), the average winter temperature is 73—79 °F (22—26 °C). The average annual rainfall on the Pacific coast is 40 in (102 cm), along the Mosquito Coast is 100—250 in (250—630 cm) and inland is 40—45 in (110—130 cm). History and Government Nicaragua takes its name from Nicarao, the chief of one of the local tribes, who lived in the 14th century on this territory. Before the European colonization in the 15th century, Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous tribes, most of whom belonged to the Mesoamerican civilization of Maya and the Aztec. They were primarily occupied with farming and trading and lived in towns. Read More Taxation Individual income tax rate in Nicaragua is progressive up to 30%. Nonresidents are subject to 20% tax on Nicaraguan-sourced income. A person is considered a resident, if he/she intends to reside in the country indefinitely. Residents are taxed on Nicaraguan-sourced income, Nicaraguan-sourced employment and trading income, while non-residents are taxed only on income derived from Nicaraguan sources. Read More Visitor/ Visa Requirements A valid passport is required to enter the country. Make sure your passport is valid for at least 180 days after your departure to Nicaragua. At least two un-used (clean) pages are required in a Visa Section of your passport for entrance/ exit stamps. A visa is required to enter Nicaragua for nationals from… Read More Residence There are two types of residence in Nicaragua: a permanent residence visa and an investor’s residence visa. Usually, in both cases you will need several documents to obtain residence: a valid passport, supportive documentation translated into Spanish, a medical examination proving you are not risk for the country, clean police record, sufficient income and other minor documents. Read More Citizenship Nicaragua doesn’t recognize dual citizenship, except for birthright. Foreigners who naturalize as Nicaraguan citizens must renounce their previous citizenship. Nicaraguan citizens who naturalize or apply for citizenship of another country through marriage automatically lose their Nicaraguan citizenship. Read More Conclusion Nicaragua today is a member of G-77, BCIE, Interpol, UN, UNESCO, Union Latina, WHO and WTO to name a few. The country belongs to one of the poorest countries in Central America and the second poorest country in the Hemisphere with underemployment problems. Among country’s natural resources there are arable land, fresh water, gold, timber, renewable energy potential, such as hydro, geothermal and water. The agricultural sector is represented by coffee, cane sugar, bananas, cotton corn, rice, tobacco and soybeans. An industrial sector consists primarily of food processing, chemicals, wood, footwear, machinery and metal products. The country exports coffee, peanuts, beef, shrimp, lobster, tobacco, cigars, textiles and apparel to the U.S. (over 60%), Canada (8%) and El Salvador (over 4%). Nicaragua is one of the most popular tourist destination. Over 80,000 people visit the country every year. Mostly U.S. citizens, nationals from Central and South America, and Europe. Tourism improves and positively affects the commercial, agricultural and financial sectors. November 16, 2012 El Salvador is located in Central America, and borders Guatemala to the north, Honduras to the northeast and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The total territory of the country is 8.124 sq mi (21.040 sq km) and the total population of 7.185.218 inhabiytants that makes it the smallest and the most densely populated country of Central America. The capital and the largest city of El Salvador is San Salvador. Other important commercial and cultural cities are Santa Ana and San Miguel. Ethic groups of the country are various. Mostly Mestizo (about 90%), Caucasian (9%), indigenous (1%). The official language of El Salvador is Spanish. Nahua (Nahuatl) is spoken among some Amerindians. (Naguatl is a group of related languages and dialects spoken by about 1.5 million people of Central America). El Salvador has a tropical climate with distinct wet (May to October) and dry seasons (November to April) on coast and temperate in uplands. An average temperature in the country varies little with season. In the hottest regions of the Pacific lowlands the temperature ranges between 77 °F and 84.2 °F (25 °C and 29 °C), the coolest areas in the mountains have the temperatures between 54 °F and 74 °F (12 °C to 23 °C). Conclusion El Salvador today is a member of G-11, G-77, IMF, IMO, Interpol, United Nations, UNESCO, Union Latina, and WTO, to name the main ones. The country has the third largest economy in Central America, going behind Costa Rica and Panama. In is ranked in the top 10 among Latin American countries in terms of the HDI (Human Development Index). The country grows and exports coffee, sugar, corn, rice, beans, beef, poultry, dairy products, oilseeds, cotton, and sorghum. Agriculture contributes to 12% of GDP. The industrial sector is represented by textiles and apparel, food and beverage processing, medicines, clothing, electronics, chemical and petroleum products. Major market for the country is El Salvador (48% of export), Central American countries (35.9%). El Salvador is popular for its nice beaches and wonderful nightlife. Annually it attracts more than 1 million tourists from North America and Europe. Anyways, the country is considered a critical crime-threat country. It has one of the world’s highest homicides. Very often tourists have been among the victims. October 31, 2012 Costa Rica is located in Central America between Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south. The country is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. In 1502, Columbus, when was exploring this part of America, called this land Costa Rica which means “Rich Coast”. The capital of the country and the largest city is San Jose with the population of 366.000 people. The total population of Costa Rica is 4.253.877 inhabitants who live on the territory of 19.730 sq mi (51.100 sq km). Ethnic groups are not various. Europeans and mestizo make up 94% of the population, of African origin (3%), Chinese (1%), Amerindian (1%) and other (1%). The official language is Spanish, and English is recognized and spoken in the country. The climate in Costa Rica is mild in the central highlands, and tropical and subtropical near coastal areas/ regions. There are two types of seasons in the country: dry and wet. Dry season lasts from December until April, rainy or wet season—from May to November. Although, the regions located near the Caribbean slopes of the Central Cordillera mountains receive most rains (almost 200 in/ 5000 mm) annually. The average temperature on the coasts is 81 °F (27 °C), in the Central Cordillera areas is 67—68 °F (20 °C). High in the mountains, the temperature may drop down to 50 °F (10 °C). History and Government Christopher Columbus “discovered” Costa Rica in 1502. It was his fourth voyage to the New World and the last one. Since then, the country was administrated by Spain for next three centuries. Being relatively isolated form other Central American countries, Costa Rica developed an autonomous and unique agrarian society. By the 19th century the country started cultivating and producing banana and coffee, and that helped to accumulate local wealth. In 1821 Costa Rica, along with other Central American countries, declared independence from Spain and joined Federation formed by other newly independent countries. The country didn’t stay in the union for a long time, in 1838 it withdrew the Federation and proclaimed itself a sovereign state. The first democratic elections took part in Costa Rica in 1899—this year started the era of peacefulness and further development. Although, during the 20th century there were two lapses of dictatorship: in 1917—1919, when General Federico Tinoco Granados established a military dictatorship and in 1948, when Jose Figueres led an armed uprising in the wake of a controversial presidential elections. This rebellion resulted in 2000 dead and the 44-day Costa Rican Civil War that is known as the cruelest event in the country’s history of the 20th century. In 1949 the country dissolved its armed forces, and in 1953 adopted a new constitution. Since then, there were 13 presidential elections; the last one took part in 2010. Read More Taxation Individual income tax rate in Costa Rica is between 0% to 25%. The country has two types of individual taxes: income tax on wages and income tax on profit generating activities. Individuals with fixed salaries are taxed in the following way: CRC 0—619.000 has no tax rate (0%) CRC 619.000—929.000 with 10% CRC 929.000 and over with 15% Income tax on profit generating activities are to be paid by all physical persons who receive salaries, retirement or pension, as well as any companies involved in commerce in the country. The rates are the following: CRC 0—2.747.000 with 0% CRC 2.747.000—4.102.000 with 10% CRC 4.102.000—6.843.000 with 15% CRC 6.843.000—13.713.000 with 20% CRC 13.713.000 and over with 25%… Read More Visitor/Visa Requirements A valid passport is required to enter the country. Make sure that it won’t expire for at least thirty days after arrival. A passport should be in good condition, with at least two free pages in Visa section of your passport for entrance/ exit stamps. The immigration officer has a right to deny entry, if the passport is damaged in any way. A visa is not required for stays up to 90 days for nationals from Argentina, Austria, Canada, Columbia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Panama, Romania, South Korea, Spain, United Kingdom, the USA. A visa is not required for stays up to 30 days for nationals from… Read More Residence People, who intend to stay in the country longer than a visa allows, or a visa-free agreement, will have to apply for a visa extension (except for tourist visa) or for a residence permit. All applications are processed by the Costa Rican Department of Immigration (Direccion General de Migracion y Extranjeria). With new changes in Costa Rican Law, all applicants are allowed to file the application directly with the Department of Immigration in Costa Rica. This way, you will have to pay extra $200 (+ $50 the regular fee of an application). First of all, make sure that you contact the Costa Rican Embassy or Consulate in your hometown for documents authentication. After all necessary operations, your documents may be sent to the Ministry of Foreign Relations of Costa Rica. There are different residence options available in the country. They are… Read More Citizenship Costa Rica recognizes dual citizenship. It means that you don’t need to renounce your current citizenship, if you want to obtain Costa Rican. In general, Costa Rican citizenship can be obtained By birth By naturalization Through environmental investment a) A child born within the territory of Costa Rica, regardless of the parents’ citizenship, is required Costa Rican citizenship b) A child born abroad, to at least one parent who is a Costa Rican citizen, will be given citizenship automatically c) There are several categories of people who are eligible to be naturalized in the country. They are: Central Americans, Latin Americans and Spaniards by birth who have resided in Costa Rica for at least five years; Central Americans, Latin Americans and Spaniards other than by birth, as well as other nationals who have resided in Costa Rica for at least seven years; a spouse of Costa Rican citizen, who have lost his/her own citizenship or applied to Costa Rican one, if he/she have resided in the country for seven years… Read More Conclusion Costa Rica is a member of G-77, Interpol, OPANAL, United Nations, UNESCO, Union Latina, WHO, and WTO. Costa Rican economy lacks of maintenance and new investment in infrastructure. The unemployment rate is 7.8%, with a poverty rate of approximately 23%. Prior to the global economic crisis, the country enjoyed stable economic growth; in 2010-2011 the economic growth was at about 4% per year. The country is specialized in exports of bananas, coffee, sugar, beef, pineapples, rice, dairy products, corn, beans, potatoes, and timber. The industrial branch is represented by the electronic components, medical equipment, textiles and apparel, tires, food processing, fertilizer, plastic products and construction materials. Tourism in the country is one of the fastest growing economic sectors. It contributes with 5.5% of Costa Rican GDP and 21.3% of foreign exchange derived from all exports.	i don't know
What name is given to the point on the celestial sphere, directly below the observer, opposite the zenith?	Zenith - definition of zenith by The Free Dictionary Zenith - definition of zenith by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/zenith 1. The point on the celestial sphere that is directly above the observer. 2. The upper region of the sky. 3. The highest point above the observer's horizon attained by a celestial body. 4. The point of culmination; the peak: the zenith of her career. See Synonyms at summit . [Middle English senith, from Old French cenith, from Medieval Latin, from Arabic samt (ar-ra's), path (over the head), from Latin sēmita, path; see mei-1 in the Appendix of Indo-European roots.] zenith 1. (Astronomy) astronomy the point on the celestial sphere vertically above an observer 2. the highest point; peak; acme: the zenith of someone's achievements. [C17: from French cenith, from Medieval Latin, from Old Spanish zenit, based on Arabic samt, as in samt arrās path over one's head, from samt way, path + al the + rās head] ˈzenithal adj (ˈzi nɪθ; esp. Brit. ˈzɛn ɪθ) n. 1. the point on the celestial sphere vertically above a given position or observer. Compare nadir. 2. the highest point or state; culmination; peak. [1350–1400; Middle English cenith < Medieval Latin < Old Spanish zenit, scribal error for zemt < Arabic samt road (compare Arabic samt ar-rās road above (over) one's head, the opposite of nadir)] ze·nith The point on the celestial sphere that is directly above the observer. zenith , nadir - Zenith derived from Arabic samt ar-ras, "the way or road above one's head"; zenith technically is the point directly above the observer and nadir is the point directly below. See also related terms for observer . ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. zenith - the point above the observer that is directly opposite the nadir on the imaginary sphere against which celestial bodies appear to be projected celestial point - a point in the heavens (on the celestial sphere) celestial sphere , empyrean , firmament , heavens , vault of heaven , welkin , sphere - the apparent surface of the imaginary sphere on which celestial bodies appear to be projected nadir - the point below the observer that is directly opposite the zenith on the imaginary sphere against which celestial bodies appear to be projected zenith 2. (fig) → cenit m, apogeo m to be at the zenith of one's power → estar en el apogeo de su poder zenith to be at its zenith → être à son zénith to reach its zenith → atteindre son zénith zenith n (Astron, fig) → Zenit m zenith [ˈzɛnɪθ] n (liter) (of civilization) → culmine m; (of career) → apice m (Astron) → zenit m inv zenith (ˈzeniθ) noun the highest point. The sun reaches its zenith at midday. hoogste punt سَمْت، أوْج، أعْلى نُقْطَه зенит zênite zenit der Zenit top; zenit ζενίθ , απόγειο cénit seniit اوج lakipiste zénith זנית, שיא शिरोविन्दु, पराकाष्ठा zenit tetőpont titik tertinggi hvirfilpunktur, hápunktur zenit 天頂 정점 zenitas zenīts rembang zenit topp , høyeste punkt, senit zenit سمت الراس، اوج، تر ټولو لوړه څوكه، وروستۍ نقطه zénite zenit зенит zenit zenit zenit zenit จุดสูงสุด zirve , zenit 頂點 зеніт سمت الراس cực điểm 顶点 Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: culmination References in classic literature ? All beneath the fantastic limbs and ragged tree tops, which were, here and there, dimly painted against the starry zenith, lay alike in shadowed obscurity. View in context The great cloud-barred disk of the sun stood just above a limitless expanse of tossing white-caps--so to speak--a billowy chaos of massy mountain domes and peaks draped in imperishable snow, and flooded with an opaline glory of changing and dissolving splendors, while through rifts in a black cloud-bank above the sun, radiating lances of diamond dust shot to the zenith. View in context And at the zenith of his fame, how he would suddenly appear at the old village and stalk into church, brown and weather-beaten, in his black velvet doublet and trunks, his great jack-boots, his crimson sash, his belt bristling with horse-pistols, his crime-rusted cut- lass at his side, his slouch hat with waving plumes, his black flag unfurled, with the skull and crossbones on it, and hear with swelling ecstasy the whisperings, "It's Tom Sawyer the Pirate View in context I lingered at the gates; I lingered on the lawn; I paced backwards and forwards on the pavement; the shutters of the glass door were closed; I could not see into the interior; and both my eyes and spirit seemed drawn from the gloomy house--from the grey-hollow filled with rayless cells, as it appeared to me--to that sky expanded before me,--a blue sea absolved from taint of cloud; the moon ascending it in solemn march; her orb seeming to look up as she left the hill-tops, from behind which she had come, far and farther below her, and aspired to the zenith, midnight dark in its fathomless depth and measureless distance; and for those trembling stars that followed her course; they made my heart tremble, my veins glow when I viewed them. View in context Nor was his name unheard or unador'd In ancient Greece; and in AUSONIAN land Men call'd him MULCIBER; and how he fell From Heav'n, they fabl'd, thrown by angry JOVE Sheer o're the Chrystal Battlements: from Morn To Noon he fell, from Noon to dewy Eve, A Summers day; and with the setting Sun Dropt from the Zenith like a falling Star, On LEMNOS th' AEGAEAN Ile: thus they relate, Erring; for he with this rebellious rout Fell long before; nor aught avail'd him now To have built in Heav'n high Towrs; nor did he scape By all his Engins, but was headlong sent With his industrious crew to build in hell.	Nadir
Which Spanish city in Castile-La Mancha has been renowned since the Middle Ages for its production of swords?	Nadiral \| Define Nadiral at Dictionary.com C14: from Old French, from Arabic nazīr as-samt, literally: opposite the zenith Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for nadiral Expand nadir n. late 14c., in astronomical sense, from Medieval Latin nadir, from Arabic nazir "opposite to," in nazir as-samt, literally "opposite of the zenith," from nazir "opposite" + as-samt "zenith" (see zenith ). Transferred sense of "lowest point (of anything)" is first recorded 1793. Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper	i don't know
Which influential writer of the French Renaissance, who helped to popularise the essay as a literary form , is perhaps best remembered for his 'Apology For Raymond Sebond'?	Michel de Montaigne - New World Encyclopedia Michel de Montaigne Next (Michelangelo) Michel de Montaigne Michel Eyquem de Montaigne ([miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ]) (February 28, 1533 – September 13, 1592) was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance . Montaigne is known for inventing the essay. Although there are other authors who wrote in an autobiographical style on intellectual issues— Saint Augustine was an example from the ancient world—Montaigne was the first popularize the tone and style of what would become the essay form. He is renowned for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography. Montaigne's massive work, the Essais, contains some of the most widely influential essays ever written, among them the essay "On Cannibals," where Montaigne famously defended the rights and dignity of native peoples, and "An Apology for Raymond Sebond," where he argued vehemently against dogmatic thinking. Montaigne is one of the most important French writers of the Renaissance, having a direct influence on writers the world over, from Shakespeare to Emerson , from Nietzsche to Rousseau . Contents 5 Credits In his own time, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. His tendency to diverge into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as a detriment rather than an innovation, and his stated motto that "I am myself the matter of my book" was viewed by contemporary writers as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne would be recognized as expressing candidly the "zeitgeist" of his age, perhaps more so than any other author of his time, specifically because he would refer so often to his personal reflections and experiences. Remarkably modern even to readers today, Montaigne's conviction to examine the world through the lens of the only thing he can depend on inviolably—his own self—makes him one of the most honest and accessible of all writers. The entire field of modern literary non-fiction owes its genesis to Montaigne, and non-fiction writers of all kinds—from essayists to journalists to historians—continue to read Montaigne for his masterful balance of intellectual knowledge and graceful style. Life Montaigne was born in Périgord on the family estate, Château de Montaigne, in a town now called Saint-Michel-de-Montaigne, not far from Bordeaux. The family was very rich; his grandfather, Ramon Eyquem, had made a fortune as a herring merchant and had bought the estate in 1477. His father, Pierre Eyquem, was a soldier in Italy for a time, developing some very progressive views on education there; he had also been the mayor of Bordeaux. His mother, Antoinette de Louppes, came from a wealthy Spanish Jewish family, but was herself raised Protestant. Although she lived a great part of Montaigne's life near him, and even survived him, Montaigne doesn't make any mention of her in his work. In contrast, Montaigne's relationship with his father played a prominent role in his life and work. From the moment of his birth, Montaigne's education followed a pedagogical plan sketched out by his father, based on the advice of the latter's humanist friends. Soon after his birth, Montaigne was brought to a small cottage, where he lived the first three years of life in the sole company of a peasant family, "in order to," according to the elder Montaigne, "approximate the boy to the people, and to the life conditions of the people, who need our help." After these first spartan years spent amongst the lowest social class, Montaigne was brought back to the Château. The objective there was for Latin to become his first language. His intellectual education was assigned to a German tutor (a doctor named Horstanus who couldn't speak French); and strict orders were given to him and to everyone in the castle (servants included) to always speak to the boy in Latin—and even to use the language among themselves anytime he was around. The Latin education of Montaigne was accompanied by constant intellectual and spiritual stimulation. The sciences were presented to him in most pedagogical ways: through games, conversation, exercises of solitary meditation, etc., but never through books. Music was played from the moment of Montaigne's awakening. An épinettier—a zither-player—constantly followed Montaigne and his tutor, playing a tune any time the boy became bored or tired. When he wasn't in the mood for music, he could do whatever he wished: play games, sleep, be alone—most important of all was that the boy wouldn't be obliged to anything, but that, at the same time, he everything would be available in order to take advantage of his freedom. Around the year 1539, Montaigne was sent to study at a prestigious boarding school in Bordeaux, the Collège de Guyenne, afterward studying law in Toulouse and entering a career in the legal system. Montaigne was a counselor of the Court des Aides of Périgueux, and in 1557 he was appointed counselor of the Parliament in Bordeaux. While serving at the Bordeaux Parliament, he became very close friends with the humanist writer Étienne de la Boétie whose death in 1563 deeply influenced Montaigne. From 1561 to 1563 Montaigne was present at the court of King Charles IX. Montaigne married in 1565; he had five daughters, but only one survived childhood, and he mentioned them only scantily in his writings. Following the petition of his father, Montaigne started to work on the first translation of the Spanish monk, Raymond Sebond's Theologia naturalis, which he published a year after his father's death in 1568. After his father's death he inherited the Château de Montaigne, taking possession of Château in 1570. Another literary accomplishment of Montaigne, before the publication of his Essays, was a posthumous edition of his friend Boétie's works, which he helped see to publication. In 1571, Montaigne retired from public life to the Tower of the Château, Montaigne's so-called "citadelle," where he almost totally isolated himself from every social (and familiar) affair. Locked up in his vast library he began work on his Essays, first published in 1580. On the day of his 38th birthday, as he entered this almost ten-year isolation period, he let the following inscription crown the bookshelves of his working chamber: An. Christi 1571 aet. 38, pridie cal. cart., die suo natali, Mich. Montanus, servitii aulici et munerum publicorum jamdudum pertaesus, dum se integer in doctarum virginum recessit sinus, ubi quietus et omnium securus quantillum in tandem superabit decursi multa jam plus parte spatii; si modo fata duint exigat istas sedes et dulces latebras, avitasque, libertati suae, tranquillitatique, et otio consecravit. In the year of Christ 1571, at the age of thirty-eight, on the last day of February, his birthday, Michel de Montaigne, long weary of the servitude of the court and of public employments, while still entire, retired to the bosom of the learned virgins, where in calm and freedom from all cares be will spend what little remains of his life, now more than half run out. If the fates permit, he will complete this abode, this sweet ancestral retreat; and he has consecrated it to his freedom, tranquility, and leisure. During this time of the Wars of Religion, Montaigne, himself a Roman Catholic , acted as a mediating force, respected both by the Catholic Henry III and the Protestant Henry of Navarre. In 1578, Montaigne, whose health had always been excellent, started suffering from painful kidney stones, a sickness he had inherited from his father's family. From 1580 to 1581, Montaigne traveled in France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Italy, partly in search of a cure. He kept a detailed journal recording various episodes and regional differences. It was published much later, in 1774, under the title Travel Journal. While in Rome in 1581, Montaigne learned that he had been elected mayor of Bordeaux; he returned and served until 1585, again mediating between Catholics and Protestants. His eloquence as a statesman and his ability to successfully negotiate between the warring Catholic and Protestant factions earned Montaigne a great deal of respect throughout France, and for most of his life he would be remembered for his excellence as a politician even more than for his writings. Montaigne continued to extend, revise and oversee the publication of his Essays. In 1588 he met the writer, Marie de Gournay, who admired his work and would later edit and publish it. King Henry III was assassinated in 1589, and Montaigne then helped to keep Bordeaux loyal to Henry of Navarre, who would go on to become King Henry IV. Montaigne died in 1592 at the Château de Montaigne and was buried nearby. Later his remains were moved to the Church of St. Antoine at Bordeaux. The church no longer exists: it became the Convent des Feuillants, which has also been lost. The Bordeaux Tourist Office says that Montaigne is buried at the Musée Aquitaine, Faculté des Lettres, Université Bordeaux 3 Michel de Montaigne, Pessac. His heart is preserved in the parish church of Saint-Michel-de-Montaigne, near his native land. The Essais The Essais—translated literally from the French as "trials" or "attempts"—are Montaigne's magnum opus, and one of the most important single pieces of literature written during the French Renaissance . The Essais, as is clear even from their title, are remarkable for the humility of Montaigne's approach. Montaigne always makes it clear that he is only attempting to uncover the truth , and that his readers should always attempt to test his conclusions for themselves. Montaigne's essays, in their very form, are one of the highest testaments to the humanist philosophy to which Montaigne himself owed so much of his thought; honest, humble, and always open to taking in ideas from any source, the Essais are one of the first truly humane works of literature—literature written truly written for the sake of everyman. The Essais consist of a collection of a large number of short subjective treatments of various topics. Montaigne's stated goal is to describe man, and especially himself, with utter frankness. He finds the great variety and volatility of human nature to be its most basic features. Among the topics he addresses include descriptions of own poor memory, his ability to solve problems and mediate conflicts without truly getting emotionally involved, his disdain for man's pursuit of lasting fame, and his attempts to detach himself from worldly things to prepare for death; among these more philosophical topics there are also interspersed essays on lighter subjects, such as diet and gastronomy, and the enjoyments to be found in taking a walk through the countryside. One of the primary themes that emerges in the Essais is Montaigne's deep distrust of dogmatic thinking. He rejects the belief in dogma for dogma's sake, stressing that one must always be skeptical and analytical so as to be able to tell the difference between what is true and what is not. His skepticism is best expressed in the long essay "An Apology for Raymond Sebond" (Book 2, Chapter 12) which has frequently been published separately. In the "Apology," Montaigne argues that we cannot trust our reasoning because thoughts just occur to us; we don't truly control them. We do not, he argues strongly, have good reasons to consider ourselves superior to the animals. Throughout the "Apology" Montaigne repeats the question "What do I know?." He addresses the epistemological question: what is it possible for one to know, and how can you be really sure that you know what you think you know? The question, and its implications, have become a sort of motto for Montaigne; at bottom, all of the Essais are concerned with the epistemological problem of how one obtains knowledge. Montaigne's approach is a simple one, yet it is remarkably effective and remains refreshingly new: all the subject can ever be certain of is what comes from the subject; therefore, Montaigne attempts in essay after essay to begin from his own observations—it is only through utmost concentration beginning from ones own thoughts and perceptions that any truth can ever arrive. This attitude, for which Montaigne received much criticism in his own time, has become one of the defining principles of The Enlightenment and Montaigne's ideas, as well as his forthright style, would have a tremendous influence on essayists and writers of the nineteenth- and twentieth-centuries the world over. Related writers and influence Among the thinkers exploring similar ideas, one can mention Erasmus , Thomas More , and Guillaume Budé, all working about 50 years before Montaigne. Montaigne's book of essays is one of the few books that scholars can confirm Shakespeare had in his library, and his great essay "On Cannibals" is seen as a direct source for "The Tempest." Much of Blaise Pascal 's skepticism in his Pensées was a result of reading Montaigne, and his influence is also seen in the essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson . Friedrich Nietzsche was moved to judge of Montaigne: "That such a man wrote has truly augmented the joy of living on this Earth." (from " Schopenhauer as Educator") External links	Michel de Montaigne
Who was the American engine driver and folk hero on the Cannonball Express who died in 1900 trying to prevent his train from crashing into a freight train?	Mandeville: His Life and Work - Online Library of Liberty Online Library of Liberty A collection of scholarly works about individual liberty and free markets. A project of Liberty Fund, Inc. Mandeville: His Life and Work Related Links: INTRODUCTION I. LIFE OF MANDEVILLE 1 HEREDITY had its full share in Mandeville’s genius. From the sixteenth century men of prominence had been common in his family—on his father’s side, city governors, scholars, and physicians (his father, Michael, his grandfather, and his great-grandfather had all been eminent physicians); his mother’s kinsmen, the Verhaars, were naval officers. 2 Bernard de Mandeville, or Bernard Mandeville, as he chose to call himself in later life, 3 was baptized in Rotterdam, 20 November 1670. 4 He attended the Erasmian School there until October 1685, when he matriculated at the University of Leyden. 1 On this occasion he pronounced what he called, with a foreshadowing of the wit which was to make him famous, an oratiuncula, 2 in which he stated his intention of devoting himself to the study of medicine. Nevertheless, he was registered the next year, 17 September, as a student in Philosophy. 3 In 1689, on the twenty-third of March, he presented a dissertation under the mentorship of Burcherus de Volder, professor of Medicine and Philosophy. 4 The subject-matter of this dissertation—Disputatio Philosophica de Brutorum Operationibus—suggests that Mandeville had continued for some time as a student in Philosophy. In 1690 Mandeville was still in residence, 5 but the beadle’s lists for 1691 do not mention him, so that it is probable that he was away from Leyden during most of the college year of 1690 to 1691. This would explain his being once more entered in the Album Studiosorum Academiae in 1691, the nineteenth of March, 1 on the thirtieth of which month he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine, 2 apparently returning only for that purpose. He then took up the practice of medicine as a specialist in nerve and stomach disorders, or, as he called them, the ‘hypochondriack and hysterick passions’ or ‘diseases’. 3 His father had practised this very branch of medicine. 4 Soon after, Mandeville left his native country and, possibly after a tour of Europe, 5 went to London ‘to learn the Language; in which having happen’d to take great delight, and in the mean time found the Country and the Manners of it agreeable to his Humour, he has now been many Years, and is like to end his days in England’. 1 Thus he himself explained his change of country. His decision to remain in England must have been confirmed on 1 February 169 8/9, when he married Ruth Elizabeth Laurence at St. Giles-in-the-Fields. 2 By her he was to have at least two children—Michael and Penelope. 3 By 1703 he had achieved his wish of learning the language, for in that year he published the first extant of the English works which were to make him known to all the western world. 4 History now becomes paradoxical. Her file, which has not spared details of Mandeville’s youthful days of obscurity, records almost nothing of the years when he was one of the most celebrated men in the world. She notes a couple of his dwelling-places, 5 lists his literary works, 6 and records his death. That is almost all. Mandeville’s Will (Slightly reduced) The will is endorsed, ‘Testator fuit põe Sti. Stephani Coleman street Lond et obijt 21 instan.’ The statement of probate 1 February by Michael Mandeville follows. The affidavit (dated 31 January) to the genuineness of the will, preserved with it at Somerset House, was signed by John Brotherton (the publisher) and Daniel Wight. But though record has been thus discreet, rumour has been more communicative. The brilliant free-thinking doctor was a kind of scarecrow to frighten ministers with, and the most damning whispers about him rustle through the pages of the eighteenth century: ‘… his own life was far from being correct … an indulger in gross sensuality. …’ 1 ‘…. a man of very bad principles. …’ 2 ‘On dit que c’étoit un homme qui vivoit comme il écrivoit. …’ 3 ‘ … the Writer of the Fable of the Bees was neither a Saint in his Life, nor a Hermit in his Diet. …’ 4 Gossip such as this has a certain spice lacking to that duller but more dependable information which may be culled from first-hand sources, and this is probably a reason why these second-hand speculations have hitherto bulked so large in all accounts of Mandeville’s life. The reader, however, who remembers the usual treatment given by gossip to writers supposed to hold irreligious principles will approach these indefinite statements with some scepticism, and may even wonder why there have not been preserved for us some really exciting scandals about Mandeville, for, as Lounsbury put it, ‘There is no mendacity more unscrupulous than that which sets out to calumniate those whom its utterers choose to deem the enemies of God’. 5 The nearest approach to such scandals was furnished by Sir John Hawkins, one of the most unamiable liars who ever lived. Sir John’s motto was decidedly not ‘de mortuis nil nisi bonum’, for he spent much of his life elaborating unpleasant fictions about dead geniuses. He libelled Dr. Johnson, and Boswell rages in a score of places against his ‘inaccuracy’ and ‘dark uncharitable’ assertions. 1 Bishop Percy spoke of him as a detestable libeller; Sir Joshua Reynolds called him ‘mean’, ‘grovelling’, and ‘absolutely dishonest’, and Malone observed that he never knew any one who did not believe Hawkins a scoundrel. 2 I mention the facts relating to Sir John Hawkins so that the reader may know in what attitude to approach the facts related by him. Mandeville [he said], 3 whose christian name was Bernard, was a native of Dort in Holland. He came to England young, and, as he says in some of his writings, 4 was so pleased with the country, that he took up his residence in it, and made the language his study. He lived in obscure lodgings in London, and betook himself to the profession of physic, but was never able to acquire much practice. He was the author of the book above-mentioned [the Fable], as also of ‘Free Thoughts on Religion’, and ‘a Discourse on Hypochondriac Affections’, which Johnson would often commend; and wrote besides, sundry papers in the ‘ London Journal’, and other such publications, to favour the custom of drinking spirituous liquors, to which employment of his pen, it is supposed he was hired by the distillers. I once heard a London physician, who had married the daughter of one of that trade, mention him as a good sort of man, and one that he was acquainted with, and at the same time assert a fact, which I suppose he had learned from Mandeville, that the children of women addicted to dram-drinking, were never troubled with the rickets. He is said to have been coarse and overbearing in his manners where he durst be so; yet a great flatterer of some vulgar Dutch merchants, who allowed him a pension. This last information comes from a clerk of a city attorney, through whose hands the money passed. In this string of statements—taken at the most unspecified second-hand and apparently an imaginative rendering of material originally in the Bibliothèque Britannique 1 and of some reminiscences of Mandeville’s own works 2 —there is scarcely an allegation which is not either highly improbable or capable of being directly disproved. If Mandeville wrote to increase the use of spirituous liquors, careful search through the contemporary journals has failed to reveal the fact. 3 Such articles, indeed, would have been contrary to all his acknowledged opinions on the subject. In both the Fable of the Bees and the Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Diseases, Mandeville dwelt vividly on the dangers of what he termed ‘this Liquid Poison’ (Fable i. 89). 4 Concerning Mandeville’s supposed opinion about the children of dram-drinking mothers, it is worth noting the form in which Hawkins put it. A friend of Mandeville gave Hawkins a medical opinion, and without the slightest apparent reason Hawkins assumed that this friend, although himself a physician, must have learned the opinion from Mandeville. As to the ‘vulgar Dutch merchants’, if they ever existed they were probably John and Cornelius Backer. 1 The ‘pension’, however, was in that case apparently no gratuitous endowment, but the South Sea Annuities which made up part of Mandeville’s income and which the Messrs. Backer held in trust for him. 1 The assertions of Hawkins as to Mandeville’s worldly station and professional success are of more interest, and we have, I believe, sufficient authentic evidence to determine the truth of these two matters, which are interdependent. In the first place, it would be well to note a remark in Mandeville’s Treatise. Philopirio, who acts as his mouthpiece throughout the book, 2 says for him, in answer to the observation of another character that Philopirio would not ‘get into great Business’: ‘I could never go through a Multiplicity of Business. … I am naturally slow, and could no more attend a dozen Patients in a Day, and think of them as I should do, than I could fly.’ 3 In view of Hawkins’s general untrustworthiness and the fact that some of the information he retails is drawn from the Treatise, it is a fair prima facie assumption that the citation just given furnished the basis for Hawkins’s generalizations about Mandeville’s lack of worldly success. At any rate, there is positive evidence that Hawkins was romancing. Mandeville was one of the most successful authors and widely famed men of his day. His works were selling not only by editions but literally by dozens of editions. 4 It is worthy of remark, too, that, in an age which specialized in personal abuse, none indictive attacks on Mandeville took what would have been an obvious course, had there been any grounds for it, of calling attention to his poverty. On the contrary, a contemporary opponent spoke of him as ‘well dress’d’ (Fable ii. 23). It is to be noted, furthermore, that Mandeville felt able to take the notice of his medical skill which appeared in the first edition of his Treatise 1 out of the later one. Moréri’s Dictionnaire, also, which was far from holding a brief for him, mentioned that ‘il … passoit pour habile’. 2 Positive evidence of Mandeville’s status is contained in a letter from him to Sir Hans Sloane, 3 perhaps the leading physician of the day. This letter shows Mandeville in consultation with the famous court physician and on terms of easy familiarity with him. Mandeville, moreover, was a friend of the wealthy and powerful Lord Chancellor, the Earl of Macclesfield. The attachment between the Earl of Macclesfield and Mandeville has been noted a number of times, 4 and a letter from Mandeville to the Chancellor indicates this relation to have been one of genuine intimacy. 1 The friendship of the Earl would have amply insured Mandeville against poverty and neglect. Finally, Mandeville, when he died, managed to leave behind him a competency which, measured by the monetary standards of the day, was at least respectable. 2 In view of all this, it is hardly possible that the world-famous author, the consultant of Sir Hans Sloane, and the friend of Lord Macclesfield was in anything resembling the circumstances in which Hawkins has painted him, and Hawkins may be generally discredited. Letter Addressed to Lord Macclesfield Stowe MS. 750, f. 429 (British Museum) (Reduced) The ‘Lady Betty’ mentioned in this letter was Elizabeth Parker, Macclesfield’s daughter, who married William Heathcote of Hursley, Hampshire. As a matter of fact, there is no authoritative firsthand evidence whatever as to Mandeville’s character and habits except what he himself has told us and the brief remark of one single contemporary. 1 Through his spokesman Philopirio, in the Treatise, in answer to the observations of another character in the work, Misomedon, Mandeville thus speaks of himself: Phil. … I hate a Crowd, and I hate to be in a Hurry. … I must own to you likewise, that I am a little selfish, and can’t help minding my own Enjoyments, and my own Diversion, and in short, my own Good, as well as the Good of others. I can, and do heartily admire at those publick-spirited People that can slave at an Employment from early in the Morning, ’till late at Night, and sacrifice every Inch of themselves to their Callings; but I could never have had the Power to imitate them: Not that I love to be idle; but I want to be employed to my own liking; and if a Man gives away to others two thirds of the Time he is awake, I think he deserves to have the rest for himself. Misom. Pray, did you ever wish for a great Estate? Phil. Often, and I should certainly have had one before now, if wishing could have procur’d it. Misom. But I am sure, you never sought heartily after Riches. Phil. I have always been frugal enough to have no Occasion for them. Misom. I don’t believe you love Money. Phil. Indeed I do. Misom. I mean you have no Notion of the Worth of it, no real Esteem for it. Phil. Yes I have; but I value it in the same manner as most People do their Health, which you know is seldom thought of but when it is wanted. 1 In another place 2 Mandeville remarked, ‘I am a great Lover of Company. …’ This trait is noted also in the one other first-hand account we have—that of Benjamin Franklin, fortunately a sane witness. Dr. Lyons, 3 wrote Franklin, 4 ‘carried me to the Horns, a pale alehouse in ——— Lane, Cheapside, and introduced me to Dr. Mandeville, author of the “Fable of the Bees”, who had a club there, of which he was the soul, being a most facetious, entertaining companion’. Mandeville died at Hackney, 6 Sunday morning, 5 21 January 173⅔, 1 in his sixty-third year, possibly of the prevalent influenza. 2 His works comprised the following writings: 3 I: AUTHENTIC WORKS 4 Another edition, without date, placed by the British Museum in 1720. 1 New editions 1724 (reissued 1731), 1742, 1757, and in 1713 (by title-page, 1714) under title of Mysteries of Virginity. 2 The first edition had two issues in 1711 and one in 1715; the enlarged version, issued 1730 under title of A Treatise of the Hypochondriack and Hysterick Diseases, had two issues that year. 3 First edition reissued 1721 and 1723; new edition (enlarged), 1729 and, possibly, 1733. French version (Pensées Libres), 1722, 1723, 1729, 1738; Dutch version, 1723; German version, 1726. 4 Second edition, 1725, two editions in 1740, two without date, c. 1730–40. Numerous editions of the French translation (Vénus la Populaire), the first in 1727, the last in 1881. 5 Second edition advertised in the Post Man for 4–7 Dec. 1714, under title of ‘Non-Resistance an useless Doctrine in Just Reigns’. The work is probably by Mandeville. 1 Reprinted 1751 in Another Cordial for Low Spirits, which appeared as vol. 2 of A Cordial for Low Spirits … Tracts by Thomas Gordon … Second Edition (1751). The collection was reprinted in 1763. Bernardi à Mandeville de Medicina Oratio Scholastica. Rotterdam. 1685 II HISTORY OF THE TEXT 1 THE production of The Fable of the Bees consumed some twenty-four years. The germ from which it developed was a sixpenny 2 quarto of twenty-six pages published anonymously on 2 April 1705. 3 It was called The Grumbling Hive: or,Knaves Turn’d Honest. 4 The piece took, for a pirated edition was soon printed, and ‘cry’d about the Streets in a Half-Penny Sheet’ 5 of four pages. The work now lay fallow for almost a decade, until, in 1714, 6 it reappeared as part of an anonymous book called The Fable of the Bees: or, Private Vices, Publick Benefits, in which the original poem was followed by a prose commentary, explaining, in the form of An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue and twenty ‘Remarks’, divers of the opinions expressed in the poem. There was a second edition the same year. 7 In 1723 1 another edition, entitled the second, was issued at five shillings, 2 with the ‘Remarks’ much enlarged 3 and two essays added—An Essay on Charity and Charity-Schools and A Search into the Nature of Society. 4 Now, for the first time, the work attracted real attention, 5 and attacks upon it began to accumulate. The Grand Jury of Middlesex presented the book as a public nuisance, and what Mandeville called ‘an abusive Letter to Lord C.’ appeared in the London Journal for 27 July 1723. This caused Mandeville to publish, in the London Journal for 10 August 1723, a defence of his work against the ‘abusive Letter’ and the presentment. This defence he had reprinted upon sheets of a size such that they could easily be bound up with the 1723 edition, 6 and he included this defence in all subsequent editions, together with a reprint of the letter to Lord C. and the Grand Jury’s presentment. 7 In 1724 appeared the so-called third edition, 8 in which, besides including the defence, Mandeville made numerous stylistic changes and added two pages to the preface. The next edition, in 1725, was identical except for a number of slight verbal alterations, some of which are probably by Mandeville. 1 The editions of 1728 and 1729 are unchanged except for small variations which are probably due to the compositor. 2 Mandeville may have been responsible for a few verbal variations in the edition which followed in 1732. 3 The variations between the editions show Mandeville to have been a conscious stylist, carefully polishing. 4 While the various editions of Part I were pouring out, Mandeville was writing a second part to the Fable, made up of a preface and six dialogues, amplifying and defending his doctrines. He issued this in 1728 (by title-page 1729) 1 under the title of The Fable of the Bees. Part II. By the Author of the First. It was published independently of the first part—by a different publisher, in fact. A second edition of Part II followed in 1730, and in 1733 came a third edition, called, on its title-page, ‘The Second Edition’. 2 After this, the two parts were published together. A two-volume edition was advertised in 1733. 3 Another two-volume edition was published at Edinburgh in 1755, this same edition later appearing with a misleading title-page dated London, 1734. 4 Still another two-volume edition issued from Edinburgh in 1772. In 1795 both parts appeared in a single volume, and this same edition was reisued in 1806. This was the last complete edition of the book. It had, however, a partial resurrection in 1811, when the poem of The Grumbling Hive was issued at Boston, Massachusetts, in a small pamphlet ‘printed for the People’. 5 Meanwhile, the work had been translated into foreign languages. In 1740 appeared a four-volume French translation attributed to J. Bertrand 1 —a free one, in which the Rabelaisian element in Mandeville was toned down; and a new edition of this was issued in 1750. It is possible that there was still another French edition in 1760. 2 German translations appeared in 1761, 3 1818, 4 1914, 5 and, possibly, in 1817. 6 Such, in brief, was the textual history of the Fable of the Bees. III MANDEVILLE’S THOUGHT § 1 IT is difficult to know whether the reader who discovers Mandeville is most struck at first by the freshness of his style or by the vitality of his thought. If, however, the thought be the thing which impresses, it does so largely because couched in a style in which the most idiomatic and homely vigour is combined with sophisticated control of rhythm and tone—a style at once colloquial and rhetorical, retaining all the easy flow of familiar speech and yet with a constant oratorical note, 1 and never failing to make even the most abstruse analysis so concrete as to strike beyond the intellect to the sympathies. No style of the age has retained more of the breath of life. It is more forceful and vivid than Addison’s, and, though it lacks Swift’s compression, it has more unction and more colour. Abounding in wit and humour, rich yet clear, equally adapted to speculation and to narrative, it offers a medium for popular philosophic prose lacking only in the quality of poetry. 2 Yet, paradoxically, the very power of Mandeville’s style has helped to make the Fable of the Bees a much misunderstood book. Mandeville put his unconventional point of view in such vigorous, downright, and uncompromising terms that he literally frightened a large proportion of his readers into misunderstanding him. The very title-page of his book—Private Vices, Publick Benefits—was enough to throw many good people into a kind of philosophical hysterics which left them no wit to grasp what he was driving at. Besides, despite the apparent clarity which Mandeville’s unusual articulateness allowed him to impart, his thought, since it dealt often with some of the profundities of ethical speculation, cannot be fully grasped unless related by the reader to a certain background of theory and observation. A perspective can be gained from an analysis of a certain phase of contemporary thought—a phase well represented by the Deists. The Deists show on analysis a curious dual nature. On the one hand, they were a part of the great empirical movement that produced Bacon and Locke, and was to produce Hume. They believed in a world ordered by natural law, and in the inference of knowledge concerning this world by observation of its workings. In so far, therefore, they appealed, empirically, to experience. On the other hand, they had faith in a cosmogeny and an ethics of divine origin and of eternal and universal truth and applicability. According to this view, the search for truth was an attempt to discover the divine ordinances, and a true ethics the correct formulation of the will of God. The method by which the Deists contrived to believe at once both in the divine origin of truth and virtue, and in its basis in observation and experience, was by postulating the inevitable agreement of the will of God with the results of man’s rational speculation. 1 To them, therefore, there was no conflict between reason and religion, private judgement and revelation. But the forces which the Deists had managed temporarily to reconcile were capable of almost infinite mutual repulsion. On the one hand, as soon as men come to realize the contradictory nature of the data of experience and the irreconcilability of the appreciations of the experiencers, the appeal to experience may easily tend towards undermining faith in the absolute validity of our conceptions of truth and virtue. The appeal may lead, in other words, towards a belief in the relativity of all our views, a belief which, intensified, becomes philosophical anarchism, or a denial of the possibility of any final criteria whatever. On the other hand, the religious conception that the laws of nature are the will of God is essentially anti-relativistic, for laws of divine origin are true irrespective of the opinions of conflicting observers—are of universal and absolute validity.—Similarly, in ethics, the stress on experience leads naturally to some such relating of moral codes to human convenience as utilitarianism; whereas the belief that moral codes have a divine sanction transcending the test of experience tends, on the contrary, to a moral absolutism which, though it does not necessarily lead to, may not inconsistently foster asceticism. Thus deism coupled in one creed a conception capable of leading to the most extreme relativism with one holding the potentiality of the most rigorous and uncompromising absolutism. The Deists, as we have seen, held these forces in equilibrium by assuming the identity of the dictates of reason and the will of God. And this was a general position for the rationalists of the age. 1 But it was not the only method of handling the inevitable problem of the relation of individual inquiry and traditional religion. Another, and opposite, method was seen in that scepticism—especially prevalent in the Renaissance—of which Montaigne’s Apologie de Raimond Sebond was an example. 1 The Sceptics argued that reason and religion were antithetical. Religion offers us absolute truth; but, they argued in detail, the human reason is incapable of reaching such final truth: its conclusions are never more than relative. Having elaborated thus far the conflict between reason and religion, the Sceptics then proceeded to resolve the discord. Since, they said, reason is impotent to give us truth, reason itself, by its very impotence, shows us the need of religion to furnish us the truths we cannot find elsewhere. Thus the Sceptics developed elaborately the potential antithesis between reason and religion while yet holding them in unstable equilibrium. Of the two chief methods of dealing with this fundamental problem of the relation of private judgement and traditional religion it was the second which Mandeville’s great thought-ancestor chose as the main theme on which to write his variations. Pierre Bayle 2 (1647–1706) spent his prolific genius demonstrating with gusto the essential disconcordance between revealed religion and any appeal to experience, contrasting all the absolutism inherent in the one with all the relativism latent in the other. With Bayle the appeal to experience led to a relativism so extreme as to approach a thoroughgoing philosophical anarchism. ‘. . . I am sure’, he said, ‘that there are very few good Philosophers in our Age, but are convinced, that Nature is an impenetrable Abyss, and that its Springs are known to none, but to the Maker and Director of them.’ 1 This scepticism as to the possibility to human endeavour of attaining absolute truth is general throughout his work. 2 On the other hand, Bayle took pains to impress on his readers that religion demands precisely that finality which is unattainable from experience. Immediately after his statement that ‘Nature is an impenetrable Abyss’, he definitely stated that this doctrine is ‘dangerous to Religion; for it ought to be grounded upon Certainty. . . .’ But he was not satisfied with elaborating the conflict merely between reason and religion. Passing from the world of concepts to the world of actual conduct, he paralleled the opposition between reason and religion by the opposition of human nature in general to the demands of religion. Christianity, said Bayle, is ascetic, ordaining that we subdue our natural desires because they are due to the ‘Dominion of Original Sin, and … our corrupt Nature’. 3 But humanity will not submit itself to such a discipline. Even if man could be made to sincerely profess Christianity, yet his nature would prevent his following his faith, for man does not act according to the principles he professes, but ‘almost always follows the reigning Passion of his Soul, the Biass of his Constitution, the Force of inveterate Habits, and his Taste and Tenderness for some Objects more than other’ (Miscellaneous Reflections i. 272). Small wonder, then, that Bayle should conclude that ‘the Principles of Religion are little pursued in the World . . .’ (Misc. Refl. i. 285). Thus Bayle insisted on the incompatibility of religion not only with reason but with human nature in general. But Bayle did not on this account reject the religion he had thus opposed to humanity. He accepted it—at least outwardly—and with it, therefore, a code and an attitude with which his whole temper was out of harmony and which his normal manner of thinking discredited. Bayle thus shows a paradoxical dualism in his scheme of things. He is an extreme relativist, yet he announces that the religion he professes demands finality; he reduces conduct, even the most beneficial, to the following of some dominant desire, yet he denounces desire as wicked. What he has shown true and good from a worldly point of view he condemns according to the other-worldly criterion. Now, in one way, there is nothing new about this. Long before Ecclesiastes, moralists were insisting that the good things of this world are vanity; that what is good from one point of view is wicked from a higher. Really, however, there is an essential difference between this and the attitude of Pierre Bayle. With the prophets, the paradox was that the things denounced should ever be thought good; with Bayle, that things so frankly true and useful should have to be looked upon as bad. Verbally, there may not seem much difference; philosophically, there could hardly be greater disparity between attitudes. In the latter case, the duality hid a fundamental worldliness which was eventually to crack the other-worldly moulds into which it was temporarily forced, as the incompatibility of the two elements was made more evident. The incongruity of the two attitudes held concurrently is clear in Bayle; but it is in Mandeville that it becomes most definite. § 2 It was in 1714, in an atmosphere contradictorily charged with the fanatical agitation of religious prophets and strange sects prophesying Armageddon, with the rationalism of the Deists, and with an adumbrating scientific attitude, that Mandeville issued the sensational volume in which these contemporary contradictions were caught up and juxtaposed in brilliant and devastating paradox. The book is introduced by a short, rhymed allegory of a bee-hive. Mandeville describes the dishonesty and selfishness in this hive. Merchants, lawyers, doctors, priests, judges, statesmen—all are vicious. And yet their wickedness is the stuff out of which is made the complicated social mechanism of a great state, where are seen Millions endeavouring to supply Each other’s Lust and Vanity … (Fable i. 18). Thus every Part was full of Vice, Yet the whole Mass a Paradise … (i. 24). The bees, however, are not satisfied to have their viciousness mixed with their prosperity. All the cheats and hypocrites declaim about the state of their country’s morals and pray the gods for honesty. This raises the indignation of Jove, who unexpectedly grants the hive its wish. BUT, Oh ye Gods! What Consternation, How vast and sudden was th’ Alteration! (i. 28). As Pride and Luxury decrease, So by degrees they leave the Seas. … All Arts and Crafts neglected lie; Content, the Bane of Industry, Makes ’em admire their homely Store, And neither seek nor covet more (i. 34–5). In this way, through the loss of their vices, the hive at the same time lost all its greatness. Now comes the moral: THEN leave Complaints: Fools only strive To make a Great an Honest Hive. T’ enjoy the World’s Conveniencies, Be fam’d in War, yet live in Ease, Without great Vices, is a vain Eutopia seated in the Brain. Fraud, Luxury and Pride must live, While we the Benefits receive. … So Vice is beneficial found, When it’s by Justice lopt and bound; Nay, where the People would be great, As necessary to the State, As Hunger is to make ’em eat (i. 36–7). Then, in the series of prose essays which follows, Mandeville elaborated the thesis of the poem on the bee-hive, that vice is the foundation of national prosperity and happiness. Now, by this he did not mean simply that all evil has a good side to it, and that this good outweighs the evil. His paradox turned, instead, on his definition of virtue. This definition was a reflection of two great contemporary currents of thought—the one ascetic, the other rationalistic. According to the first—a common theological position—virtue was a transcending of the demands of corrupt human nature, a conquest of self, to be achieved by divine grace. According to the second, virtue was conduct in accord with the dictates of sheer reason. 1 Mandeville adopted both of these conceptions, and, amalgamating them, declared those acts alone to be virtuous ‘by which Man, contrary to the impulse of Nature, should endeavour the Benefit of others, or the Conquest of his own Passions out of a Rational Ambition of being good’ (i. 48–9). Thus, he combined an ascetic with a rationalistic creed. No contradiction was involved, for to Mandeville, in accord with much contemporary thought (see below, i. cxxii, n. 1), purely rational conduct was action in no wise dictated by emotion or natural impulse; and, therefore, both aspects of Mandeville’s definition equally proclaimed all conduct vicious which was not the result of a complete denial of one’s emotional nature—true virtue being unselfish and dispassionate.—This blend of asceticism and rationalism in Mandeville’s definition I shall hereafter refer to as ‘rigorism’. Now, when Mandeville came to examine the world in the light of this formula, he could find no virtue: he discovered, search as he would, no actions—even the most beneficial—dictated entirely by reason and quite free from selfishness. The affairs of the world are not managed in obedience to any such transcendent view of morality. If all actions were to cease except those due to unselfishness, the pure idea of good, or the love of God, trade would end, the arts would be unnecessary, and the crafts be almost abandoned. All these things exist only to supply purely mundane wants, which, according to Mandeville’s analysis, are all at bottom selfish. From the standpoint, therefore, of his rigoristic formula, everything was vicious. It was, accordingly, merely an obvious deduction that, since all is vicious, even things beneficial to us arise from vicious causes, and private vices are public benefits. The matter can also be put in this way. Mandeville decided upon the public results of private actions according to utilitarian standards. 1 That which is useful, that which is productive of national prosperity and happiness, he called a benefit. But he judged the private actions themselves according to an anti-utilitarian scheme, whereby conduct was evaluated, not by its consequences, but by the motive which gave it rise. In this case, only such deeds were virtuous as sprang from motives which fulfilled the demands of rigorism; the actual effect of conduct on human happiness made no difference. Mandeville himself was aware of the presence in his book of this dual morality of consequence and motive: ‘… there is an Ambiguity in the Word Good which I would avoid; let us stick to that of Virtuous . . .’, he said (ii. 109). And throughout the Fable he has been rather careful to use the words virtuous or vicious when applying the rigoristic criterion to motive, and other words when applying the utilitarian criterion to conduct. The paradox that private vices are public benefits is merely a statement of the paradoxical mixing of moral criteria which runs through the book. Mandeville, then, like Bayle, has elaborated the obvious incompatibility of the ascetic ideal of morality with any utilitarian standard of living, and of the rationalistic ideal of conduct with a true psychology. By juxtaposing the contrary standards he has achieved a reductio ad absurdum of one or the other. Many people would say, of course, that Mandeville had demonstrated the absurdity of the rigoristic creed. They would say, If it be vice by which the good of the world is achieved, by all means let us be vicious, for viciousness of this kind is not wickedness but virtue. Mandeville, however, again like Bayle, did not accept this aspect of the reduction to absurdity; he did not admit that the usefulness of vice abolishes its wickedness. ‘When I say that Societies cannot be rais’d to Wealth and Power, and the Top of Earthly Glory without Vices, I don’t think that by so saying I bid Men be Vicious . . .’ (i. 231). Neither, however, in spite of the passage just cited, did he accept the other aspect of the reduction; he did not say that, since national prosperity is based on viciousness, we should cease to endeavour to gain this prosperity and should live lives of self-mortification. Although he held this up as the ideal of conduct, he argued equally forcibly that this ideal is quite impossible of achievement. What he really advised is the abandonment of the attempt To make a Great an Honest Hive. Since you will be wicked in any case, he said, whether your country is prosperous or not, you might as well be wicked and prosperous. … if Virtue, Religion, and future Happiness were sought after by the Generality of Mankind …, it would certainly be best, that none but Men of good Lives, and known Ability, should have any Place in the Government whatever: But to expect that this ever should happen … is to betray great Ignorance in human Affairs. … The best of all then not being to be had, let us look out for the next best …’ (ii. 335). So Mandeville outlined methods by which to achieve national happiness, but always with the proviso that all this happiness is wicked; that, if it were only possible, it would be better to abandon it. In this way, he managed to maintain with consistency that public benefits are and must be based on private vices. Perhaps it may seem to some as if Mandeville must have been either a very dull or a very perverse man not to have seen that he had achieved a practical reductio ad absurdum of the rigoristic attitude and should therefore have abandoned a creed which he had found so irreconcilable with experience. To such as think this I point to the example of Bayle, who exhibited a similar phenomenon, and remind the reader that Mandeville’s rigorism was an adaptation of a contemporary point of view both popular and respected, a view-point not yet extinct. 1 Long after Mandeville, for instance, a position as rigorous as that of the Fable of the Bees was taken by Kant, who, like Mandeville, refused the name of ‘moral’ to actions dictated by personal preference, reserving the name for conduct motivated by impersonal devotion to abstract principle. 2 Indeed, some such rigorism whereby principle is made completely superior to circumstance is latent in the morality of almost everybody. The ordinary man who says that right is right regardless of the consequences is taking the rigoristic position that it is obedience to principle, and not results, which determines right, and it needs only a development of this attitude to make him also maintain that private vice may become public good. Place this average man in a position where if he does not tell a lie a great public calamity will come about. Now, in so far as he believes that right is independent of its consequences, he must believe that the lie would remain vicious in spite of all the good it would do the State. He must therefore in a sense believe that private vice (here, the lie) is a public benefit. In so far, indeed, as any one refuses to believe that, in morals, circumstances alter cases, he can be forced into Mandeville’s paradox.—I stress this particular matter for two reasons. The first is to vindicate Mandeville from the charge of obtuseness in the position which he took. The second is to show the still living interest of his thought. § 3 But which of the two contrary attitudes whose simultaneous presence had produced the Mandevillian paradox was really the one sympathetic to Mandeville? Did he really feel that only those actions were good which were done in accord with the dictates of a transcendent morality, or did he believe that the natural desires, whose need to society he had shown, were good? Should we call him ascetic or utilitarian, worldly or unworldly? Was he basally rigoristic or what, for lack of an exact term, I shall call ‘empirical’, meaning thereby that combination of qualities here opposed to ‘rigorism’? The question is crucial: and I believe it can be answered positively. Mandeville was fundamentally an empiricist, and an intense one. He shrinks from what transcends human experience: ‘… all our knowledge comes à posteriori, it is imprudent to reason otherwise than from facts’, he says (ii. 261). He will admit Revelation, formally, but in such a way as to suggest that he does so only to avoid trouble with the authorities; and he then proceeds to negate the admission by denying the existence of even one instance of a man according his life with Revelation. Virtue? Honour? Charity? are not these of a transcendent sanctity? Certainly not, he would answer if thus asked; they have their roots in human nature and desire, and are as relative to the forces of nature as is the cultivation of a tulip. Those who best understand man, he believes, take him for what he is, ‘the most perfect of Animals’ (i. 44). Mandeville’s adoption of the ascetic, other-worldly formula is entirely arbitrary. It is simply a final twist given to his thought after it has been worked out in harmony with the opposite or empiric viewpoint. It is a suit of clothes made for some one else which he has put on the living body of his thought. It is a kind of candle-snuffer with which he has covered the light of his real persuasion, and has no more of the real flame of his genius than a candle-snuffer of candle-flame. The rigoristic qualification—‘But all this of which I have shown the necessity is wrong’—is added to his thought as one adds a new twist to the ending of an already concluded story. Mandeville’s feeling is throughout anti-ascetic. He rejoices in destroying the ideals of those who imagine that there is in the world any real exemplification of the transcendent morality which he formally preaches. He is delighted to find that the rigoristic creed which he has adopted is an absolutely impracticable one. His real bias appears constantly. Of Cleomenes, who serves as his avowed spokesman (see ii. 21) in Part II of the Fable, he declares (ii. 18) that he has a ‘strong Aversion to Rigorists of all sorts’. And he states that, ‘As to Religion, the most knowing and polite Part of a Nation have every where the least of it …’ (i. 269 and 308). Furthermore, he betrays his fundamental antipathy to the rigorism he outwardly espouses, by associating it with something he has definitely repudiated—the doctrine of ‘passive obedience’ (see below, i. 233, n. 1). His very adoption of rigorism is in a way a means of satisfying his dislike of it. The stress he places on the irreconcilability of this rigorism with all the manifestations of civilization indirectly gratifies his disrelish of the former, just as his insistence on the absurdity of the biblical miracles from a scientific point of view satisfies his repugnance to them in the very act of apparently embracing them (cf. below, ii. 21, n. 2). Thus a man unwillingly doing another a favour may console himself by dwelling on his self-abnegation. In addition, the very intensity of the rigorism which Mandeville adds to his thought is a means of discounting the rigorism. By making his ethical standards so exaggeratedly rigorous, he renders them impossible of observance, and therefore can and does discard them for the ordinary affairs of the world. True rigorists and transcendentalists have always sensed the fundamental disharmony between Mandeville’s real tendencies and his arbitrary asceticism; they have known that the latter was artificial and have detested him. Mandeville lacks one essential of a true believer in the insufficiency of the purely human: he does not believe in the existence of a superior something in comparison with which humanity is insignificant. He is lacking in any religious feeling or idealism. His rejection of all absolute laws and knowledge, his insistence on the animal facts of life—these are not the result of any rigoristic distrust of nature as it is, but of such complete faith in it that he feels no need for any beliefs by which to attempt to lift himself above it. When he says (i. 231), ‘If I have shewn the way to worldly Greatness, I have always without Hesitation preferr’d the Road that leads to Virtue’, he is simply not to be believed.—Indeed, the empiric bias so pervades Mandeville’s book that it has been considered a deliberate satiric attempt to reduce the rigoristic attitude to absurdity. The empiricism is so dominant and the rigorism so arbitrary in Mandeville’s thought that there is, in fact, an air of probability about this diagnosis. I do not, however, believe that Mandeville was attempting any conscious reductio ad absurdum of rigorism, whether or not he has achieved it. The rigoristic twist in his thought is too consistent for this supposition; it appears in all his major works, 1 and seems to have become a part of his mind. The coupling of contradictory attitudes was, moreover, a prominent feature of the thought of the age 2 and still produces quite undeliberately the Mandevillian paradox. In addition, it furnished Mandeville with a protection against the wrath of the orthodox: he could, at will, point to the orthodox side of his teachings—‘I have always without Hesitation preferr’d the Road that leads to Virtue’; and, since people tend honestly to believe what makes them most comfortable, he must have had a real incentive to maintain his rigorism as more than a mere pose. But the rigorism is certainly not in keeping with his natural tendencies. That is the important thing to remember. Mandeville’s philosophy, indeed, forms a complete whole without the extraneous rigorism. The best way, then, to know him thoroughly is to understand the details of the ‘empirical’ aspect of his thought. Once we have found what, from this point of view, Mandeville thinks desirable, we have only to add the rigoristic qualification, ‘But all this is vice’, and we shall understand the Fable. § 4 Discounting, then, the superficial rigorism, we may define Mandeville’s ethics as a combination of philosophical anarchism in theory with utilitarianism in practice. Theoretically, he admitted no final criterion for conduct whatever: ‘ … the hunting after this Pulchrum & Honestum is not much better than a Wild-Goose-Chace …’ (i. 331). There is no such thing as a summum bonum. All such principles of conduct as honour are chimeras (i. 198). The inevitable differences between men render it impossible that any definite agreement should ever be reached as to what is really desirable. Shall we say that the pleasurable or useful shall form our ideal? Why, one man’s meat is another man’s poison. From any different standpoint, ‘… a Man that hates Cheese must call me a Fool for loving blue Mold’ (i. 314). If it were argued that there is disagreement here because one of the two is mistaken as to what really constitutes pleasure, Mandeville would answer that the objection was entirely arbitrary. A man’s real pleasures are what he likes (i. 147–8); one cannot go behind this. One cannot, therefore, discover any really definite and final agreement between men as to what shall constitute a summum bonum or criterion according to which to plan a system of morality. In the Works of Nature, Worth and Excellency are as uncertain [as the comparative value of paintings): and even in Humane Creatures what is beautiful in one Country is not so in another. How whimsical is the Florist in his Choice! Sometimes the Tulip, sometimes the Auricula, and at other times the Carnation shall engross his Esteem, and every Year a new Flower in his Judgment beats all the old ones. … The many ways of laying out a Garden Judiciously are almost Innumerable, and what is called Beautifulin them varies according to the different Tastes of Nations and Ages. In Grass Plats, Knots and Parterre’s a great diversity of Forms is generally agreeable; but a Round may be as pleasing to the Eye as a Square: … and the preeminence an Octagon has over an Hexagon is no greater in Figures, than at Hazard Eight has above Six among the Chances. … In Morals there is no greater Certainty (i. 327–30). This radical philosophical anarchism, like the rigorism to which it formed so paradoxical a companion, was largely a reaction to contemporary rationalistic thought. In the one case as in the other, Mandeville was endeavouring to prove the impossibility of certain existing ideals. As he had confronted the current rigoristic standards with the demonstration that human nature rendered them unattainable, so he faced the current belief that the laws of right and wrong must be ‘eternal and immutable’ 1 with the observation that, in point of fact, they are temporary and variable. Nevertheless, Mandeville’s pyrrhonism was not by any means so extreme as it might at first seem. He has exaggerated his opinions. He himself, protesting against a too literal reading of some of his statements, says quite definitely (ii. 221–2) that A Man of Sense, Learning and Experience, that has been well educated, will always find out the difference between Right and Wrong in things diametrically opposite; and there are certain Facts, which he will always condemn, and others which he will always approve of: … and not only Men of great Accomplishments, and such as have learn’d to think abstractly, but all Men of midling Capacities, that have been brought up in Society, will agree in this, in all Countries and in all Ages. No one, in point of fact, could write a book in which practical suggestions were offered if he really thought in accord with the extreme anarchism outlined in the last paragraphs. And, indeed, Mandeville seems, in practice, not even a mild anarchist, but a thoroughgoing utilitarian. As a matter of fact, he is both a philosophical anarchist and a utilitarian. There is not here the contradiction there may at first seem to be, for utilitarianism need not be the hard-and-fast setting up of some particular form of welfare as the goal of conduct, but may be simply the ideal of satisfying the various differing desires and needs of the world as much as possible. 1 To say that welfare, or pleasure, or happiness should be the end of action does not mean the limiting of this welfare, pleasure, or happiness to one particular kind, but may allow the satisfaction of as many kinds as there are people. It offers no fatal opposition to pyrrhonism, then, for under it, as well as under pyrrhonism, a man could enjoy blue mould without forbidding his neighbour to eat truffles. Indeed, anarchism in the realm of theory accords very well with utilitarianism in the world of practice, and always has so accorded. Mandeville’s utilitarianism is marked. It not only underlies his position, but is given explicit expression. Every Individual [he says] is a little World by itself, and all Creatures, as far as their Understanding and Abilities will let them, endeavour to make that Self happy: This in all of them is the continual Labour, and seems to be the whole Design of Life. Hence it follows, that in the Choice of Things Men must be determin’d by the Perception they have of Happiness; and no Person can commit or set about an Action, which at that then present time seems not to be the best to him (ii. 178). … It is manifest, that when we pronounce Actions good or evil, we only regard the Hurt or Benefit the Society receives from them, and not the Person who commits them (i. 244). … there is not one Commandment in it [the Decalogue], that has not a regard to the temporal Good of Society … (ii. 283; cf. also ii. 282). In his Modest Defence of Publick Stews (ed. 1724, pp. 68–9), he states his utilitarianism most succinctly: … it is the grossest Absurdity, and a perfect Contradiction in Terms, to assert, That a Government may not commit Evil that good may come of it; for, if a Publick Act, taking in all its Consequences, really produces a greater Quantity of Good, it must, and ought to be term’d a good Act. … no sinful Laws can be beneficial, and vice versa, … no beneficial Laws can be sinful. If we look at the Fable in this light, we shall see that, even in places which at first seem out of keeping with it, the utilitarian standard has been applied. ‘Private Vices, Publick Benefits’—does this mean that everything is a benefit since everything is vicious? Not at all. Vices are to be punished as soon as they grow into crimes, says Mandeville (i. 10). The only vice to be encouraged is useful vice (i. e., that which the non-rigoristic would not call vice at all). Harmful vice is crime, and to be discouraged. In other words, the real thesis of the book is not that all evil is a public benefit, but that a certain useful proportion of it (called vice) is such a benefit (and, as I indicated earlier, is on that account not really felt to be evil, though still called vicious). There is here a definite application of the utilitarian standard. This point can hardly be over-emphasized. Much nonsense has been uttered concerning Mandeville’s believing everything equally valuable and his attempting to encourage wholesale vice, and crimes such as theft and murder. And this although he wrote a whole book 1 on how to make the prevention of crime more efficacious. Mandeville never urged that all vice was equally useful to society; this misappre hension drew from him protest after protest. 1 All he maintained was that, viewed from his arbitrary rigoristic point of view, all actions were equally vicious. But practically, if not always theoretically, he was a utilitarian. § 5 Having considered the objective phase of Mandeville’s ethics, let us now examine its subjective side. What feelings cause men to be moral, and how are these feelings related to one another? We have already noted the untranscendental nature of Mandeville’s anatomy of society, and his analysis of the world’s activity into the interplay of purely human ‘passions’ and wants. These various passions and wants, it remains to add, he found to be so many manifestations of self-love, and all the actions of men so many naïve or deliberate efforts to satisfy that self-love. ALL untaught Animals are only sollicitous of pleasing themselves, and naturally follow the bent of their own Inclinations, without considering the good or harm that from their being pleased will accrue to others (i. 41). But such a state of things could not comfortably go on. So wise men thoroughly examin’d all the Strength and Frailties of our Nature, and observing that none were either so savage as not to be charm’d with Praise, or so despicable as patiently to bear Contempt, justly concluded, that Flattery must be the most powerful Argument that cou’d be used to Human Creatures (i. 42–3). They therefore organized society in such a fashion that those who acted for the good of others were rewarded through their pride, and that those who lacked this regard for others were punished through their shame. ‘… the Moral Virtues’, concluded Mandeville (i. 51), therefore, ‘are the Political Offspring which Flattery begot upon Pride.’ To develop more exactly Mandeville’s conception of the selfish basis of moral conduct, we may divide the motivation of good acts by selfish emotion into two varieties. First, there is the good which may be done by a savage. If any one should see a ‘nasty over-grown Sow’ crunching the bones of an innocent infant, he would naturally try to rescue it (i. 255–6). But this would be a selfish act in spite of its good social consequences, for the rescuer was acting to relieve his own compassion. In like manner, people give alms to beggars, not from unselfishness, but ‘from the same Motive as they pay their Corn-cutter, to walk easy’ (i. 259). The natural acts, therefore, are selfish. Secondly, there is the good which may be done by an educated man, who does not obey his impulses naïvely like a savage. It is here that Mandeville was most adroit. Through an analysis of human nature of extraordinary subtlety and penetration, he proceeded to reduce all apparent self-mortification and sacrifice, where there is no reward in view, to love of praise or fear of blame. The Greediness we have after the Esteem of others, and the Raptures we enjoy in the Thoughts of being liked, and perhaps admired, are Equivalents that over-pay the Conquest of the strongest Passions … (i. 68). The very desire not to appear proud he reduced to pride, for the true gentleman takes pride in never appearing proud. 1 All apparent virtue, therefore, educated or naïve, is fundamentally selfish, being either the satisfaction of a natural, and hence selfish, impulse, or of the selfish passion of pride. There are several things to be borne in mind in connexion with Mandeville’s reduction of all action to open or disguised selfishness. The first is that he did not deny the existence of those impulses which are commonly called altruistic. He merely argued that the philosopher can go behind this apparent unselfishness. He was rather explaining altruism than explaining it away. Nor, in the second place, was he accusing mankind of deliberate hypocrisy. One of his main contentions was that, for want of self-knowledge, almost all men deceive themselves. Their apparent altruism may be honest, he maintained: they simply do not realize that it springs from selfishness. Such self-deception is, he held, the most normal of psychological phenomena, for men’s convictions, and, indeed, reason itself, are the playthings of emotion. It is one of Mandeville’s basal beliefs that our most elaborate and judicial philosophizings are only a rationalization of certain dominant desires and biases: ‘… we are ever pushing our Reason which way soever we feel Passion to draw it, and Self-love pleads to all human Creatures for their different Views, still furnishing every individual with Arguments to justify their Inclinations’ (Fable i. 333). 2 This conception Mandeville developed, in the Fable, Free Thoughts, and Origin of Honour, with a completeness and subtlety beyond that of any predecessor or contemporary, and not matched till present-day psychology attacked the problem. 1 Another important point in Mandeville’s tracing of morality and society to some form of egoism is that his description of the invention of virtue and society by lawgivers and wise men who deliberately imposed upon man’s pride and shame is a parable and not an attempt at history. This fact, which is often misapprehended, is important enough to demand special consideration. All that Mandeville was attempting to show by his allegory of the growth of society and morality was the ingredients that make it up, and not the actual process of growth. He did not mean that ‘politicians’ constructed morality out of whole cloth; they merely directed instincts already predisposed to moral guidance. How unanimous soever, therefore, all Rulers and Magistrates have seem’d to be in promoting some Religion or other, the Principle of it was not of their Invention. They found it in Man … (Origin of Honour, p. 28). Nor did he mean that society was organized overnight. To miss this point would be to miss an essential element in Mandeville, which is his precocious feeling for evolution. In a day which lacked historical perspective, he had a real feeling for the gulf of time and effort which divides us from the primitive: ‘… it is the Work of Ages to find out the true Use of the Passions …’ (ii. 319). Even in the allegory itself he took precautions that the reader should not understand him too literally. ‘This was (or at least might have been) the manner after which Savage Man was broke …’, he qualified (i. 46). And he was careful to add that the law-givers were and are as much deceived as the rest of mankind. I would have no body that reflects on the mean Original of Honour complain of being gull’d and made a Property by cunning Politicians, but desire every body to be satisfied, that the Governors of Societies … are greater Bubbles to Pride than any of the rest (i. 220–1). But it is in Part II, which he wrote largely to correct misconceptions caused by the deliberately paradoxical Part I, that Mandeville most stressed the gradualness of evolution. 1 A great part of the volume is devoted to tracing the growth of society in a surprisingly scientific manner, and completely contradicts the literal interpretation of the allegory in the earlier portion of Part I. Among the things [evidences of civilization] I hint at [he said (ii. 321–2)], there are very few, that are the Work of one Man, or of one Generation; the greatest part of them are the Product, the joynt Labour of several Ages. … By this sort of Wisdom [ordinary intelligence], and Length of Time, it may be brought about, that there shall be no greater Difficulty in governing a large City, than (pardon the Lowness of the Simile) there is in weaving of Stockings. There are other similar passages, 1 in which Mandeville demonstrated a vision and grasp of the origin and growth of society unique in his day. However, the important thing to realize for the understanding of Mandeville is not so much his conception of the evolution of morals and society as the configuration of the passions on which it is based—always, Mandeville maintained, selfish. § 6 Such is the general philosophic background of Mandeville’s thought. Against this background he outlined theories on a great variety of practical matters, notably concerning economics. Some of these theories are considered in the next chapter of this introduction. The present chapter being devoted to interpretation, we are here occupied only with those doctrines about which misunderstanding has arisen. One of those tenets was a celebrated economic fallacy with which Mandeville’s name has been closely connected. The Fire of London was a Great Calamity [wrote Mandeville (i. 359)], but if the Carpenters, Bricklayers, Smiths, and all, not only that are employed in Building but likewise those that made and dealt in the same Manufactures and other Merchandizes that were Burnt, and other Trades again that got by them when they were in full Employ, were to Vote against those who lost by the Fire; the Rejoicings would equal if not exceed the Complaints. And, he added (i. 364): A Hundred Bales of Cloth that are burnt or sunk in the Mediterranean, are as Beneficial to the Poor in England, as if they had safely arriv’d at Smyrna or Aleppo, and every Yard of them had been Retail’d in the Grand Signior’s Dominions. The theory took another form in Mandeville’s statement (i. 355–6) that, It is the sensual Courtier that sets no Limits to his Luxury; the Fickle Strumpet that invents new Fashions every … ; the profuse Rake and lavish Heir… : It is these that are the Prey and proper Food of a full grown Leviathan. … He that gives most Trouble to thousands of his Neighbours, and invents the most operose Manufactures is, right or wrong, the greatest Friend to the Society. This is what economists call the ‘make-work fallacy’, the belief that it is the amount of industry, and not the amount and quality of the goods produced, that measures a nation’s prosperity. Mandeville’s name has been so intertwined with this theory that now sane and intelligent critics—like Leslie Stephen 1 —believe that Mandeville would have welcomed a succession of London fires and absurd extravagance on the part of everybody. That is what happens when serious people read a whimsical book. Mandeville did not mean these silly things. It should be remembered that the Fable of the Bees was a professedly paradoxical work, and not always to be taken literally. The passages from which I have quoted formed part of Mandeville’s general paradoxical assertion that good is based upon evil: he was substantiating this by showing that there is nothing bad which has not some compensations attached to it. He was also demonstrating, in accord with the general thesis of the book, that it is not ascetic virtues, such as a hoarding frugality, which make a nation prosperous. He most explicitly denied the false meanings that have been read into him. Should any of my Readers draw Conclusions in infinitum from my Assertions that Goods sunk or burnt are as beneficial to the Poor as if they had been well sold and put to their proper Uses, I would count him a Caviller … (i. 364). And again (i. 249): … whoever can subsist and lives above his Income is a Fool. What he believed was that ‘Goods sunk or burnt’, and foolish extravagances, are beneficial to the class of workers which will have increased occupation in supplying the extra demands. And where he did argue that losses and extravagances are good for the state, it should be remembered that he was considering not an ideal state where people would spend for useful things what they now do for follies, but an actual, imperfect state of actual, imperfect people, where the abolishing of extravagance would mean a curtailment of demand and production. Mandeville, that is, was not trying to show the ideal way to make a state wealthy, but the way it often actually is made so. 1 One other article in Mandeville’s economic creed demands attention here—his notorious attack upon the charity-schools. Mandeville’s case against them was, briefly, as follows: Nobody will do unpleasant work unless he is compelled to by necessity. There is, however (i. 311), ‘Abundance of hard and dirty Labour’ to be done. Now, poverty is the only means of getting people to do this necessary work: men ‘have nothing to stir them up to be serviceable but their Wants, which it is Prudence to relieve, but Folly to cure’ (i. 194). National wealth, indeed, consists not in money, but (i. 287) in ‘a Multitude of laborious Poor’. Since, therefore, it would be ruinous to abolish poverty, and impossible to do away with unpleasant labour, the best thing to do is to recognize this fact, and help adapt the poor to the part they have to play. But charity-schools, by educating children above their station and thus leading them both to expect comforts they will not have and to loathe occupations they must engage in, are subversive of the future happiness and usefulness of the scholars: … to divert … Children from useful Labour till they are fourteen or fifteen Years old, is a wrong Method to qualify them for it when they are grown up. 1 Finally, he attacked the schools on the ground that they interfered with the natural adjustment of society: … proportion as to Numbers in every Trade finds it self, and is never better kept than when no body meddles or interferes with it. 2 The gusto of Mandeville’s assault on the charity-schools, and his incidental attack on what he termed the ‘Petty Reverence for the Poor’ (i. 311), is apt to impress the modern reader as almost incredibly brutal. But that is because the Essay is judged from a humanitarian point of view which hardly existed in Mandeville’s time. Seen in historical perspective, there is nothing unusually harsh in Mandeville’s position. The age was not interested in making the labourer comfortable, but in making his work cheap and plentiful. 3 Sir William Petty was no friendlier than Mandeville to the poor when he termed them ‘the vile and brutish part of mankind’; 4 even so ardent an upholder of the rights of man as Andrew Fletcher urged that labourers be returned to a condition of slavery; 5 and Melon, too, advised slavery. 1 The truth is that, although Mandeville’s attack on the charity-schools caused great scandal at the time, 2 his adversaries were really as little desirous as Mandeville to lessen the labourer’s work or raise his wages. Mandeville, indeed, was perhaps more considerate of the condition of the labourer than was the average citizen, for he felt at least the need of answering what could be urged on the other side: I would not be thought Cruel, and am well assured if I know any thing of myself, that I abhor Inhumanity; but to be compassionate to excess where Reason forbids it, and the general Interest of the Society requires steadiness of Thought and Resolution, is an unpardonable Weakness. I know it will be ever urged against me, that it is Barbarous the Children of the Poor should have no Opportunity of exerting themselves, as long as God has not debarr’d them from Natural Parts and Genius more than the Rich. But I cannot think this is harder, than it is that they should not have Money as long as they have the same Inclinations to spend as others (i. 310). It should be remembered, also, that Mandeville believed the lot of the hard-working poor need not be a sad one: Was impartial Reason to be Judge between real Good and real Evil, … I question whether the Condition of Kings would be at all preferable to that of Peasants, even as Ignorant and Laborious as I seem to require the latter to be. … what I urge could be no injury or the least diminution of Happiness to the Poor. … by bringing them up in Ignorance you may inure them to real Hardships without being ever sensible themselves that they are such (i. 316–17). In view of this apology and the fact that his views rested on the current economic attitude, such complaint as was made against his brutality may be taken as due really to his having omitted the flavouring of sentiment and moralizing with which his contemporaries sweetened their beliefs; they were scandalized at his downrightness of statement, which here, as elsewhere, was able to make a current creed obnoxious by the mere act of stating it with complete candour. § 7 One other important aspect of the Fable will be considered here—and that is the relation of Mandeville to Shaftesbury. In both parts of the book Mandeville used Shaftesbury as a sort of ‘horrible example’, the epitome of everything with which he disagreed. When Mandeville, however, produced the Grumbling Hive in 1705, and wrote the Fable around this little satire in 1714, there is no reason to suppose that he had so much as read Shaftesbury. The Fable contained no mention of Shaftesbury till 1723. 1 Mandeville, apparently, grew more and more conscious of the implications of his own position, relating it to other systems more fully as he expanded the Fable, and by 1723, when he began his systematic attack on the Characteristics, had realized that, as he put it, ‘two Systems cannot be more opposite than his Lordship’s and mine’ (i. 324). Now, at first, a reader who is aware of certain resemblances between Shaftesbury and Mandeville may wonder just why their two systems show such an antithesis. Shaftesbury, for example, joined with Mandeville in decrying philosophical systems, 1 and agreed that private advantage harmonizes with the public good. These agreements, however, are really superficial. Although Shaftesbury declaimed against system-makers, he was himself notorious for his system. Indeed, he saw the world as so perfectly and beautifully co-ordinated a piece of divine mechanism that he denied the very existence of evil, on which Mandeville built his philosophy. 2 And, whereas to Mandeville the totality to which each particular act contributed so perfectly was the actual work-a-day world, to Shaftesbury it was the universe from the point of view of the Whole. Their entire emphasis, too, was different. Shaftesbury said, Consider the Whole and the individual will then be cared for; Mandeville said, Study the individual and the Whole will then look after itself. To Shaftesbury, also, the coincidence of public and private good was due to an enlightened benevolence, whereas to Mandeville it was the result of narrow self-seeking—Mandeville believing men completely and inevitably egoistic, Shaftesbury thinking them endowed with altruistic and gregarious feeling (see below, i. 336, n. 1). This is a fundamental distinction, for Mandeville’s whole conception of the rise and nature of society was determined by his belief in the essential egoism of human nature, and Shaftesbury’s, by his faith in the actuality of altruism. 1 The main distinction, however, between the two men cannot be made clear till one point has been allowed for: both men are remarkable for philosophies the apparent meaning of which is not the real meaning. Mandeville held on the surface that there is only one method of being virtuous—self-mortification from purely rational and unselfish motives; but essentially he believed that virtue is relative to time and place, that man is fundamentally irrational, and that he is unalterably selfish (cf. above in this chapter). Shaftesbury, on the other hand, because of his advice to follow nature, has often been thought to have advocated the virtue of obeying impulse and gratifying one’s own desires; but he really meant something very different. His ‘Nature’ was the whole divine scheme of creation—a thing of unalterable and perfect law, to follow which meant the subjection to it of all individual wills and differences; his was the Stoic following of ‘Nature’ and essentially rationalistic and repressive. 2 Thus, Mandeville is on the surface an absolutist, a rationalist, and an ascetic, but is basally a relativist, an anti-rationalist, and a utilitarian; whereas Shaftesbury is superficially a relativist and spokesman for impulse, but is really an absolutist and a rationalist. The opposition between the two men, therefore, was double, for not only did the superficial aspects of their beliefs conflict, but the basal attitudes which motivated their thought were equally opposed. 1 Each affords an inverse summary of the other. With some such summary of Mandeville’s philosophy I shall close this discussion, for the reading of hundreds of estimates of Mandeville’s thought has impressed me with the fact that it is as important to explain what Mandeville did not mean as what he meant. A recollection of the following negative propositions, already elaborated in this chapter, will save the reader some perplexity. Mandeville did not believe that all vice is a public benefit; he held the converse—that all benefits are based on actions fundamentally (according to his rigoristic definition ) vicious. He did not believe that one could never tell right from wrong. He did not believe that virtue was arbitrarily ‘invented’. He did not deny the existence of the sympathetic emotions such as compassion, but merely refused to term them unselfish. He did not deny the existence of what is usually termed virtue, but only maintained that it was not true virtue. He did not believe that all extravagance and waste were good for the State. He did not believe that vice should be encouraged, but merely that some vices ‘by the dextrous Management of a skilful Politician may be turned into Publick Benefits’ (i. 369). And, finally, although his book is, as Dr. Johnson remarked, ‘the work of a thinking man’, 1 and of great insight and shrewdness, he did not intend it to be taken as literally as a treatise on the calculus, but designed it also for what it successfully achieves, ‘the Reader’s Diversion’ (i. 8). IV THE BACKGROUND § 1 IF one is to chart the intellectual ancestry of a writer with much completeness and subtlety it is necessary to know more of his private life than is known of Mandeville’s. Of Mandeville’s intellectual companions, his tastes, his reading, the practical influences that played upon him, we know little more than can be learned from his books. And these books, moreover, date from a period when he was already a mature man, the first work definitely indicative of his outlook on life—the Virgin Unmask’d (1709)—having been published in his thirty-ninth year. Yet we can, none the less, discover those general aspects of the speculation of Mandeville’s age which were base and framework for his system. We can point out certain related elements in the thinking of contemporaries and predecessors with the assurance that, if this body of cognate thought did not mould him through this or that particular work, it must at least have done so through works of the same sort. Now, the author of the Fable of the Bees was a very cosmopolitan person. Born and educated in Holland, familiar with the Continent, 1 and conversant with the literature of three nations, Mandeville’s thought partook of the international quality of its creator; and this is especially true of the psychological and economic aspects of it. It will be remembered that a dominant element in his analysis of the human mind was his insistence on its basal irrationality, his belief that what seems like the display of pure reason is merely the dialectic by which the mind discovers reasons to justify the demands of the emotions (cf. above, i. lxiii–lxiv). Now, before searching into the earlier history of this anti-rationalistic conception, it is necessary carefully to distinguish between several kinds of anti-rationalism existent at the time. There was, first, the pyrrhonistic distrust of reason as an instrument incapable of achieving absolute truth. This was a mere commonplace of an age confronted through its geographical discoveries with the knowledge that what one people held sacred was thought evil by another, and familiar with the philosophical anarchism of ancient thinkers like Sextus Empiricus. 1 Secondly, there was the aristocratic belief that the majority of men are incapable of reasoning well—a platitude shared by Plato and the village alderman, and particular to no age. Both of these forms of distrust of human reason are to be found in Mandeville, 2 but neither should be confused with the type of anti-rationalism here to be considered. Pyrrhonism announced the weakness of the reason on logical rather than on psychological grounds; Mandeville—always the psychologist—was not so much interested in proving that reason is impotent to discover truth, as that, whether it find truth or not, it does so entirely at the bidding and under the sway of some sub-rational desire. 1 And, whereas the aristocratic attitude distrusted merely the reason of the multitude, Mandeville declared the reason of all men the tool of their passions. All Human Creatures are sway’d and wholly govern’d by their Passions, whatever fine Notions we may flatter our Selves with; even those who act suitably to their Knowledge, and strictly follow the Dictates of their Reason, are not less compell’d so to do by some Passion or other, that sets them to Work, than others, who bid Defiance and act contrary to Both, and whom we call Slaves to their Passions (Origin of Honour, p. 31) It is only this form of anti-rationalism which is here to be considered. Mandeville’s anti-rationalism is developed with such literary inventiveness that it gives the effect of great originality. It was, however, merely the most brilliant handling of a conception which, from the time of Montaigne, had been common in French thought, and which, besides, had been profoundly stated by Spinoza. 1 Some of the greatest French writers—La Rochefoucauld, Pascal, Fontenelle—had anticipated Mandeville; and popular philosophers had defended the conception elaborately. 2 Thus Bayle devoted several sections of his Miscellaneous Reflections, Occasion’d by the Comet to the contention that ‘… Man is not determin’d in his Actions by general Notices, or Views of his Understanding, but by the present reigning Passion of his Heart’ (see below, i. 167, n. 2). And Jacques Abbadie rivalled Mandeville in his elaboration of the anti-rationalistic position: … l’ame est inventive à trouver des raisons favorables à son desir, parce que chacune de ces raisons luy donne un plaisir sensible, elle est au contraire trés lente à apercevoir celles qui y sont contraires, quoy qu’elles sautent aux yeux, parce qu’elle … ne cherche point, & qu’elle conçoit mal, ce qu’elle ne reçoit qu’à regret. Ainsi le cœur rompant les reflexions de l’esprit, quand bon luy semble, détournant sa pensée du côté favorable à sa passion, comparant les choses dans le sens qui luy plait, oubliant volontairement ce qui s’oppose à ses desirs, n’ayant que des perceptions froides & languissantes du devoir; concevant au contraire avec attachement, avec plaisir, avec ardeur & le plus souvent qu’il luy est possible, tout ce qui favorise ses penchans, il ne faut pas s’étonner s’il se joüe des lumieres de l’esprit; & s’il se trouve que nous jugons des choses, non pas selon la verité: mais selon nos inclinations. 1 Il est vray que j’ay des maximes d’equité & de droiture dans mon esprit, que je me suis accoûtumé de respecter: mais la corruption qui est dans mon cœur se joüe de ces maximes generales. Qu’importe que je respecte la loy de la justice, si celle-ci ne se trouve que dans ce qui me plaît, ou qui me convient, & s’il depend de mon cœur de me persuader qu’une chose est juste ou qu’elle ne l’est pas? 1 With this body of anti-rationalistic thought Mandeville must have been conversant. Not only does his early career as a translator of French verse argue his familiarity with the literature of that nation, but such specific references as he makes in his writings are most frequently to French sources, and in particular to two writers—Bayle and La Rochefoucauld—who developed elaborately the anti-rationalistic concept. 2 In addition to literature of this nature, in which anti-rationalism is formulated with considerable completeness, there were other writings which might well have prepared the way for Mandeville’s beliefs. I refer to those works in which the anti-rationalistic position is found merely in embryo. Anti-rationalism, of course, did not spring fully articulated into thought, but had a long and tortuous ancestry. It is worth our while to examine into this preliminary history, for there is no element in it here to be considered which is not advocated somewhere by Mandeville, and which may not therefore have contributed directly to his thought. In the first place there was the sensationalistic psychology of the Peripatetics and Epicureans, elaborated by Hobbes, Locke, and others. The usefulness of this doctrine—which is found in Mandeville 3 —as a groundwork for anti-rationalism is too obvious to need elucidation.—Secondly, there was the body of unorthodox thought—Epicurean and Averroistic—which held the soul to be mortal. It is no great stride from the belief that the soul (rational principle) is dependent on the body for its existence to the belief that the rational faculty cannot help but be determined by the mechanism through which it has its being. And Mandeville, it should be noted, doubts the immortality of the soul. 1 —Also related to the anti-rationalism we are considering was that other form of anti-rationalism, mentioned above, which denied the ability of the reason to arrive at final truth. This philosophical anarchism, a commonplace of Renaissance thought, 2 is found in Mandeville closely interwoven with his psychological anti-rationalism, 3 and evidently contributed towards it.—Another probable contributing influence was an opinion kindred to the Epicureanism of the seventeenth century; I mean the opinion that men cannot help living for what seems to their advantage. Such a conception, which allows the reason no function except that of discovering and furthering what the organism desires, needs only to have its implications made clear to become anti-rationalism. Now, Mandeville propounds this belief that men cannot help acting for what seems to their profit. 4 —Still another agent conducing to anti-rationalism may have inhered in the discussions of the century concerning animal automatism. Add to the belief that animals are machines the belief that they feel, as Gassendi argued; and, with Gassendi, place man in the category of animals: man is then a sentient machine. From this position it is easy to progress to a deterministic psychology in which reason is little more than a spectator of physical reactions. And Mandeville had embraced the Gassendist positions. 1 Finally, there is one other precursor of anti-rationalism which did certainly enter into the formation of Mandeville’s psychology: the medical conception of the humours and temperament. From the time of the ancient Greeks, 2 physicians had taught that our mental and moral constitution was determined by the relative proportions of the four ‘humours’ or body fluids—blood, phlegm, choler, and melancholy—or the four qualities—hot, cold, dry, and moist—which combine to compose a man’s temperament. Nor was this doctrine peculiar to physicians: it had been popularized by well-known literary men, 3 including La Rochefoucauld. We do not, however, need the evidence that Mandeville actually cited La Rochefoucauld’s opinion that our virtues result from our temperament 4 to prove that Mandeville was influenced by this popular medical concept; it is enough to know that he was himself a physician. Now, this doctrine of the dependence of the mind on the temperament is only removed by an inference from a systematic anti-rationalism which should proclaim the similar dependence of the reason on the temperament. 1 A second main trait of Mandeville’s psychology, as important as his anti-rationalism, was his insistence that man is completely egoistic, that all his apparently altruistic qualities are really merely an indirect and disguised form of selfishness. 2 Here again, Mandeville’s speculation was led up to by a long avenue of thought. The basal egoism of man had been lamented by theologians from the beginning of Christianity. 3 It was, however, the seventeenth century that saw the rise to prominence of the careful psychologizing of human nature which distinguishes Mandeville’s theory of human selfishness from the common theological form of the doctrine. In England, Hobbes had based the conception of human selfishness on psychological analysis, 1 and La Rochefoucauld, Pascal, and others had done so in France. 2 Jacques Esprit, for instance, declared that … depuis que l’amour propre s’est rendu la maître & le tyran de l’homme, il ne souffre en luy aucune vertu ni aucune action vertueuse qui ne luy soit utile. … Ainsi ils [men] ne s’acquittent d’ordinaire de tous ces devoirs que par le mouvement de l’amour propre, & pour procurer l’execution de ses desseins. Je dis d’ordinaire, parce que je n’entre pas dans ces contestations des Theologiens … 1 (La Fausseté des Vertus Humaines, Paris, 1678, vol. 1, pref., signn. [a 11v–12]; for a sample of other similar passages in Esprit, see i. 172). Even writers like Nicole, who believed that the doctrine of human selfishness was not always true, yet gave it such clear and complete expression as easily to serve for propagators of the conception: 2 one needed only to omit their exceptions. So elaborate, indeed, had been the development of the doctrine, that even in such details as the analysis whereby Mandeville showed sympathy itself selfish he had been anticipated. 3 The chief means, according to Mandeville, whereby the human mechanism is made to hide its ineradicable egoism under a cover of apparent altruism, and thus to deceive the uninitiated observer, is the passion of pride. To gratify this passion man will undergo the greatest deprivations, and, as a wise organization of society has ordained that actions which are for the good or ill of others shall be repaid by glory or punished by shame, the passion of pride is the great bulwark of morality, the instigator of all action for the good of others which seems contrary to the interests and instincts of the performer. 1 Now, the value of pride as a spur to moral action was, of course, a commonplace of ancient thought, and, being a very obvious fact, had never ceased to be remarked. Until the Renaissance, however, theology, to which pride was the first of the deadly sins, prevented much elaboration of the usefulness of this passion. But, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as theology lost grip, the value of pride became highly stressed, especially by the neo-Stoics. 2 However, mere recognition of the utility of pride could scarcely serve as a genuine anticipation of Mandeville: the account of the uses of pride had first to become systematized, and a psychology of the emotion developed which should show it not merely a separate passion which happens to have social efficacy, but the basis of moral action in general. The real predecessors of Mandeville were those analysts who demonstrated how pride may take to itself the form of the various virtues. There were a considerable number of such anticipators. 1 Mandeville, indeed was not original even in the most subtle part of his analysis of the function of pride—his reduction of modesty to a form of pride. 1 It is clear, then, that the main elements in Mandeville’s vivisection of human nature had been often anticipated—by Erasmus, Hobbes, Spinoza, and Locke, and by many French writers. Of predecessors outside France, however, only Erasmus and, possibly, Hobbes, as I try to show below, had much influence. The great source of Mandeville’s psychology was France, as is seen not only from the mass of anticipations there to be found, 1 but from the fact that Mandeville’s citations and the circumstances of his life show him to have been thoroughly acquainted with this French speculation. 2 In the field of economics Mandeville’s most carefully developed position was his defence of luxury. 3 This defence had two aspects to meet two current attitudes. In the first place, there was the attitude which made luxury a vice by making its opposite, frugality, a virtue. Mandeville met this by denying the virtuousness of national frugality: it is always, he said, merely the inevitable result of certain economic conditions and without relation, therefore, to morality: ‘ … a National Frugality there never was and never will be without a National Necessity’ (Fable i. 251). In the second place, Mandeville attacked the belief that luxury, by corrupting a people and wasting its resources, is economically dangerous. It is on the contrary, he argued, not only inseparable from great states, but necessary to make them great. For this defence of luxury there was little direct preparation—chiefly in Saint-Évremond. 4 Nevertheless, in a way, the road to Mandeville’s position was really well paved, although this road may seem at first sight to have been leading in an opposite direction. The attacks on luxury, paradoxically, opened the way for Mandeville’s defence. The ancient world abounded in philosophers who denounced the search for wealth and luxury; and throughout the Christian era such denunciation had represented the orthodox position. According to this attitude, then, luxury was ex hypothesi condemned; and the condemnation was elaborated in the seventeenth century by analyses of primitive civilizations such as those of Rome and Sparta showing how in these states greatness and the absence of enervating luxury were synonymous. 1 Meanwhile, however, commerce and manufacture were growing enormously, and, as a result, the consumption of luxuries. The interest of the state being thereby involved in this increasing trade, the safeguarding of this activity became naturally a chief end of political theory. But, although the inevitable result of worldly interests was thus to foster the development of production and commerce, and thereby the spread of luxury, yet, in the face of this actual activity, popular opinion still denounced luxury as evil in itself and corrupting in its effects. This union of conflicting attitudes—of the practical aim of getting wealth with the moral condemnation of luxury—can plainly be seen, for example, in Fénelon when, immediately after discussing the way to make a state rich, he urges, ‘Lois somptuaires pour chaque condition. … On corrompt par ce luxe les moeurs de toute la nation. Ce luxe est plus pernicieux que le profit des modes n’est utile’ (Plans de Gouvernement, § 7). 2 The age was partly aware of this dualism, for it made an effort to reconcile its opinions by arguing that wealth could be attained without producing luxury and without depending on it (see below, i. 189, n. 2). But, none the less, it was obvious that in practice wealth and luxury were companions; and the contradiction between the actual pursuit of this wealth and the current moral condemnation of the luxury it involved remained. The popular attitude, therefore, was a compound of antagonistic intellectual reagents needing only the proper shock of one upon the other to cause an explosion. This shock was supplied by Mandeville. In other words, here as elsewhere Mandeville gained his effect by consciousness of a contradiction in current opinion which had escaped his contemporaries. And by playing on this contradiction, by confronting, in his usual manner, the ideal with the actual, he secured a greater effect on his contemporaries than the modern reader may suspect. Since, to Mandeville’s public, luxury was morally evil, when Mandeville demonstrated that it was inseparable from flourishing states, he was not only challenging orthodox economic theory, but forcibly achieving once more the moral paradox of ‘Private Vices, Publick Benefits’. The other very important aspect of Mandeville’s economic speculation was the defence of free trade whereby he became so important a forerunner of the school of laissez-faire. 1 Mandeville’s argument that business most flourishes when least interfered with by government had two aspects according to whether considered domestically or internationally. That internal affairs are best left to their own devices was urged strongly by Mandeville (Fable i. 299–300 and ii. 353); and, although he qualified in somewhat the usual manner concerning the ‘balance of trade’, he was caused by his sense of the interdependence of nations to plead urgently for freer trade with other states (Fable i. 109–16). For this attitude there had been much preparation. In the first place, there were certain general historical factors leading naturally to a reaction against restrictions on trade. For one thing, trade was growing rapidly, and thereby bringing into prominence groups of influential men who stood to gain by the removal of barriers and monopolies. For another thing, certain changes in the public outlook on life in general had effect in the field of economics. Thus, the conception of religious toleration was developing, carrying in its wake the idea of freedom in other fields; 1 and the old Stoic doctrine of ‘following nature’, as revived in the neo-Stoics of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and in jurists like Grotius, was apparently being carried over into the theory of commerce, where too ‘nature’ was to rule. 2 In addition, Mandeville had the opportunity of being familiar with an extensive body of English, Dutch, and French literature urging the cause of freer trade, both domestic and international. 3 Every practical aspect of Mandeville’s argument had been anticipated. 1 Nor should we overlook the probable effect on Mandeville of the Dutch environment in which he grew up. The Dutch were especially concerned with free trade. They were carriers to the rest of Europe and thus possessed of the interest in the freedom of the seas reflected in the treatises of Grotius and Graswinckel—the freedom of the seas, of course, being a problem closely connected with the question of the restriction of trade. The Dutch, furthermore, were international bankers and therefore could not help having driven in upon their consciousness the interdependence of national interests. The whole matter, also, must have been brought vividly before Mandeville when the city of Amsterdam, in 1689, reduced its tariffs so as to compete with Hamburg as a port of exchange, and thus aroused a heated controversy over free trade, 1 Mandeville being then at the impressionable age of nineteen and still in Holland. But, if Mandeville was thus anticipated even in the details of his argument—if, indeed, predecessors like Barbon and North had gone beyond him—what was there original about his advocacy of free trade? There was this very important difference between Mandeville and his predecessors: they considered the welfare of the state as a whole and the interest of its individual inhabitants as not necessarily corresponding; Mandeville held that the selfish good of the individual is normally the good of the state. Mandeville, therefore, not only argued away a powerful reason for restriction, but furnished a genuine philosophy for individualism in trade. This was a profoundly important step. Hitherto, except for a very few tentative and unsystematic anticipations, 1 defence of laissez-faire had been opportunist rather than a matter of general principle. Mandeville allowed it to be made systematic. It is through his elaborate psychological and political analysis that individualism becomes an economic philosophy. 1 § 2 I have stated the difficulty of indicating more than the general background of Mandeville’s thought; yet there were some predecessors who can with certainty be specified as Mandeville’s teachers. By far the chief of these was Pierre Bayle. In the Fable Mandeville cited Bayle and borrowed from him again and again—especially from his Miscellaneous Reflections; 2 in his Free Thoughts 3 Mandeville specifically confessed the debt which that book owed to Bayle’s Dictionary; and the germ of the Origin of Honour is to be found in the Miscellaneous Reflections. 4 Mandeville’s basal theories are in Bayle: the general scepticism as to the possibility of discovering absolute truth; the anti-rationalism which held that men do not act from principles of reason or from regard for abstract morality, but from the reigning desires of their hearts; the corollary opinion that Christianity, despite the lip service paid it, is little followed in the world; the stress on man’s inevitable egoism, and the realization of the moral implications and uses of pride; the belief that men could be good without religion; the definition of Christianity as ascetic; and the belief that Christianity thus defined and national greatness are incompatible. 1 Bayle, in fact, might almost have been planning the groundwork of the Fable when he summarized his own Miscellaneous Reflections as teaching That considering the Doctrine of Original Sin, and that of the Necessity and Inamissibility of Grace, decided at the Synod of Dort, every reform’d Protestant is oblig’d to believe, that all, except the predestin’d, whom God regenerates and sanctifys, are incapable of acting out of a Principle of Love to God, or resisting their Corruptions from any other Principle than that of Self-love and human Motives: So that if some Men are more vertuous than others, this proceeds either from Natural Constitution, or Education, or from a Love for certain kinds of Praise, or from a fear of Reproach, &c. (Miscellaneous Reflections ii. 545). Granted this psychology and these tenets, it needed only the educing of the latent inference to reach the doctrine that private vices are public benefits. And like Mandeville, also, Bayle refused to attack the validity of rigoristic morality because of its impracticability. Mandeville, in fact, offered as one of his guiding principles what he termed ‘that true, as well as remarkable Saying of Monsieur Baile. Les utilités du vice n’empéchent pas qu’il ne soit mauvais.’ 1 It is worth noting, too, that Bayle was teaching in Rotterdam while Mandeville was attending the Erasmian School there (see above, i. xvii–xviii), and that, consequently, Mandeville may have had personal contact with Bayle. Mandeville was indebted also to La Rochefoucauld, whom he cited several times and closely paralleled in thought (see index to commentary). Both insisted that men are creatures of passion and not reason and that human motives are at bottom self-love. Much of Mandeville’s philosophy, indeed, might be summarized as an elaboration of La Rochefoucauld’s maxim, ‘Nos vertus ne sont le plus souvent que des vices déguisées’, 2 with le plus souvent changed to toujours. Nevertheless, as the doctrines in question were not rare, it is impossible to tell how much Mandeville drew them from La Rochefoucauld and how much from other sources (say Bayle or Esprit)—whether, in fact, Mandeville’s debt to La Rochefoucauld was not chiefly literary—phrasal borrowings to fit beliefs already formed. Gassendi probably helped to mould Mandeville’s thought. Mandeville had read him while yet a boy, although at that time he opposed him in his De Brutorum Operationibus (Leyden, 1689), which upheld the Cartesian position. Perhaps, however, Mandeville’s youthful attack on Gassendi was not sincere, for the Disputatio was written under the tutelage of Burcherus de Volder, a violent Cartesian; 1 and a student might well have hesitated to disagree with the fundamental beliefs of his instructor. Be that as it may, when he came to write the Fable Mandeville had discarded his Cartesianism and assumed the Gassendist attitude towards both animal automatism and the relation between man and beast. 2 It may be, of course, that Mandeville reached the Gassendist positions without aid from Gassendi; but the latter was rather too big a figure to pass over, especially when read young; and it is perhaps significant that Mandeville referred favourably to him in the Fable (ii. 21). 3 Another noteworthy influence on Mandeville was that of Erasmus. Trained in the Erasmian School in Erasmus’s city of Rotterdam, Mandeville again and again shows traces of Erasmus’s mentorship. He cites him in the Virgin Unmask’d (1724), sign. [A 5v], in the Treatise (1730), pp. 14 and 111, and in the Fable. 4 According to his own statement, also, Mandeville quotes continually from the Adagia of Erasmus (see below, i. 314, n. 2); and Typhon (1704) was dedicated to the ‘Numerous Society of Fools’, avowedly after the example of Erasmus. The two men, indeed, had similar points of view. Erasmus too was empirical and disbelieved in absolute laws without exceptions; and he held with Mandeville that true religiousness makes demands upon human nature rarely fulfilled. Both, also, shared belief in the irreconcilability of war and Christianity. Not only their attitudes but their cast of wit was akin, and their thoughts often took similar forms. The skeleton of the Encomium Moriae is essentially identical with that of the Fable: both works demonstrate, in a series of loosely connected essays, the necessity of something by hypothesis evil, in the one case, Folly, in the other, Vice; and Mandeville means by vice pretty much what Erasmus means by folly. To show the general similarity between the thought of the two men I cite here some parallels: ERASMUS MANDEVILLE ‘… Jupiter quanto plus indidit affectuum quam rationis? quasi semiunciam compares ad assem’ (Opera, Leyden, 1703–6, iv. 417, in Encomium Moriae). ‘… For we are ever pushing our Reason which way soever we feel Passion to draw it, and Self-love pleads to all human Creatures for their different Views, still furnishing every individual with Arguments to justify their Inclinations’ (Fable i. 333). ‘Quid autem æque stultum, atque tibi ipsi placere? te ipsum admirari? At rursum quid venustum, quid gratiosum, quid non indecorum erit, quod agas, ipse tibi displicens’ (Opera iv. 421, in Encomium Moriae)? ‘There is no Man … wholly Proof against … Flattery …’ (i. 51). ‘If some great Men had not a superlative Pride … who would be a Lord Chancellor of England, a Prime Minister of State in France, or what gives more Fatigue, and not a sixth part of the Profit of either, a Grand Pensionary of Holland?’ (i. 221)… ‘Self-liking … is so necessary to the Well-being of those that have been used to indulge it; that they can taste no Pleasure without it …’ (ii. 135–6). ‘Verum ut ad id quod institueram, revertar: quæ vis saxeos, quernos, & agrestes illos homines in civitatem coëgit, nisi adulatio’ (Opera iv. 424, in Encomium Moriae)? ‘… the Moral Virtues are the Political Offspring which Flattery begot upon Pride’ (i. 51). Cf. Mandeville’s Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue. ‘Tum autem quæ res Deciis persuasit, ut ultro sese Diis Manibus devoverent? Quod Q. Curtium in specum traxit, nisi inanis gloria, dulcissima quædam Siren, sed mirum quam a Sapientibus istis damnata’ (Opera iv. 426, in Encomium Moriae)? ‘… the great Recompence in view, for which the most exalted Minds have … sacrificed … every Inch of themselves, has never been any thing else but the Breath of Man, the Aerial Coin of Praise’ (i. 54–5). ‘Cujus rei si desideratis argumenta primum illud animadvertite, pueros, senes, mulieres, ac fatuos sacris ac religiosis rebus præter cæteros gaudere, eoque semper altaribus esse proximos, solo, nimirum, naturae impulsu. Præterea videtis primos illos religionis auctores, mire simplicitatem amplexos, acerrimos litterarum hostes fuisse’ (Opera iv. 499–500, in Encomium Moriae). ‘As to Religion, the most knowing and polite Part of a Nation have every where the least of it. … Ignorance is … the Mother of Devotion …’ (i. 269). Cf. Fable i. 308. ‘Ego puto totum hoc de cultu pendere a consuetudine ac persuasione mortalium’ (Opera i. 742, in Colloquia Familiaria). ‘In what concerns the Fashions and Manners of the Ages Men live in, they never examine into the real Worth or Merit of the Cause, and generally judge of things not as their Reason, but Custom direct them’ (i. 172). I do not mean to imply, though, that Mandeville drew constantly and consciously from Erasmus as he did from Bayle. The Erasmian influence was, I believe, a general formative one, and the parallels to Erasmus—where they were derivative—the result probably of early absorption rather than of deliberate borrowing. That the Fable often parallels and sometimes derives from Hobbes is evident from my annotations to the text, and, indeed, some indebtedness to Hobbes was inevitable at that period of thought. As early as his college days Mandeville had studied Hobbes, for he disagreed with him in his Disputatio Philosophica (1689), sign. A3v. Among their chief points of similarity is their analysis of human nature. To Hobbes also the mainspring of social action was egoism: man was a selfish animal, and society, consequently, artificial: All society … is either for gain, or for glory; that is, not so much for love of our fellows, as for the love of ourselves (English Works, ed. Molesworth, ii. 5; cf. also Leviathan, pt. 1, ch. 13). And to Hobbes as well, the love of virtue was derivable ‘from love of praise’ (Engiish Works iii. 87). Both men, too, denounced the search for a universal summum bonum (cf. English Works iii. 85), and, denying the ‘divine original’ of virtue, thought morality a human product. ‘Where no law, no injustice’ was Hobbes’s dictum (iii. 115). But in the midst of this similarity there was a very important difference. Hobbes maintained that The desires, and other passions of men, are in themselves no sin. No more are the actions, that proceed from those passions, till they know a law that forbids them … (iii. 114). Mandeville, however, when identifying current moralities with custom, did not say that genuine virtue and vice are thus dependent, but only that men’s opinions of them are. To Mandeville men in the ‘state of nature’ were ipso facto wicked, as being unredeemed from their primal degeneracy (cf. below, i. 40, n. 1). In his account of the origin of society in Part II Mandeville is closer to Hobbes’s discussion of this matter in his Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society and his Leviathan than to any other predecessor (cf. below, i. xcii, n. 1). It is not, however, possible to gauge Mandeville’s indebtedness to Hobbes with much accuracy, since most of what Mandeville shares with Hobbes he shares also with other predecessors such as Bayle and La Rochefoucauld. Hobbes and Mandeville, besides, were both in the same current of speculation, and it is therefore always possible that Mandeville’s resemblances to Hobbes were due not so much to immediate influence as to the effect of a stream of thought which Hobbes had done so much to direct. In the case of Locke also, although Mandeville cites him and shows kinship to him, it is not possible to be certain how much he was influenced by him directly, and how much indirectly through the medium of an age which Locke had so greatly affected. Of the various other precursors noted in the first part of this section, Mandeville specifically cited only Saint-Evremond, 1 Fe, 2 Spinoza, 3 and Montaigne. 4 From Saint-Evremond Mandeville may well have drawn for his defence of luxury. 5 As to the various other possible progenitors of Mandeville, their very multiplicity precludes any certainty in the selection of particular ones as sources. Those most likely to have had important general influence—if we judge by the quantity and closeness of the parallel passages recorded in my notes—are Spinoza, 1 Esprit, Abbadie, North, and D’Avenant. 2 From this chapter and the notes to the text it will be seen that a great part of Mandeville’s thought was derivatory. What he did was to take conceptions of more or less currency and give to them an especially vivid embodiment; and if there was any self-contradiction in these conceptions, or if they had their roots in attitudes and circumstances usually concealed, he gave to these contradictions and concealments an especial prominence, so that merely by fully stating them he rendered men aghast at theories they had held all their lives. Much of his originality, then, lay in his manner of exposition. But, for all that, Mandeville’s was essentially an original mind—in so far as there is such a thing. The reader who thinks that Mandeville’s evident borrowings show him a mere dealer in the second-hand would do well first to consider that the author of original mind is often (like Montaigne) more full of evident borrowings than the prosaic writer. The self-conscious, individualized, original thinker recognizes at once kindred elements in the thought of others; and, in his satisfaction at finding a sympathetic view-point in the midst of a world whose conventional opinions are usually hostile, may make an especial parade of statements by other writers with which he agrees. It should also be remembered that sufficient research can make any thought seem stale. If originality consists in not being anticipated, no one was ever original. We cannot help drawing from the old thoughts with which we first fed our consciousness; but we are not thereby made unoriginal unless we retail these thoughts without rethinking them. Mandeville did rethink them: in his books they bear the especial stigmata of his own mind. And, in such contributions as his psychologizing of economics and his extraordinary sketch of the origin of society, 1 he offered that drawing of latent inference from old material, that novel rearrangement of old knowledge, which constitutes the positive side of originality. V MANDEVILLE’S INFLUENCE § 1 WHEN first issued in 1714 the Fable, despite its two editions that year, attracted little notice. 1 Another edition was not called for until 1723, and then, possibly, only because Mandeville had doubled the bulk of his book and wished publicity for the new matter. Included in that new matter, however, was an attack on a vested interest—the charity-schools. The work now at once attracted attention. The newspapers focused their batteries on it, and within a few months whole books began to be aimed at it. At the same time the public commenced to exhaust an edition a year. Then it went into foreign editions. 2 Meanwhile, other books by Mandeville were having frequent printings in England and, translated, on the Continent. 3 His works, moreover, must have been made familiar to thousands who never saw the books by the reviews (often of great length) which appeared of them in periodicals such as the Bibliothèque Britannique and the Histoire des Ouvrages des Savans, 4 in theological bibliographies like those of Masch, Lilienthal, and Trinius, and in encyclopaedias like Chaufepié’s and Birch’s General Dictionary. The many attacks, also, on the Fable not only reflected the celebrity of the book, but diffused this fame still further—a fame often commented on by contemporaries. 1 Here is a partial list of some of the better-known men who at some time gave him specific and often lengthy attention: John Dennis, William Law, Reimarus, Hume, Berkeley, Hutcheson, Godwin, Holberg, John Brown, Fielding, Gibbon, Diderot, Holbach, Rousseau, Malthus, James Mill, Mackintosh, Kant, Adam Smith, Warburton, John Wesley, Herder, Montesquieu, Hazlitt, and Bentham. 1 Some of these, like Hazlitt, referred to him repeatedly, and some wrote whole books on him. William Law devoted a volume to him; so did John Dennis; Francis Hutcheson, no unimportant figure in the history of English thought, wrote two books against him; while Berkeley apportioned him two dialogues, and Adam Smith twice wrote at length about his thought. Nor was this vogue merely academic. The Fable of the Bees made a public scandal. Mandeville, with his teaching of the usefulness of vice, inherited the office of Lord High Bogy-man, which Hobbes had held in the preceding century. The Fable was twice presented by the Grand Jury as a public nuisance; minister and bishop alike denounced it from the pulpit. 2 The book, indeed, aroused positive consternation, ranging from the indignation of Bishop Berkeley 3 to the horrified amazement of John Wesley, 4 who protested that not even Voltaire could have said so much for wickedness. In France, the Fable was actually ordered to be burned by the common hangman. 5 It would, in fact, be difficult to overrate the intensity and extent of Mandeville’s eighteenth-century fame. A letter of Wesley’s, 1 in 1750, indicates that the Fable was current in Ireland. In France, in 1765, we find Diderot evidencing that the book was a familiar subject of conversation. 2 In 1768 the friend of Laurence Sterne, John Hall-Stevenson, thought a good title for one of his pieces would be ‘The New Fable of the Bees’. In Germany, in 1788, when Kant made his sixfold classification of ethical systems, he chose Mandeville’s name as that by which to identify one of the six types. 3 And in America the author of the first American comedy—a play meant for popular consumption 4 —referred to Mandeville as if his theories were as well known to the audience as the latest proclamation of General Washington. The enormous vogue of the book should be borne in mind during the discussion of its influence; for in the light of this vogue points of relationship between the Fable and subsequent developments take on fuller significance, and the manner in which future events followed the trend foreshadowed by the book becomes more closely associated with the influence of the work. 5 § 2 We shall be occupied here with Mandeville’s effect in three fields: literature, ethics, and economics. His literary influence was slight. The Fable had no direct imitators. Its influence was limited to the offering of titbits for amalgamation or paraphrase by other writers. Among these were Pope, Johnson, Adam Smith, and Voltaire. Pope paraphrased the Fable both in the Moral Essays and in the Essay on Man. 1 The manuscript of the latter, it should be noted, had instead of the present line ii. 240 this direct paraphrase of the sub-title of the Fable of the Bees: And public good extracts from private vice. 1 —Dr. Johnson, who said that Mandeville opened his views into real life very much, 2 and whose economic theories were largely borrowed from Mandeville, 3 limited his literary indebtedness to a passage in one of his Idlers (no. 34), which seems to be a paraphrase of a witty portion of the Fable (i. 106), 4 and to some able discussions with Boswell about the book.—Adam Smith’s literary obligation extended to at least one famous passage, but this matter will be considered later as incidental to Smith’s debt to Mandeville in the field of economics.—The literary borrowings of Voltaire, whose considerable general indebtedness will also be touched on later, consisted in the paraphrase in French verse of several pages of the Fable (i. 176–80), Voltaire’s poem being called Le Marseillois et le Lion (Œuvres, ed. Moland, 1877–85, x. 140–8); and of passages in Le Mondain and the Defense du Mondain, and in the Observations sur MM. Jean Lass, Melon et Dutot; sur le Commerce, which have parallels in the Fable. 1 All this, however, constitutes an unimportant phase of Mandeville’s influence. His great effect was on ethics and economics. § 3 To understand the effect which Mandeville exercised on ethical theory, certain aspects of his creed should be recalled. In the first place, his conception of virtue proclaimed that no action was virtuous if inspired by selfish emotion; and this assumption, since Mandeville considered all natural emotion fundamentally selfish, implied the ascetic position that no action was virtuous if done from natural impulse. Secondly, Mandeville’s definition of virtue declared that no action was meritorious unless the motive that inspired it was a ‘rational’ one. As he interpreted ‘rational’ to imply an antithesis to emotion and self-regard, both aspects of his ethical code—the ascetic and the rationalistic—alike condemned as vicious all action whose dominant motive was natural impulse and self-regarding bias. To put it from a different angle, his code condemned all such acts as were caused by the traits men share with the animals. This conception of morality was no invention of Mandeville’s. He merely adopted the creed of two great popular groups of the period. The first group comprised the theologians who, from the orthodox belief in the depravity of human nature, concluded naturally that virtue could not be found except in such action as unselfishly denied or transcended the workings of the nature they condemned. 1 To all logical inferences from Mandeville’s position as to the moral necessity of unselfishness and the conquest of natural impulse these ascetics were fairly committed. The other group comprised the rationalistic or ‘intellectualistic’ ethical thinkers, who identified morality with such action as proceeded from rational motives. This group was committed to conclusions logically deducible from Mandeville’s position only in so far as, like him, they made an antithesis between reason and emotion and therefore denied the virtue of action dictated by emotion; but, since this antithesis was very commonly made, at least implicitly, 1 these thinkers too were largely implicated in Mandeville’s conclusions. The inferences, then, which Mandeville was to deduce from the rigorous application of his definition of virtue were such as could genuinely involve and provoke the thought of his day. The analysis of human emotions and their relation to opinion and conduct which led Mandeville, in the light of his definition of virtue, to the conclusion that all human action is at bottom vicious has already been considered (i. lxi–lxiv). He found, in brief, that reason is not a determinant factor in men’s actions, our most elaborate and apparently detached ratiocination being basically only a rationalizing and excusing of the demands of dominant emotions; and that all our acts—even those apparently most unselfish—are, traced to their source, due to some variety or interplay of selfishness—that, in fact, despite all the divines and philosophers, man is, after all, only ‘the most perfect of Animals’ (Fable i. 44) and can never contradict or transcend this fact. Thus, no part of his definition of virtue being fulfillable in a world governed by more utilitarian considerations, he was driven to the conclusion that the world is entirely vicious, even its agreeable and valuable products being the effect of vice, and so arose the paradox ‘Private Vices, Publick Benefits’. By juxtaposing together the utilitarian principles by which the world is inevitably controlled and the demands of rigoristic ethics, and showing their irreconcilability, Mandeville achieved a latent reductio ad absurdum of the rigoristic point of view. But he never educed this reductio ad absurdum. Although he spent most of his book in the demonstration that a life regulated by the principles of rigoristic virtue as expressed in his definition is not only impossible but highly undesirable, whereas the actual immoral world is a pleasant place, he continued to announce the sanctity of the rigoristic creed. This paradoxical ethical duet which Mandeville carried on with himself is the point to note here, for it is this fact which gives the clue to the influence on ethics which he exerted. The attacks on Mandeville focus on this paradox, but the type of attack varies according to the intellectual leanings of the particular polemicist. First there were the critics who, like William Law and John Dennis, adhered to the rigoristic school of ethics. On these the effect of the Fable was that of the insane root which takes the reason prisoner. William Law was almost alone in keeping his head, although not his temper. It was not merely the theories of Mandeville that caused this riot of reason, but the tone of the Doctor’s writing. Mandeville employed a humorously cynical downrightness of statement that made him so provocative that even now, after two hundred years, he has kept almost unimpaired his ability to irritate those who disagree with him. But, apart from their expression, there was enough in Mandeville’s tenets to agitate those who believed virtue necessarily unselfish and rational. Mandeville accepted their own position to argue them into unbearable predicaments. He agreed that only such behaviour is virtuous as proceeds from dispassionate obedience to a moral code; and then he demonstrated that there can be no such conduct in this world. He admitted that a state based on selfishness is corrupt and that luxury is contrary to the Christian religion, and then he proceeded to show that all society must be based on selfishness and that no state can be great without luxury. He agreed that men must transcend their animal nature, and then he proved that it could not be done. In other words, he took advantage of his opponents’ own standards to show them that according to those standards they had never done a virtuous action in their lives, and that, if those principles could be lived up to, they would inevitably cause the total collapse of society. Meanwhile Mandeville stood in the middle of this spectacle roaring with laughter; which did not help to soothe his critics. They lost their heads. If only Mandeville had accepted the reductio ad absurdum latent in his book and rejected the rigoristic system of ethics, things would have been simple for the William Laws. They would merely have rushed to the defence of their code, and been quite comfortable. But Mandeville did not reject it; the force of his demonstration of the value of vice and impossibility of virtue rested on his accepting their position. There were, therefore, only two rational 1 objections open to the rigorists. They could argue, first, that Mandeville’s vivisection of human nature was faulty and that men really do act from absolutely dispassionate unselfishness. This they tried. 2 But Mandeville’s analysis had been so keen and thorough that few of his opponents dared claim that they had demonstrated much more than that in some few cases a man might conceivably be virtuous in their sense of the word. This was hardly very comforting, for it left them still drowning in a sea of almost undiluted iniquity. The other method was to qualify the rigoristic point of view that only such actions were virtuous as were done from unselfish devotion to principle, and to call for another criterion of virtue. Now, the significant fact is that almost every rigorist who undertook to answer Mandeville did in some way modify the rigoristic position. 1 William Law was perhaps as staunch and unmitigated an ascetic as ever urged his dogmas on other people; to Law an act done simply because a person wished to do it was ipso facto without merit. 2 Yet Law, in his answer to the Fable, was at pains to defend the admissibility of emotion and desire, and even approached a utilitarian 3 position. 4 Law was typical. Of the rigorists who attacked the Fable with any insight, almost all were driven in some manner to qualify the severity of the current rigoristic conception—to insist less on the sheerly rational element in moral conduct, to allow more play to interested motives, to offer, if only obliquely, something more in harmony with a utilitarian philosophy. 5 On the other hand, there was another class of critics of the Fable, comprising those men by intellectual bias anti-rigoristic, like Hume and Adam Smith. These men took the Fable more calmly. Not holding the ascetic premiss, they were not perturbed by Mandeville’s deductions therefrom. They agreed with his analyses; but when he came to his rigoristic candle-snuffer and said, ‘All these good things are due to vice’, they answered with Hume, If it be vice which produces all the good in the world, then there is something the matter with our terminology; such vice is not vice but good. 1 These critics, then, simply accepted the reductio ad absurdum which Mandeville refused to educe, and, rejecting the rigorism which gave rise to Mandeville’s paradox, set up instead a utilitarian scheme of ethics. This may seem the simple and obvious thing to do. And it is simple and obvious now—after two hundred years. But in that simple and obvious step is the germ of the whole modern utilitarian movement; in that rejection of absolute a priori codes and in that refusal to dissever man from the animals is the core of the modern scientific, empirical attitude. With the solving of Mandeville’s paradox, indeed, is bound up our whole present-day intellectual atmosphere, the development of which the utilitarian movement has done so much to foster. Now, recognition of the inexpediency of rigoristic codes, which recognition eventually led to the utilitarian movement, was to be found elsewhere than in Mandeville, and the Mandevillian paradox was to be found latent in every-day points of view; but Mandeville’s statement of the paradox was the most forceful, the most provocative, and the most celebrated, and therefore, by natural deduction, one of the most influential. That it was Mandeville who furnished much of the specific stimulus towards the utilitarian solution of the paradox is demonstrated by the fact that in the case of at least two of the earlier utilitarian leaders—Francis Hutcheson and John Brown 1 —their first statements of the utilitarian theory are found in those books of theirs which deal with Mandeville, and were evidently largely evolved through the controversy. Hume, too, may have owed to Mandeville some impulse towards utilitarianism. 2 We might note, also, that of the later major utilitarians Bentham and Godwin praised him, and James Mill strongly defended him. And, turning from the leaders to the intellectual soil upon which they had to work, it should be remembered that contemporary anti- or non-utilitarian opinion had been disturbed, and thus prepared for change, by the insistent paradox of the Fable, the outstanding ethical irritant of its generation. The case might be summed up thus: Mandeville’s critics, for all their dissimilarity from each other, were forced in common away from strict rigorism and, more or less, towards a utilitarian attitude. It seems, then, that the paradox of the Fable supplied a spur which, on contact, urged all groups in the general direction of utilitarianism; and the enormous vogue of the book, together with the facts that its paradox was based on dominant types of ethical theory and thus involved and affected their many adherents, and that the book was so studied and reacted to by the utilitarian leaders, is proof of how generally and efficaciously the spur was applied. As a matter of fact Mandeville has an even fuller claim than this to be considered a prime mover in the development of modern utilitarianism: it was not alone through forcing a solution of the paradox that private vices are public benefits that the Fable helped to precipitate the utilitarian philosophy; another salient feature of Mandeville’s ethical scheme had effect of a similar sort. This feature can be equally well described as moral nihilism, philosophical anarchism, or pyrrhonism (cf. above, i. lvi–lviii). In morals, declared Mandeville, there are no universally valid rules of conduct. No person believes one thing but some one professes the opposite; no nation approves one form of conduct but another nation as strongly condemns it; ‘… hunting after this Pulchrum & Honestum is not much better than a Wild-Goose-Chace …’ (Fable i. 331). ‘What Mortal can decide which is the handsomest, abstract from the Mode in being, to wear great Buttons or small ones? … In Morals there is no greater Certainty’ (Fable i. 328–30). How Mandeville reconciled this pyrrhonism with the rigoristic ethics which he accepted superficially and the utilitarianism which was basic in his thought has been discussed elsewhere (above, i. lviii–lxi). The point here is that he put his denial of general moral standards with his usual pungency, and that it produced reactions in a number of his critics. 1 It affected them in much the same way that his famous paradox had. It presented what was to them an intolerable scheme of things, which, for their peace of mind and soul, they had to remodel. And this remodelling—the furnishing of those valid ethical standards whose existence Mandeville denied—led them either to assert some code of divine origin and to maintain a rigoristic scheme of ethics (in which case the other edge of Mandeville’s blade—his paradox—drove them towards utilitarianism); or it caused them to appeal to the utility of actions to supply, for judging those acts, the moral criteria Mandeville denied. Thus with a double lash Mandeville drove his critics towards utilitarianism. By making the rigoristic position intolerable and the anarchistic position plausible, he forced his readers to formulate a way out. He furnished the necessity which is the mother of invention, and, by so doing, became one of the most fundamental and persistent of the early literary influences underlying the modern utilitarian movement. 2 § 4 Let us turn now to Mandeville’s effect on the course of economic theory, where his consequence was perhaps greatest. One aspect of Mandeville’s effect in this field was his association with the famous division of labour theory, which Adam Smith made into one of the foundation stones of modern economic thought. For his statement of this principle Adam Smith owed much to Mandeville’s definite and repeated development of the conception. 1 I do not mean that the Fable was the sole source of Smith’s doctrine, for, of course, knowledge of the implications of division of labour was far older than Mandeville. 2 The Fable’ was only one source, but it was a source with special claims to influence. To begin with, Mandeville’s statement of the doctrine was a brilliant one, and Smith was intimately acquainted with it. At the beginning of his literary career he devoted part of an essay to the Fable, and his careful discussion of Mandeville in the Theory of the Moral Sentiments 1 showed that he had not only learned Mandeville’s ideas but had the very language of the Fable by heart. Mandeville’s treatment of division of labour must have made an especial impression on him, for one of the most famous passages on this matter in the Wealth of Nations—that about the labourer’s coat—is largely a paraphrase of similar passages in the Fable. 2 The celebrated phrase, too—‘division of labour’—was anticipated by Mandeville, 3 and, apparently, by no one else. Finally, Dugald Stewart, who knew Smith personally, credited Mandeville with having been Smith’s inspiration. 4 Obviously, therefore, considerable credit for establishing the division of labour theory belongs to Mandeville. But, though important, his influence on the establishment of this doctrine was a minor phase of Mandeville’s effect on economic tendencies. More important was his effect through his defence of luxury—that argument for the harmlessness and necessity of luxury with which he confronted not only all the more ascetic codes of morality but what was once the classic economic attitude, which set forth the ideal of a Spartan state, exalted the simpler agricultural pursuits, and denounced luxury as the degenerator of peoples and impoverisher of nations. The problem of the value of luxury was to be a widely agitated question in the eighteenth century—one of the battlegrounds of the Encyclopaedists. Now, of all single literary influences in this discussion of luxury the Fable of the Bees was one of the very greatest. In brilliance and completeness it surpassed all previous defences of luxury, 1 and some of the leading contestants in the quarrel drew on the Fable for their opinions and arguments. Voltaire was considerably indebted to Mandeville. 2 Melon 3 probably owed him much. Montesquieu was at least slightly in his debt. 1 Dr. Johnson confessed himself Mandeville’s pupil. 2 Nor was the Fable merely a potent influence in the works of other writers. It not only spurred on the others, but was itself in the van of the attack. In 1785, Professor Pluquet, in a work approved by the Collège Royal, called Mandeville the first to defend luxury from the standpoint of economic theory; 3 and so thoroughly in the public mind was Mandeville conceived of as spokesman for the defence of luxury that a popular American play 1 as late as 1787 apostrophized not Voltaire, not Montesquieu, not any of the well-known encyclopaedists, but Mandeville as the arch-advocate for this defence. We now come to perhaps the most important aspect of Mandeville’s economic influence. In the Fable Mandeville maintains, and maintains explicitly, the theory at present known as the laissez-faire theory, which dominated modern economic thought for a hundred years and is still a potent force. This is the theory that commercial affairs are happiest when least regulated by the government; that things tend by themselves to find their own proper level; and that unregulated self-seeking on the part of individuals will in society so interact with and check itself that the result will be for the benefit of the community. But unnecessary interference on the part of the state will tend to pervert that delicate adjustment. Of this attitude Mandeville has definite anticipations: ‘In the Compound of all Nations, the different Degrees of Men ought to bear a certain Proportion to each other, as to Numbers, in order to render the whole a well-proportion’d Mixture. And as this due Proportion is the Result and natural Consequence of the difference there is in the Qualifications of Men, and the Vicissitudes that happen among them, so it is never better attained to, or preserv’d, than when no body meddles with it. Hence we may learn, how the short-sighted Wisdom, of perhaps well-meaning People, may rob us of a Felicity, that would flow spontaneously from the Nature of every large Society, if none were to divert or interrupt the Stream’ (Fable ii. 353). The Fable of the Bees, I believe, was one of the chief literary sources of the doctrine of laissez-faire. But it became a source not because of such passages as that just cited—though the vogue of the Fable vouches for their having been well known; it became an influence because of the philosophy of individualism so prominent in the Fable. Man, said Mandeville, is a mechanism of interacting selfish passions. Fortunately, however, these passions, although, at first sight, their dominion might seem to threaten anarchy, are so composed and arranged that under the influence of society their apparent discords harmonize to the public good. This immensely complicated adjustment is not the effect of premeditated effort, but is the automatic reaction of man in society. Now, the laissez-faire theory was to be grounded on such a philosophy—a philosophy, indeed, without which there could hardly have been a self-conscious doctrine of laissez-faire and with which, sooner or later, there could hardly help but be. But was it Mandeville’s statement of this philosophy which was influential? To answer this it should be noted that before Mandeville there was no systematic formulation of laissez-faire. All manifestations of the spirit were opportunist and unsynthesized for want of a philosophy of individualism. 1 It should be noted, too, that Mandeville’s exposition of the individualistic position was incomparably the most brilliant, the most complete, the most provocative, and the best known until Adam Smith made the laissez-faire position classic in the Wealth of Nations. Adam Smith himself is the concrete example which indicates that Mandeville’s influence here was not merely a likelihood, but an actuality. I have already shown (above, i. cxxxiv–cxxxv) the general fact of Smith’s familiarity with and indebtedness to the Fable. There are additional reasons why he should have been influenced by Mandeville in conceiving his exposition of laissez-faire. Smith studied under Francis Hutcheson at Glasgow, and in both philosophy and economics owed his teacher much inspiration. 1 Now, Mandeville was an obsession with Hutcheson. He could hardly write a book without devoting much of it to attacking the Fable. 2 And the concepts concerning which he was most aroused were precisely those which underlie laissez-faire—the egoism of man and the advantage to society of this egoism. It is inconceivable that Hutcheson could have lectured without often analysing Mandeville’s point of view. Thus, precisely during a critical period of intellectual growth, Smith’s mind must have been fed on the Fable. And that the food was absorbed and not rejected we may see from the fact that in his exposition of laissez-faire and its basis Smith repudiated Hutcheson to come close to Mandeville. 3 This sketch of Mandeville’s importance in the modern utilitarian movement and of his effect on economic thought through the division of labour theory, the defence of luxury, and the laissez-faire philosophy does not exhaust the subject of his influence. It is, for instance, more than possible that he was a factor in the development of philological theory, for both Condillac and Herder may well have owed to the Fable inspiration for their noted studies of the origin of language. 1 There remains, also, the fact of the enormous influence Mandeville must have exerted at second-hand—through Voltaire, through Melon, through Hutcheson, through Adam Smith, and, possibly, through Helvétius. 1 But, leaving aside the possible and the indirect in Mandeville’s influence and considering only his probable and immediate effect, his influence bulks so large in the two great fields of ethics and economics 1 that it is doubtful whether a dozen English works can be found in the entire eighteenth century of such historical importance as The Fable of the Bees. A Search into the Nature of Society. The Sixth Edition. To which is added, A VINDICATION of the BOOK from the Aspersions contain’d in a Presentment of the Grand-Jury of Middlesex, and an abusive Letter to Lord C. L O N D O N: Printed for J. T o n s o n, at Shakespear’s-Head over-against Katharine-Street in the Strand. MDCCXXXII. [Note on the phrase ‘Private Vices, Publick Benefits’ (see title-page on recto of this leaf):] Note on the phrase ‘Private Vices, Publick Benefits’ This conception was adumbrated by Montaigne: ‘De mesme, en toute police, il y a des offices necessaires, non seulement abiects, mais encore vitieux: les vices y trouuent leur rang & s’employent à la cousture de nostre liaison, comme les venins à la conseruation de nostre santé. … Le bien public requiert qu’on trahisse & qu’on mente et qu’on massacre …’ (Essais, Bordeaux, 1906–20, iii. 2–3). Charron put it that ‘Premierement nous sçavons, que souuent nous sommes menés & poussés a la vertu & a bien faire par des ressorts meschans & reprouués, par deffaut & impuissance naturelle, par passion, & le vice mesmes’ (De la Sagesse, Leyden, 1656, i. 246; bk. 2, ch. 3). Bayle wrote, ‘Les erreurs, les passions, les préjugez, & cent autres défauts semblables, sont comme un mal nécessaire au monde. Les hommes ne vaudroient rien pour cette terre si on les avoit guéris …’ (Oeuvres Diverses, The Hague, 1727–31, ii. 274; and cf. iii. 361 and 977 sqq.). There is an interesting parallel to Mandeville’s phrase in The City Alarum, or the Weeke of our Miscarriages (1645), p. 29: ‘… most men being ambitious, and affecting the repute of opulent, many from whom the Magistrate exacts too much, chuse rather to pay, then proclaime the slendernesse of their fortunes. So that vice it selfe supports vertue, and reall profit is reaped from wealth imaginary.’ I have cited only passages exhibiting some kinship in expression to Mandeville’s epigram. The general idea, however, of the possible usefulness of vice was frequently anticipated in the numerous seventeenth-century discourses on the passions. In these treatises it was shown how the passions, although vicious in themselves, could none the less be converted into virtues. Some of these works—Pierre Nicole’s De La Charité, & de l’Amour propre (Essais de Morale, vol. 3) is an example—continued to term the passions vicious despite their practical utility. Lay works also preached this moral. Thus Fontenelle wrote, ‘Avez-vous de la peine à concevoir que les bonnes qualités d’un homme tiennent à d’autres qui sont mauvaises, et qu’il seroit dangereux de le guérir de ses défauts?’ ((Œuvres, Paris, 1790, i. 367, in Dialogues des Morts); and an anonymous English work argued that ‘What the generality of men take for Virtues, are only Vices in Masquerade’ (Laconics: or, New Maxims of State and Conversation, ed. 1701, pt. 2, maxim 53; p. 43). See, also, the citation from La Rochefoucauld (above, i. cv) and from Rochester (below, i. 219, n. 1). Another, related, type of work held that the passions may become the ingredients of genuine virtue, but nevertheless showed at the same time much of the theological belief that the passions are in their nature of the world, the flesh, and the devil. For instances of such writings one might cite J. F. Senault’s De l’Usage des Passions (1643), Malebranche’s Recherche de La Vérité (cf. ed. Paris, 1721, iii. 18), and W. Ayloffe’s Government of the Passions, according to the Rules of Reason and Religion (1700). In these studies of the emotions—especially in the first-mentioned type—there lay implicit the paradox that vices may be benefits.—Concerning this whole matter of the psychologizing of virtue into vice cf. above, i. xlvii–xlix, lxxxvii–xciii, and below, ii. 404, n. 1. These anticipations, however, unlike Mandeville, usually put little stress on the social implications of the value of vice, being content to show how the individual could transmute the evil passions of his nature into personal virtue. As part of the background for Mandeville’s phrase there should be considered also the common ‘optimistic’ belief that somehow good springs from evil (see below, i. 57, n. 1). For Mandeville’s own explanation of his phrase see below, i. 412, n. 1. [1] All Continental dates and all English year dates are given new style unless it is otherwise stated ; other English dates till 1752 are old style. [2] A genealogy of the family is given below, ii. 380–5, with the more important fragments of related information available in various city archives. [3] He first called himself Bernard Mandeville in 1704, on the title-page of Æsop Dress’d. In 1711 and 1715, on the title-page of the Treatise of the Hypochondriack … Passions, he used the particle, but from then on he consistently omitted it both on title-pages and on personal documents. [4] According to the Rotterdam archives (the ‘Doopregister der Gereformeerde Kerk’), which Dr. E. Wiersum, the Archivist, has been kind enough to examine for me. The Bibliothèque Britannique for 1733, i. 244, gave Mandeville’s birthplace as Dort (Dordrecht), and later historians have followed that periodical. Since Dort is scarcely more than ten miles from Rotterdam, it is, of course, just possible that Mandeville was born in Dortand baptized at Rotterdam. The Dort archives, however, show no traces of the de Mandevilles having ever been connected with the place, and in view of this and the fact that the Bibliothèque Britannique gave a false date for Mandeville’s death, although it had occurred that same year (see below, i. xxx, n. 1), there seems no reason to suppose that Mandeville was not born in the place in which he was baptized. [1] Mandeville, Oratio Scholastica, title-page. [2] Oratio Scholastica, p. 4. [3] Album Studiosorum Academiae, column 686. He gave his age at the time falsely as 20 years (see Album). On 19 Mar. 1691, the Album still records Mandeville’s age as 20 (column 714). The University pedelsrollen, or beadle’s lists, which Prof. Dr. Knappert has kindly examined for me, give his age as 20 on 13 Feb. 1687, as 21 on 23 Feb. 1688, as 22 on 17 Mar. 1689, and as 23 on 15 Mar. 1690. In 1687 and 1688, according to the pedelsrollen, he boarded on the Papen Gracht with Neeltje van der Zee ; in 1689, with Christofel Prester in the Garenmarkt. [4] Disputatio Philosophica, title page. [5] Pedelsrollen. [1] Column 714, this time enrolled as a student of medicine. [2] See Mandeville’s Disputatio Medica, title-page, and Treatise of the Hypochondriack . . . Diseases (1730), p. 132. [3] See his medical Treatise. [4] Treatise (1711), p. 40. [5] Sakmann conjectures (Bernard de Mandeville und die Bienenfabel-Controverse, ed. 1897, p. 7) on the evidence of the Treatise (1730), pp. 98–9, and certain unspecified references in Mandeville’s Origin of Honour that Mandeville had been to Paris and Rome. I am inclined to agree, on the basis of the reference in the Treatise, one in the Fable (ii. 154), a passage in the Origin of Honour (pp. 95–6)—this especially—and the tone of the reference to the Invalides in the Fable i. 172. The passage in the Origin of Honour reads, ‘ Of all the Shews and Solemnities that are exhibited at Rome, the greatest and most expensive, next to a Jubilee, is the Canonization of a Saint. For one that has never seen it, the Pomp is incredible. The Stateliness of the Processions, the Richness of Vestments and sacred Utensils that are display’d, the fine Painting and Sculpture that are expos’d at that Time, the Variety of good Voices and Musical Instruments that are heard, the Profusion of Wax-Candles, the Magnificence which the Whole is perform’d with, and the vast Concourse of People, that is occasion’d by those Solemnities, are all such, that it is impossible to describe them.’ [1] Treatise (1730), p. xiii. [2] By licence dated 28 Jan. She gave her age as 25 years. According to the licence both had been living in the parish of St. Giles-in-the-Fields; according to the entry of the marriage in St. Giles’s register, in the parish of St. Martin-in-the-Fields. [3] See Mandeville’s will, reproduced opposite. According to the parish register of St. Martin-in-the-Fields Michael was born 1 Mar. 169 8/9 and baptized in St. Martin’s the same day. [4] Some Fables after the Easie and Familiar Method of Monsieur de la Fontaine. The extraordinary vogue of Mandeville’s works is discussed below, ch. 5; the works themselves are listed at the end of this chapter. [5] About 1711 he was living in Manchester Buildings, Cannon Row, Westminster, or, as he put it in accord with contemporary colloquial usage, ‘Manchester-Court, Channel-Row’ (Treatise, ed. 1711, 2nd issue, title-page and p. xiv). When Mandeville died in 1733 he had been living in the parish of St. Stephen’s, Coleman Street, London (see the endorsement on his will, opposite). [6] See below, i. xxx–xxxii. [1] J. W. Newman, Lounger’s Common-Place Book, 3rd ed., 1805, ii. 306. [2] Hawkins, General History of Music (1776) v. 316, n. [3] Bibliothèque Britannique for 1733, i. 245, and Moréri, Grand Dictionnaire (1759), art. ‘Mandeville’. [4] John Brown, Essays on the Characteristics (1751), p. 175. Also Gentleman’s Magazine xxi. 298. [5] Shakespeare and Voltaire (N.Y., 1902), p. 14. [1] Cf. Boswell’s Life of Johnson, ed. Hill, 1887, i. 28. [2] Prior, Life of Edmond Malone (1860), pp. 425–7. [3] Life of Johnson (1787), p. 263, n. [4] See Mandeville’s Treatise of the Hypochondriack . . . Diseases (1730), p. xiii. [1] The Bibliothèque Britannique was responsible for the belief that Mandeville was born in Dort (see above, i. xvii, n. 4). [2] Cf. above, i. xxii, n. 4 and below, i. xxv. [3] The London Journal which I have gone through carefully without finding the articles mentioned by Hawkins, may have suggested itself to Hawkins because Mandeville published there-in his Vindication of the Fable of the Bees (see Fable i. 401 sqq.). [4] In his Treatise, he devotes much space to this matter (for instance, ed. 1730, pp. 356–76), concluding that wine is a cordial and restorative only ‘to those, that are unacquainted with, or at least make no constant Practise of using it: Upon us that either out of Luxury, Pride, or a foolish Custom have brought our selves to drink it daily, and made it a Part of our Diet, its Medicinal Virtue … is lost’ (p. 375). He speaks also of ‘hot Vinous Liquors, by the constant sipping of which it is incredible how many have been destroy’d’ (p. 356). To be sure, he admits the healthfulness of its use in moderation, and even indulges in a literary rhapsody in imitation of the classics as to its effects (pp. 360–3); but his final professional verdict is that it is useful, except as a restorative, only because, otherwise, people who dislike water would not drink enough with their meals to saturate their solid nourishment (pp. 367–8); and he counterbalances his rhapsody by the assertion that ‘the innumerable Mischiefs, which Wine, as it is managed, creates to Mankind, far exceed whatever Horace, or any body else can say in Commendation of it’ (p. 365). His attitude towards wine-drinking, indeed, is extraordinarily unfavourable for a century in which respectable men used regularly to drink themselves into an after-dinner stupor. In fact, Mandeville’s advice (p. 375) ‘to forbear Wine for a Fortnight or longer’ every now and then was so contrary to the custom of his day that he feels forced to add that ‘most People in plentiful Circumstances would laugh at’ this admonition (p. 375). In the Fable of the Bees, also, he takes an attitude contrary to that with which Hawkins credits him. He directs his irony specifically against distillers (see i. 93) and preaches against drinking (see Remark G)—although maintaining, of course, in accord with the paradoxical theme of his book, that even this evil has compensations. Still this is hardly what could be called obliging the distillers, for a recommendation which is given also to theft and prostitution is not a very great one. [1] These men, who were Mandeville’s financial agents, were originally of Dutch extraction, being naturalized by Private Acts 6 Geo. I, c. 23 and c. 25. [1] See Mandeville’s will, facing p. xx. [2] Cf. Treatise (1730), p. xiii. [3] Treatise (1730), p. 351. [4] See below, i. xxx–xxxvii. [1] It originally appeared on pp. 40 and xii–xiii. [2] Grand Dictionnaire Historique (1759), article on Mandeville. [3] See above, frontispiece. [4] Cf. Johnson, Lives of the English Poets, ed. Hill, 1905, ii. 123; Hawkins, Life of Johnson (1787), p. 264, n., and General History of … Music (1776) v. 316, n.; and J. W. Newman, Lounger’s Common-Place Book, 3rd ed., 1805, ii. 307–8. The latter account stated: ‘… it was his custom to call the excellent and respectable Mr. Addison, a parson in a tye-wig [Johnson and Hawkins (Life of Johnson) both mention this]; having on a certain occasion offended a clergyman, by the grossness and indecorum of his language, the latter told him, that his name bespoke his character, Mandeville, or a devil of a man. ‘Mandeville highly enjoyed the society and port wine at Lord Macclesfield’s table, where he predominated, and was permitted to say or do whatever he chose; his sallies after dinner were witty, but not always restrained by propriety and decorum; the pride and petulance of Ratcliffe, a common-place topic [cf. below, i. 261, n. 1], and to put a parson in a passion, a favorite amusement. ‘On these occasions, the chancellor, who loved his conversation, and relished his humor, would affect to moderate, but by his irony, frequently increased their disputes, and in general, concluded with joining in the laugh against the divine. ‘A gentleman, with whom I formerly associated, made no scruple in confessing, that his father owed his preferment to his submitting to be laughed at for a year or two at Lord Macclesfield’s. ‘The luxurious feeding of the physician, who had a tolerable appetite, and loved good eating, was sometimes interrupted by a question from the peer. “Is this ragout wholesome, Dr. Mandeville? May I venture to taste the stewed carp ? [”] “Does it agree with your lordship, and do you like it?” was his general answer. “Yes.” “Then eat moderately and it must be wholesome.” In his works, Mandeville makes observations similar to that in the preceding paragraph. Cf. Virgin Unmask’d (1724), p. 56: ‘Nothing which is wholesome is bad for People in Health’; also, Treatise (1730), p. 240. Perhaps it was of Macclesfield that Dr. A. Clarke was thinking when he wrote to Mrs. Clayton, 22 Apr. 1732, ‘It is probable this gentleman [Mandeville] may be a favourite author with the town, though I am surprised he should be so much in the confidence of a great man who is ambitious of patronizing men of worth and learning, unless he is capable of mistaking low humour and drollery for fine wit’ (Viscountess Sundon, Memoirs, ed. 1848, ii. 111). [1] For this letter see opposite. [2] See Mandeville’s will, facing p. xx. Between the time when Mandeville made his will and the date of his death, South Sea Annuities, according to the quotations in the newspapers, averaged over 107, with a low mark of 103 3/8 (in 1729) and a high one of 111 7/8 (in 1732). [1] The lack of definite basis for the various innuendoes about Mandeville’s character is well illustrated by the following passage in Byrom’s Private Journal for 29 June 1729 (ed. Chetham Soc., vol. 34, i. 381): ‘Strutt and White took up the time in a long and warm dispute about Dr. Mandeville; they were extremely hot, and White in a very furious passion; Strut said that Mandeville had kept company with scrubs, White said there could not be worse scrubs than he that said so. I proposed the dixi to them, which took place awhile, and we had all our speeches round after Strut had fetched the Doctor’s book of the Fable of the Bees, and I declared for virtue’s being always proper to promote the good of the society in all cases, and vice always bad for it. Mr. White desired me to read the book, they kept still appealing to me all along.’ Authoritative information about Mandeville may possibly be found in Lord Macclesfield’s commonplace books, which are still preserved. The Estate has not allowed me access to them. [1] Treatise (1730), pp. –2. [2] Fable i. 337. [3] William Lyons, author of The Infallibility of Human Judgment, 1719. [4] Writings, ed. Smyth, N.Y., 1905, i. 278, in the Autobiography. [6] Hackney is given as the place of his death by the Historical Register for 1733 (p. 9 of the ‘Chronological Diary’ bound at the end); the London Evening-Post, no. 831, 20–23 Jan. 1733, p. 2; B. Berington’s Evening Post, 23 Jan. 1733, p. 3 ; and Applebee’s Original Weekly Journal, 27 Jan. 1733, p. 2. The latter two periodicals print the following obituary notice: ‘On Sunday Morning last died at Hackney, in the 63d Year of his Age, Bernard Mandeville, M.D. Author of the Fable of the Bees, of a Treatise of the Hypocondriac and Hysteric Passions and several other curious Pieces, some of which have been published in Foreign Languages. He had an extensive Genius, common Wit, and strong Judgment. He was thoroughly versed in the Learning of the Ancients, well skill’d in many Parts of Philosophy, and a curious Searcher into Human Nature; which Accomplishments rendered him a valuable and entertaining companion, and justly procured him the Esteem of Men [of] Sense and Literature. In his Profession he was of known Benevolence and Humanity; in his private Character, a sincere Friend; and in the whole Conduct of Life, a Gentleman of great Probity and Integrity’ (Berington’s) [5] Morning is given as the time of his death in many contemporary newspapers; e. g., the Country Journal: or, the Craftsman, no. 343, 27 Jan., p. 2, and the Weekly Register: or, Universal Journal, no. 146, 27 Jan., p. 2. [1] According to the endorsement on his will (see above, facing p. xx) and dozens of contemporary periodicals, including all those named in the preceding two notes. The Bibliothèque Britannique for 1733, i. 244, incorrectly gave 19 Jan. as the date, and has often been followed, especially in Continental works. [2] The Grub-street Journal for 25 Jan. 173 2/3 under a paragraph headed, ‘Friday, Jan. 19’, states, ‘There was last night a very slender appearance at the masquerade on occasion of this reigning distemper’. This distemper is identified as ‘ the late fatal Colds’ in the Bee:or, Universal Weekly Pamphlet i. 43, for 3–10 Feb. 1733. The Weekly Register: or, Universal Journal for 27 Jan. 1733, in a section dated 23 Jan., mentions the ‘present raging Colds and Coughs’. [3] I have attempted the canon of Mandeville’s works in my article, ‘The Writings of Bernard Mandeville’, in the Journal of English and Germanic Philology for 1921, xx. 419–67. I there assemble my reasons for the classification of Mandeville’s works given above. Where the above list differs from the article, the present tabulation is the more authoritative. [1] Below, ii. 386–400, I give the full title-pages of every accessible edition, together with a detailed account of the differences between the editions. [2] Fable i. 4. [3] Advertised in the Daily Courant for that date as ‘This Day is publish’d’. The advertisement was repeated the following day. [4] It corresponds to pp. 17–37 of this present volume. [5] Fable i. 4. [6] Advertised in the Post Boy for 1–3 July 1714 as ‘Just publish’d’. The notice reproduces the title-page of the first edition, and, therefore, I take it, refers to that. [7] Advertised in the Post Man for 4–7 Dec. 1714 as if published some time before. The announcement reproduces the title-page of the second edition, which seems, therefore, to be referred to. [1] Advertised as ‘Just publish’d’, in the Daily Post for 10 Apr. 1723, and in the Post Boy for 9–11 Apr. 1723. It was entered in the Register (MS.) of the Stationers’ Company 28 Mar. 1723 by Edmund Parker as owned entirely by Mandeville. Mandeville had also owned the 1711 Treatise (see Register 27 Feb. 17 10/11). [2] See below, i. 406, n. 1. [3] A summary of the additions is given below, ii. 392–3. [4] See Fable i. 253–322 and 323–69. [5] See Fable i. 409. [6] See Letter to Dion, p. 7. [7] See Fable i. 381–412. [8] It is probably this edition which is advertised as ‘Just publish’d’, in Applebee’s Original Weekly Journal for 18 Jan. 172 3/4, p. 3198. [1] That Mandeville and not the compositor was responsible for some of the variations between the editions of 1724 and 1725 is indicated, first, by the fact that the variations between these editions are much more numerous than the alterations occurring after 1725, which is what would be likely to happen if the changes were due to the author’s intention and not to inaccuracies of the printer; secondly, by the nature of certain of the changes—those noted below, i. 89, n. a, 139, n. a, 275, n. a, 288, n. c, 298, n. b, and 327, n. a. The variant in i. 89, n. a is especially significant, for in the previous edition Mandeville had made similar contractions (see below, i. 118, n. e, and 128, n. a); the variant in i. 139, n. a shows a correction of an error in the earlier editions—a correction of a kind not likely to be made by a compositor setting a verbatim reprint; and the change in i. 298, n. c is a stylistic improvement. [2] There is not a single alteration in the 1728 edition which might not easily be due to the compositor’s inaccuracy. That the changes in the 1729 edition were not Mandeville’s is shown by the fact that the next edition (1732) was set from the 1728 edition (the variants prove this). [3] The following two variants suggest Mandeville’s responsibility: the alteration in i. 149, n. a, which causes a witticism; and the correction of the index, i. 375, n. a. [4] For instance, in three cases (i. 55, n. c, 240, n. a, 241, n. a) the change seems to have been made merely to avoid repeating a word on the same page. The alteration of ‘Rigour’ to ‘Harshness’ (i. 245, n. b) apparently occurred because ‘rigid’ bad been used three lines earlier. Mandeville’s care is indicated also by such attention to shades of expression as is shown in i. 60, n. a. His desire for colloquial effect is shown by the contractions noted i. 89, n. a, 118, n. e, and 128, n. a. [1] Published 19 Dec. 1728, according to the Daily Courant for 17 and 19 Dec., and the Daily Post for 18 Dec. [2] The variants in these last two editions seem due to the compositor. [3] It is recorded in the London Magazine for Dec. 1733, p. 647. [4] See below, ii. 396–9. [5] The Grumbling Hive was also reprinted in F. D. Maurice’s edition of William Law’s Remarks upon . . . the Fable of the Bees (1844), in Paul Goldbach’s Bernard de Mandeville’s Bienenfabel (Halle, 1886), in J. P. Glock’s Symbolik der Bienen (Heidelberg, 1891 and 1897), pp. 358–79 (which also prints the German translation of 1818), and in part in Ernest Bernbaum’s English Poets of the Eighteenth Century (1918), pp. 14–18. Fragments of the prose of the Fable are printed in the edition of Law by Maurice just mentioned, Craik’s English Prose Selections (1894) iii. 440–6, Selby-Bigge’s British Moralists (1897) ii. 348–56, Rand’s Classical Moralists (1900), pp. 347–54, and Alden’s Readings in English Prose of the Eighteenth Century (1911), pp. 245–54. [1] By Barbier and the catalogues of the Bibliotheque Nationale and British Museum. I do not know the primary source of the ascription. [2] This edition is mentioned by Goldbach (Bernard de Mandeville’s Bienenfabel, p. 5). I doubt its existence. [3] In the preface the translator signed himself Just German von Freystein. [4] This version, by S. Ascher, contains a translation of the Grumbling Hive and a kind of paraphrase of the ‘Remarks’—really a rewriting by Ascher, sometimes contracting, sometimes as much as tripling in length what Mandeville said. [5] The 1914 translation is a new one. [6] An 1817 edition by the same editor, publisher, and, apparently, with the same title as in the case of the 1818 edition is recorded (priced at one reichsthaler) in Heinsius’ Allgemeines Bücher-Lexikon (1822) vi. 535 and Kayser’s Vollständiges Bücher-Lexicon (1834) iv. 20. I cannot find it in any German library. The reference to an ‘1817’ edition in R. Stammler’s Mandevilles Bienenfabel (Berlin, 1918), p. 8, n., is, the author informs me, a misprint for ‘1818’. [1] See for a good instance the last paragraph of Remark O. [2] Mandeville’s style is at its best, it seems to me, in the first volume of the Fable, the Executions at Tyburn, and parts of the Letter to Dion and of the Origin of Honour. (Part II of the Fable is stylistically not so good: its more ‘polite’ and artificial manner sacrifices some of the raciness and movement of Part I, and the effect of the dialogue form of remark and answer has caused some loss of the rhythmic sweep of phrase so satisfying in vol. i.) The student of style would do well to note Mandeville’s skill in rhythm and balance. To take an example almost at random, note how in the paragraph on i. 235–6—especially in the last two sentences—the sentences are divided into balancing parts, each part being in turn composed of antiphonal elements. Such parallel structure in the rhythmic texture of his prose is an outstanding trait of Mandeville’s style, and is so skilfully employed as never to be monotonous.—One might note, too, the exuberant generosity with which Mandeville throws in illustrative matter, as if from sheer joy in a visualizing faculty which can supply so many apposite and vivid details. About Mandeville’s conscious artistry see above, i. xxxv, n. 4. [1] Thus Toland wrote ‘… no Christian . . . says Reason and the Gospel are contrary to one another’ (Christianity not Mysterious, 2nd ed., 1696, p. 25; and compare pp. xv and 140–1). Thomas Morgan argued, ‘The moral Truth, Reason, or Fitness of Things is the only certain Mark or Criterion of any Doctrine as coming from God, or as making any Part of true Religion’ (Moral Philosopher, ed. 1738, p. viii). Tindal spoke of ‘Natural Religion; which, as I take it, differs not from Reveal’d, but in the manner of its being communicated: The One being the Internal, as the Other the External Revelation of the same Unchangeable Will of a Being, who is alike at all Times infinitely Wise and Good’ (Christianity as Old as the Creation, ed. 1730, p. 3; cf. also pp. 103–4 and 246–7). Compare also Thomas Chubb, Ground and Foundation of Morality Considered (1745), pp. 40–1. [1] For example, see Samuel Clarke, Sermons (1742) i. 457 and 602, Locke, Works (1823) vii. 145, and Thomas Burnet, Theory of the Earth (1697), pref., sign. a. [1] Other examples were G. F. Pico della Mirandola’s Examen Vanitatis Doctrinae Gentium (1520), Cornelius Agrippa’s De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum (1530), Francisco Sanchez’s Quod Nihil scitur (1581), La Mothe le Vayer’s Discours pour montrer, que les Doutes de la Philosophie Sceptique sont de Grand Usage dans les Sciences (Oeuvres, Dresden, 1756–9, vol. 5 [2]), and Jerome Hirnhaim’s De Typho Generis Humani (1676).—Cf. P. Villey, Les Sources & l’Evolution des Essais de Montaigne (1908) ii. 324. [2] For Bayle’s influence on Mandeville see below, i. ciii–cv. [1] Historical and Critical Dictionary (1710) iv. 2619, art. ‘Pyrrho’, n.b. I cite Bayle’s Dictionary and his Miscellaneous Reflections, Occasion’d by the Comet in English, because Mandeville used them in translation. That Mandeville used an English translation of the Dictionnaire is shown by the citations from it in his Free Thoughts. For instance, compare Free Thoughts (1729), p. 223, lines 11–15, with the Dictionary (1710) i. 72, col. 1 of notes, in the article ‘Acontius’, n. f, lines 25–9 of the note. For the evidence that Mandeville used an English translation of the Pensées Diverses … a’ l’ Occasion de la Comète, see below, i. 99, nn. 1 and 2, 167, n. 1, and 215, n. 2. [2] For another example see Oeuvres Diverses (The Hague, 1727–31) ii. 396, in the Commentaire Philosophique sur ces Paroles de Jesus-Christ, Contrains-les d’entrer. [3] Miscellaneous Reflections (1708) i. 296. Cf. Continuation des Pensées Diverses, §124: ‘Les vrais Chretiens, ce me semble, se considéreroient sur la terre comme des voïageurs & des pélerins qui tendent au Ciel leur véritable patrie. Ils regarderoient le monde comme un lieu de bannissement, ils en détâcheroient leur coeur, & ils luteroient sans fin & sans cesse avec leur propre nature pour s’empêcher de prendre goût à la vie périssable, toûjours attentifs à mortifier leur chair & ses convoitises, à réprimer l’amour des richesses, & des dignitez, & des plaisirs corporels, & à dompter cet orgueil qui rend si peu suportables les injures.’ However, Bayle’s identification of Christianity and self-mortification is usually more an implicit assumption than an explicitly stated doctrine. [1] The representativeness of these opinions is discussed below, i. cxxi, n. 1, and cxii, n. 1. [1] I use the term ‘utilitarian’ in a looser sense than that in which specialists in philosophy ordinarily employ it. I intend by it always an opposition to the insistence of ‘rigoristic’ ethics that not results but motivation by right principle determines virtuousness. To have used the technical vocabulary of the philosophical specialist would have needlessly hampered the reader trained in other fields; and, besides, my non-technical use of the term parallels the condition of ethical thought in Mandeville’s day, when utilitarian theory had not yet taken to itself the more specific connotation it now has, but corresponded simply to an ethics whose moral touchstone was results and not abstract principle. For like reasons I have used loosely, though, I hope, not irrelevantly, certain other terms, such as ‘relativism’ and ‘absolutism’. [1] For further instances see below, i. cxxi, n. 1, and 238, n. 1. [2] Cf. Kant, Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 1900–) iv. 397 sqq., in Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten. [1] It is noticeable in the Virgin Unmask’d (1709) and dominant in the Letter to Dion (1732). See especially the preface to the Origin of Honour (1732). [2] For examples in addition to the already-mentioned case of Bayle, see below, i. cxxi, n. 1— the citations from Esprit and Bernard. [1] As, for example, in Tillotson, Works (1820) vi. 524, Locke, Works (1823) vii. 133, Samuel Clarke, Works (1738) ii. 609, Shaftesbury, Characteristics, ed. Robertson, 1900, i. 255, and Fiddes, General Treatise of Morality (1724), p. lviii. [1] Let me remind the reader that my use of the term ‘utilitarianism’ is non-technical; see above, i. xlviii, n. 1. [1] Enquiry into the Causes of the Frequent Executions at Tyburn, 1725. [1] See, for instance, his Letter to Dion and Fable i. 404. [1] Concerning the historical background of this conception of the moral implications of pride, see below, i. xci–xciii. [2] Concerning the historical background of Mandeville’s anti-rationalism, see below, i. lxxviii–lxxxvii. [1] In other ways, also, Mandeville anticipated some of the most recent developments of psychology. The fundamental position of the Fable—that so-called good arises from a conversion of so-called evil—is really a form of one of the chief tenets of psycho-analysis—that virtues arise through the individual’s attempt to compensate for original weaknesses and vices. Mandeville also forestalled another Freudian position when he argued (Fable ii. 271 sqq.) that the naturalness of a desire could be inferred from the fact of a general prohibition aimed at it, and the strength of the desire, from the stringency of the prohibition. And the psycho-analytic theory of the ambivalence of emotions was anticipated by Mandeville in his Origin of Honour, pp. 12–13 (see below, i. 67, n. 1). [1] Mandeville’s more scientific formulation of his position in Part II and the Origin of Honour seems due partly to the attacks on him (cf. below, ii. 185, n. 1, and 197, n. 2); and, possibly, the full implications of his position were not quite clear to him when he first enunciated it in 1714 (cf. below, i. lxxii). Mandeville pointed out three main stages in the development of society: the forced association of men to protect themselves from wild animals (Fable ii. 240–2), the association of men to protect themselves from each other (ii. 266–8), and the invention of letters (ii. 269). As other causes of the evolution of society, he instanced division of labour (ii. 141–3 and 284), the growth of language (ii. 285 sqq.), the invention of implements (ii. 319–20), and the invention of money (ii. 348–50). This development was furthered through the inevitable existence of the emotion of ‘reverence’, although this emotion by itself would have been of little force (ii. 201–5 and 231). In addition, Mandeville noted that savage religion is animistic and based on fear (ii. 207–12), and he analysed the mental reactons of children in order to explain the psychology of savages (i. 209–10). [1] See for examples Fable ii. 186–7, 200, and 287. [1] Essays on Freethinking and Plain Speaking (N. Y., 1908), pp. 272–4, and History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1902) ii. 35. [1] It should be remembered also that Mandeville considered the poor happy and useful not in so far as made more wealthy, but more ignorant and hard-working. Concerning this point, see what follows in this section. [1] Fable i. 409. See especially also i. 287–90. [2] Fable i. 299–300. Cf. below, i. cxxxix–cxl. [3] Cf. J. E. Thorold Rogers, Six Centuries of Work and Wages (1909), p. 489. [4] Economic Writings, ed. Hull, i. 275, in Political Arithmetick. [5] Fletcher, Political Works (1737), pp. 125 sqq., in Two Discourses concerning the Affairs of Scotland; Written . . . 1698. Fletcher argued incidentally that ‘provisions by hospitals, alms-houses, and the contributions of churches or parishes, have by experience been found to increase the numbers of those that live by them’ (p. 129). [1] Essai Politique sur le Commerce (1761), pp. 53–4. [2] See below, ii. 419 sqq., under the early years of the list of references there, for notice of attacks on Mandeville’s arguments against charity-schools. [1] Mandeville’s first references to the Characteristics occur in his Free Thoughts (1720), pp. 239–41 and 360, and are favourable. The earliest references in the Fable occur in Remark T and the Search into the Nature of Society, both of which first appeared in 1723. [1] ‘The most ingenious way of becoming foolish is by a system’ (Shaftesbury, Characteristics, ed. Robertson, 1900, i. 189). [2] Cf. Characteristics i. 245–6 [1] To prevent confusion here and elsewhere, it should be noted that Mandeville did not consider man an unsocial animal. He believed emphatically that man was happiest in society and well adapted to it; but he held that it was his egoism which made him social beyond other animals. [2] The special sense in which Shaftesbury employed the term ‘nature’, and the fact that to follow it implied not self-indulgence, but self-discipline, is clear, for instance, in the last clause of the following passage: ‘Thus in the several orders of terrestrial forms a resignation is required, a sacrifice and mutual yielding of natures one to another. . . . And if in natures so little exalted or pre-eminent above each other, the sacrifice of interests can appear so just, how much more reasonably may all inferior natures be subjected to the superior nature of the world! …’ (Characteristics, ed. Robertson, ii. 22). In like manner, Shaftesbury speaks of the need of disciplining our disposition ‘till it become natural’ (i. 218). Note that ‘become’. The essentially repressive nature of Shaftesbury’s ethics is evident also in such a passage as ‘If by temper any one is passionate, angry, fearful, amorous, yet resists these passions, and notwithstanding the force of their impression adheres to virtue, we say commonly in this case that the virtue is the greater; and we say well’ (i. 256). Cf. Esther Tiffany, ‘Shaftesbury as Stoic’, in Pub. Mod. Lang. Ass. for 1923, xxxviii. 642–84. [1] Mandeville, in his Letter to Dion (1732), p. 47, offered a sort of summary of their disagreement: ‘I differ from my Lord Shaftsbury entirely, as to the certainty of the Pulchrum & Honestum, abstract from Mode and Custom: I do the same about the Origin of Society, and in many other Things, especially the Reasons why Man is a Sociable creature, beyond other Animals.’ Leslie Stephen makes an interesting comparison between Mandeville and Shaftesbury in his History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1902) ii. 39–40. [1] Johnsonian Miscellanies, ed. Hill, 1897, i. 268. [1] See above, i. xix, n. 5. [1] Cf. above, i. xli–xlii. [2] See, for instance, Fable i. 327–31 and 406. [1] There was, of course, a psychological element in the anti-rationalism of the pyrrhonists, for much of their scepticism as to the possibility of achieving truth rested on the ground that the divergence of our organisms, and, hence, of our impressions and experience, prevents the discovery of the common premisses necessary for the realization of truth. But the Sceptics were interested in criticizing conclusions rather than mental processes, and, when giving a psychological criticism, they attributed error usually to faults of sense or inference, and not, as with Mandeville, to the will to error. Still, they showed on some occasions an anti-rationalism of the Mandevillian type. Thus, Montaigne added to the more customary type of scepticism of his Apologie de Raimond Sebond some consideratlon of the rule of passion over reason from the particular anti-rationalistic point of view with which we are here concerned (see below, i. lxxx, n. 2), as did Joseph Glanvill (Essays on Several Important Subjects in Philosophy and Religion, ed. 1676, pp. 22–5, in the first essay). There naturally would be some relation between the Sceptics and anti-rationalists of the class to which Mandeville belonged, for in their attempt to show the elusiveness of truth, the Sceptics, as might be expected, considered the ability of man to deceive himself. This recognition of man’s openness to self-imposture needed only to be stressed and universalized to issue as anti-rationalism of the kind here considered. Thus, the Sceptics were among the intellectual grandparents of Mandeville. [1] See next note.—This is not to deny that Spinoza was also a rationalist (see below, i. 49, n. 1).—I take this opportunity to note that, in painting Mandeville’s background, I am not attempting to show his predecessors full-length, considering that, if they stated a concept clearly, it may often fairly be taken as a possible source of influence, whether or not the concept in question was thoroughly representative of its utterer. [2] I mass here some citations to show the prevalency of anti-rationalism of the type now being considered: Montaigne: ‘Les secousses & esbranlemens que nostre ame reçoit par les passions corporelles, peuuent beaucoup en elle, mais encore plus les siennes propres, ausquelles elle est si fort en prinse qu’il est à l’aduanture soustenable qu’elle n’a aucune autre alleure & mouuement que du souffle de ses vents, & que, sans leur agitation, elle resteroit sans action, comme vn nauire en pleine mer, que les vents abandonnent de leur secours. Et qui maintiendroit cela suiuant le parti des Peripateticiens ne nous feroit pas beaucoup de tort, puis qu’il est conu que la pluspart des plus belles actions de l’ame procedent & ont besoin de cette impulsion des passions. … Quelles differences de sens & de raison, quelle contrarieté d’imaginations nous presente la diuersité de nos passions! Quelle asseurance pouuons nous donq prendre de chose si instable & si mobile, subiecte par sa condition à la maistrise du trouble, n’alant iamais qu’un pas force & emprunte ? Si nostre iugement est en main à la maladie mesmes & à la perturbation; si c’est de la folie & de la temerité qu’il est tenu de receuoir l’impression des choses, quelle seurte pouuons nous attendre de luy?’ (Essais, Bordeaux, 1906–20, ii. 317–19); Daniel Dyke: ‘Therefore Peter well sayes of these corrupt lusts, that they fight against the soule [I Peter ii. 11]; yea, even the principall part thereof, the Understanding; by making it servilely to frame its judgement to their desire’ (Mystery of Selfe-Deceiving, ed. 1642, p. 283; cf. also p. 35); Pierre Le Moyne: ‘Cependant c’est ce qu’a voulu Galien en vn Traitté [De Temperamentis], où il enseigne que les mœurs suiuent necessairement la complexion du Corps. C’est ce que veulent encore auiourd’huy certains Libertins, qui soustiennent auecque luy, que la Volonté n’est pas la Maistresse de ses Passions; que la Raison leur a esté donnée pour Compagne, & non pas pour Ennemie; & qu’au lieu de faire de vains efforts pour les retenir, elle se doit contenter de leur chercher de beaux chemins, d’éloigner les obstacles qui les pourroient irriter, & de les mener doucement au Plaisir où la Nature les appelle’ (Peintures Morales, ed. 1645, i. 373–4); Joseph Glanvill (see his Vanity of Dogmatizing, ed. 1661, pp. 133–5); La Rochefoucauld: ‘L’esprit est toujours la dupe du cœur’ (maxim 102, Œuvres, ed. Gilbert and Gourdault), and cf. maxims 43, 103, and 460; Mme de Schomberg: ‘ … c’est toujours le cœur qui fait agir l’esprit …’ (cited from Œuvres de la Rochfoucauld, ed. Gilbert and Gourdault, i. 377); Pascal: ‘Tout notre raisonnement se réduit à céder au sentiment’ (Pensées, ed. Brunschvicg, § 4, 274–ii. 199); ‘Le cœur a ses raisons, que la raison ne connaît point …’ (§ 4, 277–ii. 201); cf. also § 2, 82–3—ii. 1–14 (Pascal anti-rationalistic, for he believes that, although ‘L’homme n’agit point par la raison’, nevertheless reason ‘fait son êtré’ [§ 7, 439–ii. 356]); M. de Roannez is cited by Pascal as saying: ‘Les raisons me viennent après, mais d’abord la chose m’agrée ou me choque sans en savoir la raison, et cependant cela me choque par cette raison que je ne découvre qu’ensuite.—Mais je crois, non pas que cela choquait par ces raisons qu’on trouve après, mais qu’on ne trouve ces raisons que parce que cela choque’ (Pensées, ed. Brunschvicg, § 4, 276–ii. 200); Malebranche: ‘… leurs passions ont sur leur esprit une domination si vaste et si étenduë, qu’il n’est pas possible d’en marquer les bornes’ (Recherche de la Verité, Paris, 1721, ii. 504); ‘Les passions tâchent toujours de se justifier, & elles persuadent insensiblement que l’on a raison de les suivre’ (ii. 556; and cf. bk. 5, ch. 11: ‘Que toutes les passions se justifient …’—Malebranche, however, though giving expression to the anti-rationalistic attitude, was far from holding it); Spinoza: ‘Constat itaque ex his omnibus, nihil nos conari, velle, appetere, neque cupere, quia id bonum esse judicamus; sed contra, nos propterea aliquid bonum esse judicare, quia id conamur, volumus, appetimus, atque cupimus’ (Ethica, ed. Van Vloten and Land, 1895, pt. 3, prop. 9, scholium); ‘Vera boni et mali cognitio, quatenus vera, nullum affectum coërcere potest, sed tantum quatenus ut affectus consideratur’ (Ethica, pt. 4, prop. 14); see also pt. 3, def. 1 and pt. 4, def. 7. Jacques Esprit wrote, ‘… ils [the philosophers] ne sçavoient pas quelle étoit la disposition des ressorts qui font mouvoir le cœur de l’homme, & n’avoient aucune lumiere ni aucun soubçon de l’étrange changement qui s’étoit fait en luy, par lequel la raison étoit devenuë esclave des passions’ (La Fausseté des Vertus Humaines, Paris, 1678, vol. 1, pref., sign. [a 10]). Fontenelle has, ‘Ce sont les passions qui font et qui défont tout. Si la raison dominoit sur la terre, il ne s’y passeroit rien. … Les passions sont chez les hommes des vents qui sont nécessaires pour mettre tout en mouvement …’ (Œuvres, Paris, 1790, i. 298, in the dialogue between Herostratus and Demetrius of Phalerus); cf. also the dialogue between Cortez and Montezuma, and the dialogue between Pauline and Callirrhoe on the theme ‘Qu’on est trompé, d’autant qu’on a besoin de l’étre’. Jean de la Placette echoed Malebranche (see above in this note): ‘On a aussi remarqué que toutes les passions aiment à se justifier …’ (Traite de l’Orgueil, Amsterdam, 1700, p. 33). Rémond de Saint-Mard wrote, ‘Bon, il sied bien à la sagesse de défendre les passions; elle est elle-même une passion’ (Œuvres Mêlées, The Hague, 1742, i. 66, in Dialogues des Dieux, dial. 3). J. F. Bernard believed that man ‘a reçu la raison, mais qu’il en abuse’, continuing, ‘Dans tous les siecles passés l’on a travaillé à le connoitre; & l’on n’a decouvert en lui qu’un Amour propre, qui maitrise la Raison & la trahit en même tems …’ (Reflexions Morales, Amsterdam, 1716, p. 1; cf. also p. 111).—For citations from Bayle, Locke, and Hobbes, see below, i. 167, n. 2; and compare i. 333, n. 1. Some writers show modified forms of this anti-rationalism. Cureau de la Chambre wrote, ‘… la Vertu n’estant autre chose qu’vn mouuement reglé, & vne Passion moderée par la Raison; puisque vne Passion moderée est tousiours Passion …’ (Les Characteres des Passions, Paris, 1660, vol. 2, ‘Aduis au Lecteur’). And Jean de Bellegarde said, ‘… peu de gens cherchent de bonne foi à se guérir de leurs passions; toute leur application ne va qu’à trouver des raisons pour les justifier …’ (Lettres Curieuses de Litterature, et de Morale, Paris, 1702, p. 34). Father Bouhours, in 1687, gave some interesting testimony as to the prevalence of anti-rationalism: ‘Je ne sais pourtant, ajouta-t-il, si une pensée que j’ai vue depuis peu dans des mémoires très-curieux & très-bien écrits, est vraie ou fausse; la voici en propres termes: Le cœur est plus ingénieux que l’esprit. ‘ Il faut avouer, repartit Eudoxe, que le cœur & l’esprit sont bien à la mode: on ne parle d’autre chose dans les belles conversations; on y met à toute heure l’esprit & le cœur en jeu. Nous avons un livre qui a pour titre: Le démêlé du cœur & de l’esprit; & il n’y a pas jusqu’aux prédicateurs qui ne fassent rouler souvent la division de leurs discours, sur le cœur & sur l’esprit. Voiture est peut-être le premier qui a opposé l’un à l’autre, en écrivant à la marquise de Sablé. “Mes lettres, dit-il [Voiture, Œuvres, ed. Roux, 1858, p. 105], se font avec une si véritable affection, que si vous en jugez bien, vous les estimerez davantage que celles que vous me redemandez. Celles-là ne partoient que de mon esprit, celles-ci partent de mon cœur” ’ (La Maniere de bien penser, Paris, 1771, p. 68). [1] L’Art de se connoitre soy-meme (The Hague, 1711) ii. 241–2. [1] L’Art de se connoitre soy-meme (The Hague, 1711) ii. 233–4. [2] See below, i. ciii–cv. [3] See Fable ii. 168. [1] See his Treatise (1730), pp. 159–60. [2] See above, i. xli–xlii. [3] See Fable i. 325–33. [4] See, for instance, Fable i. 41 and ii. 178. [1] See below, i. 181, n. 1. [2] For instance, Galen in De Temperamentis. [3] For example, by Charron, De la Sagesse (Leyden, 1656) i. 89–91; Cureau de la Chambre, L’Art de connoistre les Hommes (Amsterdam, 1660), pp. 22–3; Glanvill, Vanity of Dogmatizing (1661), pp. 122 and 125; La Rochefoucauld, maxim 220 (Œuvres, ed. Gilbert and Gourdault, i. 118–19); Jacques Esprit, La Fausseté des Vertus Humaines (Paris, 1678) ii. 92 and 121–2; Laconics: or, New Maxims of State and Conversation (1701), p. 60–pt. 2, maxim 156. J. F. Bernard put it very flatly: ‘Nous vivons selon nôtre temperament, & ne sommes pas plus maîtres de nos vertus, que . . . des vertus des autres’ (Reflexions Morales, Amsterdam, 1716, p. 112). See also the first, second, and fourth citations under ‘Temperament’ sb. 6, in the Ox£ord English Dictionary. [4] Fable i. 213. [1] A more subtly related ancestor of anti-rationalism, and possibly, therefore, to some extent of Mandeville’s, is perhaps to be found in the medieval doctrine called Voluntarism. Voluntarism declared that it was the will, and not the reason, which was the efficient cause of belief: ‘Nemo credit nisi volens’. Of course, this doctrine is very different from the anti-rationalism of a Mandeville, for to the Voluntarist, in contrast to Mandeville (see Fable ii. 139, n. 1, for Mandeville’s determinism), the will was free, and therefore capable of completely rational choice and control; so that the priority of the will committed no Voluntarist to anti-rationalism. Add now, however, to Voluntarism the servum arbitrium of the Lutherans and Calvinists. This leaves the will no longer free to make rational choice; but, since the nature of God’s Creation is rational, the action of the will still remains rational despite its loss of power to choose. Now, however, take a not unnatural step: instead of having the will determined by the nature of God’s Creation, have it determined by its own nature. We then have a deterministic psychology which may easily issue as an anti-rationalism like Mandeville’s, for to the belief that the reason does not control the will is now added the belief that the will is not free to control itself by the light of reason, but must mechanically follow the dictates of its own constitution, which need not be conceived of as rational. However abstruse such a progression of concepts may sound at first, it was not, I think, in practice unlikely. [2] See above, i. lxi–lxiii. [3] Raymond Sebond, to take one instance, thus lamented the egoism of unregenerate man: ‘… si Dieu n’est premierement aymé de nous, il reste que chacũ d’entre nous s’ayme soy-mesme auant toute autre chose’ (Theologie Naturelle, trans. Montaigne, 1581, f. 145v). [1] See below, i. cix. [2] For examples, see La Rochefoucauld, maxims 171, 531, and 607 (Œuvres, ed. Gilbert and Gourdault); Pascal: ‘Il ne pourrait pas par sa nature aimer une autre chose, sinon pour soi-même et pour se l’asservir, parce que chaque chose s’aime plus que tout’ (Pensées, ed. Brunschvicg, § vii, 483–ii. 389); the Chevalier de Méré: ‘C’est quelque chose de si commun, & de si fin que l’interest, qu’il est toûjours le premier mobile de nos actions, le dernier point de veuë de nos entreprises, & le compagnon inseparable du des-interessement’ (Maximes, Sentences, et Reflexions Morales et Politiques, Paris, 1687, maxim 531); Fontenelle: ‘… vous entendrez bien du moins que la morale a aussi sa chimère; c’est le désintéressement; la parfaite amitié. On n’y parviendra jamais, mais il est bon que l’on prétende y parvenir: du moins en le prétendant, on parvient à beaucoup d’autres vertus, ou à des actions dignes de louange et d’estimé (Œuvres, Paris, 1790, i. 336, in Dialogues des Morts); Bossuet: ‘Elle [Anne de Gonzague] croyait voir partout dans ses actions un amour-propre déguisé en vertu’ (Œuvres, Versailles, 1816, xvii. 458); Abbadie: ‘On peut dire même que l’amour propre entre si essentielement dans la definition des vices & des vertus, que sans luy on ne sauroit bien concevoir ni les uns ni les autres. En general le vice est une préference de soy-même aux autres; & la vertu semble être une préference des autres à soy-même. Je dis, qu’elle semble l’être, parce qu’en effet il est certain que la vertu n’est qu’une maniere de s’aymer soy-même, beaucoup plus noble & plus sensée que toutes les autres’ (L’Art de se connoitre soy-meme, The Hague, 1711, ii. 261–2); and ‘La liberalité n’est, comme on l’a déja remarqué, qu’un commerce de l’amour propre, qui prefere la gloire de donner à tout ce qu’elle donne. La constance qu’une ostentation vaine de la force de son ame, & un desir de paroître au dessus de la mauvaise fortune. L’intrepidité qu’un art de cacher sa crainte, ou de se dérober à sa propre foiblesse. La magnanimité qu’une envie de faire paroître des sentimens élevés. ‘L’amour de la patrie qui a fait le plus beau caractere des anciens Heros, n’étoit qu’un chemin caché que leur amour propre prenoit …’ (ii. 476; and bee also vol. 2, ch. 7, ‘Où l’on fait voir que l’amour de nous mêmes allume toutes nos autres affections, & est le principe general de nos mouvemens’); Jean de la Placette: ‘L’amour propre est le principe le plus general de nôtre conduite. C’est le grand ressort de la machine. C’est celui qui fait agir tous les autres, & qui leur donne ce qu’ils ont de force & de mouvement. Rien n’échappe à son activité. Le bien & le mal, la vertu et le vice, le travail et le repos, en un mot tout ce qu’il y a … dans la vie, & dans les actions des hommes, ne vient que de là (Essais de Morale, Amsterdam, 1716, ii. 2–3); Houdar de la Motte: … nous nous aimons nous-mêmes, Et nous n’aimons rien que pour nous. De quelque vertu qu’on se pique, Ce n’est qu’un voile chimérique, Dont l’Amour propre nous séduit. … (Œuvres, Paris, 1753–4, i [2]. 362, in L’Amour Propre); J. F. Bernard: ‘L’Amour propre est inseparable de l’homme …’ (Reflexions Morales, Amsterdam, 1716, p. 111). A work attributed to Saint-Evremond states, ‘… Honour … is nothing but Self-love well manag’d’ (Works, trans. Desmaizeaux, 1728, iii. 351). Robert Waring’s Effigies Amoris (1648) has a passage on human egoism from which I quote (I cite John Norris’s translation—The Picture of Love Unveil’d, ed. 1744): ‘For this is the Merit of Benevolence, earnestly to wish well to ones self. … So that ’tis no wonder, that Virtue, which enjoyns a Neglect of our selves, suffers her self a greater Disregard from the World’ (p. 65). Norris himself wrote (Theory and Regulation of Love, ed. 1694, p. 46), ‘… even Love of Benevolence or Charity may be, (and such is our present Infirmity) is for the most part occasion’d by Indigence, and when unravel’d to the Bottom concludes in Self-Love. Our charity not only begins at Home, but for the most part ends there too.’ See also Norris’s Collection of Miscellanies (Oxford, 1687), pp. 333-7. Before him, Glanvill stated, ‘ … For every man is naturally a Narcissus, and each passion in us, no other but self-love sweetened by milder Epithets’ (Vanity of Dogmatizing, ed. 1661, p. 119). See also Lee, Caesar Borgia 111 (Works, ed. 1713, ii. 41). [1] Esprit’s concession that there were some exceptions to the rule of human selfishness was in answer to the insistence of the theologians that God could by His grace inspire man with genuine altruism. This proviso that the doctrine of human selfishness was to be applied only to man in ‘the state of nature’ was added also by La Rochefoucauld and Bayle—see my note to the passage in the Fable (i. 40, n. 1) where Mandeville similarly qualifies. It might be noted that it was common—perhaps to escape prosecution—to limit many theses about human nature to man in ‘the state of nature’. Seventeenth-century anti-rationalism was often thus qualified. That a writer, however, admitted exceptions to his rule of human conduct—even when honest in the admission—did not prevent him serving as a focus for an influence which neglected his provisos—a simple procedure, since these qualifications often appeared widely separated in the text from otherwise forcible statements. [2] Cf. Nicole’s treatise De la Charité, & de l’Amour-propre. See the preceding note. [3] Compare the Fable i. 66 with the following passages: Aristotle: ἔστω δὴ ἔλεος λύπη τις ἐπὶ φαινομένῳ κακωχͅ … ὃ κἂν αὐτὸς προσδοκήσειεν ἂν παθει̑ν ἢ τ̑ν αὑτο̑ τινά … (Rhetoric 11. viii. 2 [1385 b]; this is stated in a more qualified manner in Nic. Ethics ix. viii. 2); Charron: ‘Nous souspirons auec les affligés, compatissons à leur mal, ou pource que par vn secret consentement nous participons au mal les vns des autres, ou bien que nous craignons en nous mesmes, ce qui arriue aux autres’ (De la Sagesse, Leyden, 1656, bk. 1, ch. 34); Hobbes: ‘Pity is imagination or fiction of future calamity to ourselves, proceeding from the sense of another man’s calamity’ (English Works, ed. Molesworth, iv. 44); La Rochefoucauld: ‘La pitié est souvent un sentiment de nos propres maux dans les maux d’autrui; c’est une habile prévoyance des malheurs où nous pouvons tomber …’ (maxim 264, Œuvres, ed. Gilbert and Gourdault); Esprit: ‘… la pitié est un sentiment secrettement interessé; c’est une Prévoyance habile, & on peut l’appeller fort proprement la providence de l’amour propre’ (La Fausseté des Vertus Humaines, Paris, 1678, i. 373; cf. also i. 131–2); Houdar de la Motte: Leur bonheur [of friends and lovers] ne nous intéresse Qu’autant-qu’il est notre bonheur (Œuvres, Paris, 1753–4, i [2]. 363). See also below, i. 259, n. 1. [1] Cf. above, i. lxi–lxiii. [2] Thus the neo-Stoic Du Vair had written, ‘Qui est ce qui voudroit courir seul aux ieux Olimpiques? ostez l’emulation, vous ostez la gloire, vous ostez l’esperon à la vertu’ (La Philosophie Morale des Stoïques, Rouen, 1603, f. 30). Another example of Renaissance insistence on the value of glory was offered by Giordano Bruno, who thought this desire for fame (‘l’appetito de la gloria’) the great spur (‘solo et efficacissimo sprone’) to heroism (Opere, Leipsic, 1830, ii. 162, in Spaccio della Bestia Trionphante, 2nd dial., pt. 1). These earlier writings, however, hymn not pride, but the desire for glory, which they would not always have acknowledged to be the same thing. [1] Erasmus enlarged on the social import of pride in the Encomium Moriae (see below, i. cvii–cviii, the second, third, and fourth citations in the parallel columns). La Rochefoucauld has a number of maxims on the subject—for instance, maxim 150 (ed. Gilbert and Gourdault): See also Fontenelle: ‘La vanité se joue de leur [men’s] vie, ainsi que de tout le reste’ (Œuvres, Paris, 1790, i. 297, in the dialogue between Herostratus and Demetrius of Phalerus; cf. also the dialogues between Lucretia and Barbe Plomberge, and between Soliman and Juliette de Gonzague); Houdar de la Motte: Sa sévérité n’est que faste, Et l’honneur de passer pour chaste La résout à lêtre en effet. Sagesse pareille au courage De nos plus superbes Héros! L’Univers qui les envisage, Leur fait immoler leur repos (Œuvres, Paris, 1753–4, i [2]. 364–5, in L’Amour Propre); Rémond de Saint-Mard (Œuvres Mêlées, 1742, i. 168): ‘La Gloire est un artifice dont la Société se sert pour faire travailler les hommes à ses intérêts’—a conception found also in Nicole (Essais de Morale, Paris, 1714, iii. 128) and in Erasmus (see below, i. cviii, the third quotation in the parallel columns). J. F. Bernard stated, ‘ … les plus honnêtes gens sont la dupe de leur orgueil’ (Reflexions Morales, Amsterdam, 1716, p. 112). For recognition of the social value of pride by Hobbes and Locke, see below, i. cix and 54, n. 1. Bayle developed the concept in detail; cf. below, i. 210, n. 1. See also below, i. 214, n. 3. [1] Thus, Daniel Dyke stated, ‘And yet this is the deceit of our hearts, to shape our divers vices unto us, like those vertues to which they are most extremely contrary. For example, not only base dejection of minde goes under the account of true humility, but even pride it selfe: as in those that seek praise by disabling and dispraysing themselves …’ (Mystery of Selfe-Deceiving, ed. 1642, p. 183). La Rochefoucauld argued that ‘La modestie, qui semble refuser les louanges, n’est en effet qu’un desir d’en avoir de plus delicates’ (maxim 596, ed. Gilbert and Gourdault). In Nicole’s treatise De la Charité, & de l’Amour-propre, ch. 5 is entitled ‘Comment l’amour-propre imite l’humilité. See also Esprit: ‘C’est l’orgueil qui les excite à étudier & à imiter les mœurs & les façons de faire des personnes les plus modestes, & qui est le principe caché de la modestie. ‘Dans les personnes extraordinairement habiles, la modestie est une vanterie fine …’ (La Fausseté des Vertus Humaines, Paris, 1678, ii. 73; cf. vol. 1, ch. 21—‘L’Humilité’); the Chevalier de Méré: ‘Ceux qui font profession de mépriser la vaine gloire se glorifient souvent de ce mépris avec encore plus de vanité’ (Maximes, Sentences, et Reflexions Morales et Politiques, Paris, 1687, maxim 44; cf. also maxim 43); Abbadie: ‘C’est une politique d’orgueil d’aller à la gloire en luy tournant le do … quand un homme paroit mépriser cette estime du monde, qui est ambitionnée de tant de personnes, alors comme il sort volontairement du rang de ceux qui y aspirent, on le considere avec complaisance, on ayme son desinteressement, & on voudroit comme luy faire accepter par force, ce qu’il fait semblant de réfuser’ (L’Art de se connoitre soy-meme, The Hague, 1711, ii, 433–4). See, also, La Placette. Traite’ de l’Orgueil (Amsterdam, 1700), pp. 99–100 and 149–52. This list might be indefinitely extended by including less thoroughgoing reductions of humility to pride, like Bourdaloue’s ‘Sermon pour le Premier Dimanche de l’Avent. Sur le Jugement Dernier’ and ‘Pensées Diverses sur l’Humilité et l’Orgueil’ (Œuvres, Paris, 1837, i. 19 and iii. 440–4). [1] That further research might show this psychology to be an Italian as well as a French product is irrelevant, since Mandeville’s citations and literary background indicate at most very slight indebtedness to Italian literature. [2] Practically all the French writers in question, it may be noted also, had been translated into English. [3] For Mandeville’s defence of luxury see Remarks L, M, N, P, Q, S, T, X, and Y, and i. 355. [4] Mandeville’s position that national frugality is not a virtue, but the result of necessity, was somewhat anticipated by Saint-Évremond. Noting how circumstances moulded the character of the Romans, he wrote, ‘Ansi, des idées nouvelles firent, pour ainsi parler, de nouveaux esprits; & le Peuple Romain touché d’une magnificence inconnue, perdit ces vieux sentimens où l’habitude de la pauvreté n’avoit pas moins de part que la vertu’ (Œuvres, ed. 1753, ii. 152, in Réflexions sur les Divers Génies du Peuple Romain, ch. 6). Mandeville’s argument that the delicacies of life need be no more enervating than its coarser means of subsistence (Fable i. 118–23) was also partly anticipated by Saint-Évremond: ‘… trouvez bon que les délicats nomment plaisir, ce que les gens rudes & grossiers ont nommé vice; & ne composez pas votre vertu de vieux sentimens qu’un naturel sauvage avoit inspiré aux premiers hommes’ (Œvres iii. 210, in Sentiment d’un Honnête … Courtisain). Saint-Évremond, too, has some anticipations of Mandeville’s argument that luxury is economically desirable. Like Mandeville, he urged that frugality can be beneficial only in small states: ‘Je me représente Rome en ce temps-là, comme une vrai Communauté où chacun se désaproprie, pour trouver un autre bien dans celui de l’Ordre: mais cet esprit-là ne subsiste guére que dans les petits états. On méprise dans les Grands toute apparence de pauvreté; & c’est beaucoup quand on n’y approuve pas le mauvais usage des richesses. Si Fabricius avoit vécu dans la grandeur de la République, ou il auroit changé de mœurs, ou il auroit été inutile à sa patrie …’ (Œ uvres ii. 148). And again, ‘Sa [Cato’s] vertu qui eût été admirable dans les commencemens de la République, fut ruineuse sur ses fins, pour être trop pure & trop nette ‘ (Œuvres iii. 211). See also Œuvres iii. 206 (in La Vertu trop Rigide), where Saint-Évremond, like Mandeville, calls the extravagance of public despoilers ‘une espece de restitution’. I cite below such other anticipations as I could find of Mandeville’s defence of luxury as economically advantageous: A. Arnauld: ‘Je ne crois point qu’on doive condamner les passemens, ni ceux qui les font, ni ceux qui les vendent. Et il est de même de plusieurs choses qui ne sont point nécessaires, & que l’on dit n’être que pour le luxe & la vanité. Si on ne vouloit souffrir que les arts, où on travaille aux choses nécessaires à la vie humaine, il y auroit les deux tiers de ceux qui n’ont point de revenu, & qui sont obligez de vivre de leur travail, qui mourroient de faim, ou qu’il faudroit que le public nourri’t sans qu’ils eussent rien à faire; car tous les arts nécessaires sont abondamment fournis d’ouvriers, que pourroient donc faire ceux qui travaillent presentement aux non-nécessaires, si on les interdisoit?’ (Lettres, Nancy, 1727, iv. 97, in Letter 264, to M. Treuvé, 1684); Barbon: ‘It is not Necessity that causeth the Consumption, Nature may be Satisfied with little; but it is the wants of the Mind, Fashion, and desire of Novelties, and Things scarce, that causeth Trade’ (A Discourse of Trade, ed. 1690, pp. 72–3); Sir Dudley North: ‘The main spur to Trade, or rather to Industry and Ingenuity, is the exorbitant Appetites of Men, which they will take pains to gratifie, and so be disposed to work, when nothing else will incline them to it; for did Men content themselves with bare Necessaries, we should have a poor World. ‘The Glutton works hard to purchase Delicacies, wherewith to gorge himself; the Gamester, for Money to venture at Play. … Now in their pursuit of those Appetites, other Men less exorbitant are benefitted. … ‘Countries which have sumptuary Laws, are generally poor; for when Men by those Laws are confin’d to narrower Expence than otherwise they would be, they are at the same time discouraged from the Industry and Ingenuity which they would have imployed in obtaining wherewithal to support them, in the full latitude of Expence they desire’ (Discourses upon Trade, ed. 1691, pp. 14–15; cf. also below, i. 130, n. 1); Bayle: ‘… un luxe modéré a de grands usages dans la République; il fait circuler l’argent, il fait subsister le petit peuple …’ (Continuation des Pensées Diverses, § 124). As a rule, however, Bayle did not directly espouse luxury, but took the related position that the ascetic virtues of Christianity—which include abstention from luxury—are incompatible with national greatness (cf. Miscellaneous Reflections, ed. 1708, i. 282–5). This is the only aspect of Bayle’s treatment of luxury to which we can be sure of Mandeville’s indebtedness, for we have no proof that he had read more than the Dictionary, the Miscellaneous Reflections, and, perhaps, the Réponse aux Questions d’un Provincial (see below, i. cv, n. 1). The attitude of the age towards luxury will be considered in André Morize’s forthcoming Les Idées sur le Luxe Écrivains Philosophes du XVIIIe Siècle. [1] Cf. Morize, L’Apologie du Luxe au XVIIIe Siècle (1909), p. 117. [2] Compare, also, in the Aventures de Télémaque, i. 118–22 with ii. 121 and 554 (ed. Cahen). Montchrétien, too, shows the combination of the old moral condemnation of the search for worldly comfort with the new stress on the technique of aggrandizement: ‘La vie contemplative à la verité est la premiere et la plus approchante de Dieu; mais sans l’action elle demeure imparfaite et possible plus préjudiciable qu’utile aux Republiques. … Les occupations civiles estant empeschés et comme endormies dans le sein de la contemplation, il faudroit necessairement que la Republique tombast en ruïne. Or, que l’action seule ne luy soit plus profitable, que la contemplation sans l’action, la necessité humaine le prouve assés, et faut de là conclure, que si l’amour de verité desire la contemplation, l’union et profit de nostre societé cherche et demande l’action’ (Traicté de l’(Œconomie Politique, ed. Funck-Brentano, 1889, p. 21). [1] For Mandeville’s influence on free-trade theory see below, i. cixxxix–cxli. [1] Note how religious and commercial freedom are paired in Pieter de la Court’s widely known Interest van Holland ofte Gronden van Hollands-Welvaren (1662). [2] Petty, for instance, wrote concerning ‘the vanity and fruitlessness of making Civil Positive Laws against the Law of Nature …’ (Economic Writings, ed. Hull, 1899, i. 48, in Treatise of Taxes). See, also, the citation from Boisguillebert in the next note. [3] See, for instance, Thomas Mun, England’s Treasure by Forraign Trade (1664), ch. 4, Petty, Economic Writings, ed. Hull, 1899, i. 271, in Political Arithmetick, and Nicholas Barbon, A Discourse of Trade (1690), pp. 71–9. D’Avenant held that ‘Trade is in its nature free, finds its own channel, and best directeth its own course: and all laws to give it rules and directions, and to limit and circumscribe it, may serve the particular ends of private men, but are seldom advantageous to the public’ (Works, ed. 1771, i. 98). The original editor of Sir Dudley North’s Discourses upon Trade argued ‘That there can be no Trade unprofitable to the Publick; for If any prove so, men leave it off. … That no Laws can set Prizes in Trade, the Rates of which, must and will make themselves: But when any such Laws do happen to lay any hold, it is so much Impediment to Trade, and therefore prejudicial’ (ed. 1691, signn. Bv–B2; see also pp. 13–14). Fénelon wrote, ‘Le commerce est comme certaines sources: si vous voulez detourner leur cours, vous les faites tarir’ (Les Aventures de Télémaque, ed. Cahen, i. 122), and, again, ‘ … laisser liberté’ (Plans de Gouvernement, § 7). Boisguillebert was the most copious and downright of all concerning freedom of trade: ‘… la nature, loin d’obéir à l’autorité des hommes, s’y montre toujours rebelle, et ne manque jamais de punir l’outrage qu’on lui fait … la nature ne respire que la liberté …’ (Traité des Grains, in Œconomistes Financiers, ed. Daire, 1843, pp. 387–8). Cf. also Traité des Grains, pt. 2, ch. 3 (‘Ridicules des préjugés populaires contre l’exportation des blés’), and see the citations from Boisguillebert below, i. cii, n. i. Among Dutch productions leaning more or less on the side of commercial liberty may be mentioned De la Court’s Interest van Holland ofte Gronden van Hollands-Welvaren (1662) and the Remonstrantie van Kooplieden der Stad Amsterdam (1680). As indicated elsewhere (see below, i. 109, n. 1), most of these anticipations were, from the modern point of view, unsystematic and half-hearted. Barbon, North (or his editor), and Boisguillebert, however, went beyond Mandeville in the details of their analysis.—I should add, also, that the citations in this note are given not as specific sources for Mandeville’s opinions, but to illustrate a general background from which his opinions naturally emerged. [1] Thus, Mandeville’s reasoning (Fable i. 109–16) that if a country ceases to import it renders it impossible for other countries to buy its exports was adumbrated by D’Avenant in his Essay on the East-India Trade: ‘But if we provide ourselves at home with linen sufficient for our own consumption, and do not want that which is brought from Silesia, Saxony, Bohemia and Poland, this trade must cease; for these northern countries have neither money nor other commodities; and if we deal with them, we must be contented, in a manner, to barter our clothes for their linen; and it is obvious enough to any considering man, that by such a traffic we are not losers in the balance’ (Works, ed. 1771, i. 111). Similar reasoning may be found in Sir Dudley North’s Discourses upon Trade (1691), pp. 13–14. See also Child, New Discourse of Trade (1694), p. 175: ‘If we would engage other Nations to Trade with us, we must receive from them the Fruits and Commodities of their Countries, as well as send them ours. …’ He adds, however, ‘… but its our Interest … above all kinds of Commodities to prevent … the Importation of Foreign Manufactures.’ For other parallels see the notes to Mandeville’s text. [1] Cf. E. Laspeyres, Geschichte der volkswirtschaftlichen Anschauungen der Niederländer … zur Zeit der Republik (Leipsic, 1863), p. 170. [1] Cf. Child: ‘… all men are led by their Interest, and it being the common Interest of all that engage in any Trade, that the Trade should be regulated and governed by wise, honest and able men, there is no doubt but most men will Vote for such as they esteem so to be, which is manifest in the East-India Company …’ (A New Discourse of Trade, ed. 1694, p. 110). Boisguillebert is more full: ‘La nature donc, ou la Providence, peut seule faire observer cette justice, pourvu encore une fois que qui que ce soit ne s’en mêle; et voici comme elle s’en acquitte. Elle établit d’abord une égale nécessité de vendre et d’acheter dans toutes sortes de traffics, de façon que le seul désir de profit soit l’âme de tous les marchés, tant dans le vendeur que dans l’acheteur; et c’est à l’aide de cet équilibre ou de cette balance, que l’un et l’autre sont également forcés d’entendre raison, et de s’y soumettre’ (Dissertation sur la Nature des Richesses, in Économistes Financiers du XVIIIe Siècle, ed. Daire, 1843, p. 409); and, again, ‘Cependant, par une corruption du cœur effroyable, il n’y a point de particulier, bien qu’il ne doive attendre sa félicité que du maintien de cette harmonie, qui ne travaille depuis le matin jusqu’au soir et ne fasse tous ses efforts pour la ruiner. Il n’y a point d’ouvrier qui ne tâche, de toutes ses forces, de vendre sa marchandise trois fois plus qu’elle ne vaut, et d’avoir celle de son voisin pour trois fois moins qu’elle ne coûte à établir.—Ce n’est qu’à la pointe de l’épée que la justice se maintient dans ces rencontres: c’est néanmoins de quoi la nature ou la Providence se sont chargées. Et comme elle a ménagé des retraites et des moyens aux animaux faibles pour ne devenir pas tous la proie de ceux qui, étant forts, et naissant en quelque manière armés, vivent de carnage; de même, dans le commerce de la vie, elle a mis un tel ordre que, pourvu qu’on la laisse faire, il n’est point au pouvoir du plus puissant, en achetant la denrée d’un misérable, d’empêcher que cette vente ne procure la subsistance à ce dernier, ce qui maintient l’opulence, à laquelle l’un et l’autre sont redevables également de la subsistance proportionnée à leur état. On a dit, pourvu qu’on laisse faire la nature, c’est-à-dire qu’on lui donne sa liberté, et que qui que ce soit ne se mêle à ce commerce que pour y départir protection à tous, et empêcher la violence’ (Factum de la France, in Économistes Financiers, p. 280). The citation from Child, however, is merely an unelaborated hint, and Boisguillebert is comparatively half-hearted: he does not really defend selfishness, but holds merely that, in spite of itself, it cannot mar the social harmony. Nor does he work out the details of this harmony as Mandeville does. [1] For the intellectual background of other phases of Mandeville’s thought, see elsewhere in this Introduction and in the notes to Mandeville’s text. [2] See index to commentary. [3] Ed. 1729, pp. xix–xxi. [4] See below, i. 222, n. 1. [1] For consideration of Bayle’s doctrines see above, i. xlii–xlv, and cf. the index to commentary. [1] Letter to Dion (1732), p. 34. Mandeville seems to have made this phrase out of two similar statements in Bayle—‘Que la necessité du vice ne détruit point la distinction du bien & du mal’ and the rhetorical question, ‘Les suites utiles d’une vice peuventelles empécher qu’il ne soit un vice?’ (Bayle, Oeuvres Diverses, The Hague, 1727–31, iii. 977 and 978, in Réponse aux Questions d’un Provincial). [2] Réflexions ou Sentences et Maximes Morales, 4th ed., heading. [1] De Volder’s superintendence of the Disputatio is stated on its title-page. De Volder was so insistent a partisan of Descartes that on 18 June 1674 action was taken by the university authorities to stop his onslaughts against the Aristotelian philosophy (Bronnen tot de Geschiedenis der Leidsche Universiteit, ed. Molhuysen, iii (1918). 293). De Volder was not the only active Cartesian, for a deliberation of the curators on 18 Dec. 1675 shows the Cartesian professors to have forced the Aristotelians into silence (Bronnen iii. 314). [2] Cf. below, i. 181, n. 1. [3] It should be noted, however, that Mandeville’s anti-Cartesianism might have been inspired by other writers—for example, by Bayle, who so much affected him (cf. above, i. 44, n. 2, and 181, n. 1). [4] The citation in the Free Thoughts (ed. 1729, p. 142, n a) comes at second hand from Bayle’s Dictionary (ed. 1710, i. 458, n. C). [1] Cf. the Origin of Honour (1732), p. 119. [2] Cf. Free Thought (1729), pp. 68, 78, and 81. [3] See below, i. cxi, n. 1. [4] At least one of the citations from Montaigne (see index to commentary) is, however, drawn at second hand from Bayle. [5] Cf. above, i. xciv, n. 4. [1] Except one very general unfavourable reference to Spinoza (Fable ii. 312) Mandeville did not explicitly cite him, but it is possible that he owed something to the Tractatus Politicus and to the Ethica. Besides the parallels of thought and phrase indicated in my annotations, there is also the following resemblance in an unusual thought. Spinoza wrote, ‘Concludo itaque, communia illa pacis vitia … nunquam directe, sed indirecte prohibenda esse, talia scilicet imperii fundamenta jaciendo, quibus fiat, ut plerique, non quidem sapienter vivere studeant (nam hoc impossibile est), sed ut iis ducantur affectibus, ex quibus Reip. major sit utilitas’ (Opera, ed. Van Vloten and Land, 1895, i. 341, in Tractatus Politicus x. 6). With this compare Mandeville’s Origin of Honour, pp. 27–8: ‘… on the one Hand, you can make no Multitudes believe contrary to what they feel, or what contradicts a Passion inherent in their Nature, and …, on the other, if you humour that Passion, and allow it to be just, you may regulate it as you please.’ The thought, too, has close kinship with the main theme of the Fable, that by skilful management human failings may be turned to the public advantage.—Mandeville’s apparent hostility to Spinoza may have been simply a reflection of Bayle’s attitude (see, for instance, the article on Spinoza in Bayle’s Dictionnaire). [2] See the index to commentary under these names and under Anticipations. [1] There were before Mandeville only embryonic and fragmentary considerations of the growth of society from the evolutionary point of view which he adopted. Of the ancients (Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, lines 442–506; Critias [in Sextus Empiricus, Adversus Physicos ix. 54]; Plato, Statesman 274 B; Aristotle, Politics 1. ii; Moschion, Fragmenta vi. [9] [Poetarum Tragicorum Græcorum Fragmenta, pp. 140–1, in Fragmenta Euripidis, ed. Wagner and Dübner, Paris, 1846]; Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, bk. 5; Horace, Satires 1. iii; Diodorus Siculus 1. i; and Vitruvius, De Architectura 11. [33] i), Lucretius was the most elaborate. The moderns until Mandeville added comparatively little. There was either no or slight anticipation of Mandeville in Mariana (De Rege et Regis Institutione, bk. 1, ch. 1), Vanini (De Admirandis Naturæ … Arcanis), Temple (Essay upon the Original and Nature of Government), Matthew Hale (Primitive Origination of Mankind), Bossuet (Discours sur l’Histoire Universelle, ed. 1845, pp. 9–10), Fontenelle (De l’Origine des Fables), or Fénelon (Essai Philosophique sur le Gouvernement Civil, ch. 7); nor was he anticipated in other works dealing more or less with the development of society, such as those of Machiavelli, Bodin, Hooker, Suarez, Grotius, Selden, Milton, Hobbes, Lambert van Veldhuyzen, Pufendorf, Filmer, Locke, Thomas Burnet, or Vico. Most of these thinkers were caged, in a way that Mandeville was not, by theological prepossessions. They failed to realize, as he realized, how little society was deliberately ‘invented’. And they were interested rather in educing morals than in analysing facts. I have found no predecessor—not even Hobbes—even remotely rivalling the account of social evolution given by Mandeville in Part II of the Fable. [1] I know no reference to it earlier than 1723. [2] See above, i. xxxvi–xxxvii. [3] See above, i. xxxi–xxxii. [4] For instance, the Bibliothèque Angloise for 1725 gave the Fable 28 pages, and Bluet’s reply to the Fable the same amount of space; the Bibliothèque Raisonnée for 1729 reviewed the Fable in 43 pages; the Bibliothéque Britannique in 1733 gave 51 pages to Mandeville’s Origin of Honour; Maendelyke Uittreksels for 1723 devoted 71 pages to the Free Thoughts, and the Mémoires de Trévoux (1740) allotted the Fable over a hundred pages. Other similar references are noted below, vol. 2, last appendix. [1] For instance, ‘La Pièce … fait grand bruit en Angleterre’ (Bibliothèque Angloise for 1725, xiii. 99); ‘Avide lectum est in Anglia et non sine plausu receptum’ (Reimarus, Programma quo Fabulam de Apibus examinat, 1726 [cited from Sakmann, Bernard de Mandeville und die Bienenfabel-Controverse, p. 29]); ‘The Fable … a Book that has made so much Noise’ (Present State of the Republick of Letters for 1728, ii. 462); ‘Ce livre a fait beaucoup de bruit en Angleterre’ (Bibliothèque Raisonnée for 1729, iii. 404); ‘… la fameuse Fable des Abeilles …’ (Le Journal Littéraire for 1734, xxii. 72); ‘… la famosa Favola delle Api … (Novella della Republica delle Lettere for 1735, p. 357); ‘… a celebrated Author …’ (Henry Coventry, Philemon to Hydaspes, ed. 1737, p. 96); ‘La Fables des Abeillesa fait tant de bruit en Angleterre …’ (preface to French version of Fable, ed. 1740, i. i); ‘Un Livre qui a fait tant de bruit en Angleterre’ (Mémoires pour l’Histoire des Sciences & des Beaux-Arts [Mémoires de Trévoux] for 1740, p. 981); ‘Nicht nur die Feinde der christlichen Religion, sondern auch viele Christen zählen ihn unter die recht grossen Geister’ (J. F. Jakobi, Betrachtungen über die weisen Absichten Gottes, 1749 [cited from Sakmann, Bernard de Mandeville, p. 29]); ‘… Autore … quello … tanto noto, quanto empio della fable des abeilles’ (Memorie per servire all’ Istoria Letteraria for July 1753, ii. 18); ‘… célébre Ecrivain …’ (Chaufepié, Nouveau Dictionnaire, ed. 1753, art. ‘Mandeville’); ‘… le fameux docteur Mandeville …’ (Le Journal Britannique, ed. Maty, for 1755, xvii. 401); ‘… a celebrated book …’ (John Wesley, Journal, ed. Curnock, 1909–16, iv. 157); ‘Such is the system of Dr. Mandeville, which once made so much noise in the world …’ (Adam Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, ed. 1759, p. 486); ‘La fameuse fable des abeilles … fit un grand bruit en Angleterre’ (Voltaire, Œuvres Complètes, ed. Moland, 1877–85, xvii. 29); ‘… das berühmte Gedicht The Fable of the Bees …’ (preface to German version of Fable, trans. Ascher, 1818, p. iii). [1] See the last appendix for a fuller list, and the index to commentary under the names of the authors listed above for their references to Mandeville. [2] See below, vol. 2, last appendix. [3] See below, ii. 427, under Berkeley. [4] See below, ii. 433, under Wesley. [5] G. Peignot, Dictionnaire … des Principaux Livres Condamnés au Feu (1806) i. 282. [1] Cited in Abbey’s English Church and Its Bishops (1887) i. 32. [2] Œvres, ed. Assézat, x. 299. [3] Kant, Gesammelte Schriften (Berlin, 1900–) v. 40, in Kritik der praktischen Vernunft. [4] Royall Tyler’s The Contrast (1787) 111. ii. [5] To judge from the references given below, ii. 419 sqq., the vogue of the Fable in England was greatest from 1723 to about 1755. From then until about 1835 it retained its celebrity, but had apparently ceased to be an active sensation. From 1755 the Fable was published only at Edinburgh. In France, the main vogue of the Fable was from 1725 to about 1765. The Free Thoughts—to judge by the issues of the translations and by the references to it—had currency in France between 1722 and 1740. In Germany, the vogue of the Fable seems to have been later—the first translation being in 1761 and the next in 1818. German interest in the Free Thoughts was considerable from 1723 to 1730. In England, interest in the Fable was largely concerning its moral and psychological aspects; in France this was also true. The French, too, showed a specific interest in Mandeville’s defence of luxury, which, although it awoke attention also in England, did so there to a greater extent because of its moral implications. French concern with the defence of luxury is partly explained by the fact that this was bound up with the evaluation of primitive society which had attracted French speculation from the sixteenth century to Rousseau. How was it that a work so celebrated and influential as the Fable, and possessed of such extraordinary literary merit, should have passed into the eclipse which it has suffered? In the first place, because Mandeville’s opinions in many cases became familiar, and the public studied them in the form in which they prevailed—in Adam Smith, in Helvétius, in Bentham. In the second place, Mandeville’s fame had been a succès de scandale. Generations had been trained to think of him as a sort of philosophical antichrist, and scandal was the normal association with the Fable. After a while the scandal became stale. When that happened, Mandeville’s renown passed, for, at that date, in the public mind, nothing impelling to interest besides the now dead scandal was sufficiently associated with Mandeville to preserve him. A succès de scandale is never permanent. Sooner or later, if the author is to live, his fame must be built afresh on other grounds. [1] According to the Elwin and Courthope edition the following passages were derived from Mandeville: Moral Essays iii. 13–14 and 25–6; Essay on Man ii. 129–30, 157–8, 193–4, and iv. 220. That the Essay on Man ii. 129–30, 157–8, and iv. 220 were derived from Mandeville, however, is doubtful; the other lines from the Essay are more probably Mandevillian; those from the Moral Essays seem to derive definitely from the Fable. I believe that further study would show additlonal indebtedness of Pope to Mandeville. [1] See Works, ed. Elwin and Courthope, ii. 394, n. 7. [2] Boswell, Life, ed. Hill, iii. 292. [3] See below, i. cxxxviii, n. 2. [4] Johnson develops in a manner much like Mandeville’s the theme that ‘the qualities requisite to conversation are very exactly represented by a bowl of punch’, the ingredients of which taken separately are either unpleasant or insipid, but together are agreeable. Boswell (Life, ed. Hill, i. 334) suggests that Johnson derived the passage from Thomas Blacklock’s On Punch: an Epigram (Blacklock, Poems on Several Occasions, ed. 1754, p. 179): Life is a bumper fill’d by fate … Where strong, insipid, sharp and sweet, Each other duly temp’ring, meet. … What harm in drinking can there be, Since Punch and life so well agree? But it seems more likely that Johnson was thinking of the Fable, which he knew thoroughly (see below, i. cxxxviii, n. 2), and which bears a closer resemblance to the passage in the Idler than does Blacklock’s epigram.—It is, of course, possible that Blacklock also was indebted to Mandeville. [1] Derivations from Mandeville in these three works are noted in André Morize’s L’Apologie du Luxe au XVIII 6e Siècle et “Le Mondain” de Voltaire (1909). [1] This was the respectable orthodox position for both Catholics and Protestants. St. Augustine stated, ‘Omnis infidelium vita peccatum est; et nihil est bonum sine summo bono. Ubi enim deest agnitio æternæ et incommutabilis veritatis, falsa virtus est, etiam in optimis moribus’ (Opera Omnia, Benedictine ed., Paris, 1836–8, x. 2574 D). Luther wrote, ‘… omnia quae in te sunt esse prorsus culpabilia, peccata, damnanda …’ (Werke, Weimar, 1883–, vii. 51, in Tractatus de Libertate Christiana). Calvin agreed with this attitude: ‘Siquidem inter ista duo nihil medium est: aut vilescat nobis terra oportet, aut intemperato amore sui vinctos nos detineat. Proinde si qua aeternitatis cura est, huc diligenter incumbendum, ut malis istis compedibus nos explicemus’ (Institutio 111. ix. 2). The Puritan divine Daniel Dyke argued that ‘Though the matter of the work be never so good, yet the corruption of an unsanctified heart will marre all, and change the nature of it’ (Mystery of Selfe-Deceiving, ed. 1642, p. 415). Thomas Fuller spoke of ‘corrupt nature, (which without thy restraining grace will have a Vent)’ (Good Thoughts in Worse Times, ed. 1657, p. 12). Even writers given to psychological analyses like Mandeville’s show the ascetic belief that human nature unassisted by divine grace is incapable of virtue, which can exist only in so far as human nature is overcome. Thus Esprit urged that virtue is absent in so far as any leaven of self-interest is present (Fausseté des Vertus Humaines, Paris, 1678, i. 419–21; and cf. i. 458–9). And J. F. Bernard wrote, ‘La Vertu humaine n’est pas estimable, c’est un composé de peu de bon & de beaucoup de mauvais. … c’est une espece de Déïfication de soi-même; selon Dieu ce n’est rien’ (Reflexions Morales, Amsterdam, 1716, p. 114). In 1722, in his Conscious Lovers (III. i), Steele satirized this attitude as if it were of general currency: ‘To love is a passion, ’tis a desire, and we must have no desires.’ [1] Although the general thought of the day identified virtue with conduct in accord with ‘reason’, ‘reasons’ was usually an ill-defined and contradictorily employed term. The ethical rationalism of the period implied, first, that the organization of the universe was a geometrically rational one, and that, therefore, moral laws were the ‘immutable and eternal’ affairs whose disconnexion with the facts of human nature Fielding was later to ridicule in Tom Jones. To such a conception the tastes and emotions in which men differed from one another were either irritating or negligible; and its stress was naturally laid upon the abstract, rational relationships which were true alike of all men. To this conception, therefore, ‘reason’ tended to imply an antithesis to taste and individual impulse. Secondly, contemporary ethical rationalism insisted that acts were virtuous only if their motivation was from ‘reason’. It is at this point—the phase of rationalistic ethics of chief importance in relation to Mandeville—that current philosophy was most inchoate. No real attempt was usually made to define motivation by ‘reason’. ‘Reason’ sometimes implied any practical action, sometimes a proper blend of deliberation and impulse, and very often, indeed, it was used as Mandeville used it, in connexion with acts the decision to perform which was not determined by emotion or personal bias (which might, however, provided they did not determine the will to act, legitimately accompany the action). Again and again it is manifest upon analysis that action according to reason is thought of (even by thinkers who sometimes take a different position) as action done despite the insistence of natural impulse and self-regarding bias, in spite of one’s animal nature. Sometimes the writer makes this antithesis comparatively obvious, as when Culverwel reasons: ‘Yet grant that the several multitudes, all the species of these irrational creatures [animals] were all without spot or blemish in … their sensitive conversation, can any therefore fancy that they dress themselves by the glass of a [moral] law? Is it not rather a faithfulness to their own natural inclinations? … A law is founded in intellectuals, in the reason, not in the sensitive principle’ (Of the Light of Nature, ed. Brown, 1857, p. 62). The antithesis between reason and natural impulse is very sharp and explicit in Richard Price, who summed up the principles of the ‘intellectualist’ school of which he was a belated member in the statement that ‘instinctive benevolence is no principle of virtue, nor are any actions flowing merely from it virtuous. As far as this influences, so far something else than reason and goodness influence, and so much I think is to be subtracted from the moral worth of any action or character’ (Review of the Principal Questions … in Morals, ed. 1758, p. 333). There were certain characteristics of the ethical rationalism of the day which explain and illustrate the tendency to dissociate reason and feeling. In the first place, rationalism was from one aspect transcendental. With its stress on ‘immutable and eternal laws’ of right and wrong and its love of the formulable, it was largely an attempt to transcend the merely relative, and hence personal and individual emotions. Like the theological asceticism of its day (see above, p. cxxi), it was a method of transcending concrete human nature. Secondly, it could hardly help being affected by this current theological asceticism and its condemnation of natural impulse, especially since so many rationalists were also theologians. The tendency to identify the theological and the rationalistic attitudes is evidenced in the prayer with which Thomas Burnet closed the second book of his Theory of the Earth: ‘MAY we, in the mean time, by a true Love of God above all things, and a contempt of this Vain World which passeth away; By a careful use of the Gifts of God and Nature, the Light of Reason and Revelation, prepare our selves … for the great Coming of our Saviour.’ Note the paralleling of ‘a contempt of this Vain World’ with ‘the Light of Reason’. In the third place, because of the problem of the soul a sharp distinction was drawn between man and the animals. The belief that animals have no soul (rational principle), combined with the conviction that the soul is the ultimately important thing, tended naturally to cause contempt for the animal functions and a belief that they could form no ingredient in virtue. Berkeley illustrated this tendency when, in his reply to Mandeville (Alciphron), he said, ‘… considered in that light [as he is an animal], he [man] hath no sense of duty, no notion of virtue’ (Works, ed. Fraser, 1901, ii. 94). There was, too, a famous Pauline passage—Rom. vii. 23–5—which could be construed as implying an antithesis between reason and emotion, an interpretation made for instance by Toland (Christianity not Mysterious, 2nd ed., 1696, pp. 57–8). Finally, to cause too sharp an antithesis between the conceptions of reason and feeling, there was the all-important fact of mental and literary inexactness, of failure to make and maintain proper distinctions. Since Mandeville’s day philosophical speculation, to some extent perhaps on his account (see below, i. cxxviii, n. 5), has become more precise as regards the distinction between reason and feeling, but in his time it was a commonplace for a writer to fall into assertions or implications of a necessary antithesis between reason and impulse, even in the face of speculations in the same work maintaining an opposite position. From the above it may be seen that even though the position taken by Mandeville that no conduct can be virtuous unless the will to perform it was undetermined by natural impulse and selfishness may have been somewhat more extreme than the average, yet it is evident that his position was none the less in accord with a great body of contemporary theory. And, indeed, this close relation to his age is demonstrated by the violence of the popular reaction to his book. [1] I say ‘rational’ advisedly. Many of Mandeville’s attackers simply misunderstood him. They took his terms quite literally, interpreting ‘vice’ as something contrary to the welfare of the individual practising it. From this they proved ‘by rule demonstrative’ that vice must therefore be injurious to society, the sum of individuals. But, of course, Mandeville meant by vice not something harrnful to its devotees, but something contrary to the dictates of a rigorously ascetic morality. John Dennis is a good example of the literal-minded whose attack on the Fable was largely an excited attempt to prove that if a thing has a bad effect it has an effect which is bad. And then, besides the logomachy arising from a too literal reading of the Fable, much of the controversy was mere vituperation, as in Hendley’s Defence of the Charity-Schools. Wherein the Many False, Scandalous and Malicious Objections of those Advocates for Ignorance and Irreligion, the Author of the Fable of the Bees … are … answer’d (1725). [2] Notably Hutcheson (Inquiry into … Beauty and Virtue). But Hutcheson’s attempt to prove the fundamental benevolence of humanity is not entirely an attack on Mandeville’s psychological analysis; it is largely a giving of different names to the same emotions. Hutcheson, like Mandeville, denied the possibility of entirely dispassionate action; and Mandeville, like Hutcheson, admitted the reality of the compassionate impulses. Mandeville, however, insisted on terming all natural emotions selfish, whereas Hutcheson defined some of them as altruistic. As to the effects of distinguishing between selfish and unselfish natural impulse, see below, i. cxxviii, n. 5. [1] That is, if he did not indulge merely in vituperation or in the misunderstanding considered above, i. cxxvii, n. 1. [2] See his Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life (published 1728), passim. [3] Concerning my necessarily somewhat loose use of this term see above, i. xlviii, n. 1. [4] Remarks upon … the Fable of the Bees (1724), p. 33. [5] Examples of rigoristic critics thus forced to qualify their position include Law, Dennis, Fiddes (General Treatise of Morality, 1724), Bluet (Enquiry whether … Virtue tends to … Benefit … of a People)—digests of whose replies to Mandeville will be found below, ii. 401–12—and Warburton (Works, ed. 1811, i. 287, in Divine Legation, bk. 1, § 6, pt. 111). Of course, there were ways for the rigorists to evade Mandeville’s attack. Their very inconsistencies were a means of defence; and Mandeville, too, really had taken a rigoristic position more accentuated and bald than the average. But the devices by which the rigorists sought to defend themselves without shifting ground were a very incomplete defence. Thus, they argued that there was such a thing as morally neutral activity, and that, therefore, self-regarding action and natural impulse, while not sufficient by themselves for virtue, were not necessarily vicious. This destroyed Mandeville’s demonstration that the rigoristic position implied everything to be necessarily vicious, but it left him able still to claim that nothing could be virtuous, moral neutrality being then the utter limit of moral achievement. This, of course, was hardly satisfactory to the rigorists. Similarly, the ascetics could and did argue that they did not deny the moral value of natural impulse nor quite condemn selfishness—indeed, that, properly understood, man’s real nature and greatest happiness are found only in obeying the a priori dictates of Heaven, and that, therefore, enlightened selfishness demands adherence to the rigoristic code. Not to notice the important shift of sense in the word ‘nature’, it is enough to point out that the partial utilitarianism here adopted is definitely an approach to more empirical utilitarianism, and, therefore, that here again Mandeville’s pressure towards utilitarianism is only partially evaded. Again, the rigorists might deny, like non-rigorists such as Adam Smith, that all natural feeling was selfish, maintaining that some compassionate emotions were genuinely altruistic. But, since they could not say this of all compassionate feeling (some of this being obviously a self-indulgence), they had to find a criterion to distinguish between selfish and non-selfish compassionate emotion; and, the strictly rigoristic test being here not possible, a utilitarian criterion naturally forced itself upon them.—And, waiving the efficacy of their replies to Mandeville, the very fact that they had to frame replies on profoundly significant ethical questions was itself a service to the progress of speculation. One may look long in pre-Mandevillian literature for such careful distinctions between reason and emotion and their respective virtuousness as Law, for example, is forced to make in his effort to show that Mandeville misunderstood the rigoristic position. Whether he misunderstood it or not, he helped to force its adherents to attempt a liberation of their creed from the contradictions and indefiniteness which by themselves had given enough ground for his satire. And, apart from the sheerly logical side of the matter, there was a psychological reason why the attempt to cope with Mandeville so weakened the power of the rigorists. Rigorism affirms its transcendence; it professes absoluteness. When, therefore, imperfection in a rigoristic creed is sufficiently felt to induce a desire for modification, the impulsion to rigorism—a craving for the absoluteness and perfection which the creed promised—is weakened at its source, for the creed is now seen to be somewhat a thing of uncertainty. [1] Cf. Hume, Philosophical Works, ed. Green and Grose, 1874–5, iv. 178. Hume is not here referring specifically to the Fable, but speaking generally. [1] See below, ii. 345, n. 1, and 415. [2] This is conjectural, but somewhat substantiated by the fact that Hume specifically mentioned the paradox of the Fable and answered it, like Hutcheson and Brown, by appeal to a utilitarian criterion (Philosophical Works, ed. Green and Grose, 1874–5, iii. 308). [1] For instance, in Law (Remarks, § 3), Berkeley (Works, ed. Fraser, 1901, iil. 88 and 94–5), Brown (Essays, second essay, § 4), Adam Smith (Theory of Moral Sentiments, ed. 1759, p. 474), and Fiddes (General Treatise of Morality, preface). [2] In ways less demonstrable than those just mentioned Mandeville might also have been a factor in the spread of utilitarianism. One of the practical difficulties in securing general acceptance of the utilitarian philosophy that men act for happiness and that this fact is its own justification arises from the fear that belief in such an ethics will lead to a break-down of ethical sanctions such that men will feel justified in acting from completely selfish motives, and society be ruined. Before the utilitarian point of view can gain popular adherence, therefore, some argument must be found to show that it will not lead to this unsocial action. Such an argument was given us by Aristotle when he contended that a man’s personal good and the good of the state are identical (Nic. Ethics 1. ii. 5); and by eighteenth-century utilitarians like Hutcheson and Hume when they invoked man’s ‘benevolence’ and ‘sympathy’ to show that he can only be happy if he acts socially. Now, in Mandeville’s philosophy there was latent an effective answer to the fear that utilitarianism would foster selfish and unsocial action. This answer was Mandeville’s famous philosophy of individualism—his argument that self-service by the nature of things means public service. Through this philosophy the utilitarians could reassure themselves and the public. Since Mandeville’s position was both so celebrated and, as the history of economics proves, so in harmony with the times, it may well have furnished important preparation for the acceptance of utilitarianism. Mandeville might also to some extent have exerted a more direct influence than I have noticed, for he himself several times took the utilitarian position, and it underlies his thought (see above, i. lviii–lxi). [1] See Fable i. 356–8, ii. 141–2, 284, 325, and index to Part II under ‘Labour. The usefulness of dividing and subdividing it’. [2] Cf. below, ii. 142, n. 1. [1] See below, i. cxli, and ii. 414–15. [2] Compare Fable i. 169–70 and 356–8 with Wealth of Nations, ed. Cannan, i. 13–14. Cannan notes the parallel. [3] Cf. above, i. cxxxiv, n. 1. [4] Stewart, Collected Works, ed. Hamilton, viii. 323; see also viii. 311. [1] Cf. above, i. xciv–xcviii. [2] The influence of Mandeville on Voltaire’s Le Mondain and Défense du Mondain ou l’Apologie du Luxe is shown in Morize’s L’Apologie du Luxe au XVIIIeSiècle (1909). [3] I know no testimonial evidence that Melon had read Mandeville. Before treating the question of indebtedness, therefore, it would be well to consider whether Melon would probably have been familiar with the Fable. We may, I think, assume that he was. From 1725 leading French periodicals had been discussing the Fable—especially as regards the problem of luxury. It is highly improbable that Melon, engaged in looking up data for his book, should not have read either some of the reviews in the magazines or the celebrated Fable itself. Melon discusses the problem of luxury in the chapter ‘Du Luxe’ of his Essai Politique sur le Commerce (1734). It may be said that he offers no basal arguments that are not in the Fable, and omits no essential ones that are in the Fable. His moral and psychological groundwork is like Mandeville’s. Man, he says, is not governed by religion, but ‘… ce sont les passions qui conduisent; & le Législateur ne doit chercher qu’à les mettre à profit pour la Société’ (Essai Politique, ed. 1761, p. 106). For thus setting the passions to work, luxury, Melon continues, is a great stimulus. This is good Mandeville, of course. Melon even shows the Mandevillian paradox that Vice is virtue—that there are two valid conflicting codes of conduct: ‘… les hommes se conduisent rarement par la Religion: c’est à elle à tâcher de détruire le Luxe, & c’est à l’Etat à le tourner à son profit …’ (Essai, p. 124). Mandeville’s insistence on the relativity of luxury and on the question being largely one of definition is also in Melon: ‘Ce qui étoit luxe pour nos peres, est à présent commun. … Le Paysan trouve du luxe chez le Bourgeois de son Village; celui-ci chez l’Habitant de la Ville voisine, qui lui même se regarde comme grossier, par rapport à l’habitant de la Capitale, plus grossier encore devant le Courtisan’ (Essai, p. 107; and cf. p. 111). Again, ‘… le pain blanc & les draps fins, établis par M. Colbert, seroient de plus grand luxe, sans l’habitude où nous sommes de nous en servir tous les jours. Le terme de Luxe est un vain nom …’ (Essai, p. 113). With this compare Fable i. 107–8 and 123. Melon offers reasons why luxury does not enervate a people; and his reasons are Mandeville’s. He urges that luxury cannot enervate, because it is necessarily limited to a small proportion of the population (Essai, p. 110, and Fable i. 119–20). His argument that luxury tends to diminish drunkenness (Essai, p. 111) is adumbrated in Fable i. 119. But most significant of all is his closeness to Mandeville in the following contention: ‘Dans quel sens peut-on dire que le Luxe amollit une Nation? Cela ne peut pas regarder le Militaire: les Soldats & les Officiers subalternes en sont bien éloignés; & ce n’est pas par la magnificence des Officiers Généraux, qu’une Armée a été battue’ (Essai, pp. 108–9). With this compare Fable i. 119–21: ‘The Hardships and Fatigues of War that are personally suffer’d, fall upon them that bear the Brunt of every Thing, the meanest Indigent Part of the Nation … and those … will … make good Soldiers, who, where good Orders are kept, have seldom so much Plenty and Superfluity come to their Share as to do them any. … The other [inferior] Officers … can spare but little Money for Debauches. …’ And ‘Strong Sinews and supple Joints are trifling Advantages not regarded in [generals]. … So their Heads be but Active and well furnished, ’tis no great Matter what the rest of their Bodies are’ (i. 120). Finally, coming to more purely economic arguments, Melon, like Mandeville, argues that the ruin of the individual by luxury is no harm to the state (Essai, p. 121, and Fable i. 108–9 and 249–50), and that foolish extravagance has the merit of making money circulate (Essai, p. 123, and Fable, passim). Some of the reasoning which Melon shares with Mandeville he shares also with other predecessors (see above, i. xciv, n. 3). Melon’s friend Montesquieu especially, in the Lettres Persanes (letter 106), parallels both Mandeville’s and Melon’s defence of luxury by urging its inevitability in great states, its not enervating a people, and its necessity to prosperous trade and the circulation of money. But Melon is throughout much closer to Mandeville than to Montesquieu, particularly in illustrative detail, and in certain arguments—for example, the suspiciously close parallel to Mandeville concerning luxury and armies—Melon seems to have been anticipated by Mandeville alone. Now, it is possible that Melon made up this duplicate of Mandeville’s opinions from his own invention and the scattered hints of other predecessors. But it is a more plausible hypothesis that he drew his views largely from the Fable. [1] Both the Lettres Persanes (letter 106) and the Esprit des Lois (bk. 7) show strong resemblances to Mandeville’s arguments, and, in addition, Montesquieu twice cited Mandeville on luxury to express agreement with him (see below, ii. 430 and 453). Whether Montesquieu received from Mandeville any basal influence or merely drew from him some supplementary insight into the problem of luxury we cannot, however, determine, since, among other things, we do not know whether Montesquieu’s knowledge of the Fable antedated the formation of his own opinions on luxury. It is probable, however, that Montesquieu did not read the Fable until his opinions were pretty well formed, for the Fable was not well known till 1723—two years after the publication of the Lettres Persanes. [2] Dr. Johnson’s opinions about luxury were apparently drawn largely from the Fable. Mandevillian passages abound; see Works (1825) xi. 349; Boswell, Life, ed. Hill, 1887, ii. 169–70, 217–19 (cf. Fable i. 118 sqq.), iii. 55–6, 282 (cf. Fable i. 182–3), iii. 291–2, and iv. 173; Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, 25 Oct.; Lives of the English Poets, ed. Hill, i. 157 (Hill notes the origin of this in Mandeville). Johnson himself practically admitted his debt (Life iii. 291): ‘He as usual defended luxury; “You cannot spend money in luxury without doing good to the poor …” Miss Seward asked, if this was not Mandeville’s doctrine of “private vices publick benefits”.’ And Johnson responded with a brilliant criticism of the Fable, the statement that he read the book forty or fifty years ago, and the acknowledgement that it ‘opened my views into real life very much’. [3] For the College’s approval see Pluquet, Traité Philosophique et Politique sur le Luxe (1786) ii. 501. Pluquet’s statement concerning Mandeville’s priority (Traité i. 16) is not quite accurate. Saint-Évremond, for instance, had preceded Mandeville in defending luxury (see above, i. xciv–xcviii). However, the very error shows how closely Mandeville had become identified popularly with the defence of luxury. [1] Tyler, The Contrast 111. ii. [1] See above, i. ci–ciii. [1] Cf. Wealth of Nations, ed. Cannan, i. xxxvi–xli. Smith strongly praised Hutcheson (see Theory of Moral Sentiments, pt. 6, § 2, ch. 3). [2] See below, ii. 345, n. 1. [3] In his Theory of Moral Sentiments, although he strongly praised Hutcheson (ed. 1759, pp. 457 and 505), Smith differed from him both in his calculation of the proportion ‘benevolence’ holds in human nature and in his estimate of the effect of benevolence in actual life (cf. pt. 6, § 2, ch. 3). Selfishness is much more prominent in our motives than altruism, said Smith: ‘Every man … is much more deeply interested in whatever immediately concerns himself, than in what concerns any other man: and to hear, perhaps, of the death of another person, with whom we have no particular connexion, will give us less concern … than a very insignificant disaster which has befallen ourselves’ (p. 181). So much is society based upon selfishness that it ‘may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility, without any mutual love or affection …’ (p. 189). In the Wealth of Nations Smith’s difference from Hutcheson is more apparent. In this book, Smith frankly assumed the selfishness of mankind and made this assumption a basis of his speculation, elaborating, as it were, the sentence from his Theory of Moral Sentiments quoted at the close of the preceding paragraph. From the above, it will be seen that what references Hutcheson might have made to the Fable would have been received by the pupil in an attitude somewhat more favourable to Mandeville than the lecturer wished. And, indeed, a study of Smith’s ethical system will show an outlook more in harmony with the conceptions of the Fable than at first appears. It is true that Smith labelled Mandeville’s opinions as ‘in almost every respect erroneous’ (p. 474), but this, we shall see, was largely a gesture of respectability, the formality of which is indicated by the fact that, immediately afterwards, Smith scaled down his disagreement with Mandeville mostly to a matter of terminology. In Smith’s system the central and motivating ethical force is the affection of ‘sympathy’. Analysing this ‘sympathy’ into its elements, Smith wrote: ‘As we have no immediate experience of what other men feel, we can form no idea of the manner in which they are affected, but by conceiving what we ourselves should feel in the like situation. Though our brother is upon the rack, as long as we are at our ease, our senses will never inform us of what he suffers. They never did and never can carry us beyond our own persons, and it is by the imagination only that we can form any conception of what are his sensations. Neither can that faculty help us to this any other way, than by representing to us what would be our own if we were in his case’ (p. 2). This is not very far from Fable i. 66. For further illustration of the manner in which Smith reduced sympathy to egoistic components see pt. 1, § 2, ch. 2 ; and cf. pp. 90–1, 127–8, and 168. It must, however, be admitted that Smith argued, in spite of his own analysis, that sympathy need not be selfish (see pp. 15 and 496–7); but these arguments do not bulk large in his work, and, to me at least, have a flavour of disingenuousness, of ‘playing safe’. In this analysis, I have not, of course, meant to imply that Smith owed his doctrine of ‘sympathy’ in any way to Mandeville; nor has it been my primary purpose to establish a very close resemblance between this doctrine and Mandeville’s opinions. My purpose has been merely to show that whatever Hutcheson might have retailed of Mandevllle to attack him would have found in Smith a mind far from prepared to reject the Fable. [1] Condillac’s Essai sur l’Origine des Connoissances Humaines appeared in 1746, while the Fable was at the height of its French vogue and a few years after it had achieved a French translation. What makes me suspect indebtedness by Condillac for that part of the Essai (pt. 2, § 1, ch. 1) where the origin of language is treated is that he agrees so closely with Mandeville’s very unusual discussion, most of the analysis in the Essai, barring its systematic exposition and its appeal to what psychologists call ‘association’, being in the Fable—the ability of primitive men to communicate without language by means of cries and gestures aided by sympathy (Essai, in Œuvres, ed. 1798, i. 261–2, and Fable ii. 285–7), their inability at first to use language, because of their stupidity and the stiffness of their tongues (Œuvres i. 261 and 265 and Fable ii. 285–6), the slowness and the accidental nature of the development of language (Œuvres i. 265–6 and Fable ii. 288), the use, forcefulness, and persistence of gesture (Œuvres i. 266–70 and Fable ii. 287–90). Even for such a detail as Condillac’s remark (Œuvres i. 266) that gesture, because of its very usefulness as a means of intercourse, was a hindrance to the growth of language there is a hint in the Fable (ii. 291–3). But the most significant resemblance between the Essai and the Fable is in a point which both books make central—that children, because of the superior flexibility of their tongues, were largely the creators of new words (Œuvres i. 265–6 and Fable ii. 288). Herder’s celebrated Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache, which in 1770 won the prize offered by the Königliche Akademie der Wissenschaften of Berlin, does not show the specific parallels to the Fable which Condillac’s inquiry offers. It agrees with the Fable merely in its general attitude, taking the still unorthodox naturalistic view of the origin of language. For this attitude Herder need, of course, have owed Mandeville nothing: if Herder’s inspiration was derivative, he might have drawn it, for instance, from Condillac, whom he cited and criticized. Yet it is worth some notice that Herder specifically referred to the Fable in 1765 (Sämmtliche Werke, ed. Suphan, i. 24–5) and reviewed it at length in Adrastea in 1802 (see below, ii. 438). [1] The indebtedness of Helvétius to Mandeville has been assumed by a number of historians, and the Sorbonne’s famous Condemnation of Helvétius’s De l’Esprit in 1759, the year after its publication, detailed passages from the Fable as among the sources of Helvétius’s doctrines (see below, ii. 434). It is true that Helvétius is often very close to Mandeville—in his belief, for instance, that the passions are the mainspring of our actions (De l’Esprit, Amsterdam and Leipsic [Arkstee & Merkus], 1759, i. 185–6, 337 sqq., ii. 58–60, and passim; De l’Homme, London, 1773, i. 35–7), in his discussion of luxury (De l’Esprit i. 18, 178–9, 225, and passim; De l’Homme, § 6, ch. 3–5), in his psychologizing of courage (De l’Esprit, ‘discours’ 3, ch. 28), in his stress on the egoism of man and corollary analyses of compassion and of pride (De l’Esprit i. 58–60 and 125; De l’Homme ii. 15–16, 52, and 253), and in his attack on Shaftesbury (De l’Homme ii. 10–12). On the other hand, in so far as these opinions were derivative, they need not have come from Mandeville. They had been expressed by other writers, such as Bayle, Hobbes, Spinoza, La Rochefoucauld, and Melon (see above, i. lxxviii–xcviii and cxxxvi, n. 3). The chances, to be sure, are decidedly that the free-thinker Helvétius had, like his friends, read the famous free-thinking Fable, but, on the other hand, he nowhere in De l’Esprit and De l’Homme cited Mandeville. This last point, however, may in turn be somewhat discounted, for Helvétius was not conscientious about confessing his sources. Thus in De l’Homme, in the very short ch. 15 of § 9, he has without indication paraphrased Hobbes at the opening (Human Nature, dedication) and borrowed from Hume on miracles in his first footnote. I note three passages where Helvétius is rather close to Mandeville in illustrative detail. The least close of these is in De l’Esprit i. 337–8, where Helvétius illustrates the force of avarice and pride by showing them sending merchants over seas and mountains and stimulating effort in various lands (cf. Fable i. 356–8). For a really close parallel compare Fable ii. 85 and De l’Esprit ii. 151: ‘Le courage est donc rarement fondé sur un vrai mépris de la mort. Aussi l’homme intrépide, l’épée à la main, sera souvent poltron au combat du pistolet. Transportez sur un vaisseau le soldat qui brave la mort dans le combat; il ne la verra qu’avec horreur dans la tempête, parce qu’il ne la voit réellement que là.’ Helvétius, however, might equally well have drawn this passage from La Rochefoucauld or Aristotle (see below, ii. 85, n. 1). Finally, Helvétius wrote as follows while treating of compassion: ‘On écrase sans pitié une Mouche, une Araignée, un Insecte, & l’on ne voit pas sans peine égorger un Bœuf. Pourquoi? C’est que dans un grand animal l’effusion du sang, les convulsions de la souffrance, rappellent à la mémoire un sentiment de douleur que n’y rappelle point l’écrasement d’un Insecte’ (De l’Homme, § 5, notes, n. 8). This is certainly close to Fable i. 173–4 and 180–1. From the evidence just given I think we may conclude no more than that Helvétius had probably read the Fable, that, if he had read it, he probably owed it at least a little, and that he might have owed it much. [1] As the grain of salt with which my conclusions in this chapter are to be taken, it will be well to recall certain limitations to which the influence of books is subject. They are but one means of affecting thought and, when influential, are rather the ‘immediate’ than the ‘effective’ causes of change. If, furthermore, in a genuine historical synthesis, books as a whole are but one source of influence, and that often a minor one, single writings, of course, are of still less import. The most celebrated and dynamic composition must enter into streams of consciousness—and of unconsciousness—coloured and determined not only by natural bias, by social status, and by the great historical and economic facts, but by hundreds and thousands of other books. The power of a book is hardly more than that of one vote in a great parliament, a power which can bulk large in full synthesis only through an alinement of forces—an alinement not determined by it—which enables it to be a deciding vote. When, therefore, we estimate the influence of a book, we should always join the qualification—‘in so far as books have influence’. Such a relative estimate of Mandeville’s influence is all I have pretended to give; and, measured against the dimensions to which such influence through books may attain, my conclusions as to the importance of the Fable are, I think, justified. Last modified April 13, 2016	i don't know
What was the name of the fictional paper company whose offices provide the setting for the British sit-com 'The Office'?	The Paper Chase - The New Yorker The Paper Chase Office life in two worlds. By Tad Friend If Samuel Beckett were still around, his plays might begin on the late shift. “An office. An unattended PC glows under strong fluorescent light. Front left, a copying machine. Front right, a document shredder. Back, in near-darkness, a lounge with a disorderly refrigerator. A head peeps over a cubicle wall.” Yet Beckett might consider an office too familiar, too encoded with generic misery. Just as a commercial about a fretful housewife readies us for a miracle spray, so a commercial set in an office—such as one for FedEx, Sprint Nextel, and countless others—prepares us for jocular scenes of oppression. The ads follow the blueprint established by the “Dilbert” comic strip and by Mike Judge’s 1999 film “Office Space” (where the boss kept dropping by to follow up on “those T.P.S. reports”). At the office, we have come to understand, the boss is always a blustery martinet; abbreviations are a B.F.D.; your co-workers eat your food, talk your ear off, and stab you in the back; and work has no inherent value. The richest treatment of these themes—and other, more searching considerations—occurred on “The Office,” a BBC Two sitcom whose impact vastly exceeded the length of its run: a mere twelve episodes in 2001-02 and a two-part coda, “The Office Christmas Special,” the following year. Shot as a mock documentary, it examined the daily nonevents at a branch of Wernham Hogg, a fictional paper-supply company in Slough, the city west of London celebrated by John Betjeman: “Come friendly bombs and fall on Slough! / It isn’t fit for humans now.” The show, which aired here on BBC America and is available as a DVD set, was indebted for its format and some of its improvisatory byplay to such Christopher Guest films as “Best in Show,” but while Guest’s characters are defined by excessive optimism, the paper pushers created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant were glum and self-loathing. They gauged their standing in the world by their jobs, as many of us do, and their jobs involved monotonous labor at a failing company in a collapsing industry. Like “The Office,” standout workplace sitcoms—including “The Mary Tyler Moore Show,” “MAS*H,” “Taxi,” and “The Larry Sanders Show”—take place at pokey or besieged outfits. Their characters’ struggles to have their lives matter make the show “relatable,” as the networks put it. Failure is repeatedly relatable, whereas triumph goes down best in a single serving, such as one of those movies about unlikely bobsled heroes or plucky pint-size hockey players. A Goldman Sachs sitcom would have to be set in the mailroom, because watching envy and truckling is a lot funnier than watching the distribution of Christmas bonuses. The workers at Wernham Hogg wear muted blues and grays and seem to be drowning in queasy fluorescence; they never see the sun. The show’s format compounded the gloom, because our emotions weren’t being cued with pop-song hooks or jolted by a laugh track; yet, by placing the cameras right up in the action and interspersing one-on-one interviews, the show allowed us to discover the characters for ourselves. The documentary verisimilitude also allowed scenes to peter out with a blank look or a sigh rather than build up to the American joke-joke-joke crescendo, known as the “blow,” a structure that usually involves someone bellowing at a freshly slammed door, “Does this mean we’re not getting married?” The show’s lodestar was Ricky Gervais as the regional manager, David Brent. With his dated Vandyke, darting eyes, and shit-eating grin; with his wish to be more of a friend and entertainer than a boss, a wish torpedoed by the coercive feebleness of his patter and his horrifying dance moves; and with his unerring gift for joining conversations and killing them with one unpardonable remark, David was a new figure in sitcoms: the unbearable lead. In the first episode, in a scene that extended for an excruciating two and a half minutes, he sought to impress the new temp by having him sit in as he played a practical joke on the receptionist, Dawn (Lucy Davis). After calling her into his office, he pretended to fire her for stealing. When she began to sob, he winced and shifted and finally murmured, “Good girl, that was a joke we were doing.” With her head still in her hands, she called him a “wanker” and a “sad little man.” “Am I?” he said, attempting nonchalance. “Didn’t know that.” But he does. And our slow discovery of how this self-knowledge eats at David made us, grudgingly, begin to think of him as tragic. While Gervais and Merchant’s decision to end the show well before it jumped the scone was admirable, NBC’s decision to air an American version, beginning in the spring of 2005, seemed deplorable. The show’s cult of admirers was outraged; the New York Observer wrote that, to much of Hollywood, “this smells like another colossal failure in the works.” It was as if the network had announced that it was going to take a British institution like “Pop Idol” and remake it with a jingoistic title like “American Idol.” (Since then, Québécois, French, and German networks have rolled out local versions of “The Office”; the template is becoming as globally ubiquitous as “Baywatch.”) The doubters had reason for concern, though: while classic sitcoms such as “All in the Family” and “Sanford and Son” were based on British models, more recent efforts to adapt “Absolutely Fabulous,” “Coupling,” and “The Kumars at No. 42” had all gone amiss. Initially, NBC was too respectful. The goings on at the Scranton branch of the Dunder-Mifflin paper company duplicated those at Wernham Hogg scene for scene, which didn’t play to the new writers’ interests or the new cast’s strengths. But in the fall of 2005 the writers, led by Greg Daniels, the co-creator of “King of the Hill,” declared independence, and soon enough the show became a hit, first as a downloaded phenomenon on iTunes and then in the Nielsen ratings. It also became the best sitcom on the air. The creative turning point was last fall’s Halloween episode, in which Dunder-Mifflin’s corporate office in New York tells Michael Scott (the American version of David Brent, played by Steve Carell) to fire an employee by the end of the day. As he loudly struggles to think of a way out, or a way to get someone else to do it, Carell lets us see his character rummaging around in his brain for ideas, rocking forward as if to tip one closer to his mouth. The episode becomes completely goofy when Michael, in costume with a papier-mâché head on his shoulder, persuades his dweeby but Machiavellian lieutenant, Dwight (a brilliantly humorless Rainn Wilson), that the second head is whispering advice about whom to fire. The winning silliness was new, as was that episode’s final scene. We see Michael, after going through with the firing, sitting glumly in his condo. Then the doorbell rings and he brightens, spilling candy in his eagerness to befriend a group of trick-or-treaters. Sappy, perhaps, but also an assertion that work needn’t define us. The British “Office” was a pitiless meditation on rules and class. (The American “Office” doesn’t care about class; the writers handle very gently the fact that Michael’s favorite New York restaurants are a Sbarro’s and a Red Lobster.) David Brent was always afraid that he was being sneered at—and he was. It wasn’t so much that David’s bosses spoke in the tones of the BBC, while he spoke Estuary English and prided himself on knowing all the pop-culture trivia familiar to readers of the Sun; it was his attempts to disguise his background by larding his conversation with Latin tags like “ipso facto,” always misused, and with management-speak about, say, “team individuality.” And there was his public behavior, as when a woman at a club accused him of wanting just to shag her. His wounded rejoinder: “Yeah, and from behind, ’cause your breath stinks of onions, and I didn’t tell you that, did I?” As he smirked at her—touché!—she slapped him, and everyone froze. The appalled silence was “The Office” ’s recurrent landing point. Most of David’s employees didn’t know what to do with their embarrassment, but Tim (Martin Freeman), a salesman, usually bailed out of the collective mortification with a deadpan look at the camera. Making faces is the way the weak take their revenge. (Tim also regularly needled David’s provincial assistant, perpetuating a British tradition of repressive jeering that extends back to Mr. Bennet in “Pride and Prejudice,” who observed, “For what do we live, but to make sport for our neighbors, and laugh at them in our turn?”) Many of Tim’s poker-faced glances and slightly pop-eyed takes were directed toward Dawn; he wooed her the way a dog woos its master. Their long-simmering mutual crush was the show’s sole gesture toward the optimistic American “arc,” in which characters go on a journey together and are rewarded. But the crush didn’t boil over, because Dawn was engaged to someone else. Tim and Dawn were afraid to break the rules-—and their colleagues, equally afraid, made sure that they didn’t. David declared at one point that he’d like “to live, you know, on and on and on, you know—know what it’s like to live forever.” Yet the show’s blank interstitial shots of the photocopier chunking out documents and of people staring at their computer screens, just as before, became increasingly dreadful. “Nothing happens, nobody comes, nobody goes, it’s awful!” as Estragon observes in “Waiting for Godot.” In the final episode, when David’s bravado crumbled and he pleaded with his bosses in a low voice to rescind their decision to fire him (“Don’t . . . make me redundant,” he said, barely able to get the words out. “Just say that it’s not definite now”), his appeal to keep things as they were, given how bad even he knew they were, was wrenching. The challenge that faced the American “Office” was to honor the spirit of the original while tweaking the workplace dynamics so that audiences would want to watch more than twelve episodes. The British scabrousness and barely suppressed violence is gone, and the Scranton office—brighter and noisier, with more posters, parties, and pep—is Slough on Zoloft. Scranton has its thwarted lovebirds, too, Jim and Pam (the boyishly appealing John Krasinski and a depressed but radiant Jenna Fischer), who are better-looking and more assertive than Tim and Dawn. But two more office romances have been woven into the mix, and where Ricky Gervais’s David was nearly asexual, Steve Carell’s Michael Scott is weirdly and delightfully pansexual. Ryan, the go-getter junior salesman (B. J. Novak, one of several writers on the show who also play characters), tries never to be alone with his boss. It’s not just that Michael slaps him on the rear and calls him on his cell phone to coo but that Michael once proclaimed, when everyone was playing Who Would You Do?, “Well, I would definitely have sex with Ryan!,” adding, a moment late, “ ’cause he’s going to own his own business.” Which makes it perfectly understandable. Referring to such differences, Kevin Reilly, the president of NBC Entertainment, has remarked that “Americans need a little bit more hope than the British.” In fact, conditions in Scranton are fairly hopeless: when it appeared, earlier this season, as if the branch might close, many of the employees were delighted. Toby, the doleful human-resources nebbish (Paul Lieberstein), told the camera, “For a minute there, I saw myself selling my house, moving to Costa Rica, learning how to surf. But, Costa Rica will still be there . . . when I’m sixty-five.” What distinguishes Dunder-Mifflin from Wernham Hogg is not hope but consolation. In the British “Office,” we never learned most people’s names; the American version lovingly anatomizes everyone and takes advantage of the long-take documentary format to reveal the full complexity of everyone’s feelings (we glean, for instance, that Toby has an unspoken crush on Pam, and therefore resents Jim). Lost is the condemnatory power of the anonymous British chorus; gained are both a standard American melting pot and a commedia-dell’arte stock company, featuring Kelly the Yakker, Meredith the Lush, Kevin the Letch, and Creed the Cantankerous Freak, who is just a possession or two away from being a hobo. When Dwight is hovering uselessly in Michael’s office as Michael tries to deal with the sudden death of his predecessor, who was decapitated in a car accident, Creed (Creed Bratton) suddenly dips in his random oar. CREED: You know, a human can go on living for several hours after being decapitated. DWIGHT: You’re thinking of a chicken. CREED: What’d I say? It wouldn’t be the same without him. In the final episode of “The Mary Tyler Moore Show,” Mary Richards explained the hidden mechanism of our workplace sitcoms, telling her co-workers, “I thought about something last night. What is a family? And I think I know. A family is people who make you feel less alone and really loved. Thank you for being my family.” Somewhat more self-importantly, Michael Scott tells the camera, “A lot of these people, this is the only family they have. So as far as I’m concerned”—he pulls out a “World’s Best Boss” mug that he bought for himself—“this says ‘World’s Best Dad.’ “ This office taps home the point that work is fundamentally alien to the workplace. The reason that bosses become blustery martinets is that any sensible employee at a place like Dunder-Mifflin would rather play video games or gossip than tutor clients in the manifold varieties of copy paper. Yet Michael is the worst offender; he hates paperwork and is constantly distracting his employees while supposedly motivating them—the man is a karaoke machine of samplings from leadership manuals, and his emotional declarations sound like “The 48 Laws of Power.” “Would I rather be feared or loved?” he wonders aloud. “Um, easy: both. I want people to be afraid of how much they love me.” There is something Trump-like about Michael—the inert quiff of hair, the bombastic maxims, the bluff, mechanical determination. Where David Brent wields language like a blunderbuss, brandishing it before the gates of the establishment, Michael wraps himself in it like a Sean John jacket, longing, hopelessly, to be black. “Wassup!” he cries, to his “dawgs” and “be-yotches” when they’re “in the house.” Last week, in an episode guest-written by Gervais and Merchant, he put on a do-rag and pretended to be Prison Mike, giving his employees the 411 on why office life is, in fact, preferable to time in the hole. There are also, in a somewhat more Caucasian mode, his impressions of Moe Howard, of the Three Stooges, and Adolf Hitler, of the Third Reich. Steve Carell does wonderful work with his voice, going from strangled and squeaky when he’s wounded to orotund when he’s feeling statesmanlike, an effect routinely shattered by his penchant for cackling and blurting out “Fo’ shizzle!” or “What’s the dealio?” All the conversational lint that tumbles around the airwaves gets trapped on the blank mesh of his brain. Michael is less concerned with class than David, but he’s classier. When layoffs loomed at Wernham Hogg, David leapt to take a promotion, even though it meant that his Slough office would close (in the end, he failed the physical). By contrast, when Michael is told that the Scranton branch will be shuttered, he and Dwight drive to New York to appeal for his workers’ jobs. Scranton winds up absorbing the somewhat more professional Stamford branch, not because of Michael’s ultimately irrelevant road trip but because Stamford’s manager leveraged the situation and got a better job at Staples. Jim tells the camera, “Say what you will about Michael Scott, but he would never do that.” Aside from such occasional clangers—fundamental-decency alert!—the show has a near-perfect grasp of tone. When Pam accepts her “Dundie” award from Michael at the annual ceremony at Chili’s, she has been drinking and flirting with Jim and wants to show off for him, so she launches into a mock acceptance speech. “Finally,” she concludes, “I want to thank God”—and her pause as she glances at the award in her hand and the engagement ring she has worn for more than three years is strangely affecting—“because God gave me this Dundie, and because I feel God in this Chili’s tonight.” In such scenes, the show manages to send up the forced camaraderie that Michael demands while celebrating its haphazard but genuine epiphanies. The American show is much more willing to bend reality in the service of a joke. Jim, who sits next to Dwight and is able to tolerate his pettiness only by thinking of ingenious ways to punk him, goes so far as to send him faxes that purport to be time-travelling warnings from “future Dwight”—and Dwight heeds them. But the new “Office” does fix the original’s nagging realism problem: it was difficult to believe that David Brent would have lasted in his job for eight years. The writers take care to demonstrate that Michael Scott’s intense, blundering amiability can close a sale, particularly when the client is drunk. Most of the time, Michael’s boss, Jan Levinson (a splendid Melora Hardin as a steely professional occasionally beset by self-doubt), can’t understand why she hasn’t fired him. But Jan also warms to Michael’s sympathetic side, particularly when she’s drunk. She even makes out with him, twice, to her everlasting chagrin. Michael is too dim to understand that Jan is way out of his league; he sees himself as a sort of man-about-town who’s not afraid to cry. In this vein, he regularly convenes breach-healing colloquia about diversity and tolerance, which always backfire. This fall, he tried to demonstrate that there’s nothing scary about gays by publicly embracing Oscar (Oscar Nuñez), an accountant who he had been told, privately, was gay. (Michael explained to us that he wished he’d known about Oscar’s sexuality, because then he wouldn’t have kept calling him “faggy.” “You don’t call retarded people retards,” he pointed out, with characteristic logic. “It’s bad taste. You call your friends retards when they’re acting retarded. And I consider Oscar a friend.”) Oscar rejected the embrace with a shove, declaring, “I don’t want to touch you—ever consider that? You’re ignorant. And insulting. And small.” Michael’s pained glance at the camera demonstrates Steve Carell’s particular strength as a comic actor: he doesn’t just deliver jokes and P.C. doubletalk—he swaddles them in bubble wrap and adds a gift card. When they don’t go over, he’s crestfallen. Here he ended up crying on Oscar’s shoulder: “Sorry I called you faggy.” Michael wants nothing more than to keep his humiliations to himself. But there are so many. The biggest humiliation, though he hasn’t yet begun to acknowledge it, is the growing evidence that his office is not exactly a family. Michael’s employees, of course, recognize family metaphors as a corporate falsehood, and they behave accordingly: his wingman, Dwight, recently maneuvered to replace him, having earlier told us that his defining quality as a worker was loyalty—“but if there were somewhere else that valued that loyalty more highly, I’m going wherever they value loyalty the most.” Similarly, Andy, a new guy from Stamford (Ed Helms, in a scene-stealing turn as a smarmy frat-boy type), tells us he’ll have the second-in-command job within six weeks, through “name repetition” and “personality mirroring.” Michael falls for the manipulation, of course, and his credulousness made us feel the sort of sadness we feel when a computer outplays Garry Kasparov. Even Jim has no problem with getting ahead and is now Michael’s No. 2. Class isn’t destiny here; destiny is achieved by selling and, in both senses of the word, hustling. Gervais and Merchant’s handling of the Tim-and-Dawn plot was a master class in the pleasures of delayed gratification. At the very end of the show’s coda, “The Office Christmas Special,” Dawn tearily stepped into Tim’s arms. The related issue that the American “Office” must now resolve seems, at first, merely technical: how to perpetuate Jim and Pam’s mating dance as the show continues indefinitely. Their flirtation is more articulated, playful, and intimate than Tim and Dawn’s longing; it’s screwball rather than chivalric. They essentially serve as the office’s cruise directors, engineering a karate bout between Michael and Dwight and conducting an office Olympics with medals made from yogurt lids (they give Michael a gold lid for closing on his condo). Inspired writing can multiply obstacles for a long time: Sam and Diane teased viewers for five years on “Cheers,” and Niles and Daphne eyed each other for seven years on “Frasier” before running off together. But when the will-they-or-won’t-they plot winds down, it often takes the show with it, as it did on “Moonlighting.” Precisely because Jim and Pam’s relationship has been so poignant—it’s the show’s chief ornament—they are fast running out of reasons to stay apart. At the end of last season, Jim approached Pam in the parking lot one night and said, “I’m in love with you.” A few minutes later in the darkened office, a likelier setting, they kissed. Then she said she was still going to marry Roy, her lunk of a fiancé. Yes, it made no sense. This season, even as Pam called off the wedding, Jim left for the Stamford office so that he could forget her; now the merger has brought him back, along with his Stamford colleague and new girlfriend, Karen (a spunky Rashida Jones). Their relationship feels much more mature than Jim and Pam’s skylarking, and so is clearly doomed. How this matter plays out will define the show’s view of office life. Is this “Office” a romance, a place to find your soul’s counterpoint? Or is it a comedy of consolation, a place where dreams of love and Costa Rica gradually slip away? Michael, at least, would argue for the romance. Last season, he urged Jim to “never, ever, ever give up” his pursuit of Pam. It helped, somehow, that Michael uttered this Churchillian sentiment while wearing plastic handcuffs and shivering in the makeshift brig of a booze-cruise boat on Scranton’s Lake Wallenpaupack. The frigid weather and the correctional setting were straight out of the British original; the unlooked-for kindness was a local contribution. The BBC and NBC are two offices separated by a common language. ♦ Tad Friend has been a staff writer at The New Yorker since 1998. Sign up for the daily newsletter: The best of The New Yorker every day. Enter e-mail address Please enter a valid e-mail address Submitting... Thank you for subscribing. You’ll receive your first newsletter soon. 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The musical play 'The Mother Of All The Peoples' dramatised the life of which female Scottish missionary to Nigeria?	British Comedy - Mefi Wiki MetaFilter's site and server can always use upgrades of hardware, software, and bandwidth, as well as more stable funding for continued support of its small but high-skilled moderation and backend team! If you'd like to chip in, you can donate to Metafilter. British Comedy This is based on this thread, originally filtered through an html to wiki filter. For the past 50 years, The British have made some of the funniest Comedy TV Shows. Come inside for A Video Chronology of The History of British TV Comedy. [Hover over the Wikipedia links for show descriptions. Noteworthy shows highlighted with star (). All links are double-checked but BBC seems to be on the war path, resulting in removed clips.] Contents The Goon Show (1951-1960): The Goon Show was a popular and influential radio comedy produced by the BBC from 1951 - 1960, starring Peter Sellers, Spike Milligan and Harry Secombe. (from this thread) Steptoe and Son (1962-1974): Steptoe and Son is a British sitcom written by Ray Galton and Alan Simpson about two rag and bone men living in Oil Drum Lane, a fictional street in Shepherd's Bush, London. Four series were aired on the BBC from 1962 to 1965, followed by a second run from 1970 to 1974. Its theme tune, “Old Ned”, was composed by Ron Grainer. In a 2004, BBC, poll to find “Britain’s Best Sitcom”, Steptoe and Son was voted 15th best British sitcom of all time. Till Death Us Do Part (1965-1975): Till Death Us Do Part (also known as Til Death Us Do Part) was a BBC television sitcom series written by Johnny Speight that ran from 1966 until 1975. The programme starred Warren Mitchell as the racist East End misogynist (and Rudyard Kipling lookalike) Alf Garnett. Also appearing in the series were Dandy Nichols as Alf's long-suffering wife, Else Garnett, Una Stubbs as Rita, his daughter, and Anthony Booth as Mike, his layabout son-in-law, whose socialist leanings were the cue for many of Alf's more offensive outbursts. The Likely Lads (1964-1966): The Likely Lads was a hit British sitcom created and written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais. Twenty episodes were made and broadcast in all, over three seasons, by the BBC between December 1964 and July 1966. However, only eight of these shows have survived intact. [no clips found] Morecambe and Wise (1968-1983): Morecambe and Wise were a famous British comic double act comprising Eric Morecambe OBE and Ernie Wise OBE. The act lasted four decades until Morecambe's death in 1984. They are widely considered to be the most successful double act in Britain for generations. In a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, The Morecambe and Wise Show was placed 14th. In September 2006, they were voted by the general public as number 2 in a poll of TV's Greatest Stars. On the Buses (1969-1973): On The Buses was a British situation comedy created by Ronald Wolfe and Ronald Chesney. The pair had already had successes with The Rag Trade and Meet the Wife for the BBC. The BBC rejected this offering and so the pair turned to ITV station London Weekend Television. The show was accepted and although the critics disliked it, the show was a huge hit with the viewers. Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969-1974): Monty Python’s Flying Circus (also known as Flying Circus, MPFC or, during the final series, just Monty Python) is a BBC sketch comedy program from the Monty Python comedy team, and the group's initial claim to fame. The show was noted for its surreal plots, risqué or innuendo-laden humour, sight gags, and sketches without punchlines. It also featured the animations of Terry Gilliam which were often sequenced or merged with live action. (Spike Milligan's) Q (1969-1982): Spike Milligan's Q was a surreal television comedy sketch show which ran from 1969 to 1983 on BBC2. The first and third series ran for seven episodes, with the remainder running for six episodes, each of which was 30 minutes long. Each series was numbered, starting with Q5 - possibly because the project to construct the Cunard liner QE2, launched in September 1967, was dubbed Q4 - and continuing in ascending order, through to Q9. The final series was renamed There's a Lot of It About, after, according to Milligan's autobiography, the BBC felt the public might find Q10 too confusing. The Lord's Prayer Epilogue \| The Fresh Fruit Song \| Kilt Chimes \| Sandwich * The Benny Hill Show (1969-1989): The Benny Hill Show featured Benny Hill in mostly short sketches (often portraying a protagonist), along with Thames Television show regulars Henry McGee, Bob Todd, Jackie Wright, Nicholas Parsons (in the early years), Jenny Lee-Wright, Rita Webb and others. Hill often demonstrated his versatility as an actor by appearing in vastly different costumes as well as in female character. Slapstick and double entendre were his hallmark. Some critics accused the show of sexism, but Hill often pointed out that the female characters were all intelligent and kept their dignity, while the men chasing them were all buffoons. The Two Ronnies (1971-1987): The Two Ronnies is a British sketch show that aired on BBC One from 1971 to 1987. It featured the double act Ronnie Barker and Ronnie Corbett, the “two Ronnies” of the title. [...] The show revolved around comic sketches in which Barker and Corbett appeared together and separately, with various other additions giving the programme the feeling of a variety show. Are You Being Served? (1972-1985): Are You Being Served? was a long-running British sitcom broadcast from 1972 to 1985. It was set in the men's and women's department of a large fictional London store called Grace Brothers. It was mainly written by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft, with contributions by Michael Knowles and John Chapman. The idea for the show came from Lloyd's brief stint working at Simpsons of Piccadilly in the early 1950s, a classy clothing store which traded for over 60 years until 1999. * Love Thy Neighbour (1972-1976): Love Thy Neighbour was a British sitcom which ran from 13 April 1972 to 22 January 1976, made by Thames Television for ITV. It starred Jack Smethurst, Rudolph Walker, Nina Baden-Semper and Kate Williams. There was also a movie spin-off and a brief sequel set in Australia. The series (and movie) was created and largely written by Vince Powell and Harry Driver, and was based on a suburban white working class couple who unwittingly found themselves living next door to a black couple, and the white couple's attempts to come to terms with this. Last of the Summer Wine (1973-): Last of the Summer Wine is a British National Television Award winning sitcom which airs on BBC One and is written by Roy Clarke and produced and directed by Alan J. W. Bell. [...] Set and filmed in Holmfirth, West Yorkshire, England, the plot centres around a trio of older men, the lineup of whom has changed over the years, but originally consisted of the scruffy and child-like Compo, deep-thinking and meek Clegg, and authoritarian and snobbish Blamire, who was replaced by the quirky war veteran Foggy after two series in 1976. Porridge (1973-1977): Porridge is a British sitcom that was broadcast on BBC1 from 1973 to 1977, running for three series, two Christmas specials, as well as a feature film. Written by Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais, it stars Ronnie Barker and Richard Beckinsale as two criminals in the fictional HMP Slade in Cumberland. Rising Damp (1974-1978): Rising Damp was a UK television sitcom produced by Yorkshire Television for ITV, first broadcast from 1974 to 1978. It was adapted for television by Eric Chappell from his well-received 1971 stage play, The Banana Box (retained as the working title early in the series). The series was the highest-ranking ITV sitcom on the 100 Best Sitcoms poll run in 2004 by the BBC. * It Ain't Half Hot Mum (1974-1981): It Ain't Half Hot Mum was a British sitcom about the adventures of a Royal Artillery Concert Party, broadcast between 1974 and 1981, and written by Jimmy Perry and David Croft, the creators of Dad's Army. It was set in British India and Burma, towards the end of the Second World War. [...] The first four series of It Ain't Half Hot Mum were set at the Royal Artillery Depot Deolali, a place where British soldiers stayed before being posted up the jungle. The Royal Artillery Concert Party, consisting of several soldiers who would rather sing, dance and dress up as women than fight, are stationed permanently in Deolali to keep the troops entertained. In the first episode of the fifth series, the concert party are posted up the jungle, and from then on It Ain't Half Hot Mum is set in Tin Min, Burma close to the front line. * Fawlty Towers (1975-1979): Fawlty Towers is a British sitcom made by the BBC and first broadcast on BBC2 in 1975. Only twelve episodes were produced, but the series has had a lasting and powerful influence on later shows. [...] Fawlty Towers was inspired by the Monty Python team's stay in the Gleneagles Hotel in Torquay in May 1970. Cleese and Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming for the Python show had finished. The owner, Donald Sinclair, was very rude, throwing a bus timetable at a guest who asked when the next bus to town would arrive, and placing Eric Idle's suitcase behind a wall in the garden on the suspicion that it contained a bomb (it actually contained a ticking alarm clock). The Good Life (1975-1978): The Good Life is a British sitcom that aired on BBC1 from 1975 to 1978. It was written by Bob Larbey and John Esmonde. In 2004, it came 9th in Britain's Best Sitcom. [...] On his 40th birthday, Tom Good gives up his job as a draughtsman in a company that makes plastic toys for breakfast cereal packets as he is no longer able to take his job seriously. Their house is fully paid for, so he and his wife Barbara make a decision to live a sustainable, simple and self-sufficient lifestyle while staying in their beloved home in The Avenue, Surbiton. [...] Their actions horrify their kindly but conventional next-door neighbours, Margo and Jerry Leadbetter. Originally, Margo and Jerry were intended to be minor characters, but their relationship with one another and with the Goods soon become an essential element of every episode. * The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin (1976-1979): The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin is a novel and British sitcom starring Leonard Rossiter in the title role. Both book and TV series were written by David Nobbs, and the screenplay for the first series was adapted by Nobbs from the novel, though certain subplots in the novel were considered too dark or risqué for television and toned down or omitted from the TV series, a case in point being the relationship between Perrin's daughter and his brother-in-law. Open All Hours (1976 and 1985): Open All Hours was a BBC sitcom written by Roy Clarke which ran for four series (26 episodes in all) between 1976 and 1985, with a pilot episode from the Seven of One series in 1973. In 2004, the series was voted eighth in Britain's Best Sitcom. [...] The series centres around a small grocer's shop in Balby, a suburb of Doncaster in South Yorkshire. The store's owner, Albert Arkwright (played by Ronnie Barker), is a middle-aged miser with a stammer and a knack of being able to sell anything and everything to any passing visitor to his shop. [no clips found] George and Mildred (1976-1979): George and Mildred was a British sitcom produced by Thames Television that aired from 1976 to 1980. It was a spin-off of Man About the House and starred Brian Murphy and Yootha Joyce as an ill-matched married couple, George and Mildred Roper. [...] George and Mildred Roper have left their old house after receiving a compulsory purchase order from the Council and move to 46 Peacock Crescent in Hampton Wick. While Mildred enjoys moving up in the world socially, lazy and unemployed George remains true to his working class roots and also continues to show a lack of interest in sexual relations with Mildred. To the Manor Born (1979-1981): In To the Manor Born Penelope Keith, who had became famous for playing Margo Leadbetter in the suburban sitcom The Good Life, plays Audrey fforbes-Hamilton, an upper-class woman who, upon the death of her husband, has to move out of her beloved manor house. The manor is then bought by Richard DeVere, played by Peter Bowles, a nouveau riche millionaire supermarket owner. * Not the Nine O'Clock News (1979-1982): It featured a new generation of young comedians, principally Rowan Atkinson, Pamela Stephenson, Mel Smith and Griff Rhys Jones, and helped to bring alternative comedy to the mainstream. Rather than being written by a single team of writers, it gave virtually anyone involved in UK comedy scriptwriting a chance to demonstrate their talents, creaming the best of the contributions. Its format was similar to that of a forerunner, Monty Python's Flying Circus, including sketches that lasted from a few seconds to several minutes. * Yes Minister and Yes, Prime Minister (1980-1988): Yes Minister is a multi-award winning satirical British sitcom written by Antony Jay and Jonathan Lynn that was first transmitted by BBC television and radio between 1980 and 1984, split over three seven-episode series. The sequel, Yes, Prime Minister, ran from 1986 to 1988. In total this made 38 episodes, all but one of which last half an hour. Hi-de-Hi! (1980-1988): Hi-de-Hi! was a popular British sitcom set in a holiday camp that aired for nine series from 1980 to 1988. It was written by Jimmy Perry and David Croft, who had previously written Dad's Army and It Ain't Half Hot Mum. The title was the phrase used to greet the campers at events, and in early episodes was written Hi de Hi. Only Fools and Horses (1981-2003): Only Fools and Horses is a British television sitcom, created and written by John Sullivan, and made and broadcast by the BBC. Seven series were originally broadcast in the UK between 1981 and 1991, with sporadic Christmas specials until 2003. After a relatively slow start the show went on to achieve consistently high ratings, and the 1996 episode “Time On Our Hands” holds the record for the highest UK audience for a sitcom episode. * 'Allo 'Allo! (1982-1992): 'Allo 'Allo! was a long-running British sitcom broadcast on BBC1 from 1982 to 1992 comprising eighty-five episodes. Set during World War II, 'Allo 'Allo tells the story of René Artois, a French café owner in the village of Nouvion (the town square scenes were filmed at Lynford Hall, Norfolk). Germans have occupied the village and stolen all of its valuable artifacts. The Young Ones (1982-1984): The Young Ones was a popular British sitcom, first seen in 1982, which aired on BBC2. Its anarchic, offbeat humour helped bring alternative comedy to television in the 1980s and made household names of its writers and performers. Soon after, it was shown on MTV in its early days, being one of the first non-music television shows to appear on the fledgling channel. * Blackadder (1983-1989): Blackadder is the generic name that encompasses four series of an acclaimed BBC One historical sitcom, along with several one-off installments. The first series was written by Richard Curtis and Rowan Atkinson, while subsequent episodes were written by Curtis and Ben Elton. The shows were produced by John Lloyd, and starred Rowan Atkinson as the eponymous anti-hero, Edmund Blackadder, and Tony Robinson as his sidekick/dogsbody, Baldrick. Spitting Image (1984-1996): Spitting Image was a satirical puppet show that ran on the United Kingdom's ITV television network from 1984 to 1996. Chance in a Million (1984-1986): The hapless Tom Chance meets his long-suffering girlfriend, Alison Little, by chance. This happens when Tom Chance goes to the same pub on a blind date to meet a girl (who is also called Alison), that Alison Little has arranged to meet her cousin Tom (for the first time since they were young children). [no clips found] * French & Saunders (1987-2007): French & Saunders is a British sketch comedy television show written by and starring Dawn French and Jennifer Saunders, and also the name by which the performers are known on the rare occasions when they appear elsewhere as a double act. [...] Widely popular in the early 1990s, the show was given one of the highest budgets in BBC history to create detailed spoofs and satires of pop culture, movies, celebrities and art. [...] The show features an unusual style of humour, where many otherwise normal parody sketches are permeated with an underlying theme (which somewhat breaks the fourth wall) of the jealousy that French has for Saunders, and the superiority complex of Saunders. * The New Statesman (1987-1994): The New Statesman was an award-winning British sitcom of the late 1980s and early 1990s satirising the Conservative government of the time. It was written by Laurence Marks and Maurice Gran at the request of, and as a starring vehicle for, its principal actor, Rik Mayall. Many people consider the show a hybrid of Yes Minister and another Rik Mayall sitcom, The Young Ones. Chelmsford 123 (1988,1990): The series was located in the British town of Chelmsford in AD 123, and concerned the power struggle between Roman governor Aulus Paulinus (Jimmy Mulville) and the British chieftain, Badvoc (Rory McGrath). Britain is a miserable place, cold and wet – just the place to exile Aulus for accidentally insulting the Emperor's horse, but also give him something useful to do. Aulus was a rather delicate Roman, who was usually outwitted by the scheming Badvoc, who hadn't had a haircut for twenty-five years. * Red Dwarf (1988-1999): Red Dwarf is a British science fiction comedy franchise, the primary form of which comprises eight series of a television sitcom that ran on BBC2 between 1988 and 1999, and which has achieved a global cult following. It was created and originally written by Grant Naylor (a so-called 'gestalt entity', in reality a collective pseudonym for the writing duo Rob Grant and Doug Naylor). The show's origins come from a recurring sketch, Dave Hollins: Space Cadet, in the mid-1980s BBC Radio 4 comedy show Son Of Cliché, also scripted by Grant and Naylor. * Keeping Up Appearances (1990-1995): Keeping Up Appearances is a British sitcom starring Patricia Routledge as social-climbing snob Hyacinth Bucket. It aired on BBC1 from 1990 to 1995. Keeping Up Appearances was written by Roy Clarke, who also wrote Last of the Summer Wine and Open All Hours. In 2004, it came 12th in Britain's Best Sitcom. [...] Hyacinth Bucket is a social-climbing snob who insists her last name is pronounced “bouquet”. She spends most of her time trying to impress her neighbours and friends by boasting about her wealthy sister Violet, and pretending to be of a more “aristocratic” class. Simultaneously, Hyacinth tries desperately to avoid her lower-class relatives who frequently turn up, either on the woman's doorstep (a suburban bungalow situated on Blossom Avenue), or in public places, embarrassing Hyacinth and thus sabotaging her hopes of climbing the social ladder. Vic Reeves Big Night Out (1990-1991): ic Reeves Big Night Out was a cult British comedy stage show and later TV series which ran on Channel 4 for two series in 1990 and 1991, as well as a New Year special. It marked the beginnings of the collaboration between Vic Reeves (real name Jim Moir) and Bob Mortimer and started their Vic and Bob comedy double act. One Foot in the Grave (1990-2000): One Foot in the Grave was a BBC television situation comedy series written by David Renwick. The show ran for six series, with several specials, over a ten year period, from 1990 to 2000. In addition, four episodes were remade for BBC Radio 2 and the series also inspired a novel. [...] The series featured the exploits of Victor Meldrew, an irascible pensioner with attitude. In the first episode, Victor, played by Scottish-born actor Richard Wilson, was prematurely retired from his job as a security guard being replaced by an automated machine. From then on the series followed his struggle to keep himself occupied, often with little success. Mr. Bean (1990-1995): The series followed the exploits of Mr. Bean, described by Atkinson as “a child in a grown man's body”, in solving various problems presented by everyday tasks and often causing disruption in the process. [...] The title character, played by Rowan Atkinson, is a slow-witted, sometimes ingenious, childishly selfish and generally likeable buffoon who brings various unusual schemes and connivances to everyday tasks. He lives alone in his small flat in Highbury, North London, and is almost always seen in his trademark tweed jacket and skinny red tie. Mr. Bean rarely speaks, and when he does it is generally only a few mumbled words. Have I Got News for You (1990-): Have I Got News for You is a British television panel show; produced by Hat Trick Productions for the BBC. It is based loosely on the BBC Radio 4 show The News Quiz, and has been running since 1990. The show has cultivated a reputation for sailing close to the wind in matters of libel with its satirical, light-hearted format. * Drop the Dead Donkey (1990-1998): Drop the Dead Donkey was a situation comedy that ran on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom from 1990 to 1998. It was set in the offices of “Globelink News”, a fictional TV news company. Recorded close to transmission, it tried to use current news events as a means of giving the programme a greater sense of realism. It was created by Andy Hamilton and Guy Jenkin. The series had an ensemble cast, making stars of Haydn Gwynne, Stephen Tompkinson and Neil Pearson. * Absolutely Fabulous (1992-2005): Absolutely Fabulous was an Emmy and BAFTA winning British sitcom written by and starring Jennifer Saunders and co-starring Joanna Lumley, Julia Sawalha, June Whitfield and Jane Horrocks. [...] Edina Monsoon and Patsy Stone are two immature, prosperous, but preposterous substance-abusing fashion and fad-obsessed Londoners who value fame and style over substance (unless they are controlled substances). Saffron, Edina's daughter, provides the persistently dour voice of Monsoon and Stone's super-ego. Edina and Saffy live in a house in Holland Park (although the house is seemingly very close to Shepherds Bush, much to Edina's chagrin), with Patsy spending most of her time there as well. Men Behaving Badly (1992-1998): Men Behaving Badly is a British comedy, which first broadcast in 1992 on the ITV network, however moved to BBC One (and a later timeslot) from the third series onwards. It was written and created by Simon Nye, who also wrote a book in the 1980s, which forms the basis for much of the first series. [...] The first series features Martin Clunes as Gary Strang, and Harry Enfield as his flat mate, Dermot Povey. From series two onwards, Enfield is replaced by Neil Morrissey as Tony Smart, who resumes Dermot's role as the immature under-achiever, perpetually behind in his rent, and hopelessly in love with Deborah, who lives in the flat above. * Knowing Me, Knowing You... with Alan Partridge (1994): Knowing Me, Knowing You... with Alan Partridge (also known as Knowing Me, Knowing You or abbreviated to KMKY...WAP) is a British comedy show first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 as a six-episode series, which subsequently transferred to BBC Television with a series of six episodes (beginning 16 September 1994), and a Christmas special (Knowing Me, Knowing Yule) in 1995. It is named after the song “Knowing Me, Knowing You” by ABBA (Alan Partridge's favourite band), which was used as the show's title music. [...] The show was a parody of a chat show, and both the radio and television versions were so embarrassingly accurate that listeners and viewers often thought they were the real thing. Many wrote in to complain, for example, at Partridge slapping a child prodigy in an episode of the radio series. The series did feature an audience who clearly knew the show was a parody, but apparently this wasn't enough to persuade some listeners that it wasn't real. * The Vicar of Dibley (1994-2007): The Vicar of Dibley is a British sitcom created by Richard Curtis and written for its lead actress, Dawn French, by Curtis and Paul Mayhew-Archer, with contributions from Kit Hesketh-Harvey. The Vicar of Dibley aired from 1994 to 2007. In 2004, it came third in Britain's Best Sitcom. [...] The Vicar of Dibley is set in a fictional small Oxfordshire village called Dibley, which is assigned a female vicar following the 1994 changes in the Church of England that permitted the ordination of women. The main character was an invention of Richard Curtis, but Dawn French and himself extensively talked with Joy Carroll, one of the first female vicars, and garnished many character traits and informations. The Fast Show (1994-2000): The Fast Show, known as Brilliant in the US, was a BBC comedy sketch show programme that ran for three series from 1994 to 1997 with a special Last Fast Show Ever in 2000. [...] The series was the brain child of Paul Whitehouse and his writing partner and friend, Charlie Higson. They wanted to break away from Harry Enfield and Chums, a show in which they had appeared and written for. After viewing a quick press preview tape of Enfield's show, compiled by producer friend Geoffrey Perkins, the pair began to develop the idea of a rapid-fire 'MTV generation' format based wholly on quick cuts and soundbites/catchphrases. After LWT passed on the early scripts, they returned to the BBC. * The Day Today (1994): The Day Today is a surreal British parody of television current affairs news programmes. It is an adaptation of the radio programme On The Hour. The series is composed of six half-hour episodes and a selection of shorter, five-minute slots recorded as promotion trailers for the longer segments. [...] Each episode is presented as a mock news programme, and the episodes rely on a combination of ludicrous fictional news stories, covered with a serious, pseudo-professional attitude. Each episode revolves around one or two major stories, which are pursued throughout the programme, along with a host of other stories usually only briefly referred to. * Father Ted (1995-1998): Father Ted was a popular 1990s television situation comedy set around the lives of three Irish Catholic priests on the remote (and fictional) Craggy Island off the west coast of Ireland. It ran for three series, totalling 25 episodes, between 21 April 1995 and 1 May 1998 on the UK's Channel 4. Father Ted was written by two Irish writers Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan, who also co-created Big Train. All of the interior scenes were shot at The London Studios, while all of the location footage was shot in Ireland. The Thin Blue Line (1995-1996): The Thin Blue Line is a British sitcom starring Rowan Atkinson set in a police station that lasted for two series from 1995 to 1996. [...] The Thin Blue Line was set in the police station of a fictional town of Gasforth, one of the main themes was the rivalry between the uniformed squad led by Inspector Fowler; and the CID led by Detective Inspector Grim; who provided much of the humour through his use of the English language. * Never Mind the Buzzcocks (1996-): Never Mind the Buzzcocks is a comedy panel game show with a pop and rock music theme, currently presented by Simon Amstell and produced by talkbackTHAMES for the BBC. It is usually aired on BBC Two. The title plays on the names of the Sex Pistols' Never Mind the Bollocks album, and the band Buzzcocks. [...] The show is infamous for its dry, sarcastic humour and scathing, provocative attacks on the pop industry. * I'm Alan Partridge (1997-2002): I'm Alan Partridge is a British sitcom. Two series were produced, the first in 1997 and the second in 2002. Six episodes were produced for each series. [...] Steve Coogan stars as Alan Partridge [...] A former chat-show host on BBC television, Alan was dismissed from the BBC partly for punching Chief Commissioning Editor Tony Hayers in the face with a stuffed partridge and partly because his programmes were of a low standard, delivering ever-declining ratings. In series one, he is divorced from his wife Carol, lives in the Linton Travel Tavern and is reduced to working the graveyard shift on Norwich radio and desperately trying to get back on television in any capacity. Big Train (1998-2002): Big Train is a surreal British television comedy sketch show created by Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan, writers of the successful sitcom Father Ted. It was first broadcast in 1998 with a second series, in which Linehan was not involved, shown in 2002. [...] Following in the tradition of Monty Python, the comedy of Big Train is based on the subversion of ordinary situations by the surreal or macabre. For example, one scene features a bad-mannered man casually stabbed to death by his embarrassed wife at a dinner party. The Royle Family (1998-2006): The Royle Family is a popular, BAFTA award-winning television sitcom produced by Granada Television for the BBC, which ran for three series between 1998 and 2000, with a special episode in late 2006. It concerns the lives of a working class Manchester family, the Royles. [...] The series is remarkable for its simple production and realistic portrayal of working-class family life at the turn of the millennium. It, therefore, has something in common with kitchen sink drama. The League of Gentlemen (1999-2002): The League of Gentlemen is a quartet of British comedy writer/performers, formed in 1995 by Jeremy Dyson, Mark Gatiss, Steve Pemberton and Reece Shearsmith. The television program for which they are best known, although officially labelled a sitcom, was initially more sketch-based, linked together by their common setting: the fictional village of Royston Vasey, set somewhere in the north of England. * Spaced (1999-2001): Spaced is a British television situation comedy written by and starring Simon Pegg and Jessica Stevenson, and directed by Edgar Wright. It is noted for its rapid-fire editing, frequent dropping of pop-culture references, and occasional displays of surrealism. [...] Tim Bisley (Pegg) and Daisy Steiner (Stevenson) are two London twenty-somethings who meet by chance in a cafe while both are flat-hunting. Despite barely knowing each other, they conspire to pose as a young “professional” couple in order to meet the requisites of an advertisement for a relatively cheap flat in the distinctive building at 23 Meteor Street, which is owned by and also houses the landlady, Marsha Klein (Julia Deakin). * Smack the Pony (1999-2003): Smack the Pony was a British sketch comedy show that ran from 1999 until 2003 on Channel 4. Its title was intended to sound like a euphemism for female masturbation; the working title was Spot the Pony. The main performers and writers on the show were Fiona Allen, Doon Mackichan and Sally Phillips. [...] Among the show's regular themes were unsuccessful relationships, competition in the workplace and latent lesbianism, but sketches would also dip into the surreal; such as two women jumping from their car as they neared a parking space and brushing in front of the path of their car to allow it move forward further à la curling. Two regular strands involved a series of different women making dating agency videos about their general likes and dislikes, and a musical parody that would close the show. * That Peter Kay Thing (2000): That Peter Kay Thing was a series of six spoof documentaries shown on Channel 4 in January and February 2000. Set in and around Bolton, these followed the lives of different characters and starred Peter Kay as the subject of each documentary. All of the episodes displayed Kay's penchant for nostalgic humour and unsympathetic lead characters. The voiceovers were provided by Andrew Sachs. Many of the plot lines were based around actual events from Kay's life. * Black Books (2000-2004): The series is set in the eponymous “Black Books”, a small, independent bookshop in the Bloomsbury area of central London. The show is based around the lives and often surreal antics of its foul-mouthed, eccentric, misanthropic, alcoholic Irish owner Bernard Black (played by Moran), his assistant Manny (Bailey), and their friend Fran (Greig). The Office (2001-2003): The Office is an Emmy-nominated, and Golden Globe Award and BAFTA Award-winning British television comedy that first aired in the UK on BBC Two on 9 July 2001. Created, written and directed by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, the programme is about the day-to-day lives of office employees in the Slough, Berkshire branch of the fictitious Wernham-Hogg Paper Company. Although fictional and scripted, the programme takes the form of a documentary (a fictional documentary, i.e. a mockumentary), with the presence of the camera often acknowledged. * The Armando Iannucci Shows (2001): The Armando Iannucci Shows is a series of eight programmes directed by Armando Iannucci and written by Iannucci with Andy Riley and Kevin Cecil. It was shown on UK's Channel 4 in October 2001. Each show had a rough theme, often somewhat existentialist in nature, around which Iannucci would weave a series of surreal sketches and monologues. [...] Recurring themes in the episodes are the superficiality of modern culture, our problems communicating with each other, the mundane nature of working life and feelings of personal inadequacy and social awkwardness. Several characters also make repeat appearances in the shows, including the East End thug, who solves every problem with threats of violence; Hugh, an old man who delivers surreal monologues about what things were like in the old days; and Iannucci's barber, who is full of nonsensical anecdotes. Dead Ringers (2002-): Dead Ringers is a UK radio and television comedy impressions show broadcast on BBC Radio 4 and BBC Two. [...] The series is well known for its portrayal of fellow BBC employees, such as Radio 4 newsreader Brian Perkins as a Godfather-like figure (“Who's the daddy?”), controlling all of Radio 4. He often sends death threats to other members of the BBC, and threatens to kill anyone who tries to chat-up his love interest Charlotte Green. Little Britain (2003-2006): Little Britain is a character-based sketch show first appearing on BBC radio and then television. It was written by and stars Matt Lucas and David Walliams. Its title is an amalgamation of the terms 'Little England' and 'Great Britain', and is also the name of a Victorian neighbourhood and modern street in London. [...] The format of the show is a compilation of short sketches featuring recurring characters, linked by narration from Tom Baker (most famous as the Fourth Doctor on Doctor Who). The voiceovers take a wry look at Britain, with comically absurd statements on the nation's character, such as, “Britain.... We've had running water for over 10 years, an underground tunnel linking us to Peru, and we invented the cat”, or “Unlike other countries, Britain has people of two genders: women and men.” Peep Show (2003-): Peep Show follows the often sexually-frustrated lives of two men in their late twenties, Mark (Mitchell) and Jeremy (Webb). Having met while at the fictional Dartmouth University together (they occasionally refer to themselves as 'The El Dude Brothers' in reference to their student days), they now share a flat in Croydon, south London. * QI (2003-): QI, standing for Quite Interesting, is a comedy panel game television quiz show created and produced by John Lloyd, hosted by Stephen Fry, and featuring permanent panellist Alan Davies. [...] It is distinguished by the awarding of points not necessarily for correct answers, but rather, for (quite) interesting ones. Many of the questions are extremely obscure, making it unlikely that the correct answer will be given. Points are deducted from a panellist who gives an obvious but wrong answer, typically one that is generally accepted as true but is, in fact, false. Davies is usually in last place in the show as he consistently gives answers like these. * Green Wing (2004-2007): Green Wing is an award-winning British television comedy set in the fictional East Hampton Hospital Trust. It was created by the same team behind the sketch show Smack the Pony, led by Victoria Pile, and stars Tamsin Greig, Stephen Mangan and Julian Rhind-Tutt. [...] Although set in a hospital, there are no medical storylines; the action is produced by a series of soap opera and Commedia dell'arte-style twists and turns in the personal lives of the characters. They proceed through a series of often absurd sketch-like scenes connected by lazzi, or by sequences where the film is slowed down or speeded up, often emphasising the body language of the characters. The Thick of It (2005): The Thick of It is a British comedy television series, which satirises the inner workings of modern British government. [...] The action centres on the fictitious Department of Social Affairs and Citizenship (“DoSAC” - previously the Department of Social Affairs, or “DSA”, prior to the reshuffle of episode five), which supposedly came out of the Prime Minister's passing enthusiasm for “joined-up government”. Thus, it acts as a “Super Department” overseeing many others, which enables different political themes to be dealt with in the programme, similar to the Department for Administrative Affairs in Yes Minister. Extras (2005-2007): Extras is a BAFTA, Golden Globe and Emmy Award-winning British television sitcom about extras working on film sets and in theatre. The series is co-produced by the BBC and HBO, and is co-written and directed by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant, both of whom also star in it. [...] Each episode has at least one guest star; a television or film celebrity, who play what Gervais and Merchant have referred to as "twisted" versions of themselves; an exaggerated or inverted parody of their famous public personas. * The IT Crowd (2006-): The IT Crowd is set in the offices of Reynholm Industries, a fictitious British corporation in central London. It focuses on the shenanigans of the three-strong IT support team located in a dingy, untidy and unkempt basement - a stark contrast to the shining modern architecture and stunning London views enjoyed by the rest of the organisation. Gavin & Stacey (2007-): Gavin & Stacey is a British sitcom originally aired on BBC Three and later shown on BBC Two, written by and starring Ruth Jones and James Corden and produced by Baby Cow Productions. Gavin is played by Mathew Horne and Joanna Page plays Stacey. Outnumbered (2007-): Outnumbered is about a family living in South London, where the parents are “Outnumbered” by their three children. The parents constantly try to keep their children under control, but completely fail to do so. * The Armstrong and Miller Show (2007-): The Armstrong and Miller Show is a British sketch comedy television show produced by Hat Trick Productions for BBC One. It reunites the comedy duo Armstrong and Miller, who have not appeared together on screen since 2001, and features League of Gentlemen's Jeremy Dyson as scriptwriter.	i don't know
Which former World Heavyweight Boxing Champion won his first 48 fights before losing to Michael Spinks in 1985?	Leon Spinks (Heavyweight) - Pics, Videos, Dating, & News Leon Spinks Male Born Jul 11, 1953 Leon Spinks is a former American boxer. He had an overall record of 26 wins, 17 losses and 3 draws as a professional, with 14 knockout wins, and is a former World Boxing Council and World Boxing Association heavyweight champion of the world. Prior to becoming a professional, he served on active duty in the United States Marine Corps and fought successfully in the 1976 Olympic Games, winning a gold medal.… Read More related links Ali? I'm The Best, Says Mayweather Yahoo News - Apr 23, 2015 ' Never one to talk himself down, Floyd Mayweather declared Wednesday that he isn\'t just good, he\'s better than Muhammad Ali, the man many call \"The Greatest.\" With just over a week to go before his super fight in Las Vegas against Manny Pacquiao, Mayweather said his career and flawless record -- he has never been beaten -- speak for itself. \"I feel like I have done just as much in the sport as Ali,\" Mayweather said. No disrespect to Ali, but I feel like I am the best.\" Mayweather poin... Ken Norton Dead: Former Muhammad Ali Rival, Heavyweight Boxing Champion Dies At 70 Huffington Post Sports - Sep 18, 2013 'LAS VEGAS â He was the second man to beat Muhammad Ali, breaking Ali\'s jaw and sending him to the hospital in their 1973 heavyweight fight. \nKen Norton frustrated Ali three times in all, including their final bout at Yankee Stadium where he was sure he had beaten him once again. Norton, who died Wednesday at the age of 70, lost that fight for the heavyweight title. But he was forever linked to Ali for the 39 rounds they fought over three fights, with very little separating one man from th... Ortiz Says He's Ready To Rock Mayweather Oc Register Google News - Aug 28, 2011 'Coffee cups dropped on floors all over the world when <mark>Leon Spinks</mark> knocked off Muhammad Ali. WBC welterweight world champion Victor Ortiz isn't given much of shot against Floyd Mayweather Jr. on Sept. 17 in Las Vegas, but he believes' Teofilo Stevenson: The Greatest Boxer You Have Never Heard Of Bleacher Report Google News - Aug 27, 2011 '15 Sep 1978: Muhammad Ali wins his third World Heavyweight Title against <mark>Leon Spinks</mark>. Mandatory Credit: Allsport UK/Allsport In fact, Stevenson was once offered $5 million to fight Muhammad Ali. His response, "but what's a million dollars compared to' Learn about the memorable moments in the evolution of Leon Spinks. CHILDHOOD 1953 Birth Born on July 11, 1953. TWENTIES 1974 20 Years Old Prior to turning professional, Spinks won a bronze medal at the inaugural 1974 World Amateur Boxing Championships in Havana. 1976 22 Years Old Two years later, he capped off his amateur career by winning a gold medal in the light heavyweight division at the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal, alongside his brother Michael Spinks, who won the gold at middleweight. … Read More Leon defeated Cuban great Sixto Soria in an entertaining slugfest where Spinks was rocked several times by the much more polished fighter but landed a crushing overhand right that put Soria face down on the canvas. His Olympic teammates included Sugar Ray Leonard, Leo Randolph and Howard Davis Jr. Spinks also served on active duty in the United States Marine Corps from 1973 to 1976. Read Less 1977 23 Years Old Spinks debuted professionally on January 15, 1977 in Las Vegas, Nevada, beating Bob Smith by knockout in five rounds. … Read More His next fight was in Liverpool, England, where he beat Peter Freeman by a first-round knockout. Later, he saw an improvement in opposition quality, when he fought Pedro Agosto of Puerto Rico and knocked him out in round one. He then fought Scott LeDoux to a draw and defeated Italian champion Alfio Righetti by a decision. Read Less Show Less … Leon Spinks (born July 11, 1953) is an American former boxer who was the undisputed heavyweight champion of the world. Spinks had an overall record of 26 wins, 17 losses and three draws as a professional, with 14 of those wins by knockout. Read Less In only his eighth professional bout, Spinks won the undisputed world heavyweight championship when he beat Muhammad Ali on February 15, 1978, in what was considered one of the biggest upsets in boxing history. … Read More However, he was stripped of the WBC title for fighting Ali in an unapproved rematch seven months later, which he lost by a 15-round unanimous decision. Besides being heavyweight champion and his characteristic gap-toothed grin (due to losing two and later all four of his front teeth), Spinks gained notoriety for the disaster which befell his career following the loss to Ali. Read Less Now a lower ranked contender, he made history on February 15, 1978, by beating Muhammad Ali on a 15-round split decision in Las Vegas. … Read More Spinks won the world heavyweight title in his eighth professional fight, the shortest time in history. The aging Ali had expected an easy fight, but he was out-boxed by Spinks, who did not tire throughout the bout. It was one of the few occasions when Ali left the ring with a bruised and puffy face.<br /><br /> Spinks' victory over Ali was the peak of his career. He was the only man to take a title from Muhammad Ali in the ring, as Ali's other losses were non-title contests or bouts where Ali was the challenger. Read Less Spinks' gap-toothed grin was featured on the cover of the February 19, 1978 issue of Sports Illustrated. … Read More However, Spinks was stripped of his world title by the WBC for refusing to defend it against Ken Norton, instead agreeing to a return bout against Ali to defend his WBA crown. The title, stripped from Spinks, was then awarded to Norton. Read Less His second match with Ali, at the Louisiana Superdome on September 15, 1978, went badly for Spinks. … Read More A now in-shape Aliâwith better, sharper tacticsârarely lost control, winning back his title by a unanimous fifteen-round decision. Ali regained the title, becoming the first three-time heavyweight champion. Spinks was never given a rematch; Ali retired after the fight (although he came out of retirement a few years later to fight Larry Holmes and Trevor Berbick). Read Less 1979 25 Years Old Spinks's next fight, his only one in 1979, was at Monte Carlo, where he was knocked out in the first round by future WBA world heavyweight champion Gerrie Coetzee. … Read More In the following fight, Spinks defeated former world title challenger and European title holder Alfredo Evangelista by a knockout in round 5. He fought to a draw in with Eddie LÃ³pez, and beat the WBC's top-ranked challenger, Bernardo Mercado, by a knockout in round nine. Read Less 1981 27 Years Old His strong performance against Mercado earned Spinks a title match against Larry Holmes. In Spinks' only fight in 1981, and what would be his last chance opportunity at the heavyweight title, he had a clear loss by a TKO in the third round at Joe Louis Arena in Detroit on June 12. … Read More It was Spinks' last heavyweight bout for years, as he began boxing in the cruiserweight division. He beat contender Ivy Brown by a decision in ten rounds, and a gained a decision against former and future title challenger Jesse Burnett in twelve rounds. Read Less THIRTIES 1985 31 Years Old When his brother Michael Spinks defeated Larry Holmes in a controversial upset for the IBF heavyweight championship in 1985, they became the only brothers to have held world heavyweight championships. … Read More They kept the distinction until the Klitschko brothers became champions two decades later.<br /><br /> In the 1980s Leon Spinks competed in several boxer vs. wrestler matches in New Japan Pro Wrestling, including losing by submission to Antonio Inoki. Read Less 1986 32 Years Old In 1986 Spinks earned his last championship opportunity, fighting Dwight Muhammad Qawi for the WBA cruiserweight championship. … Read More Qawi had been defeated by Michael Spinks three years earlier for his WBC light heavyweight championship. However, Leon Spinks lost by TKO in the sixth round. During the fight, Qawi taunted Spinks as he beat him mercilessly in a corner. Read Less FORTIES 1994 41 Years Old Spinks boxed for another eight years with mixed results. In 1994 he lost a bout by KO to John Carlo, the first time a former heavyweight champion had lost to a boxer making his pro debut (promoter Charles Farrell later admitted to falsifying Carlo's record in order to get the fight sanctioned by the District of Columbia). 1995 42 Years Old Spinks retired at age 42, after losing an 8-round decision to Fred Houpe in 1995, who was coming off a seventeen-year hiatus. … Read More During the 1990s, Spinks worked for Frontier Martial-Arts Wrestling, winning its world title in 1992 making him the only man to hold titles in both boxing and wrestling. In the late 1990s, Spinks was a headliner on year-round, touring autograph shows. Read Less FIFTIES 2006 53 Years Old His son, Cory Spinks, held the undisputed welterweight title and was the International Boxing Federation Junior Middleweight champion in 2006â2008. … Read More In 1990, his son, Leon Calvin, was shot to death in East St. Louis as he was driving home from his girlfriend's house. Leon Calvin, 19, was a light heavyweight boxer who had turned pro the month before his murder. Read Less 2009 56 Years Old In 2009 Spinks was featured as part of the 2009 documentary Facing Ali, in which notable former opponents of Ali speak about how fighting Ali changed their lives. 2012 59 Years Old As of 2012, Spinks lives in Columbus, Nebraska. … Read More He told a reporter his life is "comfortable", and that he keeps a low profile.<br /><br /> "I love helping the kids," he says. He loves being a hero to them and he also still loves working a room. Read Less Original Authors of this text are noted on http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Spinks .	Larry Holmes
With the scientific name Taurotragus oryx, which is the largest species of antelope?	Boxing Champs \| Jack Johnson, First African American Heavyweight Champ Leave a comment John Arthur (“Jack”) Johnson (March 31, 1878 – June 10, 1946), nicknamed the “Galveston Giant,” was an American boxer. At the height of the Jim Crow era, Johnson became the first African American world heavyweight boxing champion (1908–1915). In a documentary about his life, Ken Burns notes, “for more than thirteen years, Jack Johnson was the most famous and the most notorious African-American on Earth.”[1] Johnson attests that his success in boxing came from the coaching he received from Joe Choynski, who became his cellmate after the pair were arrested for fighting in Texas, where boxing was illegal at the time.[2][3] The aging Choynski saw natural talent and determination in Johnson and taught him the nuances of defense, stating “A man who can move like you should never have to take a punch”.[4] He is considered a boxing legend and was the first person ever to knock down James J. Jeffries in a professional boxing bout. Their fight is to this day considered a seminal moment in boxing history. Early life Johnson was born in Galveston, Texas, the second child and first son of Henry and Tina “Tiny” Johnson, former slaves who worked at blue-collar jobs to raise six children and taught them how to read and write. Henry Johnson traced his ancestry back to the Coromantees who came from modern-day Ghana.[5] Johnson dropped out of school after just five or six years of education to get a job as a dock worker in Galveston. Johnson fought Joe Choynski, who knocked him out, but whilst they spent time after the fight in prison together, talked much about boxing. There is a photo existing of them both behind bars. Joe, who also became his friend and sparring partner, taught him a lot. Johnson’s boxing style was very distinctive. He developed a more patient approach than was customary in that day, basically playing with his opponents, often carrying on a conversation with ringsiders at the same time as he was fighting. Johnson would begin a bout cautiously, slowly building up over the rounds into a more aggressive fighter. When annoyed, he often fought to punish his opponents rather than knock them out, endlessly avoiding their blows and striking with swift counters. He always gave the impression of having much more to offer and, if pushed, he could punch powerfully. There are films of some of his fights in which he can be seen holding up his opponent, who otherwise might have fallen, until he recovered. Those were the days when the (mostly white) patrons liked value for money, and it was a habit, especially for black boxers, to make the fight last a respectable time. With the many bouts a fighter engaged in, it was commonplace to have fought the same opponent as many as a dozen or even more times. So it is highly likely that the results of many of these fights were “pre-arranged,” and also pre-determined to last a goodly number of rounds. Johnson’s style was very effective, but it was criticized in the press as being cowardly and devious. By contrast, world heavyweight champion “Gentleman” Jim Corbett had used many of the same techniques a decade earlier, and was praised by the press as “the cleverest man in boxing.”[1] By 1902, Johnson had won at least 50 fights against both white and black opponents. Johnson won his first title on February 3, 1903, beating “Denver” Ed Martin over 20 rounds for the World Colored Heavyweight Championship. His efforts to win the full title were thwarted, as world heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries refused to face him then. Black and white boxers could meet in other competitions, but the world heavyweight championship was off limits to them. However, Johnson did fight former champion Bob Fitzsimmons in July 1907, and knocked him out in two rounds.[1] There is a report that Johnson even fought and KO’d Jim Jeffries’ brother Jack, and taunted him about it to force a fight, with no success. Johnson finally won the world heavyweight title on December 26, 1908, a full six years after lightweight champion Joe Gans became the first African American boxing champion. Johnson’s victory over the reigning world champion, Canadian Tommy Burns, in Sydney, Australia, came after stalking Burns around the world for two years and taunting him in the press for a match.[6] The fight lasted fourteen rounds[7] before being stopped by the police in front of over 20,000 spectators. The title was awarded to Johnson on a referee’s decision as a knockout. After Johnson’s victory over Burns, racial animosity among whites ran so deep that it was called out for a “Great White Hope” to take the title away from Johnson.[8] As title holder, Johnson thus had to face a series of fighters each billed by boxing promoters as a “great white hope,” often in exhibition matches. In 1909, he beat Frank Moran, Tony Ross, Al Kaufman, and the middleweight champion Stanley Ketchel. The match with Ketchel was originally thought to have been an exhibition, and in fact it was fought by both men that way, until the 12th round, when Ketchel threw a right to Johnson’s head, knocking him down. Quickly regaining his feet, and very annoyed, Johnson immediately dashed straight at Ketchell and threw a single punch, an uppercut, a punch for which he was famous, to Ketchel’s jaw, knocking him out. Several of Ketchell’s teeth were also knocked out with some sticking in Johnson’s glove. The filmed fight shows Johnson wiping the teeth off his glove with a smirk. His fight with Philadelphia Jack O’Brien was a disappointing one for Johnson: though weighing 205 pounds (93 kg) to O’Brien’s 161 pounds (73 kg), he could only achieve a six-round draw with the great middleweight. The “Fight of the Century” James J. Jeffries fights Johnson in 1910In 1910, former undefeated heavyweight champion James J. Jeffries came out of retirement and said, “I feel obligated to the sporting public at least to make an effort to reclaim the heavyweight championship for the white race. . . I should step into the ring again and demonstrate that a white man is king of them all.”[9] Jeffries had not fought in six years and had to lose well over 100 pounds to get back to his championship fighting weight. Indeed, initially Jeffries had no interest in the fight being quite happy as he was. But those who wanted to see Johnson ground into the dirt badgered him unmercifully for months, and also offered him an unheard sum of money, reputed to be about $120,000. The fight took place on July 4, 1910 in front of 20,000 people, at a ring built just for the occasion in downtown Reno, Nevada. Johnson proved stronger and more nimble than Jeffries. In the 15th round, after Jeffries had been knocked down twice for the first time in his career, the referee stopped the fight before Jeffries could be knocked out. The “Fight of the Century” earned Johnson $65,000 and silenced the critics, who had belittled Johnson’s previous victory over Tommy Burns as “empty,” claiming that Burns was a false champion since Jeffries had retired undefeated. Riots and aftermathThe outcome of the fight triggered race riots that evening—the Fourth of July—all across the United States, from Texas and Colorado to New York and Washington, D.C. Johnson’s victory over Jeffries had dashed white dreams of finding a “great white hope” to defeat him. Many whites felt humiliated by the defeat of Jeffries.[1] Blacks, on the other hand, were jubilant, and celebrated Johnson’s great victory as a victory for racial advancement. Black poet William Waring Cuney later highlighted the black reaction to the fight in his poem “My Lord, What a Morning.” Around the country, blacks held spontaneous parades and gathered in prayer meetings. Some “riots” were simply blacks celebrating in the streets. In certain cities, like Chicago, the police did not disturb the celebrations. But in other cities, the police and angry white citizens tried to subdue the revelers. Police interrupted several attempted lynchings. In all, “riots” occurred in more than 25 states and 50 cities. About 23 blacks and two whites died in the riots, and hundreds more were injured.[10] [edit] Film of the boutA number of leading American film companies joined forces to shoot footage of the Jeffries-Johnson fight and turn it into a feature-length documentary film, at the cost of $250,000. The film was distributed widely in the U.S. and was exhibited interna tionally as well. As a result, Congress banned prizefight films from being distributed across state lines in 1912; the ban was lifted in 1940. In 2005, the film of the Jeffries-Johnson “Fight of the Century” was entered into the United States National Film Registry as being worthy of preservation.[11] In the United States, many states and cities banned the exhibition of the Johnson-Jeffries film. The movement to censor Johnson’s victory took over the country within three days after the fight.[9] It was a spontaneous movement. Two weeks after the match former President Theodore Roosevelt, an avid boxer and fan, wrote an article for The Outlook in which he supported banning not just moving pictures of boxing matches, but a complete ban on all prize fights in America. He cited the “crookedness” and gambling that surrounded such contests and that moving pictures have “introduced a new method of money getting and of demoralization.”[9] Loss of the title Panorama of Willard – Johnson fight, Havana, CubaOn April 5, 1915, Johnson lost his title to Jess Willard, a working cowboy from Kansas who started boxing when he was twenty-seven years old. With a crowd of 25,000 at Oriental Park Racetrack in Havana, Cuba, Johnson was knocked out in the 26th round of the scheduled 45 round fight. Johnson, although having won almost every round, began to tire after the 20th round, and was visibly hurt by heavy body punches from Willard in rounds preceding the 26th round knockout. Johnson is said by many to have spread rumors that he took a dive,[12] but Willard is widely regarded as having won the fight outright. Willard said, “If he was going to throw the fight, I wish he’d done it sooner. It was hotter than hell out there.” Personal life Johnson was an early example of the celebrity athlete in the modern era, appearing regularly in the press and later on radio and in motion pictures. He earned considerable sums endorsing various products, including patent medicines, and indulged several expensive hobbies such as automobile racing and tailored clothing, as well as purchasing jewelry and furs for his wives.[13] He even challenged champion racer Barney Oldfield to a match auto race at the Sheepshead Bay, New York one mile (1.6 km) dirt track. Oldfield, far more experienced, easily out-distanced Johnson, ending any thoughts the boxer might have had about becoming a professional driver.[14] Once, when he was pulled over for a $50 speeding ticket (a large sum at the time), he gave the officer a $100 bill; when the officer protested that he couldn’t make change for that much, Johnson told him to keep the change, as he was going to make his return trip at the same speed.[1] Johnson was also interested in opera (his favorite being Il Trovatore) and in history — he was an admirer of Napoleon Bonaparte, believing him to have risen from a similar origin to his own. In 1920, Johnson opened a night club in Harlem; he sold it three years later to a gangster, Owney Madden, who renamed it the Cotton Club. Johnson constantly flouted conventions regarding the social and economic “place” of blacks in American society. As a black man, he broke a powerful taboo in consorting with white women, and would constantly and arrogantly verbally taunt men (both white and black) inside and outside the ring. Johnson was pompous about his affection for white women, and imperious about his physical prowess, both in and out of the ring. Asked the secret of his staying power by a reporter who had watched a succession of women parade into, and out of, the champion’s hotel room, Johnson supposedly said “Eat jellied eels and think distant thoughts”.[15] Johnson was married three times. All of his wives were white, a fact that caused considerable controversy at the time. In January 1911, Johnson married Etta Terry Duryea. A Brooklyn socialite and former wife of businessman Charles Duryea, she met Johnson at a car race in 1909. Their romantic involvement was very turbulent. Beaten many times by Johnson and suffering from severe depression, she committed suicide in September 1912, shooting herself with a revolver.[16] Less than three months later, on December 4, 1912, Johnson married Lucille Cameron. After Johnson married Cameron, two ministers in the South recommended that Johnson be lynched. Cameron divorced him in 1924 because of infidelity. The next year, Johnson married Irene Pineau. When asked by a reporter at Johnson’s funeral what she had loved about him, she replied, “I loved him because of his courage. He faced the world unafraid. There wasn’t anybody or anything he feared.”[16] Johnson had no children. Prison sentenceOn October 18, 1912, Johnson was arrested on the grounds that his relationship with Lucille Cameron violated the Mann Act against “transporting women across state lines for immoral purposes” due to her being an alleged prostitute and due to Johnson being black. Cameron, soon to become his second wife, refused to cooperate and the case fell apart. Less than a month later, Johnson was arrested again on similar charges. This time, the woman, another alleged prostitute named Belle Schreiber, with whom he had been involved in 1909 and 1910, testified against him. In the courtroom of Kenesaw Mountain Landis, the future Commissioner of Baseball who perpetuated the baseball color line until his death, Johnson was convicted by an all-white jury in June 1913,[17] despite the fact that the incidents used to convict him took place prior to passage of the Mann Act.[1] He was sentenced to a year and a day in prison. Johnson skipped bail and left the country, joining Lucille in Montreal on June 25, before fleeing to France. For the next seven years, they lived in exile in Europe, South America and Mexico. Johnson returned to the U.S. on July 20, 1920. He surrendered to Federal agents at the Mexican border and was sent to the United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth to serve his sentence September 1920 as Inmate #15461.[18] While incarcerated, Johnson found need for a tool that would help tighten loosened fastening devices, and modified a wrench for the task. He patented his improvements on April 18, 1922, as US Patent 1,413,121.[19][20] He was released on July 9, 1921.[1] There have been recurring proposals to grant Johnson a posthumous presidential pardon. A bill requesting President George W. Bush to pardon Johnson in 2008, passed the House,[21] but failed to pass in the Senate.[22] In April 2009, Senator John McCain, along with Representative Peter King, filmmaker Ken Burns and Johnson’s great-niece, Linda Haywood, requested a presidential pardon for Johnson from President Barack Obama.[23] On July 29, 2009, Congress passed a resolution calling on President Obama to issue a pardon.[24] Later lifeJohnson continued fighting, but age was catching up with him. He fought professionally until 1938 at age 60 when he lost 7 of his last 9 bouts, losing his final fight to Walter Price by a 7th-round TKO. It is often suggested that any bouts after the age of 40 -which was a very venerable age for boxing in those days- be not counted on his actual record, since he was basically performing to make a living, for money. He also indulged in what was known as “cellar” fighting, where the bouts, unadvertised, were fought for private audiences, usually in cellars, or other unrecognised places. There are photographs existing of one of these fights. Johnson made his final ring appearance at age 67 on November 27, 1945, fighting three one minute exhibition rounds against two opponents, Joe Jeanette and John Ballcort, in a benefit fight card for U.S. War Bonds. [25][26] On June 10, 1946, Johnson died in a car crash on U.S. Highway 1 near Franklinton, North Carolina, a small town near Raleigh, after racing angrily from a diner that refused to serve him.[27] He was taken to the closest black hospital, Saint Agnes Hospital in Raleigh. He was 68 years old at the time of his death. He was buried next to Etta Duryea Johnson at Graceland Cemetery in Chicago.[28] His grave was initially unmarked, but a stone that bears only the name “Johnson” now stands above the plots of Jack, Etta, and Irene Pineau.[28] LegacyJohnson was inducted into the Boxing Hall of Fame in 1954, and is on the roster of both the International Boxing Hall of Fame and the World Boxing Hall of Fame. In 2005, the United States National Film Preservation Board deemed the film of the 1910 Johnson-Jeffries fight “historically significant” and put it in the National Film Registry. Johnson’s skill as a fighter and the money that it brought made it impossible for him to be ignored by the establishment. In the short term, the boxing world reacted against Johnson’s legacy. But Johnson foreshadowed one of the most famous boxers of all time, Muhammad Ali. In fact, Ali often spoke of how he was influenced by Jack Johnson. Ali identified with Johnson because he felt America ostracized him in the same manner because of his opposition to the Vietnam War and affiliation with the Nation of Islam.[29] In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Jack Johnson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans George Foreman, Heavyweight Boxing Champion Leave a comment George Edward Foreman (nicknamed “Big George”[2]) (born January 10, 1949) is an American two-time former World Heavyweight Boxing Champion, Olympic gold medalist, ordained Baptist minister, author and successful entrepreneur. A gold medalist at the 1968 Olympics, Foreman won the world heavyweight title with a second round knockout of then-undefeated Joe Frazier in Kingston, Jamaica in 1973. He made two successful title defenses before losing to Muhammad Ali in “The Rumble in the Jungle” in 1974. He fought on but was unable to secure another title shot and retired following a loss to Jimmy Young in 1977 and became an ordained Christian minister. Ten years later Foreman announced a comeback, and in November 1994, at age 45, he regained the heavyweight championship by knocking out Michael Moorer. He remains the oldest heavyweight champion in history. He retired in 1997 at the age of 48, with a final record of 76-5, including 68 knockouts. Foreman has been inducted into the World Boxing Hall of Fame and the International Boxing Hall of Fame. The International Boxing Research Organization (IBRO) currently rates Foreman as the eighth greatest heavyweight of all-time.[3] In 2002, he was named one of the 25 greatest fighters of the past eighty years by Ring magazine.[4] The Ring also ranked him as the 9th greatest puncher of all-time.[5] He was a ringside analyst for HBO’s boxing coverage for twelve years, leaving in 2004.[6] Outside of boxing, he is a successful entrepreneur and is known for his promotion of the George Foreman Grill, which has sold over 100 million units worldwide.[7] In 1999 he sold the naming rights to the grill for $138 million.[8] Early lifeGeorge Foreman was born in Marshall, Texas. He grew up in the Fifth Ward, Houston, Texas, with six siblings.[9] Although reared by J.D. Foreman, whom his mother had married when George was a small child, his biological father was Leroy Moorehead. Foreman was interested in football and idolized Jim Brown, but gave it up for boxing. He won a gold medal in the boxing/heavyweight division at the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games. By his own admission in his autobiography George was a troubled youth. [edit] Professional boxing careerForeman had an amateur record of 22-4, losing twice to Clay Hodges (also defeated by Max Briggs in his first ever fight). Foreman turned professional in 1969 with a three-round knockout of Donald Walheim in New York. He had a total of 13 fights that year, winning all of them (11 by knockout). In 1970, Foreman continued his march toward the undisputed heavyweight title, winning all 12 of his bouts (11 by knockout). Among the opponents he defeated were Gregorio Peralta, whom he decisioned at Madison Square Garden although Peralta gave a very good account of himself and showed George was vulnerable to fast counter punching mixed with an assertive boxing style. But the boxing world shuddered when George Chuvalo was defeated by technical knockout (TKO) in three rounds. After this impressive win, Foreman defeated Charlie Polite in four rounds and Boone Kirkman in three. In 1971, Foreman won seven more fights, winning all of them by knockout, including a rematch with Peralta, whom he defeated by knockout in the tenth and final round in Oakland, California, and a win over Leroy Caldwell, who was knocked out in the second round. After amassing a record of 32–0 (29 KO), Foreman was ranked as the number one challenger by the WBA and WBC. [edit] The Sunshine Showdown vs. Joe FrazierIn 1972, still undefeated, and with an impressive knockout record, Foreman was set to challenge undefeated and undisputed world heavyweight champion Joe Frazier. Despite boycotting a title elimination caused by the vacancy resulting from the championship being stripped from Muhammad Ali, Frazier had won the title from Jimmy Ellis and defended his title four times since, including a 15-round unanimous decision over the previously unbeaten Ali in 1971 after Ali had beaten Oscar Bonavena and Jerry Quarry. Despite Foreman’s superior size and reach, he was not expected to beat Frazier[10] and was a 3:1 underdog going into the fight. The Sunshine Showdown took place on January 22, 1973, in Kingston, Jamaica, with Foreman dominating the fight to win the championship by technical knockout in one of boxing’s biggest upsets. In HBO Boxing’s first broadcast, the call made by Howard Cosell became one of the most memorable in all of sports: “Down goes Frazier! Down goes Frazier! Down goes Frazier!” Before the fight Frazier was 29–0 (25 KO) and Foreman was 37–0 (34 KO). Frazier was knocked down six times by Foreman within two rounds, with the three knockdowns rule being waived for this bout. After the second knockdown, Frazier’s balance and mobility were impaired to the extent that he was unable to evade Foreman’s combinations. Frazier managed to get to his feet for all six knockdowns, but referee Arthur Mercante eventually called an end to the one-sided bout. Foreman was sometimes characterized by the media as an aloof and antisocial champion.[11] According to them, he always seemed to wear a sneer and was not often available to the press. Foreman would later attribute his demeanor during this time as an emulation of Sonny Liston, for whom he had been an occasional sparring partner. Nevertheless, Foreman went on to defend his title successfully twice during his initial reign as champion. His first defense, in Tokyo, pitted him against Puerto Rican heavyweight champion José Roman. Roman was not regarded as a top contender, and it took Foreman only 2 minutes to end the fight, one of the fastest knockouts in a heavyweight championship bout. [edit] Title defense versus Ken NortonForeman’s next defense was against a much tougher opponent. In 1974, in Caracas, Venezuela, he faced the highly regarded hall-of-famer Ken Norton who was 30–2, a boxer notorious for his awkward crossed-arm boxing style with crab-like defense plus heavy punch (a style Foreman would emulate in his second comeback), who had broken the jaw of Muhammad Ali while defeating Ali on points a year earlier. Norton had a good chin, never in trouble as such against Ali in two matches. He’d nearly won the second. Although nerves were known to make his determination suspect at times against really heavy hitters. But in an astonishing display of controlled aggression and punching power, Foreman picked his moment after staying out of range of a long offense and decked Ken with more or less his first real big punch he threw near the end of the first round. Norton rose on wobbly legs but clearly wasn’t recovered for round two whereby he was down three times and stopped. “Ken was awesome when he got going. I didn’t want him to get into the fight,” George said when interviewed years later. George had cruised past two of the top names in the rankings. The stunning win made Foreman an impressive 40–0 with 37 knockouts. [edit] “Rumble in the Jungle”Main article: The Rumble in the Jungle This article appears to contradict the article The Rumble in the Jungle. Please see discussion on the linked talk page. Please do not remove this message until the contradictions are resolved. (April 2010) Foreman’s next title defense, against Muhammad Ali, was historic. During the summer of 1974, Foreman traveled to Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to defend his title against Ali. The bout was promoted as The Rumble in the Jungle. During training in Zaire, Foreman suffered a cut above his eye, forcing postponement of the match for a month. The injury affected Foreman’s training regimen, as it meant he couldn’t spar in the build-up to the fight and risk the cut being re-opened. He later commented: “That was the best thing that happened to Ali when we were in Africa—the fact that I had to get ready for the fight without being able to box.”[12] Foreman would later also claim he was drugged by his trainer prior to the bout.[13] Ali used this time to tour Zaire, endearing himself to the public while taunting Foreman at every opportunity. Foreman was favored, having knocked out both Joe Frazier and Ken Norton within two rounds. When Foreman and Ali finally met in the ring, Ali began more aggressively than expected, outscoring Foreman with superior punching speed. However, he quickly realized that this approach required him to move much more than Foreman and would cause him to tire. In the second round, Ali retreated to the ropes, shielding his head and hitting Foreman in the face at every opportunity. Foreman dug vicious body punches into Ali’s sides; however, Foreman was unable to land many big punches to Ali’s head. The ring ropes, being much looser than usual (Foreman would later charge that Angelo Dundee had loosened them), allowed Ali to lean back and away from Foreman’s wild swings and then grab Foreman behind the head, forcing Foreman to expend much extra energy untangling himself. Ali also constantly pushed down on Foreman’s neck, but was never warned about doing so. To this day, it is unclear whether Ali’s pre-fight talk of using speed and movement against Foreman had been just a diversionary tactic, or whether his use of what became known as the “Rope-a-dope” tactic was an improvisation necessitated by Foreman’s constant pressure. In either case, Ali was able to occasionally counter off the ropes with blows to the face, and was able to penetrate Foreman’s defense. Ali continued to take heavy punishment to the body, and occasionally a hard jolt to the head. Ali would later say he was “out on his feet” twice during the bout. Eventually, Foreman began to tire and his punches became increasingly wild, losing power in the process. An increasingly confident Ali taunted Foreman throughout the bout. Late in the eighth round, Foreman was left off balance by a haymaker and Ali sprang off the ropes with a flurry to Foreman’s head, punctuated by a hard right cross that landed flush on Foreman’s jaw putting Foreman down for the first time in his career. He managed to regain his feet by the count of 8 but the fight was nonetheless waved off by the referee.[citation needed]. It was Foreman’s first defeat, and Muhammad Ali remains the only boxer ever to defeat him by knockout. Foreman would later reflect that “it just wasn’t my night.” Though he sought one, he was unable to secure a rematch with Ali. It has been suggested in some quarters that Ali was ducking Foreman, as had rematches Joe Frazier and Ken Norton, and also fought low ranked opponents such as Chuck Wepner, Richard Dunn and Jean Pierre Coopman.[14] Ali on the other hand would never commit to a rematch, preferring to talk about retirement or make fights with lowly ranked fighters like Richard Dunn or Alfredo Evaneglista. [edit] First comebackForeman remained inactive during 1975. In 1976, he announced a comeback and stated his intention of securing a rematch with Ali. His first opponent was to be Ron Lyle, who had been defeated by Muhammad Ali in 1975, via 11-th round TKO. At the end of the first round, Lyle landed a hard left that sent Foreman staggering across the ring. In the second round, Foreman pounded Lyle against the ropes and might have scored a KO, but due to a timekeeping error the bell rang with a minute still remaining in the round, and Lyle survived. In the third, Foreman pressed forward, with Lyle waiting to counter off the ropes. In the fourth, a brutal slugfest erupted. A cluster of power punches from Lyle sent Foreman to the canvas. When Foreman got up, Lyle staggered him again, but just as Foreman seemed finished he retaliated with a hard right to the side of the head, knocking down Lyle. Lyle beat the count, then landed another brutal combination, knocking Foreman down for the second time. Again, Foreman beat the count. Foreman said later that he had never been hit so hard in a fight and remembered looking down at the canvas and seeing blood. In the fifth round, both fighters continued to ignore defense and traded their hardest punches looking crude. Each man staggered the other and each seemed almost out on his feet. Then, as if finally tired, Lyle stopped punching and Foreman delivered a dozen unanswered blows until Lyle collapsed. Lyle remained on the canvas and was counted out giving Foreman the KO victory. The fight was named by The Ring as “The Fight Of The Year.” For his next bout, Foreman chose to face Joe Frazier in a rematch. Because of the one-sided Foreman victory in their first fight, and the fact that Frazier had taken a tremendous amount of punishment from Ali in Manila a year earlier, few expected him to win. Frazier at this point was 32–3 and Foreman was 41–1. Surprisingly, the 2nd Foreman-Frazier fight was fairly competitive for its duration, as Frazier used quick head movements to make Foreman miss with his hardest punches. Frazier’s health was deteriorating at this point and was wearing a contact lens for his vision which was knocked loose during the bout. After being unable to mount a significant offense, however, Frazier was eventually floored twice by Foreman in the fifth round and the fight was stopped. Next, Foreman knocked out Scott Ledoux in three and Dino Dennis in four to finish the year. [edit] Retirement and rebirth1977 would prove to be a life changing year for Foreman. After knocking out Pedro Agosto in four rounds at Pensacola, Florida, Foreman flew to Puerto Rico a day before the fight without giving himself time to acclimatise. His opponent was the skilled boxer Jimmy Young, who had beaten Ron Lyle and lost a very controversial decision to Muhammad Ali the previous year. Foreman fought cautiously early on, allowing Young to settle into the fight. Young constantly complained about Foreman pushing him, for which Foreman eventually had a point deducted by the referee, although Young was never warned for his persistent holding. Foreman badly hurt Young in round 7 but was unable to land a finishing blow. Foreman tired during the second half of the fight and even suffered a flash knockdown in round 12 en route to losing a decision. Foreman became ill in his dressing room after the fight. He was suffering from exhaustion and heatstroke and believed he had a near death experience. He claimed he found himself in a hellish, frightening place of nothingness and despair. He began to plead with God to help him. He explained that he sensed God asking him to change his life and ways. After this experience, Foreman became a born-again Christian, dedicating his life for the next decade to God. Although he did not formally retire from boxing, Foreman stopped fighting, became an ordained minister of a church[15] in Houston, Texas, and devoted himself to his family and his congregation. He also opened a youth center[16] that bears his name. Foreman continues to share his conversion experience on Christian television broadcasts such as The 700 Club and the Trinity Broadcasting Network, and would later joke that Young had knocked the devil out of him. [edit] Second comebackIn 1987, after 10 years away from the ring, Foreman surprised the boxing world by announcing a comeback at the age of 38. In his autobiography he stated that his primary motive was to raise money to fund the youth center he had created. His stated ambition was to fight Mike Tyson.[17] For his first fight, he went to Sacramento, California, where he beat journeyman Steve Zouski by a knockout in four rounds. Foreman weighed 267 lb (121 kg) for the fight, and looked badly out of shape. Although many thought his decision to return to the ring was a mistake, Foreman countered that he had returned to prove that age was not a barrier to people achieving their goals (as he would say later, he wanted to show that age 40 is not a “death sentence”). He won four more bouts that year, gradually slimming down and improving his fitness. In 1988, he won nine times. Perhaps his most notable win during this period was a seventh round knockout of former light heavyweight and cruiserweight champion Dwight Muhammad Qawi. Having always been a deliberate fighter, Foreman had not lost much mobility in the ring since his first “retirement”, although he found it harder to keep his balance after throwing big punches and could no longer throw rapid combinations. He was still capable of landing heavy, single blows, however. Ironically, the late-rounds fatigue that had plagued him in the ring as a young man now seemed to be gone, and he could comfortably compete for 12 rounds. Foreman attributed this to his new, relaxed fighting style (he has spoken of how, earlier in his career, his lack of stamina came from an enormous amount of nervous tension). By 1989, while continuing his comeback, Foreman had sold his name and face for the advertising of various products, selling everything from grills to mufflers on TV. For this purpose his public persona was reinvented and the formerly aloof, ominous Foreman had been replaced by a smiling, friendly George. He and Ali had become friends, and he followed in Ali’s footsteps by making himself a celebrity outside the boundaries of boxing. Foreman continued his string of victories, winning five more fights, the most impressive being a three-round win over Bert Cooper, who would go on to contest the undisputed heavyweight title against Evander Holyfield. In 1990, Foreman met former title challenger Gerry Cooney in Atlantic City. Cooney was coming off a long period of inactivity, but was well regarded for his punching power. Cooney wobbled Foreman in the first round, but Foreman landed several powerful punches in the second round. Cooney was knocked down twice, and Foreman had scored a devastating KO. Foreman went on to win four more fights that year. Then, in 1991, Foreman was given the opportunity to challenge undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield, who was in tremendous shape at 208 pounds, for the world title in a Pay Per View boxing event. Very few boxing experts gave the 42-year-old Foreman a chance of winning. Foreman, who weighed in at 257 pounds, began the contest by marching forward, absorbing several of Holyfield’s best combinations and occasionally landing a powerful swing of his own. Holyfield proved too tough and agile to knock down, and was well ahead on points throughout the fight, but Foreman surprised many by lasting the full 12 rounds, losing his challenge on points. Round 7, in which Foreman knocked Holyfield off balance before being staggered by a powerful combination, was Ring Magazine’s “Round of the Year.” A year later, Foreman fought journeyman Alex Stewart, who had previously been stopped in the first round by Mike Tyson. Foreman knocked down Stewart twice in the second round, but expended a lot of energy in doing so. He subsequently tired, and Stewart rebounded. By the end of the 10th and final round, Foreman’s face was bloodied and swollen, but the judges awarded him a majority decision win. In 1993, Foreman received another title shot, although this was for the vacant WBO championship, which most fans at the time saw as a second-tier version of the “real” heavyweight title, then being contested between Holyfield and Riddick Bowe. Foreman’s opponent was Tommy Morrison, a young prospect known for his punching power. To the frustration of Foreman, and the disappointment of the booing crowd, Morrison retreated throughout the fight, refusing to trade toe-to-toe, and sometimes even turned his back on Foreman. The strategy paid off, however, as he outboxed Foreman from long range. Foreman was competitive throughout the match, but after 12 rounds Morrison won a unanimous decision. Though it seemed unlikely at the time, one more chance at the legitimate heavyweight crown was just around the corner for Foreman. [edit] Regaining the TitleIn 1994, Foreman once again sought to challenge for the world championship after Michael Moorer had beaten Holyfield for the IBF and WBA titles. Having lost his last fight against Morrison, Foreman was unranked and in no position to demand another title shot. However, his relatively high profile made a title defense against Foreman, who was 19 years older than Moorer, a lucrative prospect at seemingly little risk for champion Moorer. Foreman’s title challenge against Moorer took place on November 5 in Las Vegas, Nevada, with Foreman wearing the same red trunks he had worn in his title loss to Ali 20 years earlier. This time, however, Foreman was a substantial underdog. For nine rounds, Moorer easily outboxed him, hitting and moving away, while Foreman chugged forward, seemingly unable to “pull the trigger” on his punches. Entering the tenth round, Foreman was trailing on all scorecards. However, Foreman launched a comeback in the tenth round, and hit Moorer with a number of punches. Then a short right hand caught Moorer on the tip of his chin, gashing open his bottom lip, and he collapsed to the canvas. He lay flat on his back as the referee counted him out. In an instant, Foreman had regained the title he had lost to Muhammad Ali two decades before. He went back to his corner and knelt in prayer as the arena erupted in cheers. With this historic victory, Foreman broke three records: he became, at age 45, the oldest fighter ever to win the world heavyweight crown; and, 20 years after losing his title for the first time, he broke the record for the fighter with the longest interval between his first and second world championships. The age spread of 19 years between the champion and challenger was also the largest of any heavweight boxing championship fight. Shortly after the Moorer fight, Foreman began talking about a potential superfight against Mike Tyson (the youngest ever heavyweight champ). The WBA organization, however, demanded he fight their No. 1 challenger, who at the time was the competent but aging Tony Tucker. For reasons not clearly known, Foreman refused to fight Tucker, and allowed the WBA to strip him of that belt. He then went on to fight mid-level prospect Axel Schulz of Germany in defense of his remaining IBF title. Schulz was a major underdog. Schulz jabbed strongly from long range, and grew increasingly confident as the fight progressed. Foreman finished the fight with a swelling over one eye, but was awarded a controversial majority decision (two judges scored for Foreman, one called it even). The IBF ordered an immediate rematch to be held in Germany, but Foreman refused the terms and found himself stripped of his remaining title. However, Foreman continued to be recognized as the lineal heavyweight champion. In 1996, Foreman returned to Tokyo, scoring an easy win over the unrated Crawford Grimsley by a 12-round decision. In 1997, he faced contender Lou Savarese, winning a close decision in a grueling, competitive encounter. Then, yet another opportunity came Foreman’s way as the WBC decided to match him against Shannon Briggs in a 1997 “eliminator bout” for the right to face WBC champion Lennox Lewis. After 12 rounds, in which Foreman consistently rocked Briggs with power punches, almost everyone at ringside saw Foreman as the clear winner.[18] Once again there was a controversial decision—but this time it went in favor of Foreman’s opponent, with Briggs awarded a points win. Foreman had fought for the last time, at the age of 48. [edit] Second retirementForeman was gracious and philosophical in his loss to Briggs, but announced his “final” retirement shortly afterward. However, he did plan a return bout against Larry Holmes in 1999, scheduled to take place at the Houston Astrodome on pay per view. The fight was to be billed as “The Birthday Bash” due to both fighters’ upcoming birthdays. Foreman was set to make $10 million and Holmes was to make $4 million, but negotiations fell through and the fight was cancelled. With a continuing affinity for the sport, Foreman became a respected boxing analyst for HBO. Foreman said he had no plans to resume his career as a boxer, but then announced in February 2004 that he was training for one more comeback fight to demonstrate that the age of 55, like 40, is not a “death sentence.” The bout, against an unspecified opponent (rumored to be the now late Trevor Berbick), never materialized (it was widely thought that Foreman’s wife had been a major factor in the change of plans). Having severed his relationship with HBO to pursue other opportunities, George Foreman and the sport of boxing finally went their separate ways. [edit] Family Foreman speaking in Houston, Texas in September 2009Foreman has 11 children, and each of his five sons is named George: George Jr., George III, George IV, George V, and George VI. His four younger sons are distinguished from one another by the nicknames “Monk”, “Big Wheel”, “Red”, and “Little Joey”. Also of issue in his marriage are two daughters named Natalia and Leola. He also has three daughters from a separate relationship: Michi, Freeda, and Georgetta. He also adopted a daughter, Isabella Brandie Lilja (Foreman), in 2009.[citation needed] [edit] EntrepreneurshipWhen Foreman came back from retirement he argued that his success was due to his healthy eating which made him a perfect fit for Russell Hobbs Inc. who were looking for a spokesperson for their fat-reducing grill. The George Foreman grill has resulted in sales of over 100 million units since it was first launched, a feat that was achieved in a little over 15 years. Although Foreman has never confirmed exactly how much he has earned from the endorsement, what is known is that Salton Inc paid him $137 million in 1999 in order to buy out the right to use his name. Previous to that he was being paid about 40% of the profits on each grill sold (earning him $4.5 million a month in payouts at its peak) so it is estimated he has made a total of over $200 million from the endorsement, a sum that is substantially more than he earned as a boxer Floyd Mayweather, Professional Boxer Leave a comment Floyd Joy Mayweather, Jr. (born Floyd Sinclair; February 24, 1977) is an American professional boxer.[1] He is a five-division world champion, where he has won seven world titles, as well as the lineal championship in three different weight classes.[2] He is a two-time The Ring “Fighter of the Year” winning the award in 1998 and 2007,[3] and also won the Boxing Writers Association of America (BWAA) “Fighter of the Year” award in 2007.[4] He is undefeated as a professional boxer. Currently, Mayweather is the WBC welterweight champion.[5] He is also rated as the best pound for pound boxer in the world by most sporting news and boxing websites, including Sports Illustrated, ESPN, Fox Sports, Yahoo! Sports and About.com. Early lifeMayweather was born in Grand Rapids, Mich., into a family of boxers. His father Floyd Mayweather Sr. was a former welterweight contender who fought Hall of Famer Sugar Ray Leonard and his uncles Jeff Mayweather and Roger Mayweather were all professional boxers, with Roger – Floyd’s current trainer – winning two world championships. Mayweather was born with his mother’s last name,[11] but his last name would change to Mayweather shortly thereafter. Mayweather’s father, Floyd Sr., had a side job – selling drugs[citation needed]. According to Mayweather Jr., his father was often a harsh disciplinarian[citation needed]. Mayweather says that when he was a baby, his father used him as a shield to keep his brother-in-law from shooting him. “It depends on which side of the family you talk to,” Mayweather Jr. says. “My father said he was holding me and he said, ‘If you’re going to shoot me, you’re going to shoot the baby, too.’ But my mother said he used me as a shield to keep from getting shot. “Either way, I’m just happy I didn’t get shot and I’m still here.” Boxing has been a part of Mayweather’s life since his childhood. He never seriously considered any other profession. “I think my grandmother saw my potential first,” Mayweather said, smiling. “When I was young, I told her, ‘I think I should get a job.’ She said, ‘No, just keep boxing.’ “[12]”When I was about 8 or 9, I lived in New Jersey with my mother and we were seven deep in one bedroom and sometimes we didn’t have electricity”, Mayweather says. “When people see what I have now, they have no idea of where I came from and how I didn’t have anything growing up.” It was not uncommon for young Floyd to come home from school and find used heroin needles in his front yard[citation needed]. His mother was also addicted to drugs and he had an aunt who died from AIDS because of her drug use. “People don’t know the hell I’ve been through,” he says. The most time that his father spent with him was taking him to the gym to train and work on his boxing, according to Mayweather. “I don’t remember him ever taking me anywhere or doing anything that a father would do with a son, going to the park or to the movies or to get ice cream”, he says. “I always thought that he liked his daughter (Floyd’s older stepsister) better than he liked me because she never got whippings and I got whippings all the time.” Floyd Sr. says Mayweather is not telling the truth about their early relationship. “Even though his daddy did sell drugs, I didn’t deprive my son,” Floyd Sr. says. “The drugs I sold he was a part of it. He had plenty of food. He had the best clothes and I gave him money. He didn’t want for anything. Anybody in Grand Rapids can tell you that I took care of my kids.”[13] Floyd Sr. says he did all of his hustling at night and spent his days with his son, taking him to the gym and training him to be a boxer. “If it wasn’t for me he wouldn’t be where he is today,” Floyd Sr. says. “I basically raised myself,” Mayweather says. “My grandmother did what she could. When she got mad at me I’d go to my mom’s house. My life was ups and downs.” Floyd Sr. says he knows how much pain his incarceration caused his son, but insists he did the best he could. “I sent him to live with his grandmother,” he says. “It wasn’t like I left him with strangers.” Boxing became Mayweather’s outlet – a way to deal with the absence of his father[citation needed]. As his father served his time, Mayweather, with speed and an uncanny ring sense, put all his energies into boxing. He even dropped out of high school. “I knew that I was going to have to try to take care of my mom and I made the decision that school wasn’t that important at the time and I was going to have to box to earn a living,” Mayweather says.[13] Amateur career and OlympicsMayweather had an amateur record of 84–6[14] and won national Golden Gloves championships in 1993 (at 106 lb), 1994 (at 114 lb), and 1996 (at 125 lb).[15] He was given the nickname “Pretty Boy” by his amateur teammates because he had relatively few scars, a result of the defensive techniques that his father (Floyd Mayweather, Sr.) and uncle (Roger Mayweather) had taught him.[16] In his orthodox defensive stance, Mayweather often utilizes the ‘shoulder roll’. The shoulder roll is an old-school boxing technique in which the right hand is held normally or slightly higher than normal, the left hand is down around the midsection, and the lead shoulder is raised high on the cheek in order to cover the chin and block punches. The right hand (from orthodox stance) is used as it normally would be to block punches coming from the other side, such as left hooks. From this stance, Mayweather blocks, slips, and deflects most of his opponents’ punches, even when cornered, by twisting left and right to the rhythm of their punches.[17] At the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Mayweather won a bronze medal by reaching the semi-finals of the featherweight (57 kg)[18] division. In the opening round, Mayweather led 10–1 on points over Bakhtiyar Tileganov of Kazakhstan before he won in Round 2 by referee stoppage. In the second round, Mayweather outpointed Artur Gevorgyan of Armenia 16–3. In the quarterfinals, the 19-year-old Mayweather, narrowly defeated the 22-year-old, Lorenzo Aragon of Cuba in an all-action bout to win 12–11, becoming the first U.S boxer to defeat a Cuban in 20 years.[19] The last time this had occurred was at 1976 Summer Olympics when the U.S Olympic boxing team captured five gold medals, among its recipients was boxing great Sugar Ray Leonard. In his semifinal bout against the eventual silver medalist, Serafim Todorov of Bulgaria, Mayweather lost by a controversial decision similarly to the Roy Jones Jr.’s decision.[20] Referee, Hamad Hafaz Shouman of Egypt, mistakenly raised Mayweather’s hand, thinking he had won, as the decision was announced giving the bout to the Bulgarian.[21] The U.S team filed a protest over the Mayweather bout, claiming the judges were intimated by Bulgaria’s Emil Jetchev, head of the boxing officials, into favoring Bulgarian Serafim Todorov by a 10-9 decision in the 125-pound semifinal bout. Three of Jetchev’s countrymen were in gold medal bouts. Judge Bill Waeckerle, one of the four U.S judges working the games for the International Amateur Boxing Federation, quit both as an Olympic judge and as a federation judge after Mayweather lost a decision loudly booed by the crowd at the Alexander Memorial Coliseum.[22][23] “I refuse to be part of an organisation that continues to conduct its officiating in this manner,” Waeckerle wrote in a letter of resignation to federation President Anwar Chowdhry.[24] In the official protest, U.S team manager Gerald Smith said Mayweather landed punches that were not counted, while Todorov was given points without landing a punch.[25] “The judging was totally incompetent,” Waeckerle said. The judges failed to impose a mandatory two-point deduction against Todorov after he was warned five times by the referee for slapping.[21] “Everybody knows Floyd Mayweather is the gold-medal favorite at 57 kilograms,” Mayweather said afterward. “In America, it’s known as 125 pounds. You know and I know I wasn’t getting hit. They say he’s the world champion. Now you all know who the real world champion is.” Evander Holyfield, Heavyweight Boxing Champion Leave a comment Evander Holyfield (born October 19, 1962) is a professional boxer from the United States. He is a former undisputed world champion in both the cruiserweight and heavyweight divisions, earning him the nickname “The Real Deal”. After winning the bronze medal in the Light Heavyweight division at the 1984 Summer Olympics, he debuted as a professional at the age of 21. Holyfield moved to the cruiserweight division in 1985 and won his first title the following year, when he defeated Dwight Muhammad Qawi for the WBA cruiserweight belt. He would then go on to defeat Ricky Parkey and Carlos De Leon to win the Lineal, IBF and WBC titles, becoming the undisputed cruiserweight champion. Holyfield moved up to heavyweight in 1988, defeating Buster Douglas for the Lineal, WBC, WBA, and IBF titles in 1990. Evander Holyfield holds other notable victories over fighters such as; George Foreman, Larry Holmes, Riddick Bowe, Ray Mercer, Mike Tyson (x2), Michael Moorer, John Ruiz, Michael Dokes and Hasim Rahman. Holyfield is the only 4-time World Heavyweight champion, winning the WBA, WBC, and IBF titles in 1990, the WBA and IBF titles in 1993 and the WBA title in 1996 and 2000. Holyfield moved up to heavyweight in 1988, winning his first six fights, all by stoppage. On October 25, 1990, Holyfield knocked out heavyweight champion James “Buster” Douglas, to claim the WBC, WBA, & IBF heavyweight belts (undisputed world heavyweight championship). He retained the Heavyweight crown three times, which included victories over former champions George Foreman and Larry Holmes, before suffering his first professional loss to Riddick Bowe on November 13, 1992. Holyfield regained the title in a rematch one year later, beating Bowe by majority decision for the WBA and IBF titles. Holyfield later lost the titles to Michael Moorer on April 22, 1994, by Majority Decision. Holyfield was forced to retire in 1994, only to return a year later. On November 9, 1996, he went on to defeat Mike Tyson by eleventh round technical knockout to win the WBA title, in what was named fight of the year and upset of the year for 1996 by The Ring magazine. Evander Holyfield became the first Heavyweight since Muhammad Ali to win the World title three times. Seven months later, Holyfield won the 1997 rematch against Tyson, when the latter was disqualified in round three for biting off part of Holyfield’s ear. During his reign as champion, he also avenged his loss to Michael Moorer, when he stopped him in eight rounds to win the IBF belt. In 1999, he faced Lennox Lewis in a split draw, but was defeated in a rematch eight months later. The following year, he won a unanimous decision over John Ruiz for the vacant WBA heavyweight championship, becoming the first boxer to win a version of the heavyweight title four times.[2] Holyfield would lose a rematch with Ruiz seven months later and would face him for the third time in a draw. Holyfield is still an active Boxer as of 2011 and has a professional record of 44 wins, 10 losses, 1 draw and 1 no contest. He is ranked #77 on Ring Magazine’s list of 100 greatest punchers of all time.[3] Evander Holyfield is ranked as the Greatest Cruiserweight of all time by The Boxing Scene.[4] and is considered one of the greatest Heavyweights of all time by many. Early life Evander Holyfield was born on October 19, 1962, in the mill town of Atmore, Alabama. The youngest of nine children, Holyfield and his family moved to Atlanta in the summer of 1964, at the age of two. He began boxing at age 12 and won the Boys Club boxing tournament. At 13, he qualified to compete in his first Junior Olympics. By age 15, Holyfield became the Southeastern Regional Champion, winning this tournament and the Best Boxer Award. By 1984 he had a record of 160 wins and 14 losses, with 76 KO. Amateur medal record Bronze 1984 Los Angeles Light Heavyweight Pan American Games Silver Caracas 1983 Light Heavyweight When he was 20 years old, Holyfield represented the U.S. in the 1983 Pan American Games in Caracas, Venezuela, where he won a silver medal after losing to Cuban world champion Pablo Romero. The following year, he was the National Golden Gloves Champion, and won a bronze medal in the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles, California after a controversial disqualification in the second round of the semi-final against New Zealand’s Kevin Barry.[5][6][7] Professional careerLight-HeavyweightHolyfield started out professionally as a light heavyweight with a televised win in six rounds over Lionel Byarm at Madison Square Garden on November 15, 1984. On January 20, 1985 he won another six-round decision over Eric Winbush in Atlantic City, New Jersey. On March 13, he knocked out Fred Brown in the first round in Norfolk, Virginia, and on April 20, he knocked out Mark Rivera in two rounds in Corpus Christi, Texas. CruiserweightBoth he and his next opponent, Tyrone Booze, moved up to the cruiserweight division for their fight on July 20, 1985 in Norfolk, Virginia. Holyfield won an eight-round decision over Booze. Evander went on to knock out Rick Myers in the first round on August 29 in Holyfield’s hometown of Atlanta. On October 30 in Atlantic City he knocked out opponent Jeff Meachem in five rounds, and his last fight for 1985 was against Anthony Davis on December 21 in Virginia Beach, Virginia. He won by knocking out Davis in the fourth round. He began 1986 with a knockout in three rounds over former world cruiserweight challenger Chisanda Mutti, and proceeded to beat Jessy Shelby and Terry Mims before being given a world title try by the WBA cruiserweight champion Dwight Muhammad Qawi. In what was called by The Ring as the best cruiserweight bout of the 1980s, Holyfield became world champion by defeating Qawi by a narrow 15 round split decision. He culminated 1986 with a trip to Paris, France, where he beat Mike Brothers by a knockout in three, in a non-title bout. In 1987, he defended his title against former Olympic teammate and Gold medal winner Henry Tillman, who had beaten Mike Tyson twice as an amateur. He retained his belt, winning by seventh round knockout, and then went on to unify his WBA belt with the IBF belt held by Ricky Parkey, knocking Parkey out in three rounds. For his next bout, he returned to France, where he retained the title with an eleven round knockout against former world champion Ossie Ocasio. In his last fight of ’87, he offered Muhammad Qawi a rematch, and this time, he beat Qawi by a knockout in four. 1988 was another productive year for Holyfield; he started by becoming the first universally recognized world cruiserweight champion after defeating the Lineal & WBC champion Carlos De León at Las Vegas. The fight was stopped after eight rounds.[8] HeavyweightAfter that fight, he announced he was moving up in weight to pursue the world heavyweight crown held by Tyson. His first fight as a Heavyweight took place on July 16, when he beat former Tyson rival James “Quick” Tillis by a knockout in five, in Lake Tahoe, Nevada (Tillis had gone the distance with Tyson). For his third and final bout of ’88, he beat former world heavyweight champion Pinklon Thomas, also by knockout, in seven rounds. Holyfield began 1989 meeting another former world heavyweight champion, Michael Dokes. This fight would also be named one of the best fights of the 1980s by Ring magazine, as best heavyweight bout of the 1980s. Holyfield won by a knockout in the tenth round, and then he met Brazilian champion Adilson Rodrigues, who lasted two rounds. His last fight of the 1980s was against Alex Stewart, a hard punching fringe contender. Stewart shocked Holyfield early, with quick, hard punches, but eventually fell in eight. In 1990, Holyfield beat Seamus McDonagh, knocking him out in four rounds. By this time, Holyfield had been Ring Magazine’s Number 1 contender for two years and had yet to receive a shot at Tyson’s heavyweight title. Undisputed Heavyweight Champion: 1990–1992Holyfield had been promised a title shot against Tyson in 1990. Before that fight could occur, in what many consider to be the biggest upset in boxing history, relatively unknown boxer, 29-year old, 231 lb. Buster Douglas defeated the 23-year old, 218 lb. Mike Tyson in ten rounds in Tokyo to become the new undisputed heavyweight champion. Instead of fighting Tyson, Holyfield would be Douglas’ first title defense. They met on October 25, 1990. Douglas came into the fight at 246 lb. and offered little in the fight against Holyfield, who was in great shape at 208 lb. In the third round Douglas tried to start a combination with a big right uppercut. Holyfield countered with a straight right hand that was lightning quick, and Douglas went down for the count. Holyfield was the new undefeated, undisputed heavyweight champion of the world. At the time of the knockout, Holyfield was ahead on all three judges’ scorecards, all seeing it 20–18 for Holyfield. In his first defense, he beat former and future world champion George Foreman by unanimous decision in 12. The fight was billed as a “Battle for the Ages”, a reference to the age differential between the young undefeated champion (28 years old), and the much older George Foreman (42 years old). Holyfield weighed in at 208 pounds and Foreman weighed in at 257 pounds. Foreman lost the fight by a unanimous decision, but surprised many by lasting the whole 12 rounds against a much younger opponent, even staggering Holyfield a few times and knocking him off balance in the seventh round. Then a deal was signed for him to defend his crown against Mike Tyson in November 1991. Tyson delayed the fight, claiming he was injured in training, but was then convicted for the rape of Desiree Washington and sentenced to six years in prison, so the fight did not happen at that time. They would fight in 1996 (Holyfield won by a TKO in 11) and a rematch in 1997 (Holyfield won by disqualification in 3, after Tyson bit both of his ears). Holyfield made his next defense in Atlanta against Bert Cooper, who surprised him with a very good effort. Holyfield scored the first knockdown of the fight against Cooper with a powerful shot to the body, but Cooper returned the favor with a good right hand that sent Holyfield against the ropes; while not an actual knockdown, referee Mills Lane gave Holyfield a standing 8-count. Having suffered the first technical knockdown of his professional career, Holyfield regained his composure quickly and administered a beating that left Cooper still on his feet, but unable to defend himself. Holyfield landed brutal power shots, culminated by repeated vicious uppercuts that would snap Cooper’s head back. Referee Mills Lane stopped the bout in the seventh. In his first fight of 1992, he faced former world heavyweight champion Larry Holmes, who was 42 years old, and had just pulled off an upset against Ray Mercer. During the bout, Holyfield suffered the first scar of his career with a gash opening up over his eye, the result of Holmes’ elbow. The fight ended with a unanimous decision in favor of Holyfield. Holyfield-Bowe I & IIIn the beginning of a trilogy of bouts with the 25-year old Riddick Bowe, who had won a silver medal in the 1988 Olympics, in the Super Heavyweight division, he suffered his first defeat when Bowe won the undisputed title by a 12-round unanimous decision in Las Vegas. Round Ten of that bout was named the Round of the Year by Ring Magazine. Holyfield was knocked down in round 11. He made the mistake of getting into a slugfest with the younger, bigger and stronger Bowe, leading to his defeat. He began 1993 by beating Alex Stewart in a rematch, but this time over the 12-round unanimous distance. Then came the rematch with Bowe on November 6, 1993. In what is considered by many sporting historians as one of the most bizarre moments in boxing’s history, during round seven the crowd got off their feet and many people started to run for cover and yell. Holyfield took his eyes off Bowe for one moment and then told Bowe to look up to the skies. What they saw was a man in a parachute flying dangerously close to them. The man almost entered the ring, but his parachute had gotten entangled in the lights, and he landed on the ropes and apron of the ring, and he was then pulled into the crowd, where he was beaten by members of Bowe’s entourage. Bowe’s pregnant wife, Judy, fainted and had to be taken to the hospital from the arena. Twenty minutes later, calm was restored and Holyfield went on to recover his world heavyweight titles with a close 12 round majority decision. The man who parachuted down to the middle of the ring became known as The Fan Man and the fight itself became known as the Fan Man Fight. His victory over Bowe that year helped Holyfield being named as ABC’s Wide World of Sports Athlete of the Year for 1993. Title loss to MoorerHis next fight, April 1994, he met former WBO light heavyweight and heavyweight champion of the world Michael Moorer, who was attempting to become the first southpaw to become the universally recognised world heavyweight champion. He dropped Moorer in round two, but lost a twelve round majority decision. When he went to the hospital to have his shoulder checked, he was diagnosed with a heart condition, and had to announce his retirement from boxing. It would later surface that the chairman of the medical advisory board for the Nevada State Athletic Commission believed his condition to be consistent with HGH use.[9] However, watching a television show hosted by preacher Benny Hinn, Holyfield says he felt his heart heal. He and Hinn subsequently became friends, and he became a frequent visitor to Hinn’s crusades. In fact, during this time, Holyfield went to a Benny Hinn crusade in Philadelphia, had Hinn lay hands on him, and gave Hinn a check for $265,000 after he was told he was healed. He then passed his next examination by the boxing commission. Holyfield would later state that his heart was misdiagnosed due to the morphine pumped into his body. In 1995, Holyfield returned to the ring with a ten-round decision win versus former Olympic gold medalist, Ray Mercer. He was the first man to knock down Mercer. Holyfield and Bowe then had their rubber match. Holyfield knocked Bowe down with a single left hook but Bowe prevailed by a knockout in eight. Holyfield would later claim that he contracted Hepatitis A before the fight.[10] Holyfield-Tyson fightsHolyfield vs. Tyson IMain articles: Tyson-Holyfield I and Holyfield-Tyson II Poster publicizing the 28 June 1997, Holyfield-Tyson II fight, dubbed The Sound and The Fury1996 was a very good year for Holyfield. First, he met former world champion Bobby Czyz, beating him by a knockout in six. Then, he and Mike Tyson finally met. Tyson had recovered the WBC and WBA heavyweight championship and, after being stripped of the WBC title for not facing Lennox Lewis, defended the WBA title against Holyfield on November 9 of that year. Tyson was heavily favored to win, but Holyfield made history by defeating Tyson in an 11th round TKO. This was the third occasion on which Holyfield won the WBA heavyweight title. However, the fight was not recognized as being for the linear heavyweight championship, which was held by George Foreman at the time. Muhammad Ali remains the only heavyweight champion to hold the linear championship three times.[11] Holyfield vs. Tyson II: The Bite FightHolyfield’s rematch with Tyson took place on June 28, 1997. Known as “The Bite Fight,” it would go into the annals of boxing as one of the most bizarre fights in history. The infamous incident occurred in the third round, when Tyson bit Holyfield on one of his ears and had two points deducted. Referee Mills Lane decided to disqualify Tyson initially, but after Holyfield and the ringside doctor intervened and said Holyfield could continue, he relented and allowed the fight to go on. However, Tyson went on to bite Holyfield again, this time on the other ear. Tyson, with his teeth, tore off the top of his ear, known as the helix, and spit the flesh out on the ring. The immediate aftermath of the incident was greeted by instant bedlam. Tyson was disqualified and a melee ensued. Tyson claimed his bites were a retaliation to Holyfield’s unchecked headbutts, which had cut him in both fights. Others argued that Tyson, knowing he was on his way to another knockout loss, was looking for a way out of the fight. His former trainer, Teddy Atlas, had predicted that Tyson would get himself disqualified, calling Tyson “a very weak and flawed person.”[12] Avenging the Moorer defeatNext came another rematch, this time against Michael Moorer, who had recovered the IBF’s world title. Holyfield knocked Moorer to the canvas five times and referee Mitch Halpern stopped the fight between the eighth and ninth rounds under the advice of physician Flip Homansky. Holyfield once again unified his WBA belt with the IBF belt by avenging his defeat to Moorer. In 1998 Holyfield had only one fight, making a mandatory defense against Vaughn Bean, who was defeated by decision at the Georgia Dome in the champion’s hometown. For the first time, Holyfield’s performance called into question whether age was diminishing his ability to continue as a championship fighter.[13] Holyfield-Lewis fightsHolyfield vs. Lewis IBy 1999, the public was clamoring for a unification bout versus the WBC’s world champion, Lennox Lewis of the United Kingdom. That bout happened in March of that year. The bout was declared a controversial draw after twelve rounds, where it appeared to most that Lewis dominated the fight. Holyfield claimed his performance was hindered by stomach and leg cramps.[14] Holyfield and Lewis were ordered by the three leading organizations of which they were champions to have an immediate rematch. Holyfield vs. Lewis IIThe second time around, in November of that year, Lewis became the undisputed champion by beating Holyfield via unanimous decision by three American judges. Holyfield said “I haven’t felt this good after a fight since I was a cruiserweight”, Holyfield said. “It makes me think I should have fought a little harder against Lennox. Maybe I’d be sore and sick, but I’d have the victory.”[15] Trilogy with John RuizIn 2000, Lewis was stripped of the WBA belt for failing to meet lightly regarded Don King fighter John Ruiz, having fought Ruiz’s conqueror David Tua, and the WBA ordered Holyfield and Ruiz to meet for that organization’s world title belt. Holyfield and Ruiz began their trilogy in August of that year, with Holyfield making history by winning on a controversial, but unanimous 12 round decision to become the first boxer in history to be the world’s heavyweight champion four times. Holyfield blamed his lackluster performance on a perforated (broken) eardrum.[16] Seven months later, in March 2001, it was Ruiz’s turn to make history at Holyfield’s expense when he surprisingly managed to knock Holyfield down and beat him by a 12 round decision to become the first Hispanic ever to win the world’s heavyweight title. On December 15 of that year, Holyfield challenged Ruiz for the title, in an attempt to become champion again. The fight was declared a draw, and John Ruiz maintained the WBA championship belt. Holyfield vs. Byrd2002 began as a promising year for Holyfield: in June, he met former world heavyweight champion Hasim Rahman, to determine who would face Lewis next. Holyfield was leading on two of the three scorecards when the fight was stopped in the eighth round due to a severe hematoma on Rahman’s forehead that was caused by a headbutt earlier in the fight. Holyfield was ahead, so he was declared the winner by a technical decision. The IBF decided to strip Lewis of his belt after he didn’t want to fight Don King-promoted fighter Chris Byrd, instead going after Tyson, and declared that the winner of the fight between Holyfield and former WBO heavyweight champion Byrd would be recognized as their heavyweight champion. So, on December 14, 2002, Holyfield once again tried to become the first man ever to be heavyweight champion five times when he and Byrd met, but Byrd came out as the winner by a 12-round unanimous decision. Consecutive losses & New York suspensionOn October 4, 2003, Holyfield lost to James Toney by TKO when his corner threw in the towel in the ninth round. At age 42, Holyfield returned to the ring to face Larry Donald on November 13, 2004. He lost his third consecutive match in a twelve round unanimous decision. In August 2005 it had been reported that the New York State Athletic Commission had banned Evander Holyfield from boxing in New York due to “diminishing skills” despite the fact that Holyfield had passed a battery of medical tests. ComebackHolyfield was initially criticized for his ongoing comeback; but he is adamant that his losses to Toney and Donald were the result of a shoulder injury, not of old age. Holyfield had looked better in his first four fights since Donald, and appeared to have answered the critics who say that he lacks the cutting edge and ability to follow up on crucial openings that he had in his youth. Holyfield defeated Jeremy Bates by TKO on August 18, 2006 in a 10 round bout at American Airlines Center in Dallas, Texas. Holyfield dominated the fight which was stopped in the second round after he landed roughly twenty consecutive punches on Bates. Holyfield defeated Fres Oquendo by unanimous decision on November 10, 2006 in San Antonio, Texas. Holyfield knocked Oquendo down in the first minute of the first round and continued to be the aggressor throughout the fight, winning a unanimous decision by scores of 116–111, and 114–113 twice. On March 17, 2007, Holyfield defeated Vinny Maddalone by TKO when Maddalone’s corner threw in the towel to save their man from serious injury in the ring. On June 30, 2007, Holyfield defeated Lou Savarese, knocking the bigger and heavier Savarese down in the fourth and again in the ninth round, en route to a unanimous decision win. This was Holyfield’s fourth win in ten months, two of them by KO. This victory finally set the stage for Holyfield’s title fight, against Sultan Ibragimov, for the WBO heavyweight title. El Paso Texas, June 30, 2007 vs. Lou SavareseStill hungryHolyfield vs. IbragimovOn October 13, 2007, Holyfield was defeated by Sultan Ibragimov. Although unable to defy his critics by winning a fifth heavyweight title, Holyfield refused to be backed up by the young champion and even rattled him in the closing part of the 12th round. The fight was mostly uneventful, however, with neither fighter being truly staggered or knocked down. In most exchanges, Sultan was able to land two punches to Holyfield’s one. The end result was a unanimous decision for Ibragimov, with scores of 118–110, and 117–111 twice. Holyfield vs. ValuevHe told BBC Scotland’s Sports Weekly “I’m gonna fight, be the heavyweight champion of the world one more time. Then I’m gonna write another book and tell everybody how I did it.” On December 20, 2008 he fought, at the Hallenstadion in Zürich Switzerland, the WBA heavyweight champion Nikolai Valuev for a paycheck of $600,000, the lowest amount he has ever received for a championship fight. At the weigh-in, he weighed 214 pounds, Valuev weighed a career low of 310 pounds. Valuev defeated Holyfield by a highly controversial majority decision after a relatively uneventful bout. One judge scored the bout a draw 114–114, while the others had Valuev winning 116–112 and 115–114. Many analysts were outraged at the decision, thinking Holyfield had clearly won.[17] There was talk of a rematch in 2009. The WBA did their own investigation into the controversial decision;[18] “As the World Boxing Association (WBA) always cares about and respects the fans’ and the media’s opinion, the Championship Committee has ordered a panel of judges to review the tape of the fight between Nikolai Valuev and Evander Holyfield, for the WBA heavyweight title”, read a statement from the WBA. The organization also expressed that they “will give a decision accordingly in the following weeks.” Many speculated that an immediate rematch would be the most likely scenario, but this never materialised. Valuev lost the WBA title in his next fight against British boxer David Haye. Holyfield vs. BothaAfter the loss to Valuev, Holyfield took a period of inactivity. He reportedly agreed to fight South African boxer Francois Botha on January 16, 2010; it was agreed that the venue for the fight would be the Nelson Mandela Memorial Stadium in Kampala, Uganda. A few weeks before the fight, it was revealed that the bout would be postponed to February 20, 2010.[19][20] The match was put in jeopardy due to economic disagreements but was later confirmed to be on April 10, 2010 at the Thomas & Mack Center in Las Vegas.[21] When asked about his upcoming bout, the four-time world heavyweight champion said: “I’ve been hearing for a while that I can’t do it. All it does is light a fire under me to prove people wrong.” He also added: “I can still fight. I don’t want to leave until I’ve become the undisputed heavyweight champion one more time. That’s been my goal the entire time.”[22] The American boxer scored an eighth round knockout of Botha.[23][24] Holyfield started slowly as usual in the early going. Botha held and hit Holyfield, and took the control of the fight for the first three rounds. However, the South African could not slow down Holyfield, though he did hurt him, and the American boxer slowly began to punch him more to take control of the bout in the later rounds. In the seventh round Holyfield stunned Botha and knocked him down in the eighth round. Though he beat the count, Holyfield cornered him and landed many punches that forced the referee Russell Mora to stop the bout. At the time of the stoppage, Holyfield was behind on two judges’ cards, 67–66, while the third judge had it 69–64 for the American boxer. Only 3,127 attended the fight.[25] Sherman “The Tank” WilliamsAfter the Botha fight, Holyfield said he was interested in fighting either Vitali Klitschko, the current WBC Champion, or his younger brother Wladimir Klitschko.[26][27] Holyfield’s next bout against Sherman “The Tank” Williams on November 5, 2010 at Joe Louis Arena in Detroit, Michigan was then postponed twice before finally being rescheduled to January 22, 2011 and moved to The Greenbrier in White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia. Holyfield started the bout slowly and in the second round, he was cut in the left eye following an accidental clash of heads. In round three as he took several combinations. After the end of the round, Holyfield told his corner that he was unable to see due to the cut. Consequently, the bout was ruled a no contest.[28] The WBC has allegedly agreed to match Holyfield up with Vitali Klitschko after he gets through Williams and Nielsen.[29] “Super” Brian NielsenA fight with Brian Nielsen, the most popular Danish fighter in that country’s history, was scheduled for March 5, 2011 in Denmark, but needed to be postponed to May 7, 2011 due to a cut Holyfield received in the Williams fight.[30] The official weigh-in was held on Friday night in Denmark, with Holyfield at 225 pounds, while his opponent Nielsen, with his shorts on, weighed 238 pounds. It is to be noted that Nielsen had never been this light in his career. Neilson had said that although it would be mighty difficult for him to beat Holyfield, he promised it would not be one sided affair. Holyfield said that if he won he would move to next level and challenge for major titles. Holyfield started the fight aggressively, pressing the 46-year-old Nielsen into the ropes and landing several hard jabs and hooks, knocking him down in the 3rd round. Despite getting a swollen eye in the 4th round, Nielsen kept on clowning to provoke Holyfield throughout the bout, prompting his trainer, Paul Duvill, to beg him to stop fooling around and focus on Holyfield. In round 10 Nielsen pushed a tired-looking Holyfield into the ropes with a series of combinations, before Holyfield turned it around. Holyfield pushed Nielsen into a corner and battered him with combinations until the referee stopped the contest.[31][32] It was a tough fight – he kept coming back, Holyfield said. He fought a very courageous fight. Allegations of steroid and HGH useOn February 28, 2007, Holyfield was anonymously linked to Applied Pharmacy Services, a pharmacy in Alabama that is currently under investigation for supplying athletes with illegal steroids and human growth hormone (HGH). He denies ever using performance enhancers.[33] Holyfield’s name does not appear in the law enforcement documents reviewed. However, a patient by the name of “Evan Fields” caught investigators’ attention. “Fields” shares the same birth date as Holyfield—October 19, 1962. The listed address for “Fields” was 794 Evander, Fairfield, Ga. 30213. Holyfield has a very similar address. When the phone number that, according to the documents, was associated with the “Fields” prescription, was dialed, Holyfield answered.[34] On March 10, 2007 Holyfield made a public announcement that he would be pursuing his own investigation into the steroid claims in order to clear his name.[35] Holyfield was again linked to HGH in September 2007, when his name came up following a raid of Signature Pharmacy in Orlando, Florida.[36] As of September 2007[update], Signature Pharmacy is under investigation for illegally supplying several professional athletes with steroids and HGH.[37] Life outside the ring Holyfield at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 2010.Holyfield is the younger brother of actor and dancer, Bernard Holyfield, and currently lives and trains in Fayette County, Georgia with his third wife Candi and their two children; he has at least eleven children. By 1992, Holyfield was already a household name, announcing multiple products on television, such as Coca Cola and Diet Coke. He also had a video game released for the Sega Genesis and the Sega Game Gear: Evander Holyfield’s Real Deal Boxing. After his conversion, he started professing his Christianity everywhere, reminding the public before and after his fights that he is a born-again Christian. In 1996 Holyfield was given the opportunity to carry the Olympic torch when it was on its way to his hometown of Atlanta for that year’s Olympics. October 4 of this year he was married to Dr. Janice Itson, with whom he had one child. He founded Real Deal Records which signed the briefly successful group Exhale. On September 22, 2007 Holyfield released the Real Deal Grill cooking appliance via TV infomercials. The Real Deal Grill is manufactured by Cirtran Corp. Holyfield’s popularity has led to numerous television appearances for the boxer. His first television show appearance was the Christmas special of the Fresh Prince of Bel-Air in 1990, playing himself. In 2005, Holyfield came in fifth place on ABC’s Dancing with the Stars with his partner Edyta Sliwinska. He also made an appearance on the original BBC Strictly Come Dancing “Champion of Champions” showdown, which featured the final four teams from the 2005 edition of the British series, plus two celebrities from spinoff versions, paired with British professional dancers, one featuring Holyfield paired with Karen Hardy, and Rachel Hunter paired with Brendan Cole. Holyfield also had minor roles in three movies during the 1990s, Summer of Sam, Necessary Roughness, and Blood Salvage (which he also produced). He made a guest appearance on Nickelodeon’s Nickelodeon GUTS during its third season in 1994. He appeared once in an episode of Phineas and Ferb. In the episode he is an animated character but the producers wanted to make the most of Holyfield’s ear, so his animated character was only given half an ear. On August 13, 2007, Holyfield was confirmed to participate in a boxing match at World Wrestling Entertainment’s Saturday Night’s Main Event against Matt Hardy. He replaced Montel Vontavious Porter, who had to pull out after being legitimately diagnosed with a heart condition that was not part of a storyline. In late 2007 and early 2008, Holyfield was among a number of celebrities to be doing television ads for the restaurant chain Zaxby’s. In June 2008 a legal notice was placed by Washington Mutual Bank stating that Holyfield’s $10 million, 54,000-square-foot (5,000 m2), 109 room, 17 bathroom suburban Atlanta estate would be auctioned off on July 1, 2008 due to foreclosure, shortly before that bank’s insolvency. Adding to his financial problems, Toi Irvin, mother of his 10 year old son, filed suit for non-payment of two months child support (he pays $3,000 per month for this child). A Utah landscaping firm also has gone to court seeking $550,000 in unpaid debt for services.[38] Holyfield appeared as himself in the 2011 remake of Arthur. James (Buster) Douglas, Heavyweight Boxing Champ Leave a comment James “Buster” Douglas (born April 7, 1960) is a former undisputed world heavyweight boxing champion who scored a stunning upset when he knocked out previously undefeated champion Mike Tyson on February 11, 1990 in Tokyo, Japan. At the time, Tyson was considered to be the best boxer in the world and one of the most feared heavyweight champions in history due to his utter domination of the division. The Mirage Casino in Las Vegas, the only Las Vegas casino to make odds on the fight, had Douglas as a 42 to 1 underdog for the fight. Douglas held the title for eight months and two weeks, losing on October 25, 1990, to 28-year-old, 6-foot-2-inch, 208-pound Evander Holyfield, via third-round KO, in his only title defense. Growing upThe son of professional boxer William “Dynamite” Douglas, Douglas grew up in Columbus, Ohio, in the predominantly black Linden-area neighborhood, Windsor Terrace. He attended Linden McKinley High School where he played football and basketball, even leading Linden to a Class AAA state basketball championship in 1977. After high school, Douglas played basketball for the Coffeyville Community College Red Ravens in Coffeyville, Kansas from 1977 to 1978 where the seventeen year old was a 6 feet 0 inch Power forward. He is in the Coffeyville Red Ravens Men’s Basketball Hall of Fame.[1]He also played basketball at Sinclair Community College from 1979 to 1980 in Dayton, Oh before he moved back to Columbus to focus on boxing.[2] Boxing careerDouglas made his debut on May 31, 1981 and defeated Dan O’Malley in a four round bout. He won his first five fights before coming into a fight with David Bey twenty pounds heavier than he usually did in his early fights. Bey knocked Douglas out in the second round to hand him his first defeat. After six more fights, all wins, Douglas fought Steffen Tangstad to a draw on October 16, 1982. He was penalized two points during the course of the fight which proved to be the difference. After the draw Douglas went on to beat largely journeyman fighters over the next fourteen months. Two of his wins were against Jesse Clark, who never won a fight in his career; Douglas fought him a total of three times and knocked him out all three times. In his last fight of 1983 Douglas was dominating opponent Mike White, only to lose the fight when White knocked him out in the ninth round. On November 9, Douglas was scheduled to fight heavyweight contender Trevor Berbick in Las Vegas. Berbick pulled out of the bout three days before it was scheduled and Randall “Tex” Cobb elected to take the fight in Berbick’s place. Douglas defeated the former heavyweight contender by winning a majority decision. The next year he fought up and coming contender Jesse Ferguson, but was beaten by majority decision. Douglas fought three times in 1986, defeating former champion Greg Page and fringe contender David Jaco in two of the fights. This earned him a shot at the International Boxing Federation championship that Michael Spinks was stripped of for refusing to defend it. Douglas did not perform well against Tony Tucker and was knocked out in ten rounds. After the Tucker defeat Douglas won four consecutive fights and went on to fight Trevor Berbick in 1989, winning by a unanimous decision. He followed that up with a unanimous decision victory over future heavyweight champion Oliver McCall, and earned a shot at the undisputed heavyweight championship held by Mike Tyson, who became the universally recognized champion after knocking out Spinks in one round in 1988. (Douglas fought on the undercard of the event and defeated Mike Williams by TKO in seven rounds.) Championship fight against Mike TysonMain article: Tyson vs. Douglas The fight was scheduled for February 11, 1990 and took place in Tokyo at the Tokyo Dome. Almost everyone assumed that Douglas’ fight versus Mike Tyson was going to be another quick knockout for the champion. Only one betting parlor in Las Vegas would hold odds for the bout, and many thought it was just an easy tune-up for Tyson before a future mega-fight with undefeated Evander Holyfield, who had recently moved up to heavyweight from cruiserweight where he became the first boxer to be the undisputed champion of the weight class. Douglas’ mother, Lula Pearl, died 23 days before the title bout.[3] Douglas, who had trained hard, surprised the world by dominating the fight from the beginning, using his 12-inch reach advantage to perfection. He seemingly hit Tyson at will with powerful jabs and right hands and skillfully danced out of range of Tyson’s own punches. The champion had not taken Douglas seriously, expecting another quick and easy knockout victory. He was slow, refusing to move his head and slip his way in (his usual effective strategy) but rather setting his feet and throwing big, lunging hooks, repeatedly trying to beat Douglas with single punches. By the fifth round, Tyson’s left eye was swelling shut from Douglas’ many right hands, and ringside HBO announcers proclaimed it was the most punishment they had ever seen the champion absorb. Tyson’s cornermen appeared to be unprepared for the suddenly dire situation. They had not brought an endswell to the fight, so they were forced to put tap water into a latex glove to hold over Tyson’s swelling eye. By the end of the fight, Tyson’s eye had swollen almost completely shut. In the eighth round, Tyson landed a right uppercut that knocked Douglas down. The referee’s count engendered controversy as Douglas was on his feet when the referee reached nine, although the official knockdown timekeeper was two seconds ahead. In the ring the final arbiter of the knockdown seconds is the referee and a comparison with Douglas’s winning knockdown count issued to Tyson two rounds later revealed that both fighters had received long counts.[4] Tyson came out aggressively in the dramatic ninth round and continued his attempts to end the fight with one big punch hoping that Douglas was still hurt from the 8th round knockdown. Both men traded punches before Douglas connected on a multi-punch combination that staggered Tyson back to the ropes. With Tyson hurt along the ropes Douglas unleashed a vicious attack to try to finish off a dazed Tyson but, amazingly, Tyson withstood the punishment and barely survived the 9th round. Douglas dominated the tenth round from the outset. While setting Tyson up with his jab Douglas scored a huge uppercut, followed by a rapid combination, and knocked Tyson down for the first time in his career, making boxing history. Tyson struggled to his knees and picked up his mouthpiece lying on the mat next to him. He awkwardly attempted to place it back into his mouth. The image of Tyson with the mouthpiece hanging crookedly from his lips would become an enduring image from the fight. He was unable to beat the referee’s count, and Douglas was the new heavyweight champion of the world. As Buster Douglas said in an interview years later ‘“I thought Tyson was getting up until I had seen him looking for that mouth piece and then I knew that he was really hurt. So anytime you know you only got ten seconds to get up so you aren’t going to worry about anything but just getting up first. So when I had seen him looking around for that mouth piece I knew he was really hurt.”[5] [edit] After the upsetWhile still Champion, Douglas appeared on the February 23, 1990 episode of the World Wrestling Federation’s “WWF The Main Event”, as special guest referee for a rematch between Hulk Hogan and Randy “Macho Man” Savage. Originally, Mike Tyson was scheduled to be the guest referee, but following the upset, the WWF scrambled to sign on Douglas for the event. At the end of the match, Douglas was provoked into a ‘storyline’ punch and knockout of Savage, who was the ‘heel’ wrestler in the match. The defeated Tyson clamored for a rematch and Douglas was offered more money than he had ever made before for a fight. Not wanting to deal with Tyson’s camp or his promoter Don King, Douglas decided to make his first defense against #1 contender Evander Holyfield, who had watched the new champion dethrone Tyson from ringside in Tokyo. Douglas came into the October 25, 1990 fight at 246 pounds, 15 pounds heavier than he was for the Tyson and also the heaviest he’d weighed in for a fight since a 1985 bout with Dion Simpson, in which he tipped the scale at. just over 247 pounds. In the third round of the fight, Douglas attempted to hit Holyfield with a hard uppercut that he telegraphed. Holyfield avoided the uppercut and hit an off-balance Douglas with a straight right to the chin to knock him down. Douglas did not get up from the punch and lost his championship, electing to retire after the fight. [edit] Later careerDouglas vs Holyfield was a reported $24.6 million payday for Buster, though years later he said on the Howard Stern show he walked away with $1.5 million after taxes, managers, trainers, etc. In that same interview he said he received $1.3 million for the Tyson win, but for the same reasons netted $15,000. Doing little for the next several years, Buster gained weight, reaching nearly 400 pounds. It was only after Douglas nearly died during a diabetic coma that he decided to attempt a return to the sport. He went back into training and made a comeback. He was successful at first, winning 6 straight fights, but his comeback almost came to a halt in a 1997 disqualification win over journeyman Louis Monaco. In a bizarre ending, Monaco landed a right hand, just after the bell ending round one, that knocked Douglas to the canvas. Douglas was unable to continue after a five-minute rest period and was consequently awarded the win by disqualification (on account of Monaco’s illegal punch). A fight with light-heavyweight champion Roy Jones, Jr. was touted in the late 1990s, although ultimately fell through.[6] In 1998 Douglas was knocked out in the first round of a fight with heavyweight contender Lou Savarese. Douglas subsequently had two more fights, winning both, and retired in 1999 with a final record of 38-6-1. [edit] Film and gameDouglas made his feature film acting debut in the Artie Knapp science fiction comedy film Pluto’s Plight. Douglas was the star of the video game James ‘Buster’ Douglas Knockout Boxing for the Sega Master System and Sega Genesis. (In reality, Sega took a pre-existing game, Final Blow, changed the name, and changed one of the character’s names to Douglas’). This game is considered as a response to Nintendo’s Mike Tyson’s Punch-Out!!, especially since Tyson lost to Douglas, which Sega took advantage in order to promote their early “Genesis does what Nintendon’t” advertisements. In 1995, HBO aired Tyson, a television movie based upon the life of Mike Tyson. Douglas was portrayed by actor Duane Davis. Larry Holmes, Professional Boxer Leave a comment Larry Holmes (born November 3, 1949) is a former professional boxer. He grew up in Easton, Pennsylvania, which gave birth to his boxing nickname, The Easton Assassin. Holmes, whose left jab is considered one of the greatest weapons in the history of sports,[1] was the WBC Heavyweight Champion from 1978 to 1983, The Ring Heavyweight Champion from 1980 to 1985, and the IBF Heavyweight Champion from 1983 to 1985. He made twenty successful title defenses, second only to Joe Louis’ twenty-five. Holmes won his first forty-eight professional bouts, almost matching Rocky Marciano’s streak of 49 straight wins, including victories over Ken Norton, Muhammad Ali, Gerry Cooney, and Tim Witherspoon He is frequently ranked by many boxing experts as one of the greatest heavyweight fighters of all time.[3] Early lifeHolmes was the fourth of twelve children born to John and Flossie Holmes. When the family moved to Easton in 1954, Holmes’ father went to Connecticut, where he worked as a gardener until his death in 1970. He visited his family every three weeks. “He didn’t forsake us,” said Flossie Holmes. “He just didn’t have anything to give.” The family survived on welfare. To help support his family, Holmes dropped out of school when he was in the seventh grade and went to work at a car wash for $1 an hour. He later drove a dump truck and worked in a quarry.[4] Amateur boxing careerWhen Holmes was nineteen, he started boxing. In his twenty-second bout, he boxed Duane Bobick in the 1972 Olympic Trials. Holmes was dropped in the first round with a right to the head. He got up and danced out of range, landing several stiff jabs in the process. Bobick mauled Holmes in the second round but couldn’t corner him. The referee warned Holmes twice in the second for holding. In the third, Bobick landed several good rights and started to corner Holmes, who continued to hold. Eventually, Holmes was disqualified for excessive holding. [5] Early boxing careerAfter compiling an amateur record of 19-3, Holmes turned professional on March 21, 1973, winning a four-round decision against Rodell Dupree. Early in his career, he worked as a sparring partner for Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier, Earnie Shavers, and Jimmy Young. He was paid well and learned a lot. “I was young, and I didn’t know much. But I was holding my own sparring those guys,” Holmes said. “I thought, ‘hey, these guys are the best, the champs. If I can hold my own now, what about later?'” Holmes first gained credibility as a contender when he upset the hard-punching Earnie Shavers in March 1978. Holmes won by a lopsided twelve-round unanimous decision, winning every round on two scorecards and all but one on the third. Holmes’s victory over Shavers set up a title shot between Holmes and WBC Heavyweight Champion Ken Norton in Las Vegas, Nevada on June 9, 1978. WBC Heavyweight ChampionThe fight between Holmes and Norton was a tough, competitive fight. After fourteen rounds, all three judges had the fight scored dead even at seven rounds each. Holmes rallied late in the fifteenth to win the round on two scorecards and take the title by a split decision. [6] In his first two title defenses, Holmes easily knocked out Alfredo Evangelista and Ossie Ocasio. His third title defense was a tough one. On June 22, 1979, Holmes faced future WBA Heavyweight Champion Mike Weaver, who was lightly regarded going into the fight sporting an uninspiring 19-8 record. After ten tough rounds, Holmes dropped Weaver with a right uppercut late in round eleven. In the twelfth, Holmes immediately went on the attack, backing Weaver into the ropes and pounding him with powerful rights until the referee stepped in and stopped it. “This man knocked the devil out of me,” Holmes said. “This man might not have had credit before tonight, but you’ll give it to him now.”[7] Three months later, on September 28, 1979, Holmes had a rematch with Shavers, who got a title shot by knocking out Ken Norton in one round. Holmes dominated the first six rounds, but in the seventh, Shavers sent Holmes down with a devastating overhand right. Holmes got up, survived the round, and went on to stop Shavers in the eleventh.[8] His next three defenses were knockouts of Lorenzo Zanon, Leroy Jones, and Scott LeDoux. On October 2, 1980, at Caesar’s Palace in Las Vegas, Holmes defended his title against Ali, who was coming out of retirement in an attempt to become the first four-time World Heavyweight Champion. Holmes dominated Ali from start to finish, winning every round on every scorecard. At the end of the tenth round, Ali’s trainer, Angelo Dundee, stopped the fight.[9] After the win, Holmes received recognition as World Heavyweight Champion by The Ring magazine. Ali blamed his poor performance on thyroid medication that he had been taking, claiming that it helped him lose weight (he weighed 217½, his lowest weight since he fought George Foreman in 1974), but it also left him drained for the fight.[10] When Ali officially announced his comeback a MAYO clinic physical was organized and a boxing license would only be granted if he passed. The tests included basic reflex analysis and challenged his hand eye co-ordination. Arguably the quickest and most skillful heavyweight in history being subjected to such tests might seem redundant but the results were shocking. Ali had difficulty touching the tip of his nose from distance, occasionally slurred his speech and did not “hop with the agility that was expected”.[11] After eight consecutive knockouts, Holmes was forced to go the distance when he successfully defended his title against future WBC Heavyweight Champion Trevor Berbick on April 11, 1981. In his next fight, two months later, Holmes knocked out former Undisputed World Heavyweight Champion Leon Spinks in three rounds. On November 6, 1981, Holmes rose from a seventh-round knockdown (during which he staggered into the turnbuckle) to stop Renaldo Snipes in the eleventh. Holmes vs. CooneyOn June 11, 1982, Holmes defended his title against Gerry Cooney, the undefeated #1 contender and an Irish-American. The lead up to the fight had many racial overtones. Holmes said that if Cooney wasn’t white, he wouldn’t be getting the same purse as the champion (Both boxers received $10 million for the bout).[12] Although Cooney tried to deflect questions about race, members of his camp wore shirts that said “Not the White Man, but the Right Man.”[12] Many[who?] felt Holmes was unfairly slighted leading up to the fight. In their fight previews, Sports Illustrated and Time put Cooney on the cover, not Holmes. President Ronald Reagan had a phone installed in Cooney’s dressing room so he could call him if he won the fight. Holmes had no such arrangement. Lastly, boxing tradition dictates that the champion is introduced last, but the challenger, Cooney, was introduced last.[12] The bout was held in a 32,000 seat stadium erected in a Caesar’s Palace Parking lot, with millions more watching around the world. After an uneventful first round, Holmes dropped Cooney with a right in the second. Cooney came back well in the next two rounds, jarring Holmes with his powerful left hook. Holmes later said that Cooney “hit me so damned hard, I felt it – boom – in my bones.\|[13] Cooney was tiring by the ninth, a round in which he had two points deducted for low blows. In the tenth, they traded punches relentlessly. At the end of the round, the two nodded to each other in respect.[13] Cooney lost another point because of low blows in the eleventh. By then, Holmes was landing with ease. In the thirteenth, a barrage of punches sent Cooney down. He got up, but his trainer, Victor Valle, stepped into the ring and stopped the fight.[13] After the fight, Holmes and Cooney would become close friends.[13] Trouble with the WBCHolmes’ next two fights were one-sided decision wins over Randall “Tex” Cobb and Lucien Rodriguez. On May 23, 1983, Holmes defended his title against Tim Witherspoon, the future WBC and WBA Heavyweight Champion. Witherspoon, a six to one underdog and with only 15 professional bouts to his name, surprised many by giving Holmes a difficult fight. After twelve rounds, Holmes retained the title by a disputed split decision.[14] Boxing Monthly named it one of the ten most controversial decisions of all time. On September 10, 1983, Holmes successfully defended the WBC title for the sixteenth time, knocking out Scott Frank in five rounds. Holmes then signed to fight Marvis Frazier, son of Joe Frazier, on November 25, 1983. The WBC refused to sanction the fight against the unranked Frazier. They ordered Holmes to fight Greg Page, the #1 contender, or be stripped of the title. Promoter Don King offered Holmes $2.55 million to fight Page, but the champion didn’t think that was enough. He was making $3.1 million to fight Frazier and felt he should get as much as $5 million to fight Page.[15] Holmes had an easy time with Frazier, knocking him out in the first round.[16] The following month, Holmes relinquished the WBC championship and accepted recognition as World Heavyweight Champion by the newly formed International Boxing Federation.[17] IBF Heavyweight ChampionHolmes signed to fight Gerrie Coetzee, the WBA Champion, on June 15, 1984 at Caesar’s Palace. The fight was being promoted by JPD Inc., but it was canceled when Caesar’s Palace said the promoters failed to meet the financial conditions of the contract. Holmes was promised $13 million and Coetzee was promised $8 million. Even after cutting the purses dramatically, they still couldn’t come up with enough financial backing to stage the fight.[18] Don King then planned to promote the fight, but Holmes lost a lawsuit filed by Virginia attorney Richard Hirschfeld, who said he had a contract with Holmes that gave him right of first refusal on a Holmes-Coetzee bout. Holmes then decided to move on and fight someone else.[19] On November 9, 1984, after a year out of the ring, Holmes made his first defense of the IBF title, stopping James “Bonecrusher” Smith on a cut in the twelfth round. In the first half of 1985, Holmes stopped David Bey in ten rounds for his 19th title defense. His next against Carl “The Truth” Williams was unexpectedly tough. The younger, quicker Williams was able to out-jab the aging champion, who was left with a badly swollen eye by the end of the bout. Holmes emerged with a close, and disputed, fifteen-round unanimous decision. On September 21, 1985, Holmes lost the IBF title by a close fifteen-round unanimous decision to Michael Spinks, who became the first reigning World Light Heavyweight Champion to win the World Heavyweight Championship. If Holmes had been victorious against Spinks, he would have tied Rocky Marciano’s career record of 49-0.[20] After the fight, a bitter Holmes said, “Rocky Marciano couldn’t carry my jockstrap.” Holmes received a lot of criticism for the remarks. Shortly afterward, he apologized.[21] Holmes had a rematch with Spinks on April 19, 1986. Spinks retained the title with a disputed fifteen-round split decision. The judges scored the fight: Judge Joe Cortez 144-141 (Holmes), Judge Frank Brunette 141-144 Spinks) and Judge Jerry Roth 142-144 (Spinks.)[22] In a post-fight interview with HBO, Holmes said, “the judges, the referees and promoters can kiss me where the sun don’t shine – and because we’re on HBO, that’s my big black behind.”[23] On November 6, 1986, three days after his 37th birthday, Holmes announced his retirement.[24] [edit] ComebacksOn January 22, 1988, Holmes was lured out of retirement by a $2.8 million purse to challenge reigning Undisputed World Heavyweight Champion Mike Tyson. Tyson dropped Holmes in the fourth round with an overhand right. Holmes got up, but Tyson put him down two more times in the round, and the fight was stopped. It was the only time Holmes would be knocked out in his lengthy career. After the fight. Holmes once again retired.[25] Holmes returned to the ring in 1991. After five straight wins, he fought Ray Mercer, the undefeated 1988 Olympic Gold Medalist, on February 7, 1992. Holmes pulled off the upset and won by a twelve-round unanimous decision.[26] The win got Holmes a shot at Evander Holyfield for the Undisputed World Heavyweight Championship. On June 19, 1992, Holyfield defeated Holmes by a twelve-round unanimous decision.[27] Holmes won seven consecutive fights and then got another title shot. On April 8, 1995, he fought Oliver McCall for the WBC title. Holmes lost by a close twelve-round unanimous decision. Two of the judges had him losing by only one point, while the other judge had him losing by three points.[28] On January 24, 1997, Holmes went to Denmark to fight Brian Nielsen, who was 31-0. Nielsen won by a twelve-round split decision to retain the International Boxing Organization title.[29] Holmes and George Foreman signed to fight on January 23, 1999 at the Houston Astrodome. Foreman called off the fight several weeks before it was to take place because the promoter failed to meet the deadline for paying him the remaining $9 million of his $10 million purse. Foreman received a nonrefundable $1 million deposit, and Holmes got to keep a $400,000 down payment of his $4 million purse.[30] Holmes’ next two fights were rematches with old foes. On June 18, 1999, he stopped Bonecrusher Smith in eight rounds,[31] and on November 17, 2000, he stopped Mike Weaver in six.[32] Holmes in Beaufort, South Carolina in 2010.Holmes’ final fight was on July 27, 2002 in Norfolk, Virginia. He defeated Eric “Butterbean” Esch by a ten-round unanimous decision.[33] HonorsHolmes was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 2008.[34] [edit] Life after BoxingHolmes invested wisely the money he earned from boxing and happily put down lasting roots in his hometown of Easton. When he initially retired from boxing, Holmes employed more than 200 people through his various business holdings. In 2008, it was reported that he still owned two restaurants and a nightclub, a training facility, an office complex, a snack food bar and slot machines.[35] Holmes currently co-hosts a talk show on Service Electric Cable 2 Sports called “What They Heck Were They Thinking?” The Show started in 2006 and is currently on its sixth season. His co-host on the show is long time announcing partner Mike Mittman. “What They Heck Were They Thinking?” airs Monday nights at 8:30pm on 2 sports Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Join 65 other followers Follow Blog via Email Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Join 65 other followers	i don't know
Which American rock star survived the car crash that killed Eddie Cochran in April 1960?	BBC - Wiltshire - History - The death of Eddie Cochran You are in: Wiltshire > History > Rock 'n' Roll Wiltshire > The death of Eddie Cochran Eddie Cochran The death of Eddie Cochran Geoff Barker Read the story of how the rock'n'roll legend met his tragic end in a car crash in Chippenham in 1960. American rock'n'roll star Eddie Cochran died during the afternoon of Easter Sunday 17th April 1960. His death in St. Martin's Hospital in Bath, came as a result of injuries sustained in a car crash just outside Chippenham, late the night before. Eddie and his great friend Gene Vincent had been touring the UK since mid-January, on a package tour that had created a sensation amongst UK rock n roll fans. Not one, but two genuine American rock'n'roll stars, criss-crossing the UK and even making TV and radio appearances! By then, the first flush of raw rock'n'roll was long gone, so the sight and sound of Gene and Eddie was an antidote to the blandness of much pop music at that time. They were nothing short of a revelation… Eddie in particular. Often described as 'James Dean with a guitar', Eddie Cochran had everything going for him. A young, good-looking guy, a hugely talented musician, who as well playing stunning guitar, could also handle bass and drums and most unusually for those times, also wrote his own songs. Two of which - 'Summertime Blues' and 'C'mon Everybody', had been huge hits and today - nearly 50 years on - are regarded as classics of the genre. Eddie had arrived in the UK on 10th January 1960, to join a UK tour with Gene Vincent which had already been on the road since before Christmas. It was promoted by top pop impresario Larry Parnes and the support acts and musicians were all young UK rock'n'rollers that Parnes had under contract. These included at various times along the tour - Billy Fury, Joe Brown, Georgie Fame, Vince Eager and Johnny Gentle. It was a long tour with a punishing schedule, and the British winter was not something that California-resident Cochran was used to. So by the time they all rolled up at the Bristol Hippodrome on Monday 11th April for a week-long residency, Eddie (and his accompanying girlfriend, songwriter Sharon Sheeley) were looking forward to returning to the USA immediately afterwards. For this last week of the tour, Billy and Joe were off playing elsewhere and the support acts included Georgie Fame, Johnny Gentle and also Tony Sheridan - who a year later would make a record in Germany, with an unknown Liverpool group called The Beatles. After the final show on Saturday 16th April - and back at the Royal Hotel to collect their things - Eddie wanted a lift back to London with Johnny Gentle, who had driven himself to Bristol, but his car was full. There were no more trains at that time of night, so a taxi was called. Sometime after 11.00pm, a Ford Consul driven by George Martin, with Eddie, Gene, Sharon and tour-manager Pat Thompkins, set off for London. Eddie, Sharon and Gene sat in the back, with Thompkins next to the driver. These were pre-M4 days, so Martin initially chose the old A4 down through Bath, but with this being a bad road, especially at night, he decided on a short cut on the outskirts of Chippenham. The accident spot on Rowden Hill in Chippenham Thompkins later recalled: "You come out from under the viaduct and come across a bridge in front of you. "On your right is the A4 and then the bridge and on your left is the A4 to London. "Well, he saw the A4 and turned right, going the wrong way. When he saw the milestone, he realized he was going the wrong way and hit the brakes." It appears that as the car sped out of Chippenham trying to get back on the right route, Martin lost control on the bend at Rowden Hill, (then a notorious accident black-spot) and spun backwards into a concrete lamp post. The impact sent Eddie up into the roof and forced the rear door open, throwing him onto the road. After the car had come to a halt, Martin and Thompkins were able to walk away from the wreckage uninjured. But Gene and Sharon, along with Eddie were lying on the grass verge. Gene had broken his collarbone, but fortunately for Sharon, she only suffered shock and bruising. However, the injuries to Eddie would prove fatal. The noise had brought local residents onto the scene. Dave Chivers told the Wiltshire Times: "I was getting into bed when I heard a whistling outside, followed by a series of bumps and smashes. The Daily Mirror reports on Eddie's death "My first reaction was that it was a plane crash. "I went outside and saw the wrecked car, several people lying about, a large guitar and scattered photographs, which had come from the open boot. I telephoned for an ambulance from the kiosk nearby." The first police on the scene included a young Wiltshire cadet called Dave Harman, who with a name change to Dave Dee, become a highly successful pop star himself. The time of the accident can be accurately pinpointed. In those days the street lights went out at midnight and the ambulance from Chippenham arrived soon after, in total darkness. The three were taken to St Martin's hospital, but Eddie had suffered severe brain damage. He never regained consciousness and died at 4.10pm that afternoon. Like Buddy Holly who came our way two years earlier, Eddie Cochran also had a profound influence on young aspiring British musicians. Joe Brown has often said what a great and innovative guitar player Eddie was, introducing styles and techniques that had never been seen here before. Georgie Fame totally credits Eddie with introducing the music of Ray Charles to a mainstream UK audience, through his playing of Charles' songs in his stage act. Shadows drummer Brian Bennett backed Eddie on the tour, as a member of Marty Wilde's band, who were loaned out to Cochran for some of the live dates and also his BBC radio sessions for the Saturday Club show. Brian recalls Eddie showing him some great drum tricks and said what a great player he was. Pete Townshend and Roger Daltrey both idolised Eddie and of course, 'Summertime Blues' was for years a Who stage-favourite. Ironically, the biggest UK hits for Eddie's songs 'C'mon Everybody' and 'Somethin' Else', came in 1979, when The Sex Pistols took them both to number three in the charts. George Harrison had seen Eddie when the tour played Liverpool and even acquired an important piece of Eddie memorabilia; In 1999 I worked on a radio series for the BBC World Service with Paul McCartney, looking back at his early rock'n'roll years. Paul recalled the-then unknown Beatles touring Scotland backing Johnny Gentle in 1960. Eddie had given Gentle his stage shirt after the Bristol show and following a week of pestering by the young Beatle, Johnny eventually passed it to George. Johnny came to one of the Eddie Cochran Weekender events in Chippenham, where I interviewed him live on air. He too said what an amazing talent Eddie was, and also said he wished he'd kept that shirt! The plaque which marks the spot where he died When someone dies young, it's always the eternal question - what would they have done in life? In the case of Eddie Cochran, I think there can be little doubt he would have been the first 'guitar-hero' of the sixties, with Clapton, Beck, Page and Hendrix queuing up to play with him. Jimi always said he wanted Eddie Cochran played at his funeral, and he got his wish. What makes this whole story even more poignant, is how young Eddie was when he took his seat in the car that night - just 21. Today, that dangerous bend at Rowden Hill, Chippenham has long since been made safe. There is no longer any physical reminder of the tragedy, except for one thing - a plaque on the grass verge in memory of Eddie. It was erected by fans and unveiled at one of Chippenham's Eddie Cochran Weekender events by Sharon Sheeley, on what was her first visit since that fateful night at Easter 1960. last updated: 19/03/2009 at 16:24 created: 27/02/2009	Gene Vincent
What was the name of the real-life castaway upon whom Daniel Defoe based 'Robinson Crusoe'?	Eddie Cochran: The day the music died \| Express Yourself \| Comment \| Daily Express VIDS Eddie Cochran: The day the music died IT IS 50 years this week since American rocker Eddie Cochran was killed in a car crash on the A4. Adam Edwards tells his story and examines his legacy. By Adam Edwards 00:00, Mon, Apr 12, 2010 It is 50 years this week since American rocker Eddie Cochran was killed in a car crash on the A4 [] IT WAS, according to the Bristol Hippodrome programme for april 16 1960, a “fast moving Anglo-American beat show”. It was on for one week only and it featured the Tony Sheridan trio “from TV’s Oh Boy”, as well as Georgie Fame “the new singing pianist”. Closing the first half was, “for the first time in England”, a 21-year-old American singer called Eddie Cochran. Fifty years ago this week the young rock-and -roller and his friend the show’s headliner Gene Vincent were fronting the UK’s first ever rock-and-roll pack-age tour, a five-week run that had been extended to 15 weeks because of its extraordinary success. It had started in mid-January and relentlessly toured the Gaumonts, Granadas, Odeons , Empires and Guildhalls of Britain’s biggest cities and towns throughout the bitter winter and early spring. The night before the Bristol gig, for example, the show was at London’s Finsbury Park Empire where Duane Eddy and his “twangy guitar” gave a guest performance. Soon afterwards it was due to return for a further gig at the Liverpool Empire. But Eddie Cochran never made Liverpool that second time. The promoters pasted his name out of the programmes and the advertising posters. The Bristol Hippodrome was to be his last show. Within 24 hours of blasting out the final notes of his smash number-one hit summer- time Blues he was dead from his injuries after a car smash on the a4 in wiltshire. Ironically the car in which he was riding was a Ford Consul Mark 11, a motor with tail fins and a bench seat that was the UK’s pale imitation of the Fifties’ American gas guzzlers that have since become so inextricably intertwined with rock-and-roll. His death, as far as Britain’s rockers were concerned, was “the day the music died”, or at least the day that the golden age of brothel creepers, drape jackets and ducktail haircuts disappeared. In the USA, as Don Mclean wrote in his hit song American Pie, it was the 1959 plane crash that killed Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and JP “the Big Bopper” Richardson which brought the curtain down on the rock-and-roll decade. Here it was the tragic demise of Eddie Cochran. “Eddie is more popular in England than he is in his native Us,” observed the tour’s promoter Larry Parnes. “The teenagers love him as much if not more than they do Elvis or any other American rock-and-rollers because they love his music and his all-american looks.” Or as our own home-grown rock-and-roller Marty Wilde, an occasional guest on that touring Anglo American beat show, said: “The first thing I noticed about Eddie was his complexion. We British lads had acne and Eddie walked in with the most beautiful hair and the most beautiful skin – his skin was a light brown, a beautiful colour with all that California sunshine. and I thought, you lucky devil.” Wilde was not alone in his admiration of the young guitar-twanging star. The late Beatle George Harrison had followed Cochran from town to town. Paul McCartney, too, knew the all words to the rocker’s songs, in particular the single twenty Flight Rock. It was the reason John Lennon invited him to join his group the Quarrymen. The guitar playing of Pete townshend of the who was heavily influenced by Cochran and the band later recorded the star’s most successful hit summertime Blues. And Marc Bolan of T Rex – later himself to die in a road crash – had his Les Paul guitar refinished in a transparent orange to resemble Cochran’s Gretsch 6120. At 13 Bolan carried that Gretsch from the stage door to Cochran’s limousine when he went to see the “beat show”. Cochran was always musical. He started playing the guitar at high school in California and by the age of 16 he was on the road backing country singer Hank Cochran, who was no relation. Soon afterwards he broke out on his own and was asked by a low-budget movie producer to sing his song twenty Flight Rock in the 1956 rock-and-roll movie the Girl Can’t Help It, starring Jayne Mansfield. It turned him into a teenage idol. By 1957 he was touring the Us with Chuck Berry, Buddy Holly and the Everly Brothers and the following year he released summertime Blues. His next single C’Mon Everybody was, however, more popular in UK than in America and so Cochran decided to tour Britain. The tour began in Ipswich, when Eddie said: “It’s great to be here in Hipswitch” and gyrated his hips. The audience screamed. The local paper on the other hand wrote “he seemed to get enjoyment out of leg-kicking, face-pulling and making the youngsters scream. I cannot believe this is true entertainment. Why do these idiotic teenagers behave in such a fashion?” The newspaper critics may not have understand the teenage phenomenon of rock-and-roll but the tour went from strength to strength and by the time it reached Bristol Cochran needed a break. He wanted to go back to the States for Easter and to fulfil a recording contract. After the show Eddie, his girlfriend Sharon Sheeley and Gene Vincent ordered a taxi – a Ford Consul – to take them to London’s Heathrow airport, a difficult journey in those pre-motorway days. In the early hours of the morning, just outside Chippenham, the car blew a tyre and hit a lamp post. Gene Vincent broke several ribs and suffered a leg injury from which he limped for the rest of his life. Sharon broke her pelvis but survived. Eddie was thrown through the windscreen and suffered severe head injuries. The first policeman on the scene was David Harman, who retrieved Cochran’s undamaged guitar. There are stories that he subsequently learned to play guitar on it but whatever the truth, Dave Harman became Dave Dee and had a score of top 10 hits in the mid sixties with his band Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick and Titch. Eddie Cochran died in St Martin’s Hospital in Bath 16 hours after the crash. The Daily Express carried the story on its front page. Within a year of Cochran’s death the British charts were dominated by crooners such as Frankie Vaughan, instrumentals by the temperance seven and the shadows and corny tin-pan-alley songs such as Helen Shapiro’s walking Back to Happiness. Elvis Presley was by now singing ballads and Cliff Richard had turned to pop. But despite the eclipse of rock-and-roll Eddie Cochran’s memory lived on. It was not just his good looks, dynamite performances and handful of outstanding singles that were remembered by his fans. It was his unique ability to use an unwound third string to “bend” notes that was a revelation to a generation of British teenagers. American rock-and-roll music in England may have died on that April day 50 years ago in Wiltshire but it was reborn in Liverpool with the Beatles, in Richmond with the Rolling stones and with a host of other British artists from the Clash to Led Zeppelin – mostly thanks to Eddie.	i don't know
Which philosopher was Dean of Notre Dame in Paris in 1115 but became a monk after a scandal that led to his castration?	Project MUSE - Bertrada de Montfort, Peter Abelard, and Adelard of Bath: The Critique of Authority in the Early Twelfth Century Bertrada de Montfort, Peter Abelard, and Adelard of Bath: The Critique of Authority in the Early Twelfth Century Constant J. Mews (bio) Abstract Bertrada de Montfort is well known for provoking the wrath of senior churchmen in the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, for leaving her husband, Count Fulk IV of Anjou, and engaging in what they considered to be an illegitimate marriage to Philip I of France. This article explores hitherto unexamined connections between Bertrada’s role as Queen of France and two intellectuals, both celebrated for promoting the cause of reason against blind respect for authority, namely Peter Abelard and Adelard of Bath. Bertrada deserves to be considered not as a self-seeking virago, as claimed by her critics, but as someone who challenged ecclesiastical authority in a similar way to these two celebrated thinkers of the early twelfth century. Both thinkers sought to place authority on a firmer, more rational foundation, echoing Bertrada’s own critique of ecclesiastical authority in marrying Philip against the view of many reforming ecclesiastics. Bertrada de Montfort (c. 1065/70–c. 1116/17) does not have a good reputation as Queen of France. For Suger of Saint-Denis, her notoriety derived from her decision to abandon her husband, Fulk IV, Count of Anjou (whom she had married in 1089 and by whom she had one son, also called Fulk) for Philip I of France (1060–1108). She enticed Philip to separate from Bertha of Holland, mother to his two children, Constance (1078–1126) and Louis (1081–1137). 1 In September 1092, Bertrada and Philip were married, provoking outrage from Ivo of Chartres, who refused to recognise [End Page 1] the legitimacy of their union and deplored the behaviour of those senior bishops loyal to the crown. This opposition to Bertrada’s union with Philip was used by Georges Duby to illustrate what he saw as a struggle between two competing models of marriage in the early twelfth century, one royal, the other ecclesiastical. 2 Suger considered that Philip I had abandoned the duties of government, ‘for he was carried away by lust for the married woman he had carried off and gave himself over to gratifying his desires’. 3 In his view, the government of France was restored only with the accession of Louis VI in 1108. Suger is unreserved in his hostility to Bertrada, whom he describes as a virago, ‘more powerful than all these others [her brother, Amaury de Montfort and her son, Fulk V], charming and most learned in that amazing womanly artifice by which they boldly dare to trample on their husbands even after they have tormented them with abuse’. 4 Can we read past such evident stereotypes to discern Bertrada’s potential contribution to intellectual and religious culture in the early twelfth century? What role might she have played in promoting a culture of criticism of conventional ecclesiastical authority during her time as Queen of France? A major victory for Bertrada’s critics came in December 1104, when Galo, newly appointed as Bishop of Paris (and previously Ivo’s successor as dean of Saint-Quentin, Beauvais), forced both Bertrada and Philip to abjure sexual relations and only communicate with each other in the company of trusted witnesses. Yet, as Erik Bournazel observes, this did not stop them from engaging together in public life. 5 A forthcoming study by Max Lejbowicz argues that Bertrada is the queen before whom Adelard of Bath reports [End Page 2] that he played the cithara, very likely at Tours, soon after Philip’s death on 29/30 July 1108. 6 Adelard, who speaks about his recent studies at Tours in his De eodem et diverso¸ dedicated to the Bishop of Syracuse, narrates the episode to explain the discipline of music from the testimony of experience. Bertrada subsequently became a nun of the Order of Fontevraud, being appointed abbess of a monastery that she founded on her own property at Haute-Bruyère, near Dreux (midway between Chartres and Evreux), within Normandy rather than the royal domain of France. The support she and her son, Fulk, gave to the abbey of Fontevraud would be crucial in ensuring its success as the premier abbey of the Counts of Anjou. Just as Adelard embodied a more critical approach to learning, so Fontevraud embodied a new approach to religious life in allowing men and women to live together in the same location, under the authority of an abbess. Bertrada’s criticism of ecclesiastical authority also deserves to be compared to that of Peter Abelard, who provides a detailed, if partisan account of intellectual debate in this period his Historia calamitatum, written around 1132. 7 While Robert-Henri Bautier has emphasised the influence on Abelard of Stephen de Garlande, an archdeacon of Paris from c. 1096, and royal chancellor to Louis VI for much of the period between 1106 and 1137, he did not consider Stephen’s potential debt to the initial patronage of Bertrada. 8 Suger’s consistent effort in his Life of Louis VI to downplay the contribution of the de Garlande brothers itself echoed his reserve to a most controversial queen. While Adelard’s career is not as well known as that of [End Page 3] Abelard, they may have both benefitted, at least indirectly, from the patronage of Bertrada. To understand the critique of blind respect for authority made by both Abelard and Adelard, we need to consider more closely the extent to which Bertrada herself challenged ecclesiastical authority. I. Bertrada de Montfort, Fulk IV of Anjou, and Philip I of France The family of Bertrada de Montfort came from a part of Normandy close to both Blois and the royal domain of France. Suger described her brother, Amaury de Montfort (d. 1137), as ‘a distinguished knight and very powerful baron’. 9 She was raised by her uncle, the Count of Evreux, and aunt, Helwise, ‘clever and persuasive but cruel and grasping’ according to Orderic Vitalis, who reports that Fulk IV approached Duke Robert of Normandy for permission to marry her. Duke Robert approved the relationship between Fulk and Bertrada because he wanted to make peace with Anjou, but suspected Fulk’s motives. 10 While this was Bertrada’s first marriage, Fulk IV had previously been married to Hildegarde of Beaugency (d. 1070), by whom he had a daughter, Ermengarde, subsequently Countess of Brittany), and then to Ermengarde de Bourbon, by whom he had his first son, Geoffrey Martel. After two further wives, about whom nothing is known and who left no surviving issue, Fulk IV married Bertrada who gave him a son, the future Fulk V, sometime between 1089 and 1092. 11 Bertrada’s marriage to Fulk IV was not a happy one. According to the Gesta of Anjou, initially written between 1106 and 1109, soon after the death of Geoffrey Martel, Fulk’s eldest son, Bertrada and Philip were so smitten by each other that the king devised a ruse whereby after an official meeting with Fulk IV at Tours on 15 May 1092, she slipped away the following night, protected by a posse of knights, who took her to Orléans. 12 Philip’s decision to [End Page 4] dismiss Bertha, mother to his two children, and exile her to Montreuil in the Pas-de-Calais (where she died in 1094), provoked intense hostility from Ivo of Chartres, who urged all the bishops and archbishops of France to boycott the wedding. 13 In practice, however, most of the French bishops were loyal to the king. On 26 October 1092, Pope Urban II reprimanded Rainald, Archbishop of Reims, for allowing Ursio, Bishop of Senlis and then Philip’s chancellor, to celebrate the wedding, widely recognised within the royal domain. The marriage provoked Urban II to excommunicate Philip and place the royal domain, at least in theory, under interdict. William of Malmesbury reports a story that wherever the king travelled, divine service would be suspended with the bells ringing again only after he had left a town, prompting Philip to quip to Bertrada: ‘Do you hear, my fair one, how they scare us away?’ Ivo maintained resistance to the marriage over the next twelve years as a matter of principle, consistently referring to Bertrada as the Countess of Anjou rather than as Queen of France. 14 To the frustration of both Ivo of Chartres and Pope Urban II, the archbishops of Reims, Tours, and Sens all recognised the marriage. 15 Bertrada gave Philip two sons, Philip de Maintes (d. 1133) and Florus, as well as a daughter, Cecile (1097–c. 1145), subsequently sent as a child to Antioch in 1106 in order to marry Tancred, Prince of Galilee. 16 While Philip and Florus would not prove a political threat to Louis VI, Cecile would become a significant figure in the Holy Land as Countess of Tripoli. Fulk V of Anjou, Bertrada’s son by Fulk IV, would become King of Jerusalem from [End Page 5] 1131 to his death in 1143. Bertrada’s grandson, Geoffrey of Anjou, married the Empress Matilda in 1128, creating Angevin control of the English crown. Urban II reportedly reasserted his excommunication of Philip and Bertrada when he travelled through Burgundy and France, including Clermont, to preach the First Crusade, in 1095. In 1100, a new pope, Paschal II, sent two cardinals to impose reforms at the Council of Poitiers, forcing Count William of Aquitaine, initially hostile to these measures, to submit to papal authority. In the meantime, Philip and Bertrada spent a fortnight at Sens in 1100, installing clergy loyal to themselves, to the consternation of Hugh of Flavigny, who was outraged by the behaviour of the king’s ‘Jezebel’, as he described her. 17 Only in 1104, did Pascal report to the archbishops of France that he had heard that Philip was prepared to renounce Bertrada, and that if this was the case and the king made a solemn oath to renounce sexual relations with her, and not to speak with her except in the company of trusted observers, then he might lift the king from interdict. Philip formally committed himself to these conditions in Paris on 2 (or 9) December 1104. 18 Neither Suger nor Orderic mentions the accusation made against Bertrada in the Gesta of the Counts of Anjou, written before the death of Fulk IV in 1109, that she was complicit in the unexpected death of Geoffrey Martel, the son of Ermengarde, in 1106. Its author believed (erroneously) that Fulk IV had dismissed Ermengarde because of Bertrada. By the 1150s, his hostile picture of Bertrada had been embellished with an additional passage, presented here in square brackets, excoriating her memory: The libidinous Fulk loved the sister of Amaury de Montfort, whom no good man ever praised apart from her beauty, because of whom he dismissed the mother of Martel. [This woman feared the stepson as an adult. Her infested mind could not be stilled with any moments of rest or vigils, scheming how she could bring harm to Martel. Often her colour was flushed, sometimes in a ceaselessly swift way, sometimes slow, a madness completely evident in her face and expression, and she gave instruction in evil deeds to those whom she bound to herself in many ways.] 19 [End Page 6] The original Gesta describes how Martel was unexpectedly killed at Candes (near Fontevraud) on 19 May 1106: … through the treachery of his own people and of his stepmother, with the complicity, as they say of his father. It seems incredible to me that a father would have consented to the death of such a great son, since he was very old and the son, if long life had been granted to him, would have recovered everything that he had lost. 20 While Orderic gives further detail about how Geoffrey Martel was shot by a crossbowman during negotiation of a truce, he says nothing about Bertrada’s complicity in his death. The fact that neither Orderic nor Suger repeats this accusation that she facilitated the rise to power of Fulk V suggests that both may have considered the claim excessive. II. Abelard’s Early Studies under Roscelin of Compiègne 1093–1100 The divisive character of Bertrada’s reign as Queen of France between 1092 and 1108 helps explain the turbulence of intellectual life in the schools both in the County of Anjou and in the royal domain during these years. While Abelard makes no explicit mention of Bertrada in the Historia calamitatum, his opposition to William of Champeaux, closely associated with Bertrada’s leading critic, Ivo of Chartres, implies that he was naturally sympathetic to the Queen. Not the least confusing part of Abelard’s narrative is the very brief statement he makes about his early studies before he came to Paris in around 1100: ‘I began to travel about in various provinces debating, like a true peripatetic philosopher, wherever I had heard there was a keen interest in this art.’ 21 This is a literary topos, used to describe how Robert of Arbrissel came from Brittany to study in Paris in the early 1080s by Baudri of Bourgueil, [End Page 7] writing soon after Robert’s death on 24 February 1116. 22 In fact, Roscelin of Compiègne says that Abelard was his student for a long time ‘from being a boy to a young man’, initially at Loches, palace of the Counts of Anjou, and then at Tours. 23 Loches was an important political centre of Fulk IV of Anjou, who must have offered Roscelin a position there after he had been accused of teaching heresy at the Council of Soissons (between 1090 and 1092), while teaching at a collegiate church in Beauvais. A charter refers to Roscelin and Nevelon of Compiègne as establishing a community of canons at Beauvais, at the request of a reforming bishop subsequently ousted by Fulco, a monk of Bec who sought to become its bishop. 24 The theological accusations against him seem to have been a way of deflecting criticisms made against Bishop Fulco. Roscelin surfaces briefly in the court of Odo of Bayeux on 7 May 1092, before visiting England and then moving to Anjou. 25 Given the recent death of Berengar of Tours (c. 999–1088), Fulk IV may have wished to promote an intellectual of comparable stature at Loches, in order to rival the monastic schools of Normandy. The young Abelard, whose father was Poitevin, arrived at Loches just as Roscelin was beginning to establish himself in a school directly under the patronage of the Count of Anjou, perhaps around the same time as Bertrada escaped from Fulk IV. Roscelin’s remark that he also taught the young Abelard at Tours implies that they moved from Loches, territory belonging to the Count, to Saint-Martin of Tours, an abbey firmly under royal control. At her marriage to Philip in September 1092, Bertrada received as a dower a significant part of the property of Saint-Martin, as we know from a legal dispute between [End Page 8] Saint-Martin and Fontevraud that developed after the death of Bertrada, who became a nun of the Order of Fontevraud after Philip’s death in 1108. Fontevraud’s claim to these lands was disputed by the canons of Tours. 26 Given this connection, Bertrada may have inspired both Roscelin and Abelard to move to the more prestigious location at Tours. By the late 1090s, Bertrada was also in a position to invite Abelard to Paris. Stephen de Garlande, a royal chaplain to Philip I in the 1090s was promoted to being one of the three archdeacons of Paris (not a rank of holy orders, like that of a subdeacon or deacon) by 1097. Whether Stephen or Bertrada was responsible for the invitation to Abelard to come to Paris, it seems no coincidence that Bertrada’s brother, William de Montfort, was then Bishop of Paris (1095–1101). 27 In 1101, Stephen’s brother, Gilbert Paien de Garlande, took over as seneschal (dapifer) or principal steward to the king from Guy le Rouge, Count of Rochefort, who had held that position 1091–1101. The rise to influence of Stephen and his brothers coincides with that of Bertrada. By 1104, Gilbert had been replaced as seneschal by his brother, Anselm de Garlande, whose daughter subsequently married Amaury III de Montfort, cementing their alliance to that powerful family. 28 By later in 1104, the de Garlande brothers were temporarily in retreat, as Guy le Rouge and then his son, Hugh de Crécy, held the post of seneschal from 1104 until 1107. This temporary decline in their influence seems linked to the appointment of Louis by Philip as rex designatus, by 1103. 29 In December 1104, a new Bishop of Paris forced Philip to renounce all carnal relations with Bertrada. Yet this situation did not last long. By 1105/6, Stephen had become royal chancellor. By 1108, Anselm de Garlande had resumed the post of seneschal, passing it on to his brother William (1118–20) and then to Stephen himself (1120–27). 30 Another brother, also called Gilbert, held the post of buticularius in 1108 and from 1112 until 1127, when all the brothers were temporarily ousted from court. 31 Stephen resumed his position as royal chancellor in 1132, holding it [End Page 9] to the death of Louis VI in 1137. As dean of Sainte-Geneviève from 1110/11 until his death (14 January, probably 1147), Stephen was well placed to invite Abelard to return to Paris in 1132/33 to resume teaching. 32 Abelard left Paris in 1137 precisely when Stephen finally retired as royal chancellor. The Historia calamitatum was written to provide consolation to an anonymous friend, clearly sympathetic to the cause of Stephen de Garlande, whose ascent to influence had begun when Bertrada de Montfort was at the height of her influence as Queen of France. Roscelin was still at Saint-Martin of Tours in 1111, according to an eloquently written charter that also mentions Hildebert of Lavardin, then Bishop of Le Mans, and other members of that abbey, including its magister scholae. 33 He is likely to be the Roscelinus grammaticus who bequeathed fourteen books to the Cathedral of Beauvais, including two works of Augustine, a Priscian, Macrobius, an Arithmetica and the De consolatione philosophiae, a Dialectica, Cicero’s De inventione, Vergil, Horace, Juvenal, Ovid, Statius, and a troparium, a book of chants, implying that he also had liturgical interests. 34 As successor to Berengar of Tours (who himself served both Fulk III and Fulk IV as Counts of Anjou), Roscelin emphasised the study of the liberal arts and their contribution to theology against what he saw as blind respect for ecclesiastical authority. By contrast, there were significant critics of Bertrada in Paris, most importantly William of Champeaux, who likely obtained his position at the cathedral school before the appointment of Stephen de Garlande as archdeacon in 1097. William may have been helped by Walerann, cantor of Notre-Dame, to whom Anselm of Canterbury wrote a supportive letter in 1092/93, just as Bec was trying to gain a foothold in the royal domain. Anselm also wrote to the Bishop of Paris, Godfrey de Boulogne, sending greeting to his friends [End Page 10] in the cathedral chapter. 35 William’s resentment was undoubtedly fuelled by Stephen’s rapid rise to influence during the time that Bertrada was queen. During the early twelfth century, Ivo considered Stephen to epitomise the worldliness of the secular clergy. Bertrada’s political influence in around 1100 is evident from an episode reported by Orderic Vitalis about her concern that Prince Louis, originally designated by Philip as his heir in 1098–1100, sought to join the court of Henry I in 1101. Louis was followed by an envoy of Bertrada who gave Henry a letter, purportedly from Philip, asking him to arrest Louis. Orderic claims that Bertrada sought to have her stepson poisoned, and he was only saved by a doctor versed in the medical skills of the heathen. 36 Yet by 1103, she had made peace with her stepson. 37 Bertrada’s diplomatic skills are also evident from the fact that she negotiated peace between Philip and the Count of Anjou. 38 Suger says nothing about the confrontation to government either of Bertrada or of the de Garlande brothers, who initially rose to influence during the time that she was Queen. Instead, he emphasises how Louis, as the legitimate son of Bertha, spent his early years under the tutelage of the monks of Saint-Denis. 39 Only with the advent of Galo as Bishop of Paris in 1104, would Bertrada’s influence fall into decline while that of William of Champeaux started to increase. Abelard identifies his problems beginning with the hostility of William and ‘the leaders among my fellow-students’, who resented the aggression of the newly arrived student. This provided the context for the beginning of Abelard’s career, moving outside Paris and thus the influence of William of Champeaux. 40 III. Melun as a Political Centre Abelard reports that he chose to move to Melun, located on the Seine some fifty-five kilometres south-east of Paris, because it was at the time an important royal residence: It eventually happened that, young as I was and estimating my capacities too highly for my years, I set my heart on running a school and providing a place in which I could do this, namely Melun, an important stronghold [End Page 11] at that time and a royal residence. My master suspected my intentions, and, in an attempt to remove my school as far as possible from his own, before I could leave him he secretly used every means he could to thwart my plans and keep me from the place I had chosen. But among the powers in the land he had several enemies, and these men helped me to obtain my desire. I also won considerable support simply through his unconcealed jealousy. 41 In his notes on this passage, David Luscombe does not offer any explanation as to why Abelard should have chosen Melun, other than claiming that Philip I and Louis VI used it as a centre for royal government, referring for further background to Bautier’s study. The wide range of locations where Philip and Louis delivered charters reveals, however, that while there was already a strong tendency to favour Paris in the later eleventh century, government was not yet centralised in any one place. 42 Melun was one of many royal palaces around the French kingdom, but it did provide easy access to both Paris and Orléans, an important base of French royal power for Philip I, while also being effectively remote from episcopal influence. Abelard’s move to Melun makes particular sense if he did so not in 1102 (the date proposed by Bautier), but in 1104, when Bishop Galo was appointed to the See of Paris after a protracted period of instability. After the death of William de Montfort in the Holy Land in 1102, there was no bishop in Paris until Ivo of Chartres supported the election of Fulco, canon of Senlis, a choice resisted by the archdeacons, Stephen de Garlande and Vulgrin. After Fulco’s sudden death, Pope Paschal II confirmed Galo (who had previously competed with Stephen de Garlande to become Bishop of Beauvais) as Bishop of Paris in April 1104. 43 In July 1104, there was an [End Page 12] ecclesiastical council at Beaugency, near Orléans, to force the king to submit to its authority. 44 Nothing happened, however, until December when Galo convened an important ecclesiastical council in Paris. The king was forced to take an oath that he would renounce sexual relations with Bertrada as well as ‘conversation and cohabitation’, except in the presence of approved witnesses. 45 Between 1104 and 1108, Philip issued charters on his own at Orléans (1105), Paris (1106), Poissy (1106), and then Paris again (1107). In October 1106, however, both Philip and Bertrada confirmed at Angers privileges issued previously by the late Geoffrey Martel, Bertrada’s stepson. 46 The young Fulk was also present at that event, which took place a few months after Geoffrey Martel’s unexpected death at Candes. 47 Given that Philip died at Melun on 29 July 1108, he likely based himself at Melun from 1104 in order to escape hostile ecclesiastical voices in Paris. Whether Bertrada stayed there during these years, or on her own estates, such as Haute-Bruyère or Tours, is not certain. Nonetheless, the fact that they both travelled to Angers in 1106 suggests that they did not feel constrained by ecclesiastical pressure against them. Abelard started a school at Melun just as the king transferred his court there to escape the influence of the Bishop of Paris. 48 He subsequently moved his school from Melun to Corbeil (perhaps around 1106/07), not because of any decline in de Garlande’s influence, but so that he could be closer to Paris. Corbeil was then under control of Count Eudes, an ally of Anselm de Garlande and an enemy of the son of Guy de Rochefort, Hugh de Crécy, seneschal for a short while (1107–08) before being ousted by Anselm. 49 [End Page 13] Abelard wanted to be closer to Paris so that he could engage more easily in disputation with students of William of Champeaux. 50 Abelard recalls that he was not at Corbeil for long when he fell ill through overwork and had to return to his home region: ‘for some years, being far from France, I was more keenly missed by those eager for instruction in dialectic.’ 51 If he returned to Paris in 1111 (rather than 1108, as Bautier imagined), then he might have left Corbeil in around 1107/08. William of Champeaux was then emerging as archdeacon of Paris, working closely with Bishop Galo in imposing various ecclesiastical reforms. 52 In April 1107, William worked with Galo in expelling nuns from the abbey of Saint-Eloi, adjacent to the royal palace on the Île-de-la-cité (a community that Philip I had previously sought to help). In May of that year, William and Galo both attended the Council of Troyes, convened by Paschal II so as to impose many reform measures on the clergy, relating not just to simony, but also to dress and moral behaviour. Also present at this assembly was Cono (also known as Conon or Cuno), founder of the Augustinian canons at Arrouaise, subsequently promoted by Paschal II to be Cardinal of Palestrina and papal legate throughout Gaul. William would become Cono’s adviser between 1113 and his death early in 1121. 53 Abelard’s decision to return to Brittany may be related, not so much to any [End Page 14] fall from grace of Stephen de Garlande, royal chancellor from 1105/06, but to the increasing influence in Paris of William of Champeaux as archdeacon. Because Joscelin of Vierzy figures prominently in the Vita Goswini (in which William of Champeaux is not mentioned) as a teacher in Paris during these years, it may be that Joscelin was the senior student of William entrusted with teaching dialectic at the cathedral school of Notre-Dame when William became archdeacon. We know that William established a replacement for himself at Notre-Dame when he moved to Saint-Victor. Quite possibly this was Joscelin, who emerges in 1115 as a teacher and archdeacon at Soissons, where he would subsequently become bishop. 54 The teaching of ‘magister G[aus].’ is regularly mentioned in records of dialectical teaching from this period, 1106–12. 55 IV. Bertrada and Fontevraud Philip I died at Melun on 29 July 1108. His body was then taken in solemn procession to the abbey of Fleury on the Loire, just outside Orléans. Suger reports a view that his decision not to be buried at Saint-Denis may have been due to a sense that he might not be given due respect there. 56 Ivo of Chartres and other leading bishops quickly consecrated Louis at Orléans to eliminate any potential challenge to his authority. It seems, however, that the de Garlande brothers had already effectively aligned themselves as supporting Louis VI even before Philip’s death. Bertrada turned to focus on her children, but continued to style herself ‘Queen of France’. 57 She is often mentioned as a witness in the Cartulary of Fontevraud, always with the title of Queen, between 1109 and 1115, sometimes in the company of her son Fulk V and occasionally also of her son Philip. 58 In 1112, Pope Callixtus II confirmed her possession of a newly established community at Haute-Bruyère, on [End Page 15] de Montfort lands in the diocese of Chartres. 59 The claim of a nineteenth-century history of Haute-Bruyère, that Bertrada had been a nun for four years at Fontevraud itself before moving, may be an invention. According to the second life of Andrew, she was enclosed as a nun at Haute-Bruyère, probably not before 1112. 60 The charters of Fontevraud certainly show that Bertrada was often present at the abbey in its early years, and so must have been on good terms with its first prioress, Hersende (d. c. 1115), who allowed Fontevraud to be built on her lands in around 1100. This was despite the criticism directed against Robert in around 1096/97 by Marbod of Rennes (then still functioning as archdeacon at Angers, in the service of Fulk IV), charging him with some undisclosed ‘sin’. Marbod reported rumours that Robert had been testing his chastity by sleeping adjacent to female disciples, whose guilt was evident from ‘the wailing of children’ kept by these women. Marbod’s use of the plural may be a coded way of referring to Robert’s particular friendship with Hersende (alongside whom he wished to be buried, according to a deathbed speech recorded by a disciple). As Werner Robl has observed, Hersende of Fontevraud, as sister of Count Hubert IV of Champagne, was related to some of the most powerful noble families of France and was a distant relation of Bertrada. 61 Robl has put forward a number of reasons (including the coincidence of the day of their deaths) for arguing that Hersende of Champagne was the mother of Heloise, and that she sent her daughter to Argenteuil in around 1100 when she herself became an enclosed nun at Fontevraud. It is impossible to either prove or disprove Robl’s suggestion that Heloise’s father might have been Robert of Arbrissel, whose sexual temptations are indirectly hinted at by Marbod in his letter to Robert from 1096. Nonetheless, Hersende was certainly related to Bouchard IV of Montmorency, traditional guardian of Argenteuil (whose family was remembered in the early seventeenth century as linked to that of [End Page 16] Heloise). 62 If Heloise was born out of wedlock, Hersende may have thought that Bertrada was in a good position to watch over the young Heloise at a royal abbey like Argenteuil, which catered for educating girls of noble birth. Bautier observes that the names of both Hersende and Heloise were relatively unusual at the time, but then tend to occur only in the region of Chartres. Helwise was also the name of the Countess of Evreux, by whom Bertrada was raised before becoming married to Fulk IV in 1092. 63 As widow of William of Montsoreau (d. c. 1087), Hersende belonged to the same social elite as Bertrada. Robert of Arbrissel reportedly attended the important reforming Council of Poitiers in 1100, where Philip was urged to repent of his ways, although the evidence here is not certain. 64 After 1104, Hersende was in a key position to persuade Bertrada to support Fontevraud and eventually join the order. After 1108, she reportedly continued to act closely with her brother, Amaury de Montfort, as if she retained a strong interest in public life. 65 Whatever the truth behind suspicions of her complicity in the death of Geoffrey Martel in 1106, Bertrada’s generosity towards Fontevraud and her establishment of a priory at Haute-Bruyère helped consolidate not just her own reputation, but also that of her son as Count of Anjou. Even if neither Orderic nor Suger mentions the suspicions raised by the Gesta of Anjou about her possible complicity in Geoffrey’s death, they do speak darkly about her political ambition. According to Andrew, the second biographer of Robert of Arbrissel, Bertrada was buried in the nave of Haute-Bruyère. 66 By September 1119, a protracted legal battle between Saint-Martin of Tours and Fontevraud over [End Page 17] the rights to the lands that she had been given by Philip I in 1095 led to Callixtus II settling the case in favour of Fontevraud. A month later, Louis VI settled affairs more in favour of Saint-Martin of Tours. 67 This legal dispute provides a background to Roscelin’s polemical letter to Peter Abelard, written c. 1119–20 in the wake of his castration (c. 1117) and relationship with Heloise. Besides taking issue with Abelard’s discussion of theological matters, Roscelin rebuked Abelard for supporting both Anselm of Bec and Robert of Arbrissel. 68 Abelard subsequently responded in a letter to the Bishop of Paris, in which he defended Robert of Arbrissel as an ‘outstanding teacher’. 69 Even if Bertrada’s critics doubted her motives, her support for Fontevraud suggests that she was as interested in developing new forms of religious life as she was in encouraging younger scholars, like Peter Abelard. Even if Stephen de Garlande originally rose to influence during the heyday of Bertrada’s influence, political ambition led him to work for her stepson, Louis, when he became royal chancellor in 1105/06. By 1110/11, he had become dean of Sainte-Geneviève, an appointment of great significance for the development of the Parisian schools on the land of a royal abbey that was outside the jurisdiction of the bishop. 70 The city of Paris was still in a militarily precarious situation. While Louis VI was holding court at Melun in March 1111, the Île-de-la-cité had been attacked by Norman forces led by Robert of Meulan, with bridges destroyed. 71 This event was decisive in making Louis VI much more aware of the strategic importance of Paris, because of its vulnerability to invasion from Normandy. It also seems to be the event that precipitated the expansion of two important abbeys on the Seine’s left bank, which would now compete with the cathedral school as educational centres, namely Sainte-Geneviève under Stephen de Garlande and Saint-Victor under William of Champeaux. Whereas the schools of Laon had been very much associated with the recovery of ecclesiastical authorities, the schools of Paris started to become more known by the second decade of the twelfth century as places for studying both reason and authority. [End Page 18] V. William of Champeaux, Saint-Victor, and the Debate on Universals Just as Bertrada resisted the authority of Ivo of Chartres, so Abelard challenged the views of William of Champeaux in the matter of universals, soon after William had established a community of canons regular at Saint-Victor. 72 If we follow the evidence of the letter of a German student, who wrote admiringly from Paris about his teacher in late 1111, this challenge happened only at Easter (2 April) of that year, not 1108 as traditionally claimed. The student describes William as then archdeacon and almost the most senior figure to the king, having given up everything he possessed, withdrew last Easter to a certain very poor church to serve God alone … And now he rules such a great school as much as in divine as in human disciplines in such a way that I have not seen nor have heard in any place. 73 The student’s presence at Saint-Victor signals the international character of William’s school, which was attracting notice in Germany as much as in France. Abelard reports that William then lost disciples, while William’s replacement at Notre-Dame offered Abelard his position. 74 Abelard likely underplays the extent to which William’s initial appointee may have been under pressure from within the cathedral chapter to cede his position, now that William of Champeaux was no longer one of its canons. William was apparently furious with his initial successor (perhaps Joscelin of Vierzy, subsequently Bishop of Soissons), and then installed another master with a minor reputation in teaching grammar, likely to be Goswin of Anchin. Abelard was forced to re-establish his school at Melun, but once William withdrew with his canons from Saint-Victor (early in 1112), he was invited to teach at Sainte-Geneviève. Goswin’s account of how he spurned Joscelin’s advice and challenged Abelard in debate at Sainte-Geneviève in 1112 is recorded in the Vita Goswini. 75 The absence of any mention of William of Champeaux in that account may be explained by the falling out between William and his initial replacement (Joscelin), mentioned by Abelard in the Historia calamitatum. Suger, also a friend of Joscelin, similarly never mentions William of Champeaux in his history of Louis VI. [End Page 19] William’s decision to move away from Saint-Victor to a location far from Paris was occasioned by suspicion about the sincerity of his religious conversion. While William of Champeaux resigned his position in the chapter of Notre-Dame at Easter 1111, he would not be replaced as one of the three archdeacons of Paris until May 1112. 76 A letter of Paschal II, issued at the Lateran Council in April 1112 in the presence of Adam, abbot of Saint-Denis, condemns an archdeacon W. of Paris, on the grounds that he had acted harshly against priests of Sainte-Geneviève and Saint-Rémy and had attacked privileges of Saint-Denis. 77 The abbey of Saint-Denis, traditionally loyal to the crown, had always expressed reserve towards the privileges of the Bishop of Paris. The edict implies that by 1112 Saint-Denis was joining Sainte-Geneviève in seeking to resist the extremism of some of William’s reforming measures. The charter reinforces what Abelard had to say relating to public suspicion about William of Champeaux, that ‘this religious life of his did not remove him from either the city (urbs) of Paris or his habitual study of philosophy’. These rumours eventually led to William removing himself and his community to a place far from the city (‘ad uillam quandam ab urbe remotam’) for a limited period. 78 Because Abelard reports that William of Champeaux did not remove himself from the urbs of Paris, it has been suggested that he might have first moved to another location elsewhere on the Île-de-la-cité, and only subsequently moved to Saint-Victor. 79 Luscombe rightly observes that a [End Page 20] much simpler resolution of the issue is to identify the monasterium mentioned by Abelard with the disused church of Saint-Victor, on the left bank, outside the civitas (or Île-de-la-cité), but still within the urbs, understood as the larger town of Paris. 80 On 18 April 1112, a charter was drawn up by Louis VI (with Stephen de Garlande as his chancellor) officially establishing an order of regular canons based around Puiseaux, some 163 kilometres south of Paris, roughly midway on the road towards Orléans. A nearly identical form of the charter was re-issued the following year, in June/July 1113, establishing the order not around Puiseaux, but around Saint-Victor. 81 The 1112 charter endowed Puiseaux with enormous wealth, transferred in the charter of 1113 to Saint-Victor, when Puiseaux became one of its many properties. If William officially became a regular canon at Saint-Victor at Easter 1111, but initially remained as archdeacon of Paris and as a teacher conducting a public school, there would have been suspicion about the sincerity of his conversion. William may well have been aware that Adam of Saint-Denis was seeking a papal rebuke for his behaviour in attacking both Saint-Denis and Sainte-Geneviève, both royal foundations outside the jurisdiction of the bishop. Only by resigning as archdeacon and physically moving his community could he clear himself of these accusations. According to Abelard, William of Champeaux returned with his community ‘to his former monastery’ (certainly Saint-Victor), probably late in 1112 or early in 1113. This precipitated the departure of his second replacement at Notre-Dame, Goswin, who subsequently became a monk at Anchin. 82 Abelard, still fresh from his time away from Paris in the Loire valley, launched into a further round of disputations with William of Champeaux and his students. Sometime during mid-1113, Abelard needed to return to Brittany because his mother, following his father, was preparing to enter religious life. It was during this period that William of Champeaux was appointed Bishop of Châlons, an event that took place most likely in June/July 1113. This laid the way for Abelard to take his students to Laon to engage in one further disputation, but now in the realm of divinity rather than dialectic. While Bertrada was no longer of political influence in the kingdom, her resistance to Ivo of Chartres provided a model for Abelard’s opposition to William of Champeaux. [End Page 21] VI. The Political Context to the Confrontation with Anselm of Laon Abelard’s account in the Historia calamitatum presents his encounter with Anselm of Laon as a confrontation with a widely celebrated teacher reliant more on authority than rational questioning. Like William of Champeaux, Anselm was close to Ivo of Chartres in resisting the claims of Bertrada to call herself Queen of France. While Abelard does not mention the dramatic events that had taken place at Laon the previous year, recounted in detail by Guibert of Nogent, his conflict with Anselm and his disciples had particular resonance in the light of broader political struggles between Normandy and France at this time. In 1112, Gaudry (Waldricus), Bishop of Laon, had been murdered in the course of a bloody suppression by the French king of a commune that had been established in the city. As a chaplain and then royal chancellor (1103–07) to Henry I, Gaudry had taken a leading part in Henry’s capture of Robert Duke of Normandy in 1106. 83 Guibert deplored the avarice of the archdeacons and clergy of Laon in hoping that they could profit from the wealth of the bishop, with the exception of master Anselm, who, he insists, had not favoured Gaudry’s appointment. 84 Anselm nonetheless travelled to England during the years 1108–09, when he reportedly became aware of Gaudry’s corruption. 85 This visit of Anselm to England was clearly important in attracting English students to Laon, including two sons of Ranulf, Gaudry’s successor as royal chancellor (1107–23) to Henry I. Their coming to Laon to study is mentioned by Hermann of Tournai in his account of the miracles of the Virgin of Laon, a narrative that describes how canons of Laon went from Dover to Bristol in 1113 to collect funds for the restoration of their church. 86 Hermann gives a similar report of Anselm’s reputation when the canons visited Salisbury. Two nephews of Bishop Roger of Salisbury trained in Laon before rising to positions of influence in England. 87 Hermann’s praise for Anselm of Laon, coupled with outrage at the murder of Bishop Gaudry [End Page 22] in 1112, reflects a political loyalty radically different from that of Abelard. Anselm’s expertise in patristic authority did not make any impression on Abelard, who had been trained under Roscelin at Loches and then Tours in the valley. Although Louis VI had initially supported the commune at Laon, his decision to enter the city in 1112, following Gaudry’s murder, marked a decisive effort to reassert French royal authority in the city. 88 Louis VI needed to assert his authority there as a message to Henry I to limit Norman incursions into the French royal domain. Gaudry’s murder offered an opportunity for Louis to reassert his influence. Stephen of Garlande originally wanted to become Bishop of Laon, but then put forward another candidate, the dean of Orléans, so that he himself could become dean at Orléans, as well as at Sainte-Geneviève. 89 After that candidate unexpectedly died, the canons chose Barthélemy de Joux (1113–51), who was more committed to ecclesiastical reform. 90 Abelard came to Laon with his students, perhaps around September/October 1113, at a politically charged moment when many students may have perceived Anselm of Laon (even if unfairly) as closely linked with the regime of Bishop Gaudry. The leading students of Anselm, Alberic of Reims and Lotulf of Novara, sought to maintain control of his school, and resented the way Abelard started to lecture on Scripture (the prophet Ezekiel) without the licentia of the master. 91 While Abelard explains this episode in the Historia calamitatum in terms of their jealousy of his genius, there were also larger political issues involved. Abelard articulated the desire of Stephen de Garlande to assert royal authority around Paris and also make it a centre for educational activity. Anselm was very much associated with respect for patristic authority, drawing extensively on the Fathers in his sentences on core themes of Scripture as well as in his glosses and commentaries. 92 Abelard, by contrast, emphasised applying philosophical categories to the themes of Scripture and to the Fathers, insisting he did not need to rely on any other authority. While William of Champeaux had greater expertise with dialectic and rhetoric than Anselm of Laon, Anselm’s [End Page 23] theological perspective was still fundamentally shaped by respect for the authority of the Fathers, above all Augustine. When Abelard was offered the position of running the cathedral school at Notre-Dame, Stephen de Garlande was playing a key role in consolidating the reputation of Paris as the leading place to pursue theological enquiry, challenging the dominance of Laon under master Anselm and his disciples. Stephen, with his connections to Orléans and the Loire valley, favoured the study of classical authors and the pursuit of reason, whereas Anselm focused on the study of patristic authority. With the support of Stephen, following in the wake of Bertrada, Abelard’s response was to create a theological system based on reason as much as a critical attitude to authority. VII. Adelard of Bath While Abelard himself informs us in detail about his career, our knowledge of Adelard of Bath derives largely from a few scattered comments in his writing. Yet it is noticeable that Adelard shared Abelard’s reserve towards Laon, while also deciding to pursue his initial studies at Tours. 93 In the De eodem et diverso, addressed to his nephew, Adelard constructs a dialogue that explores the relationship between Philosophia (as what is the same) and Philocosmia (what is different), who introduces each of the seven liberal arts. Roscelin of Compiègne had become notorious during the 1090s, at least in the eyes of St Anselm, for the way he explained identity and difference within dialectic. Adelard’s response to this debate was to move beyond a single discipline, and to see all the liberal arts as reflecting the multiplicity of the cosmos, with an underlying unity offered by Philosophy. Philosophia declares as part of her presentation of music: And lest the long-sought request for an example wear us out any longer, you may recall the occasion last year when you yourself in your studies in France were putting all your efforts in the same science of music, and a master of the science was present one evening with his pupils. These asked you – and the Queen herself asked you – to play the cittern. 94 Adelard recalls how in response a young child moved his hands and fingers to the music. Adelard here presents an image of Bertrada, possibly visiting her lands at Saint-Martin of Tours shortly after the death of Philip I, in a much more positive light than Suger or Orderic Vitalis, as patron of a gathering [End Page 24] involving teachers and students. This must have been before she became a nun of the Order of Fontevraud at Haute-Bruyère, by around 1112. Adelard prefaced the De eodem et diverso, written in the year following his time at Tours, with a letter of greeting to William of Syracuse (1105–24), ‘most learned in all the mathematical arts’, as well as a letter to his nephew, in which he declares that for two years he had been working quietly on this manual of the liberal arts. 95 He was critical, however, of Gallica studia, arguing that ‘what you will not learn among the Latins, eloquent Greece will teach you’. 96 In travelling to Salerno and Sicily via Tours, he was following the intellectual interests of his mentor, John de Villula (1088–1122), a royal physician who became Bishop of Bath and Wells. In his later Quaestiones naturales, Adelard declared that it had been seven years since he had dismissed his nephew with other students of his near Laon, so that they could pursue ‘Gallican studies’, while he sought to investigate ‘the studies of the Arabs’. Where he wrote the De eodem et diverso is not fully clear; it could have been in England, or in Sicily, in response to a complaint he had received from his nephew about his absence. 97 Lejbowicz plausibly proposes that Adelard went back to England after studying in Tours, Salerno, and Sicily before setting out again for the East, via Laon. 98 In any case, Adelard was in Mamistra in the Norman principality of Antioch at the time of a serious earthquake in the area, reported as taking place in 1114 by William of Tyre, who mentions great devastation in Mamistra in particular. 99 In getting to Antioch, Adelard was following in the footsteps of Bertrada’s daughter, Cecile, who had been sent out to Antioch in 1106 after Bohemund of Taranto (c. 1058–1111) returned from there between March and May 1106 in order to marry Constance, the daughter of Philip I and Bertha, at Chartres. 100 Bohemund’s plan was that Cecile should marry Tancred de Hauteville (1070/72–1112), who was governing Antioch in his absence. While Bohemund took the nine-year-old Cecile as far as Apulia, where he [End Page 25] remained, she was taken to Antioch to marry his nephew. 101 After Tancred’s death in 1112, Cecile married Pontius, Count of Tripoli, bringing an end to rivalry between the two cities. Adelard’s visit to the region of Antioch, sometime between 1110 and 1114 could well have been at the suggestion of Bertrada. Antioch had become a significant centre of translation of medical texts by the 1120s, in part through its close maritime connections with Pisa in this period. 102 While Abelard once dreamed about escaping to the lands of Islam in order to live a more peaceful life, he never made the actual journey made by Adelard. 103 Adelard’s comment in the Questiones naturales – that it was seven years since he had left his nephew and other students near Laon before going on to pursue the studies of the Arabs – introduces a sharp contrast between the type of education pursued by his nephew and by himself: For I have learnt one thing from my Arab masters, with reason as guide, but you another; you follow a halter, being enthralled by the picture of authority. For what else can authority be called other than a halter? As brute animals are led wherever one pleases by a halter, but do not know where or why they are led, and only follow the rope by which they are held, so the authority of written words leads not a few of you into danger, since you are enthralled and bound by brutish credulity. 104 This emphasis on reason rather than authority paradoxically parallels the concerns of Anselm of Canterbury to promote sola ratione in theological discourse. Adelard’s comments about his nephew and students preferring to follow authority rather than reason have particular relevance in the light of the strong connections between Laon and England during the years that Gaudry was Bishop of Laon, and the travels of canons of Laon to south west England in 1113, in the months following his murder. Adelard approached Laon but did not stay there, sharing a very similar reaction to Peter Abelard. By 1113, Anselm was an old man, and discipline in his school had been effectively taken over by his leading disciples. After Anselm’s death in 1117, Laon was no longer able to compete with Paris as an educational centre. In theology, Abelard promoted a style of enquiry that involved basing arguments on both authority and reason. Adelard, however, decided not to pursue theological [End Page 26] studies, but rather chose an alternative direction. Choosing to travel to Tours, he was following a similar trajectory to Abelard in his studies under Roscelin of Compiègne in the last decade of the eleventh century. Unlike Abelard, however, Adelard wanted to deepen his studies of the quadrivium by visiting the famous medical school at Salerno, where the translations of Constantine the African made from Arabic into Latin in the second half of the eleventh century were transforming medical knowledge. Adelard chose one way of pursuing the cause of reason, Abelard another. Thierry of Chartres, who attended the Council of Soissons in 1121 (where he was rebuked by his bishop for speaking out against the absurdity of the accusations being made), must have had close contact with Adelard of Bath because he owned some of his most important writings. By coincidence or not, Thierry of Chartres drew income from an archdeaconry at Dreux, not far from Haute-Bruyère. 105 Bertrada’s presence in the diocese of Chartres between 1112 and 1119 (at the latest) may have indirectly helped contribute to the expansion of interest there in the natural sciences, richly preserved in Thierry’s Heptateuchon, which includes a translation of Euclid from the Arabic for which Adelard was at least in part responsible. 106 Another regional coincidence is that William of Conches came from a town governed in the late eleventh century by Isabel of Conches, a daughter of Simon de Montfort and sister of Bertrada, described by Orderic as famous for fighting alongside her knights ‘like Penthesilea and the other warlike Amazon queens’. 107 The women of the de Montfort family challenge assumptions that they were passive victims of male political ambitions, whether aristocratic or clerical. Heloise’s decision to call her child Astralabe could have been influenced by her familiarity with scholars like William of Conches, perhaps mediated through Bertrada. Needless to say, Heloise echoed Bertrada in the independence of her spirit and her fascination with a rational approach to the world. Perhaps warned, however, by Hersende’s example, she was not keen on the ideal of marriage as the culmination of love. [End Page 27] VIII. Conclusion The Historia calamitatum offers a very partial vision of cultural politics in the first decades of the twelfth century, dominated by antagonism between the interests of Stephen of Garlande at Sainte-Geneviève, and William of Champeaux at Saint-Victor, two foundations that both started to occupy a crucial role in promoting Paris as an educational centre after 1111. It enables us to know much more about Abelard than about his close contemporary Adelard of Bath, both of whom spent time studying at Tours, where Bertrada de Montfort held significant lands. When Abelard was writing his Historia in around 1132, there was still acute tension between rival factions in Paris, conflict that came to a head in August 1133 with the murder of the prior of Saint-Victor by political allies of Stephen de Garlande. 108 Abelard’s hostility to William of Champeaux and Anselm of Laon cannot be interpreted simply in terms of his personality. His comments about other teachers must be understood as part of an ongoing political hostility between competing factions in which Stephen de Garlande and ecclesiastical reformers were important players. The roots of this hostility can be traced back to the controversial influence of Bertrada de Montfort, a dominant influence on the French court as Queen of France from 1092 to the death of Philip I on 29 July 1108. While many monks and ecclesiastical authorities excoriated her influence, she played an important role in promoting the rise of Stephen de Garlande and his brothers in the last years of the eleventh century. Abelard may have indirectly benefitted from her largesse prior to the death of Philip I. He started his career at Melun, probably in 1104, just when the king was being forced by the Bishop of Paris to renounce sexual relations with Bertrada. After this, the king retreated to Melun, where he died in 1108. Given the intensity of Norman incursions into the French royal domain over these years, culminating in the Norman sacking of the Île-de-la-cité in March 1111 while Louis VI was at Melun, it was not surprising that Louis VI should seek to reassert Paris as a political centre. The subsequent rebuilding of the abbeys of Sainte-Geneviève and Saint-Victor was part of that process of regeneration. Perhaps Bertrada’s biggest influence was in the challenge she presented to conventional morality. The rejection of authority by Abelard and Heloise during the years 1115–17 deserves to be seen as an echo of the way Philip and Bertrada rejected conventional authority between 1092 and 1108. Bertrada, who subsequently became abbess of her own foundation at Haute-Bruyère in [End Page 28] the diocese of Chartres, remained a controversial figure. Her support of the foundation of Fontevraud, established by Robert of Arbrissel and Hersende in around 1100, made possible an alternative vision of religious life from that pursued by William of Champeaux at Saint-Victor. Robert of Arbrissel would transform by 1100 from a preacher who was controversial for his intimacy with female disciples into the founder of a religious community closely tied to the house of Anjou. Hersende of Champagne, who gave Robert the land on which Fontevraud was built before she became a nun, may have sent the young Heloise to Argentueil in around 1100 in the hope she would be watched over by Bertrada, as well as by her uncle, Fulbert, at Notre-Dame. Yet Bertrada could not continue to live in Paris after 1104, with the advent of a reforming bishop. Her greatest influence would be in Anjou after the unexpected death of her stepson, Geoffrey Martel in 1106 (in which some accused both Fulk IV and Bertrada of being implicated), and the accession in 1109 of her son, Fulk V, as Count of Anjou, subsequently King of Jerusalem 1131–43. Adelard’s career took a different path from that of Abelard. While both disliked the emphasis on authority at Laon, Adelard focused much more on natural sciences. He initially pursued his studies in Tours, where he played the cithara in Bertrada’s presence (perhaps in 1108), before deciding to go to Salerno and then Sicily, following in the footsteps of his mentor, the physician and bishop, John of Tours. In later going to Antioch, Adelard was following in the footsteps of Bertrada’s daughter, Cecile, sent out to the Holy Land in 1106 to marry Tancred de Hauteville, regent of Antioch. By keeping away from theology, Adelard avoided the controversy that dogged Abelard. Witnessing a charter in the city of Bath in 1122, he may have become a royal servant. Much later in life, he would dedicate his treatise on the astralabe to the future Henry II, a great grandson of Bertrada through Geoffrey of Anjou, son of Fulk V. 109 Adelard’s contribution to learning was just as significant as that of Abelard, even if he ended up following a different network of cultural patronage in the first decades of the twelfth century. In their different ways, both Adelard and Abelard reflected a similar willingness to question authority as embodied by Bertrada, so as to place authority on a firmer, more rational foundation. [End Page 29] Constant J. Mews Constant J. Mews Constant J. Mews gained his BA and MA from the University of Auckland, New Zealand, and his DPhil from Oxford University. He is Professor within the School of Philosophical, Historical, and International Studies, Monash University where he is also Director of the Centre for Religious Studies. He has published widely on medieval thought, ethics, and religious culture, including Abelard and Heloise (Oxford University Press, 2005) and The Lost Love Letters of Heloise and Abelard: Perceptions of Dialogue in Twelfth-Century France, 2nd edn (Palgrave, 2008). He is currently working on the evolution of theology between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries. Footnotes 1. Bertrada’s exact dates are difficult to determine. Because her children were born between 1090/92 (Fulk) and 1097 (Cecile), she may have been born between 1065 and 1070. She died on 12 July according to the obituary of Argenteuil (a document that also remembered Peter Abelard as a monk and priest of Saint-Denis), sometime between 1115 and September 1119, when her will was contested (implying 1117 or 1118 is most likely). See A. Molinier, Obituaires de la Province de Sens, 4 vols (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1902–23), i .1 (1902), 348. Érik Bournazel (Louis VI le gros (Paris: Fayard, 2007), p. 109) assigns her death to 1115/16. For a useful bibliographical summary on Bertrada, see Kathleen Nolan, ‘The Tomb of Adelaide of Maurienne’, in Capetian Women, ed. Kathleen Nolan (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 45–76 (esp. pp. 68–69, nn. 53–56, which includes a discussion of the various dates given for her death). A detailed summary of the controversy surrounding Bertrada was first provided by Michel-Jean-Joseph Brial in 1816. See De repudiata a rege Philippo Berta et de superducta Bertrada Andegavensi, in Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, ed. Léopold Delisle, 19 vols (Paris: Victor Palmé, 1869–80) (hereafter RHGF), xvi (1878), xxviii–xciv; Brial edited many key sources relating to Bertrada in RHGF, xi–xv, reprinted in a new edition between 1876 and 1878. I am indebted to Max Lejbowicz for sharing his forthcoming study of Bertrada (see n. 6) and discussing many issues in this article. 2. Georges Duby, The Knight, the Lady, and the Priest: The Making of Modern Marriage in Medieval France (New York: Pantheon Books, 1983), pp. 3–21. 3. Suger, The Deeds of Louis the Fat, trans. Richard C. Cusimano and John Moorhead (Washington: Catholic University of America, 1992) (hereafter Suger, Deeds), pp. 61–62. For the Latin original, see Suger, Vie de Louis VI le gros, ed. Henri Waquet (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1964), c. 13, p. 82: ‘neque enim post superductam Andegavensem comitissam quicqum regia majestate dignum agebat, sed rapte conjugis raptus concupiscientia, voluptati sue satisfacere operam dabat.’ 4. Suger, Deeds, p. 81; Suger, Vie de Louis VI, c. 18, p. 122: ‘Mater etiam, his omnibus potentior viragoque faceta et eruditissima illius admirandi muliebris artificii, quo consueverunt audaces suis etiam lascessitos iniuriis maritos suppeditare.’ On this theme, see Katherine LoPrete, ‘Gendering Viragos: Medieval Perceptions of Powerful Women’, in Studies on Medieval and Early Modern Women, 4: Victims or viragos?, eds Christine Meek and Catherine Lawless (Dublin: Four Courts, 2005), pp. 17–38, with more detailed discussion of Bertrada on pp. 32–33. 5. The text of the oath is given in Le registre de Lambert, évêque d’Arras, ed. and trans. Claire Giordanengo (Paris: CNRS, 2007), pp. 242–47. On the ineffectiveness of ecclesiastical moves to censure Philip and Bertrada, see Bournazel, Louis VI, pp. 43–45; and on the contest between Galo and Stephen over the See of Beauvais, see ibid., pp. 73–77. 6. Max Lejbowicz, ‘Adelard cithariste et la reine musicophile’, Cahiers d’études médiévales et humanistes (forthcoming). See Adelard of Bath, De eodem et diverso, in Adelard of Bath: Conversations with his Nephew, ed. and trans. Charles Burnett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 52–53; a French translation and accompanying critical study of Burnett’s text is being prepared by Max Lejbowicz, Émilia Ndiaye, and Christiane Dussourt, ‘De eodem et diverso’, ‘Questiones naturales’, avec en complément, ‘Ut testatur Ergaphalau’ (Paris: Belles Lettres, 2015). 7. Peter Abelard, Letter 1 (Historia calamitatum), in The Letter Collection of Peter Abelard and Heloise, ed. David Luscombe (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2013), esp. pp. 14–19; this edition adopts with only minor changes the translation of Betty Radice, The Letters of Abelard and Heloise, ed. Michael Clanchy, rev. edn (London: Penguin, 2003). For further discussion of Luscombe’s edition, see Constant J. Mews, ‘Between Authenticity and Interpretation: On The Letter Collection of Peter Abelard and Heloise and the Epistolae duorum amantium’, Tijdschrift voor filosofie, 76 (2014), 823–42; and Sylvain Piron, ‘La “collection” des lettres d’Abélard et d’Héloïse’, Cahiers de civilization médiévale, 57 (2014), 337–42. The edition by Jacques Monfrin, Historia calamitatum (Paris: Vrin, 1978) still has its value. The present study builds on and corrects analysis originally offered in Constant J. Mews, The Lost Love Letters of Heloise and Abelard: Perceptions of Dialogue in Twelfth-Century France, 2nd edn (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 57–85. 8. Robert-Henri Bautier, ‘Paris au temps d’Abélard’, in Abélard en son temps, ed. Jean Jolivet (Paris: Belles Lettres, 1981), pp. 21–77; for a summary of Stephen’s career, see Jean Dufour, Recueil des actes de Louis VI roi de France (1108–1137), 4 vols (Paris: Boccard, 1992–94), iii	Peter Abelard
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Medieval Studies Notes Midterm File Size: 20 Views: 708 Related Textbooks: Advertisement Advertisement Feudalism: a complicated pattern of social, military, political, and psychological relationships• Manorialism (peasants): economic portion of feudalism where all aspects of life were centered on the manor• The lord provides land (fief) to his vassals in exchange for military service○ Tenant-in-chief (large land owners, related to king)○ Military aristocracy○ Feudalism• Abbot- ruler of monastery• Subinfeudation: the process• Homage ceremony: oath of fealty sworn by a vassal to his lord• Key to feudalism: military based• Military service (knight's fee) depends on amount of land Garrisons for the lord's castle: defend lord's castle Political counsel: when is it appropriate to go to war, who is the enemy… Legal judgments Financial aid Hospitality: itinerant (not stationary) structure-provide lord with food, shelter, women, etc Duties of a vassal:○ Military protection Provide his vassal with land Duties of a lord:○ Vassals later sent money (scutage) to lord rather than soldiers. Lord would use money to hire mercenaries ○ Feudal obligation lord and vassal• Primogeniture: eldest son of vassal would "inherit" the fief, but would be bound by same duties○ However, the lord could choose not to grant the fief to a deceased vassal's son○ Become a landless vassal of a more powerful lord Fight for land: contributes to violent society Marry a rich heiress Enter the church: happens a lot with young sons Other sons?○ Inheritance of fief (what happens when lord dies)• Responsible for entire household Responsible for military defense of castle when lord is away Wife of a lord○ She would have gained part of the fief as a dowry Remarry if her lord demanded it Maybe become a nun, might just live there□ Abbess□ "retire" to a convent Widow of a lord○ Could inherit land if there were no make heirs Used in political marriages Become a nun Daughter of a lord○ What about women?• Decrees, orders sent out by king○ Pope isn't too happy about this Bishops wealthiest, very powerful during this time○ Primary Sources Royal Writs• Social structure for peasants (serf)○ Peasant is not part of feudal system○ Primarily rural economy c. 1000 Manorialism• Medieval Social Structures c. 1000 Tuesday, January 19, 2010 9:40 AM Jan. 19- Page 1 Primarily rural economy c. 1000○ Society sustained by physical labor○ Peasant held a piece of land (≈1-10 acres) from a lord in exchange for labor services○ No military obligation to lord○ Lack of personal freedom○ Manor house or castle Village Church: parson's house Barn Oven: that everyone would use Water source Pasture Woodland Wasteland: hasn't been brought in cultivation Demesne land: reserved for lord□ Peasant holdings□ Arable (farmable) farmland Manor: entire estate under control of a single lord○ Farm his land Pay 1/10 (tithe) of his ag production to the village church and priest Pay tithe to lord to use oven, pond, mill, etc. Provide labor services to farm lord's demesne land, usually 2-3 days per week Female peasants responsible for household duties, used as servants in manor house Pay taxes and court fees Peasant obligations to lord and manor○ Provide land for farming, pasture, woodland Provide military protection Provide manorial court Obligation of lord to his peasants○ Protection□ Legal recourse□ Access to manorial which would normally be unaffordable□ Land was hereditary□ Benefits of the manorial system for a peasant Exploitation???○ Structure of manor• Hundred Rolls- surveys of land holdings and obligations taken in late 13th century England for taxation purposes  Source?○ Ecclesiastical tenant-in-chief What type of vassal is abbot of Peterborough?○ What are different types of tenants and obligations to lord?○ Description of Manor of Alwalton• shared Jan. 19- Page 2 Heavy plow (plough): more land being cultivated1. Faster harvesting Could ride it after Horse power: development of horse harness so horses could be used with a heavy plow2. 3-field (fallow) crop rotation: different types of crops could be planted (legumes) increases quality of soil and dietary nutrients in a person's diet 3. Assarting: clearing shrubbery of wasteland4. Specialization of labor (labour): not new just remerging5. Iron production: new mines opened up in northern Europe, made iron cheaper6. Before yr 1000: 6 triggers• Viking invasions of the 9th and early 10th centuries• Were settled in Northern France and England• Continues to sail the North and Baltic Seas, but as merchants rather than invaders• Exported slaves and furs from Scandinavia into northern Europe• Imported manufactured goods and silver from northern Europe• Sailed the Russian water system, reaching the Black Sea and Constantinople, and brought gold and some luxury items into the west (gold was a precious commodity) • Scandinavian merchants1. Islamic World (sea hadn't been safe before because of pirates now safe because taken back by Christian world) • Venice□ Genoa□ Pisa□ Italian Cities (trade cities):• Sicily and Spain • By the end of the 11th century the Mediterranean was safer for commerce throughout Christendom• Mediterranean Sea "The Highway of the Middle Ages"2. Latin Kingdoms in the East• The Crusades3. Imported ray wool from England□ Produced fine, richly-dyed cloths□ Exported them in all directions□ Situated on the Rhine for easy water transport to France and Germany□ Production and trade of woolen cloth• Landing area in Northern Europe• Trade fairs started by merchants meeting in the middle□ Money changers set up because of different currencies 6 fairs constantly on a cycle□ Still a lord over each town NEW Towns (burghs) emerge because of fairs; feudal lords set up little markets charging rent for booths □ Paris London Roman city-states□ Champagne (region of France) and Brie• Flanders (Flemish)4. Four important factors• A lord might encourage the younger sons of a peasant to become a skilled laborer and move to a city in the lord's fief by offering him more freedom • Peasant farmers whose land is near a city may choose to live in the city, but would still be part of the manor • Peasants recruited from the countryside○ Young noblemen or sons of the more prosperous peasant farmers could afford the capital needed to • Younger sons of noblemen○ Who settled in these cities?• Had bishops Revival of Commerce Thursday, January 21, 2010 9:42 AM Jan. 19- Page 3 Young noblemen or sons of the more prosperous peasant farmers could afford the capital needed to establish a lucrative mercantile business • If an unfree peasant escaped a manor and lived in a town for a year and a day without being caught, he would become free and be allowed to live in the town • Run-away serfs○ Foreign merchants and money changers○ Manorial lords had no understanding or concept of the problems and daily life of commercial men, such as regulations of wages and prices of commodities, etc • Skilled laborers needed autonomy in order to effectively run their business, particularly in fiscal and judicial affairs • As towns grew in size, wealth, and diversity of occupations, administrative problems appeared○ Freedom for all citizens□ Burgage tenure rather than physical labor□ Protection from land seizure by the lord□ Freedom from tolls and taxes□ Autonomous legal jurisdiction□ Provided by the lord for a hefty annual fee, they usually included the following privileges an liberties:• Foundation charters○ Achieving Independence• Mayor• Councils of aldermen• Because of new privileges, the need for town government and officials arose (either appointed by lord or elected by citizens) ○ These governing officials had the right to exercise "low justice" (petty crimes) while the lord retained the right over "high justice" ○ Attaining these rights and privileges were sometimes peaceful, and sometimes very violent○ Commune○ Civic Administration• Guibert of Nogent, abbot of Nogent-sous-Coucy. Famous for writing a history of the First Crusade. He was contemporary to the event he discusses. • This particular source is from his own autobiography, called the Monodiae, started in 1115. Autobiographies grew out of memoirs and confessions, and were not very common in this time period • Who wrote this source, and what type of source is it?○ Revolt of the townspeople of Laon, France, against their lord bishop for revoking the town's grant of privileges • Culminated in the murder of the Bishop by the citizens• What is the source about?○ Development of fairs□ Transition of rural economy to urban economy• What is the larger historical context of the source? Specific example of extreme case of violence from the towns people• Commune: a town has privileges and high justice, lord is no longer making all decisions• What is the specific historical significance of the source? The Communal Revolt at Laon• Financial and familial support• Education of members' sons• Guild would set the price and make sure everyone was selling at that price□ Quality control□ Secured a monopoly over the town's business- non members could not sell at retail in the town• Set the price and quality of the goods, as well as the methods of manufacturing• Organizations created by the citizens to serve the common interests of each occupation. Membership included: ○ By the end of the 12th century, every conceivable occupation had its own guild○ Guilds• Regulation of price and quality• What are some of the benefits of being a gildsman?○ Expensive• Why would someone choose not to join a guild?○ Primary Source Guild Organization• Jan. 19- Page 4 Expensive• Have to follow the rules• Self regulation of a group of people• Fraternities had a strong charitable element• Why would any civic government encourage the formation of guilds?○ Northern Italian cities□ Lombard League: 1167• Northern European cities in the Baltic region, developed out of the guilds in the cities□ Hanseatic League : Late 1100s in Lubeck• Revival of commerce and demand for goods created tension and competition between the major trade cities. Groups would band together as allies, called Leagues ○ Urban Leagues• Jan. 19- Page 5 Different secular rulers during this time period• Ring: symbolizing the bishop's marriage to his diocese Staff: representing his obligation to protect Christendom and lead his flock Investiture: the ceremony of investing a bishop with the symbols of his spiritual authority○ The power of investiture belonged to the church authority - either the pope or his legate○ The investiture contest (end of 11th century)• Layman: non specialized person○ Lay Investiture was when these symbols were bestowed on a bishop by a secular ruler, such as a king, emperor, or feudal lord• The ring and staff were the same symbols used when a king was in power: resulted in a lot of confusion with imagery• Every stage from the priests to bishops feudal lords are controlling them Feudal lords controlled appointments of parish priests and abbots of monasteries in their lands○ How to deliver Latin mass□ Deliver scripture□ Threat to the salvation of people's souls□ Problem: clergymen at every stage may not know basic things: Monasteries became "dumping grounds" for nobles and women who had worn out their political use○ Bishops had become important political and economic positions, and were usually granted to political allies of the king or em peror○ The 11th-century church• Vicar of Christ on earth, and feudal lord of the Papal States (strip of land in the middle of Italy)○ Holy Roman Empire supposedly started in 800 but it's not instead 962 when Otto I did things on behalf of the Pope and crowned emperor  The papacy had been struggling with secular rulers for centuries, but specifically with the Holy Roman Emperor since 962 (Cor onation of Otto I) ○ The papacy was primarily viewed as a political position by noble families in Rome who fought to control it and set up members of their own families ○ People are in awe of the supreme head of church Why did the papacy survive if it exercised little power outside of Italy, and had had a string of morally corrupt and bad pop es?○ The Pope• Might make someone bishop because they give the king a lot of money over someone who has less money Simony: named after Simon Magus, a New Testament figure who tried to buy the power of the Holy Spirit from Jesus' disciples○ Church never actively allowed it but they ignored it The son would want the money, power, and position just from inheritance□ A bishop might have a son and the inheritance causes issues Clerical marriage○ Lay investiture○ Three "evils" in the church• In 973 HRE was present day Germany, northern Italy, technically all of Italy is supposed to be under HRE○ Holy Roman Emperor (HRE)• Otto and his descendents ruled the HRE through the Church○ Invested bishops with land and jurisdictional autonomy from the local duke○ All ecclesiastical prelates were loyal to the emperor rather than the local duke○ Resulted in weak territorial dukes with a strong emperor (the exact opposite of what was happening in France -king was weak)○ Ottonian Empire• Theocratic rule: idea that the emperor was ordained by Pope through the God• Many 11th-century popes had come from the monastic reform movement that started in the 10th century in Germany and France○ Knew church needed to be reformed Horrified 3 men claimed to be pope and were fighting over it◊ He got rid of the 3 (which emperors don't usually get rid of popes) and got his own who crowned him emperor◊ 1046: king went to Rome to be crowned as emperor Incredibly religious/pious man□ Emperor Henry III (1039-1056) Relative of Henry III□ Simony was the #1 offender Hildebrand◊ Invest the cardinals with more power Wants to reform the church□ Canon Law 1046□ Excommunicate: leave the church□ Pope Leo IX (1049-1054) Pope Nicholas II (1059-61) Pope had to be elected: excluded the emperor□ Regents of Henry IV refused to accept the decree□ Robert Guiscard upheld the decree in exchange for land and title in Italy□ This caused a rupture between the papacy and the empire□ Election Decree of 1059 Gregorian Reform Movement (1049-1122):○ Reform and Rupture• Church vs. State Tuesday, January 26, 2010 9:40 AM Jan. 19- Page 6 Emperor Henry IV vs. Pope Gregory VII○ His rule was based on the control and investiture of bishops in Germany Raised in an anti-papal environment Emperor Henry IV (1084-1106) King of Germany from 1056○ Fanatic church reformer Canon Law: church law His election to the papacy was questionable Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085)○ Both men supported rival candidates Bishopric of Milan○ Dictatus Papae (1075)○ The Investiture Contest• Henry IV refused to obey the pope's decree○ What were the implications for this in a feudal society? Pope relied on the dukes for support while the king relied on the bishops□ Civil war broke out in Germany Henry realized he needed to be reinstated as king to stop the civil wars Gregory Vii excommunicated and deposed Henry of his kingship○ Excommunication and Deposition• While absolved of their feudal duties, the rebel dukes had elected a new king○ Gregory decided to support the rival king after he had absolved Henry IV and excommunicated and deposed him again in 1080○ Henry IV killed the rival king, denounced the pope as a usurper and then IVADED ITALY○ He set up an anti-pope in Rome who promptly crowned him emperor○ Escalation• Henry :when he came to power was to reduce the power of the pope and reduce his power Gregory: Cardinal, fanatic church reformer Who wrote these letters?○ Henry didn't receive land from Pope but from God He's telling the pope to go to Hell What does each letter say?○ What is the larger historical context of these letters?○ What is the specific historical significance of each letter?○ Primary Sources: Letters of Henry and Gregory and the Concordat of Worms• Jan. 19- Page 7 Jerusalem, Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli These kingdoms ruled by Latin Crusaders and bringing their French feudal structures• Constantly bringing more manpower and supplies to the East Engaging in trade Italian naval powers (Genoa, Venice, Pisa, etc.)○ Pilgrim Christians traveling to Holy Land since it's safer Military sent to protect pilgrims and kingdom Religious monks as knights□ Knights Templars Take care of sick Christian Pilgrims□ Gradually become a military order□ Knights Hospitallers Military orders○ Krak des Chevaliers Castles○ Defense of the Latin East• 1140s Latin Christians brought up in French feudal customs but have never been in the West• Latin Church in the East• Started attacking Christian cities Fall of Edessa very significant Zengi, the great Seljuk ruler of Mosul and Aleppo, captures Edessa in 1144○ A Second Crusade is called by the pope, but there was a cool response initially○ The beginnings of Islamic Reunification and Counteroffensive• Abbot of Clairvauz○ Doctor of the Church○ Preached the Second Crusade and developed Crusading ideology○ Preached Crusade against all infidels; not just those in the Holy Land. Pagans in the Baltic, etc.○ Fierce protector of the Jews○ Preached in favor of the knight's Templars○ Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)• Conrad III of Germany Louis VII of France Roger II of Sicily (only invaded Byzantine territory) didn't make it to Holy Land Royalty goes on crusade○ Louis VII reached Antioch safely by sea, but had to abandon Crusade without Conrad and Roger Crusade failed- Conrad fell ill in Constantinople○ The Second Crusade (1145-48)• They failed, ruining and alliance between Damascus and Franks Damascus turned to Nur al-Din (Zengi's successor) for help in 1154, unifying the Seljuk Turks in Syria In 1160, Nur al-Din invaded Egypt, and left his general, Saladin, to administer Egypt under the Fatiid Dynasty Why was Egypt integral to any Islamic counteroffensive? Naval power, location Wealth of resources, access south Latin rulers attack Damascus in 1148○ The Muslim World United• Curtish general Within two years, he deposed the Gatimid Dynasty, reinstated Sunni Islam and was the sole ruler of the Nevance (Holy Land) after Nur al-Din's deth in 1147 ○ Saladin• The relationship between the rulers of the Latin Kingdoms of Jerusalem and the Byzantine emperors were strained at best, and outright hostile at times  The pope and the secular rulers in the west were too busy with their own internal problems Saladin re-captured Jerusalem in 1187 As Saladin unified the Muslim World, Christendom was experiencing its own internal problems○ Battle of Hattin• Pope Urban III dropped dead when he heard the news His successor immediately called for a crusade The loss of Jerusalem to Saladin sent chock waves through the West○ The Third Crusade• Crusader Kingdoms Thursday, February 04, 2010 9:38 AM Jan. 19- Page 8 His successor immediately called for a crusade Philip Augustus of France□ Richard the Lionhearted of England□ Threatened the rules of France England with excommunication if they refused to go Kings of France and England were at war. They refuse to go without each other (nor would either man allow the other to go without him). ○ Frederick I Barbarossa Holy Roman Emperor• Died on crusade• Led exclusively by monarchs○ French and English kings taxed their subjects to raise funds ( Saladin Tithe 1188)○ How was the Third Crusade different?• Journeyed to the east by sea, avoiding Constantinople and Asia Minor, and landing directly in Palestine• Ten-year treaty signed in 1192○ Christians held the coast from Tyre to Jaffa, but not Jerusalem○ Extensive diplomatic relations between Saladin and Richard the Lionhearted• 1199-Group of French Nobles decide to go no Crusade○ Sent an envoy of 6 men to negotiate transportation Doge of Venice- Enrico Dandolo About 9,000 knights with their horses□ Fleet to transport 33,500 crusaders Pledge an additional 50 armed ships They turned to Venice for transportation○ The crusaders would pay 85,000 marks of silver The Venetians would share command, as well as the spoils of war What was in it for Venice?○ Planned to sail to Egypt Departure date was set for June 1202○ The Fourth Crusade (1204)• Only a fraction of the crusaders showed up in Venice in 12021. Crusaders only had one third of the money owed to Venice2. Invasion of the city Zara (Dalmatian Coast)3. Attacked anyway and were excommunicated Pope Innocent III forbade the attack on Sara (controversial)4. Place Greek Church in obedience to Rome (Schism 1054)□ Provide 10,000 soldiers for the crusade to Egypt□ Maintain 500 knights in the Holy Land□ Pay the crusaders 200,000 silver marks□ Promise of Alexius: In exchange, they had to bring him to Constantinople as king Alliance with Alexius Angelus (Byzantine prince)5. While stopped at the island of Corfu, war broke out between the local Greeks and the Venetians6. The crusaders arrived at Constantinople and after some minor skirmishes placed Alexius on the imperial throne7. The crusaders received enough money to pay the Venetians8. Alexius was confiscating property and jewels from those suspected of plotting against him, confiscated precious items from churches, and resorted to "grave robbing" the tombs of the Emperors.  The city was open to the crusaders, whose presence was causing tension and unrest The citizens deposed the emperor and set up a new one Citizens of Constantinople grew angry:9. A Series of Unfortunate Events…• The catastrophe of the Fourth Crusade ○ Latin Empire of Constantinople• Jan. 19- Page 9 Monks and scriptorium○ Important centers of education○ Copying scripture Liturgical texts Repositories of knowledge which contribute to a spiritual continuum ○ Little or no focus on comprehension of theology or doctrine○ People abandoning children at a monastery Child oblation: a child would be dedicated to the monastery, could arrive at the monastery as little children○ Holy Scripture○ Monasteries1. Leaning philosophy and theology○ Secular: not in a monastery still religious education○ Provided basic education: literacy, rhetoric; useful for training priests and administrators Difficult to detect before 1100, but we know they existed in areas such as Paris, Chartres, Laon, Rheims, the German Rhineland, as well as Italy ○ Non-monastic Cathedral Schools "secular"2. Abelard and Heloise○ Royal and feudal○ Private tutoring3. Theology Before 1100 Berengar was at the Cathedral School of Chartres○ Bec Abbey was a Benedictine monastery in Normandy○ Eucharist: the offering they would take in communion with Christ; take with bread and the wine: idea that they became the body and blood of Christ  Huge debate! Lanfranc wins Secular vs Monastic So, it is still bread and wine and not literally the body and blood of Christ Despite Berengar's defeat, his method of using logical deduction to dissect the Trinity started to be used elsewhere in the 1080s  Debate over the Eucharist (transubstantiation)○ Decline in child oblations to monasteries More coinage in circulation to pay for an education By the early 1100s, Paris was famous for many secular schools detached from cathedrals Shift in focus from monastic to secular education c.1100○ Berengar of Tours and Lanfranc, abbot of Bec• Pupil-Teacher-Master○ There were no defined systems of courses or qualifications○ Starving philosopher (starving artist)◊ He renounced his inheritance and became a peripatetic or "wandering student" Obsession with becoming the "ideal philosopher" Career of Peter Abelard□ Example: Most schools did not offer high-level specialization○ School in Italy focused on law○ Grammar□ Rhetoric□ Logic (dialectic)□ Tritium: (MAIN FOCUS) Geometry□ Arithmetic□ Music□ Astronomy□ Quadrivium: Seven Liberal Arts○ Secular School Structure• Education Before 1100 Tuesday, February 09, 2010 9:38 AM Jan. 19- Page 10 Learning nominalism○ Studied at the Notre Dame Cathedral○ Abelard, 17 or 18, famously defeated William in a debate concerning nominalism vs realism Had many enemies and not humble□ According to Abelard, his superior intellect and dialectic ability attracted admirers, but more rivals who were jealous of him  Became a pupil of the master William of Champeaux○ Abelard in Paris• Established his own school○ His school was at Melun, then moved to Corbeil, where he could better "embarrass" William, his former master○ Anselm expelled him from the city after Abelard challenged his position He returned to Paris, and became a famous teacher, garnering international fame He went to study Holy Scripture at Laon, under the Master Anselm of Laon○ Abelard in Melun and Corbeil• He was hired as her private tutor by her uncle Fulbert○ Named their child Astrolabe Puts her with some nuns so they have him castrated Sex scandal, pregnancy, secret marriage (the ideal philosopher image would be in jeopardy), castration○ He joined the monastery of Saint Denis, France c.1118○ Condemned in 1121 and 1141 Attempts were made on his life by fellow monks Bernard of Clairvaux had become his biggest enemy Monastic Life and his works:○ Abelard and Heloise• Jan. 19- Page 11 Ancient philosophical concepts: Philosophical study of the nature of being or existence○ Ontology• Universals are the concepts or characteristics that can be shared by more than one entity○ The problem of Universals: Do they exist?• Platonic Realism argues for the existence of universals○ Nominalism denies the existence of universals, and abstract terms exist only post res○ Nominalism vs Realism• 12th century Christian theologians applied philosophical concepts of universals to prove the existence of God○ No one denied the existence of God, but rather argued about how one could prove his existence ○ Revealed Exegesis Rational Exegesis God--son and the Holy Spirit Biblical Exegesis○ Ontological Argument• All wisdom must begin with faith○ Literal interpretation of the Bible (revealed Exegesis)○ Credo ut intelligam "I believe so that I might understand"○ St Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury• "Father of scholasticism" Archbishop of Canterbury St Anslem Who is the author?○ One must have faith in order to understand that God exists This document is Anslem argument for the existence of God What does the document say/argue?○ Hence there is no doubt that there exists a being that which nothing greater can be conceived and exists both in the understanding and in reality  Choose a direct quote and identify the main argument.○ Theologians trying to become the ideal philosopher by discussing methods and concepts while still sticking with their Christian roots  What is the larger historical context of the document?○ Primary Source pp. 143-45• Applied reason to conflicting authorities Nominalist view of the existence of God (Rational Exegesis) Doubt-Inquiry-Truth Sic et Non (yes and no): theological works○ "Assiduous and grequent questioning is indeed the first key to wisdom"○ Peter Abelard• Abelard Who is the author?○ If one takes a literal translation of the Bible this could be dangerous What does the document say/argue?○ Choose a direct quote and identify the main argument○ What is the larger historical context of the document?○ Primary Source pp.151-55• Fiercely opposed Abelard's methodology (refers to it as stultology)○ He had Abelard condemned in 1121, and again in 1141○ "They doubt of everything, and know nothing"○ "Faith is not an opinion, but a certitude"○ Bernard of Clairvaux: main enemy of Abelard• Benedictine○ Cluniacs○ Founded in 1098 at Cîteaux Adhered more strictly to the Rule of St Benedict Refused gifts or land except for wasteland Cistercians○ The New Orders• Religious Thought in the 12th Century Thursday, February 11, 2010 9:39 AM Jan. 19- Page 12 Refused gifts or land except for wasteland Did not use peasant labor-they farmed the land themselves Monks□ Lay brethren Gave illiterate peasants a way to enter into the church□ Impact on society Hermits that would go and hide themselves from the world and worship God Combined both eremetical and cenobital life○ Founded in 1084○ Augustinian Canons Followerd their own rule, called the Statutes○ Secular priests living at Cathedrals○ Followed the Rule of St Augustine○ All canons had to be ordained priests○ Carthusians "Charterhouse"• Closer relationship between religious men and society Canons regularly served in churches, schools and hospitals, focus on serving God by serving society Ecclesiastical Organization○ More personal relationship with God Biblical figures are "humanized" Focus on marrying the mother of God as a way to God□ A lot more nunneries□ Marian Devotion Changes in Spirituality○ Impact on Society• Jan. 19- Page 13 Literature written in the cultural language spoken (non-Latin)○ Vernacular literature• Beowulf Anglo-saxon (Old English)○ Runes Old Norse in Scandinavia○ Hebrew○ Examples of vernacular languages that already had a literary tradition by 1000:• Intended for oral performance by jongleurs□ Chanson de geste- "songs of heroic deeds" (11th century) The Song of Roland (12th century) Languedoc (Occitania) in Southern France had a strong and distinct cultural identity Troubadours (poet musicians)□ Langue d'oïl (Northern France) Trouvères□ Lyric Poetry Trouvère from Troyes Served at the court of Marie de France, Countess of Champagne, daughter of Eleanor of Aguitaine  Arthurian and Holy Grail legends Chrètien de Troyes□ Romances Old French○ Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival Mythological and heroic tradition□ Anonymous Nibelungenlied German○ Eleanor of Aquitaine Marie de France Courtly Love○ Vernacular literature after 1000• Old French; chanson de geste What type of literature is this and in what language was it written?○ Charlemagne; emperor in 800 Christian Basques attacked Charlemagne's army unexpectedly What time period and event is discussed?○ The warrior: brave, honorable, strong knight What aspect of medieval society does this story glorify?○ To flee from battle would be dishonorable Give a specific example from the text and explain.○ Primary Source• Literature Tuesday, February 16, 2010 9:39 AM Jan. 19- Page 14 Ancient Greek scientific○ Over the course of the 12th century, Western Christian scholars gained access to texts that had been translated into Latin for the first time • Greek Philosopher (384-322 B.C.)○ Between 750 and 1000 all of his works were translated from Greek into Arabic○ Aristotle: The Philosopher• Persian scholar famous for his treatises on medicine○ Wrote the Canon of Medicine○ His universalist approach to creation conflicted with orthodox Islam○ Avicenna (Ibn Sina 980-1037)• Jewish Talmudic scholar born in Córdoba, Spain○ Scriptural interpretation was criticized by conservative rabbis○ Maimonides (Moses ben Maimun 1135-1204)• Philosopher from Córdoba, Spain○ He wanted to present pure Aristotle doctrine without any corruptions○ Averroes (Ibn Rushd d.1198)• Center of translation movement○ All of Aristotle's texts came equipped with Jewish and Arabic commentaries○ Toledo, Spain• Latin with Greek commentary○ Aristotle's Libri Naturales• The Qu'ran was first translated into Latin in 1142, commissioned by Peter the Venerable○ Qu'ran• Translations Thursday, February 18, 2010 9:58 AM Jan. 19- Page 15 England 1100-1215 Normandy was held by Robert, Brother of William II (sons of William the Conqueror)○ Territory of the English kings 1066-1100• Increased the power of the royal government in England○ Financial Administration○ Itinerant (traveled around) Chamberlain Barons of the Exchequer (royal finances) Sheriffs paid a "farm" for their shire, or county, twice a year Pipe roll: written documents Established a permanent treasury at Winchester○ Judge and jury Royal justices who traveled England to hear please of the crown (more serious criminal offences) Reduced the power of barons who also held office of sheriff, and often replaced them with men with lesser status, and owed their success directly to the king  Legal Administration○ Henry I (1100-35) Plantagenet• Henry I died with no legitimate male heir, but compelled his barons to pledge allegiance to his daughter. Matilda (married to the count of Anjou) ○ Henry's nephew, Stephen, count of Boulongne, hastened to England to claim the throne○ Civil war broke out when Matilda invaded England while her husband invaded Normandy○ Barons took advantage of the civil war by "selling" their allegiance to the highest bidder○ a sign of weak rule in England Castles were built illegally throughout England○ King Stephen (1135-54)• Written under Alfred the Great□ Meant as a history of Anglo-Saxon England□ Earliest 80 b.c.-9th century (written)□ Added to up until 1154□ Anglo-saxon chronicle Annals (year by year register of events) of England's history What is the name of this source, and what type of source is it?○ 1135-54 Stephen I England Whose reign, time period, and region does it describe?○ Henry I died without male heir creating a situation where a female was the king of England and a male relative wanted to take over the crown and civil war broke out  What is the larger historical context?○ At any given time these barons are committing treason Torture and starvation□ It gives us a window during 12th century society during the Civil War The church was even suffering during this time period What is the specific historical significance of the excerpt? Give an Example and explain.○ Primary Source pp.202-03 Section on Stephen I• One of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle manuscripts○ One of the earliest examples of Middle English○ Peterborough Chronicle• Civil war ended when Stephen made an agreement with Henry, Matilda's son○ Henry would become king upon Stephen's death○ Duke of Anjou○ Duke of Normandy since his father invaded Normandy○ King of England○ Duke of Aquitaine Henry II (1154-89) Angevin Kings• Government Feudal Monarchies Tuesday, February 23, 2010 9:43 AM Jan. 19- Page 16 Inspired troubadours and courtly love□ Very powerful woman At 15 duchess of Aquitaine and Countess of Poitiers in her own right□ Queen consort of France (1137-52)□ Went on crusade with Louis VII□ Had many love affairs Gave birth to 2 daughters: she was blamed for it They claimed they should have never been married in the first place because they were too closely related  Divorced Louis□ Queen consort of England (1154-89)□ Queen mother of two future English kings (Richard and John)□ Impressive resume: married two kings and mother of two kings□ Married Eleanor of Aquitaine before he became king (1122-1204) Duke of Aquitaine○ Territories expanded dramatically with Henry II○ All of the territories is held as the vassals of the king○ Angevin Empire Henry II 1154-1189• Most important English king○ Destroyed or seized illegal castles Extracted a lot of money from his vassals minimum of 100 pounds (inheritance fee)□ Imposed fines on marriages of both sons and daughters of barons Collected scutage (money payment instead of providing knights) from English barons to pay for wars in France  Tried to increase feudal services while reducing the barons' control over legal jurisdiction Wanted to decrease feudal authority of barons won during the civil wars○ England under Henry II• Divided up into counties (main jurisdictional union ex. our states) 5 or 6 "hundreds" in every county 12 men from each "hundred" (or 4 from each town) were required to report any violation of the law □ A person could be brought before the court even if the person harmed did not report it□ Thrown into a blessed lake Bound with heavy boulder If you sank, it meant you were innocent; if you floated and rejected you were guilty (holy water rejected you)  Suspect would be tried by ordeal by water□ The 12 men had to report the crime Improved public order□ Increased royal revenues (fines and confiscated properties of the accused or convicted)□ Juries Common Law○ If a baron was forcibly ejected from his land by another baron, he could appeal to the royal official, who would order the local sheriff to look into the situation □ Regardless of the outcome, the king collected a fine□ Cases heard in local feudal court Land dispute between two vassals of the same lord□ Case heard in the county court Land dispute between two vassals with different lords□ Trial by battle would settle the dispute□ Grand Assize introduced by Henry II□ Defendant could decline battle and purchase a royal writ ordering the local sheriff to gather 24 knights who would swear by oath whose claim to the land was just □ Property possession was placed under the protection of his courts Litigants in feudal court could purchase writes that would transfer their case to the royal court□ Increased royal revenues and power, decreased baronial power Appeals and the beginnings of common law Civil Law○ Royal Courts Common and Civil Law• Jan. 19- Page 17 Litigants in feudal court could purchase writes that would transfer their case to the royal court Increased royal revenues and power, decreased baronial power□ Family had been noble but became more mercantile□ Very wealthy□ Well connected□ Son of a London noble mercantile family Received an education at Merton Priory Studied in Paris, Bologna, and Auxerre Personal priest□ Advisor in personal and royal matters□ Wenching□ Henry II appointed him Lord Chancellor in 1155 (keeper of the royal seal and royal chaplain and advisory)  Only Pope is above him□ Henry appointed him Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Becket○ Developed a famous friendship Bishops had to do fealty to the king□ Any English ecclesiastic had to ask the king's permission before appealing to Rome for any reason □ Clerics convicted of a serious crime had to be handed over to the royal courts for sentencing□ Constitutions of Clarendon (1164) Became a monk□ Thomas refused to accept these terms and had to flee England Thomas and Henry○ Murdered in a church at the alter□ After returning to England he was murdered by 4 of the king's men Eluded to the murder but didn't order it□ Henry II's role in the murder remains vague, but he was forced to do penance for it Murder of Thomas Becket (1170)○ Becket The lion in winter Movies:○ Henry II and the Church• Spent about 6 months in England out of a 10 year reign Rarely went to England○ Before the death of his father (Henry II), he supported the king of France against him○ Went on the Third Crusade○ Made the peace treaty with Saladin○ Richard I (1189-99) The Lionheart• He was responsible for his brother's ransom and placed England in a huge debt Increased taxes to pay for wars Tightened feudal obligations Lost nearly all of the crown's French lands Least popular king in English history○ Lost a bitter dispute against Pope Innocent III concerning the archbishopric of Canterbury (1208-13)○ Marriage□ Baptism□ Funeral rights□ The region and everyone in it is denied the sacraments Interdict○ Casting out of church until they make amends If you die, you'll go to hell Excommunicate○ Drawn up by 25 Barons King John had to sign Magna Carta (1215)- limited monarchy○ King John (1199-1216)• When was this charter drawn up, and who was it between? Primary Source Magna Carta pp.252-5• Jan. 19- Page 18 John and 25 Barons, 1215 When was this charter drawn up, and who was it between?○ English Church will be free1. Feudal obligations2. Legal or justice system (#17 or 18)3. What are the three main issues that the charter addresses?○ Chose which of these issues is in this excerpt and explain.○ An example of barons, or feudal nobles, and limiting the power of their monarch What is the specific historical significance of this document?○ Jan. 19- Page 19 Started out in the 3rd and 4th century○ Gathered together a bunch of old laws Made in 438 by Theodosius II○ Did same thing as Theodosius II Justinian 540s○ Digest Collection of commentaries on Roman Law In 1070○ Posing a rhetorical question about the law to make someone try to think differently about the law□ Quaestio Take a text of the law written with Irnerius commentary of the law□ Glossing Irnerius: helped his students learn the law with his methods○ Used Roman Law more than a lot of rulers to emphasize he was Roman Frederick Barbarossa○ Roger II○ Alfonso X○ Marked the end of trial by combat 1215 IV Lateran○ Roman Law• Medieval origins○ Talked about church and church law but wasn't official Issued by people who were experts in law Decreta○ Made the Pope the emperor of the church Gratian 1140○ Started to adopt trial by jury Allowed Pope to practice his thought of Pope the supreme beurocracy Mid 12th century□ Pope Alexander III Merging of Roman and Canon Law○ Council can unseat a Pope□ Conciliarism What happens if you needed to get rid of a Pope?○ Canon Law• Roman Law and Canon Law Thursday, February 25, 2010 10:05 AM Jan. 19- Page 20 Words From Our Students "StudyBlue is great for studying. I love the study guides, flashcards and quizzes. So extremely helpful for all of my classes!" Alice , Arizona State University "I'm a student using StudyBlue, and I can 100% say that it helps me so much. Study materials for almost every subject in school are available in StudyBlue. It is so helpful for my education!" Tim , University of Florida "StudyBlue provides way more features than other studying apps, and thus allows me to learn very quickly!??I actually feel much more comfortable taking my exams after I study with this app. It's amazing!" Jennifer , Rutgers University "I love flashcards but carrying around physical flashcards is cumbersome and simply outdated. StudyBlue is exactly what I was looking for!" Justin , LSU	i don't know
In which US city doe the American Football team known as the 'Raiders' play their home games?	Oakland Raiders \| American Football Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia a.k.a. Network Associates Coliseum (1999-2004) a.k.a. McAfee Coliseum (2004-2008) The Oakland Raiders are a professional American football team based in Oakland, California. They currently play in the Western Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Raiders began play in the American Football League (AFL) in 1960 and joined the NFL in the AFL–NFL merger of 1970. The Raiders were formed in 1960, taking a spot in the newly formed AFL that had been vacated when the yet-unnamed Minneapolis franchise reneged on its agreement with the AFL and joined the NFL in one of many failed tactics by the old league to undermine the success of the AFL. The city of Oakland was granted their position in the league and inherited their inaugural draft selections, and the Raiders began play in the 1960 American Football League season . The team relocated to Los Angeles for thirteen seasons, 1982 to 1994. They returned to Oakland in 1995. During their first three seasons, the Raiders struggled both on and off the field. In 1963, Al Davis was brought to the team as head coach and general manager, and from 1963 until 2002 the team had only seven losing seasons. As members of the AFL they won one league championship (1967), three division titles (1967, 1968, 1969), and appeared in one Super Bowl ( II ). Since joining the NFL when the leagues merged in 1970, the Raiders have won twelve division titles, three Super Bowls ( XI , XV , XVIII ), and one other conference title (winning the AFC before losing in Super Bowl XXXVII ). Thirteen former players have been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame . Contents Edit Having enjoyed a successful collegiate coaching career during the 1950's, San Francisco native Eddie Erdelatz was hired as the Raiders first head coach. On February 9, 1960, after previously rejecting offers from the NFL's Washington Redskins and the AFL's Los Angeles Chargers , Erdelatz accepted the Oakland Raiders head coaching position. In January 1960, the Raiders, originally scheduled to play in Minnesota, was the last team of eight in the new American Football League to select players, thus relegated to the remaining talent available. The 1960 Raiders 42-man roster included 28 rookies and only 14 veterans. Among the Raiders rookies were future Pro Football Hall of Fame inductee center Jim Otto , and a future Raiders head coach, quarterback Tom Flores . In their 1960 debut year under Erdelatz the Raiders finished their first campaign with a 6–8 record. While off the field, Erdelatz battled an ulcer caused by numerous conflicts with the team's front office. Ownership conflicts prevented the team from signing any top draft picks the next season. On September 18, 1961 Erdelatz was dismissed after being outscored 99-0 in the first two games of the Raiders 1961 season . Erdelatz left football in May 1962, accepting an executive position with a California financial institution. On October 27, 1966, after a routine physical, he underwent surgery to remove a malignant tumor from his stomach. Eddie Erdelatz succumbed to the cancer, passing away on November 10, 1966. On September 18, 1961, after the dismissal of Eddie Erdelatz, management appointed Los Angeles native and offensive line coach Marty Feldman (football coach) to the Raiders head coaching job. Under Feldman, the team finished the 1961 season with a 2–12 record. Feldman began the 1962 season as Raiders head coach but was fired on October 16, 1962 after a dismal 0–5 start. From October 16, 1962 through December 16, 1962, the Raiders then appointed Oklahoma native and assistant coach Red Conkright as head coach. Under Conkright, the Raiders only victory was its final game of the season, finishing with a 1–13 record. Following the 1962 season the Raiders appointed Conkright to an interim mentor position. On October 1, 1980, Conkright died in Houston, Texas at the age of 66. Under the Raiders first, second and third head coaches since entering the AFL, the team's combined 3-year performance was a disappointing 9–33 record. Oakland, the AFL, and Al Davis (1963–1969) Edit After the 1962 season, Raiders General Partner Wayne Valley hired Al Davis , a former assistant coach for the San Diego Chargers , as head coach and general manager . At 33, he was the youngest person in professional football history to hold those positions. [1] Davis immediately began to implement what he termed the "vertical game," an aggressive offensive strategy based on the West Coast offense developed by Chargers head coach Sid Gillman . [2] Under Davis the Raiders improved to 10–4, and he was named the AFL's Coach of the Year in 1963 . Though the team slipped to 5–7–2 in 1964 , it rebounded to an 8–5–1 record in 1965 . In April 1966, Davis left the Raiders after being named AFL Commissioner. Two months later, the league announced its merger with the NFL . With the merger, the position of commissioner was no longer needed, and Davis entered into discussions with Valley about returning to the Raiders. On July 25, 1966, Davis returned as part owner of the team. He purchased a 10 percent interest in the team for US $18,000, and became the team's third general partner — the partner in charge of football operations. [3] [4] The Raiders matched their 1965 season's record in 1966 but failed to get into the playoffs. 1967–1969 Edit On the field, the team Davis had assembled and coached steadily improved. With John Rauch (Davis's hand-picked successor) as head coach, the Raiders won the 1967 AFL Championship, defeating the Houston Oilers , 40-7. The win earned the team a trip to Super Bowl II , where they were beaten 33-14 by Vince Lombardi 's Green Bay Packers . The following two years, the Raiders again won Western Division titles, only to lose the AFL Championship to the eventual Super Bowl winners—the New York Jets ([[1968 Oakland Raiders\|1968) and Kansas City Chiefs ( 1969 ). Enter John Madden In 1969, John Madden became the team's sixth head coach, and under him the Raiders became one of the most successful franchises in the NFL, winning six division titles during the 1970s. AFL-NFL merger Edit In 1970 , the AFL-NFL merger took place and the Raiders joined the Western Division of the American Football Conference (actually the AFL West with the same teams as in 1969, except for the Cincinnati Bengals ) in the newly merged NFL. The first post-merger season saw the Raiders win the AFC West with an 8-4-2 record and go all the way to the conference championship, where they lost to the Colts. Despite another 8-4-2 season in 1971 , the Raiders failed to win the division or achieve a playoff berth. 1972–1978 Edit In 1972 , the team achieved a 10-3-1 record and another division title. In the divisional round, they were beaten by the Steelers 13-7 on a play that would later be known as the Immaculate Reception . Improving to 9-4-1 in 1973 , the Raiders reached the AFC Championship, but lost 27-10 to the Dolphins. In 1974 , Oakland had a 12-2 regular season, which included a nine-game winning streak. They beat the Dolphins in the divisional round of the playoffs in a see-saw battle before falling to the Steelers in the AFC Championship. On the 1975 season opener, the Raiders beat Miami and ended their 31-game home winning streak. With an 11-3 record, they defeated Cincinnati in the divisional playoff round, but again fell to the Steelers in the conference championship. In 1976 , The Raiders beat Pittsburgh in a revenge match on the season opener and continued to cement its reputation for hard, dirty play by knocking WR Lynn Swann out for two weeks with a clothesline to the helmet. Al Davis later tried to sue Steelers coach Chuck Knoll for libel after the latter called safety George Atkinson a criminal for the hit. The Raiders won 13 regular season games and a close victory over New England in the playoffs. They then knocked out the Steelers in the AFC Championship to go to Super Bowl XI . Oakland's opponent was the Minnesota Vikings , a team that had lost three previous Super Bowls. The Raiders stood at 16-0 at halftime, forcing their opponent into multiple turnovers. By the end, they won 32-14 for their first post-merger championship. The following season saw the Raiders finish 11-3, but lost the division title to Denver on a tiebreaker. They settled for a wild card, beating the Colts, but then fell to the Broncos in the AFC Championship. During a 1978 preseason game, Patriots WR Darryl Stingley was tragically injured by a hit from Raiders FS Jack Tatum and was left paralyzed for life. Although the Raiders achieved a winning record at 9-7, they failed to qualify for the playoffs. 1979–1981 Edit After ten consecutive winning seasons and one Super Bowl championship, John Madden left the Raiders (and coaching) in 1979 to pursue a career as a television football commentator. His replacement was former Raiders quarterback Tom Flores , the first Hispanic head coach in NFL history. [5] Flores led the Raiders to another 9-7 season , but not the playoffs. In the fifth week of the 1980 season , starting quarterback Dan Pastorini broke his leg and was replaced by former number-one draft pick Jim Plunkett . Plunkett led Oakland to an 11-5 record and a wild card berth. After playoff victories against the Houston Oilers , Cleveland Browns , and San Diego Chargers, the Raiders went to Super Bowl XV , facing the heavily favored Philadelphia Eagles. the Raiders clinched their second NFL championship in five years with a 27–10 win over the Eagles . With the victory, the Raiders became the first ever wild card team to win a Super Bowl." [6] Two Super Bowl records of note occurred in this game: 1) Kenny King 's 80-yard, first-quarter, catch-and-run reception from Jim Plunkett remained the longest touchdown Super Bowl pass play for the next 23 years; and 2) Rod Martin 's three interceptions of Eagles' quarterback Ron Jaworski still stands today as a Super Bowl record. [7] Reflecting on the last ten years during the post-game awards ceremony, Al Davis stated "...this was our finest hour, this was the finest hour in the history of the Oakland Raiders. To Tom Flores, the coaches, and the athletes: you were magnificent out there, you really were." [8] The team would not see a repeat performance in 1981, falling to 7-9 and a losing record for the first time since 1963. Move to Los Angeles (1982–1994) File:Marcus Allen.jpg Prior to the 1980 season, Al Davis attempted unsuccessfully to have improvements made to the Oakland Coliseum, specifically the addition of luxury boxes . That year, he signed a Memorandum of Agreement to move the Raiders from Oakland to Los Angeles. The move, which required three-fourths approval by league owners, was defeated 22–0 (with five owners abstaining). When Davis tried to move the team anyway, he was blocked by an injunction. In response, the Raiders not only became an active partner in an antitrust lawsuit filed by the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum (who had recently lost the Los Angeles Rams to Anaheim), but filed an antitrust lawsuit of their own. [9] After the first case was declared a mistrial, in May 1982 a second jury found in favor of Davis and the Los Angeles Coliseum, clearing the way for the move. [10] [11] [12] With the ruling, the Raiders finally relocated to Los Angeles for the 1982 season to play their home games at the Los Angeles Coliseum. The team finished 8–1 in the strike-shortened 1982 season, first in the AFC, but lost in the second round of the playoffs to the New York Jets . The following season, the team finished 12–4 and won convincingly against the Steelers and Seattle Seahawks in the AFC playoffs . Against the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl XVIII , the Raiders built a 21–3 halftime lead en route to a 38–9 victory and their third NFL championship. The team had another successful regular season in 1984, finishing 11-5, but a three-game losing streak forced them to enter the playoffs as a wildcard, where they fell to the Seahawks. The 1985 campaign saw 12 wins and a division title, but that was followed by an embarrassing home loss to the Patriots. The Raiders' fortunes declined after that, and from 1986 through 1989, Los Angeles finished no better than 8–8 and posted consecutive losing seasons for the first time since 1961–62. Also 1986 saw Al Davis get into a widely publicized argument with RB Marcus Allen , whom he accused of faking injuries. The feud continued into 1987, and Davis retaliated by signing Bo Jackson in Allen's place. However, Jackson was also a left fielder for Major League Baseball's Kansas City Royals, and could not play full-time until baseball season ended in October. Even worse, another strike cost the NFL one game and prompted them to use substitute players. The Raiders fill-ins achieved a 1-2 record before the regular team returned. After a weak 5-10 finish, Tom Flores moved to the front office and was replaced by Denver Broncos offensive assistant coach Mike Shanahan . Shanahan led the team to a 7-9 season in 1988, and Allen and Jackson continued to trade places as the starting RB. Low game attendance and fan apathy were evident by this point, and In the summer of 1988, rumors of a Raiders return to Oakland intensified when a preseason game against the Houston Oilers was scheduled at Oakland Coliseum. [13] As early as 1986, Davis began to seek a new, more modern stadium away from the LA Coliseum . The neighborhood around it was considered dangerous at the time (which caused the NFL to schedule the Raiders' Monday Night Football appearances as away games - the NFL would not even consider allowing the Raiders to use Anaheim Stadium for Monday night games). In addition to sharing the venue with the USC Trojans , the Coliseum was aging and still lacked the luxury suites and other amenities that Davis was promised when he moved the Raiders to Los Angeles. [14] Finally, the Coliseum had 95,000 seats and was rarely able to fill all of them even in the Raiders' best years, and so most Raiders home games were blacked out on television. Numerous venues in California were considered, including one near Hollywood Park in Inglewood and another in Carson. In August 1987, it was announced that the city of Irwindale paid Davis USD $10 million as a good-faith deposit for a prospective stadium site. [15] When the bid failed, Davis kept the non-refundable deposit. [16] [17] 1989–1994 File:Tim Brown.jpg Negotiations between Davis and Oakland commenced in January 1989, and on March 11, 1991, Davis announced his intention to bring the Raiders back to Oakland. [18] By September 1991, however, numerous delays had prevented the completion of the deal between Davis and Oakland. On September 11, Davis announced a new deal to stay in Los Angeles, leading many fans in Oakland to burn Raiders paraphernalia in disgust. [19] [20] After starting the 1989 season with a 1–3 record, Shanahan was fired by Davis, which began a long-standing feud between the two. [21] He was replaced by former Raider offensive lineman Art Shell , who had been voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame earlier in the year. With the hiring, Shell became the first African American head coach in the modern NFL era, but the team still finished a middling 8-8. [22] In 1990 , Shell led Los Angeles to a 12–4 record. They beat the Bengals in the divisional round of the playoffs, but Bo Jackson had his left femur ripped from the socket after a tackle. Without him, the Raiders were crushed in the AFC Championship by the Buffalo Bills. Jackson was forced to quit football as a result, although surgery allowed him to continue playing baseball until he retired in 1994. The team's fortunes faded after the loss. They made two other playoff appearances during the 1990s, and finished higher than third place only three times. In 1991, they got into the postseason as a wild card after a 9-7 regular season, but fell to Kansas City. 1992 saw them drop to 7-9. This period was marked by the injury of Jackson in 1991, the failure of troubled quarterback Todd Marinovich , the acrimonious departure of Marcus Allen in 1993, and the retirement of Hall of Fame defensive end Howie Long after the 1993 season, when the Raiders went 10-6 and lost to Buffalo in the divisional round of the playoffs. Shell was fired after posting a 9–7 record in the 1994 season . Shell's five-plus-year tenure as head coach in Los Angeles was marked particularly by a bitter dispute between star running back Marcus Allen and Al Davis. The exact source of the friction is unknown, but a contract dispute led Davis to refer to Allen as "a cancer on the team." [23] By the late 1980s, injuries began to reduce Allen's role in the offense. This role was reduced further in 1987, when the Raiders drafted Bo Jackson—even though he originally decided to not play professional football in 1986 (when drafted by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first round). [24] By 1990, Allen had dropped to fourth on the team's depth chart, leading to resentment on the part of his teammates. In late 1992 Allen lashed out publicly at Davis, and accused him of trying to ruin his career. [25] [26] In 1993, Allen left to play for the rival Kansas City Chiefs. Back to Oakland (1995–present) Edit On June 23, 1995, Davis signed a letter of intent to move the Raiders back to Oakland. The move was approved by the Alameda County Board of Supervisors the next month, [27] as well as by the NFL. The move was greeted with much fanfare, [28] and under new head coach Mike White the 1995 season started off well for the team. Oakland started 8–2, but injuries to starting quarterback Jeff Hostetler contributed to a six-game losing streak to end the season, and the Raiders failed to qualify for the playoffs for a second consecutive season. In order to convince Davis to return, Oakland spent $220 million on stadium renovations. These included a new seating section — commonly known as "Mount Davis" — with 10,000 seats. It also built the team a training facility and paid all its moving costs. The Raiders pay just $525,000 a year in rent — a fraction of what the nearby San Francisco 49ers pay to play at Candlestick Park — and do not pay maintenance or game-day operating costs. Gruden era Edit After two more unsuccessful seasons (7-9 in 1996 and 4-12 in 1997 ) under White and his successor, Joe Bugel , Davis selected a new head coach from outside the Raiders organization for only the second time when he hired Philadelphia Eagles offensive coordinator Jon Gruden , who previously worked for the 49ers and Packers under head coach Mike Holmgren . Under Gruden, the Raiders posted consecutive 8-8 seasons in 1998 and 1999 , and climbed out of last place in the AFC West. Oakland finished 12-4 in the 2000 season, the team's most successful in a decade. Led by veteran quarterback Rich Gannon , Oakland won their first division title since 1990, and advanced to the AFC Championship, where they lost 16–3 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Baltimore Ravens . The Raiders acquired all-time leading receiver Jerry Rice prior to the 2001 season. They finished 10-6 and won a second straight AFC West title but lost their divisional-round playoff game to the eventual Super Bowl champion New England Patriots , in a controversial game that became known as " The Tuck Rule Game ." The game was played in a heavy snowstorm, and late in the fourth quarter Raiders star cornerback Charles Woodson blitzed Patriots quarterback Tom Brady causing an apparent fumble which was recovered by Raiders linebacker Greg Biekert . The recovery would have led to a Raiders victory; however, the play was reviewed and determined to be an incomplete pass (it was ruled that Brady had pump faked and then "tucked" the ball into his body, which, by rule, cannot result in a fumble—though this explanation was not given on the field, but after the NFL season had ended). The Patriots retained possession and drove for a game-tying field goal. The game went into overtime and the Patriots won 16–13. [29] Callahan era Edit Shortly after the season, the Raiders made an unusual move that involved releasing Gruden from his contract and allowing the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to sign him. In return, the Raiders received cash and future draft picks from the Buccaneers. The sudden move came after months of speculation in the media that Davis and Gruden had fallen out with each other both personally and professionally. Bill Callahan , who served as the team's offensive coordinator and offensive line coach during Gruden's tenure, was named head coach. [30] Under Callahan, the Raiders finished the 2002 season 11-5, won their third straight division title, and clinched the top seed in the playoffs. Rich Gannon was named MVP of the NFL after passing for a league-high 4,689 yards. After beating the New York Jets and Tennessee Titans by large margins in the playoffs , the Raiders made their fifth Super Bowl appearance in Super Bowl XXXVII . Their opponent was the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , coached by Gruden. The Raiders, who had not made significant changes to Gruden's offensive schemes, were intercepted five times by the Buccaneers en route to a 48–21 blowout. Some Tampa Bay players claimed that Gruden had given them so much information on Oakland's offense, they knew exactly what plays were being called. [31] [32] Callahan's second season as head coach was considerably less successful. Oakland finished 4–12, their worst showing since 1997. After a late-season loss to the Denver Broncos, a visibly frustrated Callahan exclaimed, "We've got to be the dumbest team in America in terms of playing the game." [33] At the end of the 2003 regular season Callahan was fired and replaced by former Washington Redskins head coach Norv Turner . Coaching carousel (2004–present) Edit The team's fortunes did not improve in Turner's first year. Oakland finished the 2004 season 5–11, with only one divisional win (a one-point victory over the Broncos in Denver). During a Week 3 victory against the Buccaneers, Rich Gannon suffered a neck injury that ended his season and eventually his career. He never returned to the team and retired before the 2005 season. [34] Kerry Collins , who led the New York Giants to an appearance in Super Bowl XXXV and signed with Oakland after the 2003 season, became the team's starting quarterback. In an effort to bolster their offense, in early 2005 the Raiders acquired Pro Bowl wide receiver Randy Moss via trade with the Minnesota Vikings , and signed free agent running back Lamont Jordan of the New York Jets. After a 4–12 season and a second consecutive last place finish, Turner was fired as head coach. On February 11, 2006 the team announced the return of Art Shell as head coach. In announcing the move, Al Davis said that firing Shell in 1995 had been a mistake. [35] Under Shell, the Raiders lost their first five games in 2006 en route to a 2–14 finish, the team's worst record since 1962. Oakland's offense struggled greatly, scoring just 168 points (fewest in franchise history) and allowing a league-high 72 sacks . Wide receiver Jerry Porter was benched by Shell for most of the season in what many viewed as a personal, rather than football-related, decision. Shell was fired again at the end of the season. [36] The Raiders also earned the right to the first overall pick in the 2007 NFL Draft for the first time since 1962, by virtue of having the league's worst record. [37] One season into his second run as head coach, Shell was fired on January 4, 2007. [38] On January 22, the team announced the hiring of 31-year-old USC offensive coordinator Lane Kiffin , the youngest coach in franchise history and the youngest coach in the NFL. [39] In the 2007 NFL Draft, the Raiders selected LSU quarterback JaMarcus Russell with the #1 overall pick. Kiffin coached the Raiders to a 4-12 record in the 2007 season . After a 1-3 start to 2008 and months of speculation and rumors, Al Davis fired Kiffin on September 30, 2008. [40] Tom Cable was named as his interim replacement, and officially signed as the 17th head coach of the Oakland Raiders on Tuesday, February 3, 2009. Their finish to the 2008 season would turn out to match their best since they lost the Super Bowl in the 2002 season. However, they still finished 5–11 and ended up 3rd in the AFC West , the first time they did not finish last since 2002. They would produce an identical record in 2009; however, the season was somewhat ameliorated by the fact that four of the Raiders' five wins were against opponents with above .500 records. At the end of their 2009 campaign, the Raiders became the first team in NFL history to lose at least 11 games in seven straight seasons. In 2010, the Raiders became the first team in NFL history to go undefeated against their own division yet fail to make the postseason (6-0 in the AFC West, 8-8 overall, 3 games behind the New York Jets for the second Wild Card entry). On January 4, 2011, The Oakland Raiders' owner Al Davis informed head coach Tom Cable that his contract would not be renewed, ending his tenure with the organization. Many Raider players, such as punter Shane Lechler, were upset with the decision. On January 17, 2011, it was announced that offensive coordinator Hue Jackson was going to be the next Raiders head coach. A press conference was held on January 18, 2011, to formally introduce Jackson as the next Raiders head coach, the fifth in just seven years. 2011 was a year of turbulence for the Raiders. Longtime owner Al Davis passed away on October 11. The title of owner was assumed by his son, Mark . 11 games into the season, the Raiders were 7-4, with a two game lead in the divison. But failures by the defense caused the team to lose four of their final five games, and lose the division on a tiebreaker. Reggie McKenzie Era Edit On January 10, 2012, former Raider Reggie McKenzie was named as the first general manager of the Raiders since Al Davis assumed control of the team in 1972. McKenzie's first act was to fire head coach Hue Jackson after only one season. Season-by-season records Edit When founded in 1960, a "name the team" contest was held by the Oakland Tribune, and the winner was the Oakland Señors. [41] After a few weeks of being the butt of local jokes (and accusations that the contest was fixed, as Chet Soda was fairly well known within the Oakland business community for calling his acquaintances "señor"), the fledgling team (and its owners) changed the team's name nine days later [42] to the Oakland Raiders, which had finished third in the naming contest. [43] The original team colors were black, gold and white. The now-familiar team emblem of a pirate (or "raider") wearing a football helmet was created, reportedly a rendition of actor Randolph Scott. [44] The original Raiders uniforms were black and gold, while the helmets were black with a white stripe and no logo. The team wore this design from 1960–1962. [45] When Al Davis became head coach and general manager in 1963, he changed the team's color scheme to silver and black, and added a logo to the helmet. [46] This logo is a shield that consists of the word "Raiders" at the top, crossed swords, and the head of a Raider wearing a football helmet. Over the years, it has undergone minor color modifications (such as changing the background from silver to black in 1964), but it has essentially remained the same. The Raiders' current silver and black uniform design has essentially remained the same since it debuted in 1963. It consists of silver helmets, silver pants, and either black or white jerseys. The black jerseys have silver numbers, while the white jerseys have black numbers. Originally, the white jerseys had silver numbers with a thick black outline, but they were changed to black with a silver outline for the 1964 season. In 1970, the team used silver numerals for the season. However, in 1971 the team again displayed black numerals and have stayed that way ever since (with the exception of the 1994–95 season where they donned the 1963 helmets with the 1970 silver away numbers). The Raiders wore their white jerseys at home for the first time in their history on September 28, 2008 against the San Diego Chargers. The decision was made by Lane Kiffin, who was coaching his final game for the Raiders, and was purportedly due to intense heat. [47] However, the high temperature in Oakland that day was only 72 degrees. For the 2009 season, the Raiders took part in the AFL Legacy Program and wore 1960's throwback jerseys for games against other teams who used to be a part of the AFL . [48] Home fields Edit After splitting the first home season between Kezar Stadium and Candlestick, the Raiders moved exclusively to Candlestick Park in 1961, where total attendance for the season was about 50,000, and finished 2–12. Valley threatened to move the Raiders out of the area unless a stadium was built in Oakland, so in 1962 the Raiders moved into 18,000-seat Frank Youell Field (later expanded to 22,000 seats), their first home in Oakland. [49] It was a temporary home for the team while the Oakland Coliseum was under construction. The 53,000 seat Coliseum opened in 1966, and hosted the team for 16 years. The Raiders moved to the 93,000 seat Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in 1982, and stayed until 1994. In 1995 the team returned to the Oakland Coliseum, and an expansion project raised the capacity to 63,500 seats in 1996. The Raiders did play one regular season game at California Memorial Stadium in Berkeley, CA. On September 23, 1973 they played the Miami Dolphins at UC-Berkeley, due to a scheduling conflict with the baseball Oakland Athletics. In that game the Raiders defeated the Dolphins 12-7, ending the Dolphins' unbeaten and untied streak. Culture Main article: Raider Nation The nickname Raider Nation refers to the die hard fans of the team spread throughout the United States and the world. [53] Members of the Raider Nation who attend home games are known for arriving to the stadium early, tailgating , dressing up in face masks, and black outfits. The Raider Nation is also known for the "Black Hole", a specific area of the Coliseum (sections 104, 105, 106, and 107) frequented by the team's rowdiest and most fervent fans. [54] [55] [56] In September 2009, Ice Cube recorded a song for the Oakland Raiders named "Raider Nation". [57] In 2010, he took part in a documentary for ESPN 's 30 for 30 series titled Straight Outta L.A.. [58] It mainly focuses on N.W.A. and the effect of the Raiders image on their persona. [59] Raiders Radio Network Edit Raider games are broadcast in English on 20 radio stations in California, including flagship station KITS Live 105 (105.3 FM) in San Francisco. Additionally, games are broadcast on ten radio stations in Hawaii, Oregon, Nevada, and Utah. Greg Papa is the play-by-play announcer, with former Raider coach and quarterback Tom Flores doing commentary. George Atkinson and Jim Plunkett offer pre- and post-game commentary. Raider games are also broadcast in Spanish on six radio stations, including station KZSF (1370 AM) in San Jose and five other stations in California's Central Valley. Erwin Higueros handles play-by-play in Spanish, with Ambrosio Rico doing commentary. Compass Media Networks is responsible for producing and distributing Raiders radio broadcasts as of the 2010 NFL season . Bill King will always be the Voice of the Raiders. Hired in 1966, he called approximately 600 games for Al Davis. The Raiders awarded him all 3 rings. King left after the 1992 season. It's Bill's radio audio heard on most of the NFL Films highlight footage of the Raiders. King's call of the Holy Roller (American football) has been labeled (by Chris Berman, among others) as one of 5 best in NFL history. Bill King died in October 2005 from complications after surgery. Radio Affiliates Further information: Chiefs-Raiders rivalry The Oakland Raiders have four primary rivals: their divisional rivals (Denver Broncos, Kansas City Chiefs, and San Diego Chargers) and their geographic rival, the San Francisco 49ers. They also have rivalries with other teams that arose from playoff battles in the past, most notably with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the New England Patriots. The Seattle Seahawks is an old rivalry with Oakland as well, but the rivalry became less relevant with the Seahawks moving from the AFC West to the NFC West. Divisional rivals Edit The Denver Broncos and the Raiders have been divisional rivals since the two teams began play in the AFL in 1960. While the Raiders still hold the advantage in the all-time series (58-41-2), the Broncos amassed 21 wins in 27 games, from the 1995 season and the arrival of Broncos head coach Mike Shanahan , through the 2008 season. Shanahan coached the Raiders before being fired just four games into the 1989 season, which has only served to intensify this rivalry. On Sunday, October 24, 2010 the Raiders beat the Broncos (59-14), giving the Raiders the most points scored in a game in the team's history. The Raiders have won 4 of the last 5 encounters, and in the 2010 season they outscored the Broncos 98-37. The Broncos' first ever Super Bowl appearance (in the 1977 season) was made possible by defeating Oakland in the AFC Championship on questionable officiating. The Kansas City Chiefs and the Raiders have had several memorable matches and have a bitter divisional rivalry. Oakland lost the 1969 AFL Championship against Kansas City, who went on to beat the Minnesota Vikings and win the Super Bowl. Kansas City leads the overall series 52–47–2. The San Diego Chargers ' rivalry with Oakland dates to the 1963 season, when the Raiders defeated the heavily favored Chargers twice, both come-from-behind fourth quarter victories. One of the most memorable games between these teams was the " Holy Roller " game in 1978, in which the Raiders fumbled for a touchdown in a very controversial play. The Raiders hold the overall series advantage at 56–44–2. Geographic rival Edit The San Francisco 49ers , located on the other side of San Francisco Bay, are the Raiders' geographic rivals. The first exhibition game played in 1967, ended with the NFL 49ers defeating the AFL Raiders 13-10. After the 1970 merger, the 49ers won in Oakland 38-7. As a result, games between the two are referred to as the "Battle of the Bay." [60] [61] Since the two teams play in different conferences, regular-season matchups are at least every four years. Fans and players of the winning team can claim "bragging rights" as the better team in the area. On August 20, 2011 in the third week of the pre-season, the pre-season game between the rivals was marked by brawls in restrooms and stands at Candlestick Park including a shooting outside the stadium in which several were injured. The NFL has decided to cancel all future pre-season games between the Raiders and 49ers. Historic rivals Edit The rivalry between the Raiders and the New England Patriots dates to their time in the AFL, but was intensified during a 1978 preseason game, when Patriots wide receiver Darryl Stingley was permanently paralyzed after a vicious hit delivered by Raiders free safety Jack Tatum . Before that, New England also lost a playoff game in 1976 to the Raiders on a controversial penalty. The two teams met in a divisional-round playoff game in 2002, which became known as " The Tuck Rule Game" . Late in the game, a fumble by Patriots quarterback Tom Brady was overturned, and New England went on to win in overtime and eventually won the Super Bowl against the heavily favored St. Louis Rams , the Raiders' former crosstown rivals in Los Angeles. [62] Since that game, the Patriots have won two of the last three regular season contests between the two teams. The first contest being the following year during the 2002 season in Oakland, with the Raiders winning 27–20; they met on the 2005 season opener in New England with the Patriots ruining Randy Moss's debut as an Oakland Raider 30-20; the most recent meeting saw the Patriots victorious, 31–19 during the 2011 season . The New York Jets began a strong rivalry with the Raiders in the AFL during the 1960s that continued through much of the 1970s, fueled in part by Raider Ike Lassiter breaking star quarterback Joe Namath 's jaw during a 1967 game (though Ben Davidson wrongly got the blame), [63] the famous Heidi Game during the 1968 season, and the Raiders' bitter loss to the Jets in the AFL Championship later that season. The rivalry waned in later years, but saw a minor resurgence due to some late-season and playoff meetings from 2000-2002. [64] [65] The Raiders won the most recent matchup 34-24 on September 25, 2011. The Pittsburgh Steelers ' rivalry with the Raiders was extremely intense during the 1970s. The Steelers knocked the Raiders out of the playoffs in three of four consecutive seasons in the early 1970s (the first loss was the " Immaculate Reception " game) until the Raiders finally beat the Steelers in the 1976 AFC Championship (and went on to win Super Bowl XI). During the 1975 AFC Championship game, Raiders strong safety George Atkinson delivered a hit on Pittsburgh wide receiver Lynn Swann that gave him a concussion. When the two teams met in the 1976 season opener, Atkinson hit Swann again and gave him another concussion. After the second incident, Steelers head coach Chuck Noll referred to Atkinson as part of the "criminal element" in the NFL. Atkinson subsequently filed a $2 million defamation lawsuit against Noll and the Steelers, which he lost. [66] Most recently, Oakland was beaten 35-3 by Pittsburgh on November 21, 2010. Historic geographic rival As mentioned earlier, the Raiders and Rams had a rivalry during the 13 years both teams shared the Los Angeles market. The teams met five times in the regular season in this period, with the Raiders winning four times. Raiders vs. opponents (As of Week 4 of the 2011 NFL season .) Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties http://www.raiders.com/history/team-for-all-decades.html Raiders regular season records against all of the other 31 NFL franchises Team Edit A few months after the first AFL draft in 1959, the owners of the yet-unnamed Minneapolis franchise accepted an offer to join the established National Football League as an expansion team (now called the Minnesota Vikings ) in 1961, sending the AFL scrambling for a replacement. [67] [68] At the time, Oakland seemed an unlikely venue for a professional football team. The city had not asked for a team, there was no ownership group and there was no stadium in Oakland suitable for pro football (the closest stadiums were in Berkeley and San Francisco) and there was already a successful NFL franchise in the Bay Area in the San Francisco 49ers . However, the AFL owners selected Oakland after Los Angeles Chargers owner Barron Hilton threatened to forfeit his franchise unless a second team was placed on the West Coast. [69] Accordingly, the city of Oakland was awarded the eighth AFL franchise on January 30, 1960, and the team inherited the Minneapolis club's draft picks. Upon receiving the franchise, Oakland civic leaders found a number of businesspeople willing to invest in the new team. A limited partnership was formed to own the team headed by managing general partner Y. Charles (Chet) Soda (1908–1989), a local real estate developer, and included general partners Ed McGah (1899–1983), Robert Osborne (1898–1968), F. Wayne Valley (1914–1986), restaurateur Harvey Binns (1914–1982), Don Blessing (1904–2000), and contractor Charles Harney (1902–1962) [70] as well as numerous limited partners. The Raiders finished their first campaign with a 6–8 record, and lost $500,000. Desperately in need of money to continue running the team, Valley received a $400,000 loan from Buffalo Bills founder Ralph C. Wilson Jr. [71] After the conclusion of the first season Soda dropped out of the partnership, and on January 17, 1961, Valley, McGah and Osborne bought out the remaining four general partners. Soon after, Valley and McGah purchased Osborne's interest, with Valley named as the managing general partner. In 1962, Valley hired Al Davis, a former assistant coach for the San Diego Chargers, as head coach and general manager. In April 1966, Davis left the Raiders after being named AFL Commissioner. Two months later, the league announced its merger with the NFL . With the merger, the position of commissioner was no longer needed, and Davis entered into discussions with Valley about returning to the Raiders. On July 25, 1966, Davis returned as part owner of the team. He purchased a 10 percent interest in the team for US $18,000, and became the team's third general partner — the partner in charge of football operations. [3] [4] In 1972, with Wayne Valley out of the country for several weeks attending the Olympic Games in Munich, Davis's attorneys drafted a revised partnership agreement that gave him total control over all of the Raiders' operations. McGah, a supporter of Davis, signed the agreement. Under partnership law, by a 2–1 vote of the general partners, the new agreement was thus ratified. Valley was furious when he discovered this, and immediately filed suit to have the new agreement overturned, but the court sided with Davis and McGah. In 1976, Valley sold his interest in the team, and Davis — who now owned only 25 percent of the Raiders — was firmly in charge. [3] [72] Current ownership structure Edit Legally, the club is a limited partnership with nine partners — Davis and the heirs of the original eight team partners. Since 1972, however Davis has exercised near-complete control as president of the team's general partner, A.D. Football, Inc. Although exact ownership stakes are not known, it has been reported that Davis currently owns 47% of the team shares. [73] Ed McGah , the last of the original eight general partners of the Raiders, died in September 1983. Upon his death, his interest was devised to a family trust, of which his son, E.J. McGah, was the trustee. The younger McGah was himself a part owner of the team, as a limited partner, and died in 2002. Several members of the McGah family filed suit against Davis in October 2003, alleging mismanagement of the team by Davis. The lawsuit sought monetary damages and to remove Davis and A. D. Football, Inc. as the team's managing general partner. Among their specific complaints, the McGahs alleged that Davis failed to provide them with detailed financial information previously provided to Ed and E.J. McGah. The Raiders countered that—under the terms of the partnership agreement as amended in 1972—upon the death of the elder McGah in 1983, his general partner interest converted to that of a limited partner. The team continued to provide the financial information to the younger McGah as a courtesy, though it was under no obligation to do so. [74] The majority of the lawsuit was dismissed in April 2004, when an Alameda County Superior Court judge ruled that the case lacked merit since none of the other partners took part in the lawsuit. [75] In October 2005, the lawsuit was settled out of court. The terms of the settlement are confidential, but it was reported that under its terms Davis purchased the McGah family's interest in the Raiders (approximately 31 percent), which gave him for the first time a majority interest, speculated to be approximately 67 percent of the team. As a result of the settlement, confidential details concerning Al Davis and the ownership of the Raiders were not released to the public. [76] His ownership share went down to 47% when he sold 20% of the team to Wall Street investors [73] In 2006, it was reported that Davis had been attempting to sell the 31 percent ownership stake in the team obtained from the McGah family. He was unsuccessful in this effort, reportedly because the sale would not give the purchaser any control of the Raiders, even in the event of Davis's death. [77] Al Davis died on October 8, 2011, at the age of 82. According to a 1999 partnership agreement, his wife Carol assumed full control of the team. [77] Financial operations File:N592HA.JPG According to a 2006 report released by Forbes Magazine, the Raiders' overall team value of US $736 million ranks 28th out of 32 NFL teams. [78] The team ranked in the bottom three in league attendance from 2003–2005, and failed to sell out a majority of their home games. One of the reasons cited for the poor attendance figures was the decision to issue costly Personal Seat Licenses (PSLs) upon the Raiders' return to Oakland in 1995. The PSLs, which ranged in cost from $250 to $4,000, were meant to help repay the $200 million it cost the city of Oakland and Alameda County to expand O.co Coliseum . They were only valid for 10 years, however, while other teams issue them permanently. As a result, fewer than 31,000 PSLs were sold for a stadium that holds twice that amount. Since 1995, television blackouts of Raiders home games have been common. [79] In November 2005, the team announced that it was taking over ticket sales from the privately run Oakland Football Marketing Association (OFMA), and abolishing PSLs. [79] In February 2006, the team also announced that it would lower ticket prices for most areas of O.co Coliseum . [80] Just prior to the start of the 2006 NFL season , the Raiders revealed that they had sold 37,000 season tickets, up from 29,000 the previous year. [81] Despite the team's 2-14 record, they sold out six of their eight home games in 2006. [82] Legal battles Edit The Raiders and Al Davis have been involved in several lawsuits throughout their history, including ones against the NFL. When the NFL declined to approve the Raiders' move from Oakland to Los Angeles in 1980, the team joined the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum Commission in a lawsuit against the league alleging a violation of antitrust laws. [83] The Coliseum Commission received a settlement from the NFL of $19.6 million in 1987. [76] In 1986, Davis testified on behalf of the United States Football League in their unsuccessful antitrust lawsuit against the NFL. He was the only NFL owner to do so. [84] After relocating back to Oakland, the team sued the NFL for interfering with their negotiations to build a new stadium at Hollywood Park prior to the move. The Raiders' lawsuit further contended that they had the rights to the Los Angeles market, and thus were entitled to compensation from the league for giving up those rights by moving to Oakland. A jury found in favor of the NFL in 2001, but the verdict was overturned a year later due to alleged juror misconduct. In February 2005, a California Court of Appeal unanimously upheld the original verdict. [85] When the Raiders moved back from Los Angeles in 1995, the city of Oakland and the Oakland-Alameda County Coliseum Authority agreed to sell Personal Seat Licenses (PSLs) to help pay for the renovations to their stadium. But after games rarely sold out, the Raiders filed suit, claiming that they were misled by the city and the Coliseum Authority with the false promise that there would be sellouts. On November 2, 2005, a settlement was announced, part of which was the abolishment of PSLs as of the 2006 season. [86] Trademark and Trade Dress Dilution Edit In 1996, the team sued the NFL in Santa Clara County, California, in a lawsuit that ultimately included 22 separate causes of action. Included in the team's claims were claims that the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' pirate logo diluted the team's California trademark in its own pirate logo and for trade dress dilution on the ground that the League had improperly permitted other teams (including the Buccaneers and Carolina Panthers ) to adopt colors for their uniforms similar to those of the Raiders. Among other things, the lawsuit sought an injunction to prevent the Buccaneers and Panthers from wearing their uniforms while playing in California. In 2003, these claims were dismissed on summary judgment because the relief sought would violate the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. [87] BALCO Scandal Edit In 2003, a number of current and former Oakland players such as Bill Romanowski , Tyrone Wheatley , Barrett Robbins , Chris Cooper and Dana Stubblefield were named as clients of the Bay Area Laboratory Co-Operative (BALCO). BALCO was an American company led by founder and owner Victor Conte. In 2003, journalists Lance Williams and Mark Fainaru-Wada investigated the company's role in a drug sports scandal later referred to as the BALCO Affair. BALCO marketed tetrahydrogestrinone ("the Clear"), a then-undetected, performance-enhancing steroid developed by chemist Patrick Arnold. Conte, BALCO vice president James Valente, weight trainer Greg Anderson and coach Remi Korchemny had supplied a number of high-profile sports stars from the United States and Europe with the Clear and human growth hormone for several years. Headquartered in Burlingame, California, BALCO was founded in 1984. Officially, BALCO was a service business for blood and urine analysis and food supplements. In 1988, Victor Conte offered free blood and urine tests to a group of athletes known as the BALCO Olympians. He then was allowed to attend the Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea. From 1996 Conte worked with well-known American football star Bill Romanowski, who proved to be useful to establish new connections to athletes and coaches. [88] Players Edit The Raider organization does not retire the jersey numbers of former players on an official or unofficial basis. The number 00, worn by Jim Otto for his entire career, is no longer allowed by the NFL. [89] It was originally permitted for him only by the AFL as a marketing gimmick since his jersey number 00 is a homophone pun of his name (aught-O). There is speculation that the team may have removed number 2 from circulation, however, as it was last worn by JaMarcus Russell in 2009 before being released, due to the stigma of Russell being one of the biggest draft busts in the history of professional sports. [90] [91] When the team drafted Terrelle Pryor in the 2011 Supplemental Draft, he was issued number 6 despite number 2 (the number he wore at Ohio State ) not being used, and Pryor wasn't given an explanation why he didn't receive the number. [92] Current roster	Oakland, California
In which country would you find the Angkor Wat temple, the world's largest religious structure?	NFL: How All 32 Teams Got Their Names \| Bleacher Report NFL: How All 32 Teams Got Their Names Use your ← → (arrow) keys to browse the slideshow USA TODAY Sports 40 Comments There is no spectator sport today that commands such an enthusiastic following as professional football. Every year, more and more sports and non-sports fans are drawn to the spectacle that has become America’s Game. As much as the polished look that today’s National Football League ( NFL ) projects, it was not always that way. Clubs entered the league and folded or moved almost every year and often were based in small towns. Team members were men from the community instead of players drafted live on ESPN in primetime. Most often, these men were coal workers, farm hands and policemen during the day, while engaging as gridiron gladiators on the weekends. Players used to have jobs during the offseason. Oftentimes, teams had sponsors just as your softball team might have. Equipment was nominal and crude. Players had to supply their own shoes. At one time, there was an unwritten rule by which black players weren’t hired. In fact, even as late as the 1960s, the Redskins were under the threat of civil rights legal action by the Kennedy administration , which forced them to draft (and hire) black players. For the first 13 years of existence, the NFL was totally devoid of a playoff system. The league champion wasn’t even crowned until a vote at the owner’s winter meetings. When a playoff system was finally instituted, it wasn’t called the Super Bowl but rather the NFL Championship Game. The winner of the league title won a cup named after a referee. But things change, and the NFL has undergone a transformation along the parallel of society over the years. Out of the current 32 NFL teams, only half are still in their primary location or called by their original nickname. And in that group, 11 clubs were outright expansion teams. That leaves five franchises out of 32 that are still in the city in which they began and with the same nickname that has always brandished their identity. So, how did each NFL team get its name? First off, let’s do a clarification. There are two parts to every team name: 1) the location name which the team calls home and 2) the nickname of the team. The location name doesn’t necessarily have to be the city’s actual appellation. The Golden State Warriors of the NBA wanted a more area-pleasing location name. After moving from Philadelphia, they were known as the San Francisco Warriors. Since the team was the only NBA team in the Bay Area, their desire was to attract fans regionally. And since their current home arena is based in nearby Oakland, the moniker still makes a lot of sense. The second portion of an NFL team name is the nickname, which is both a verb and a noun by definition. The City of New Orleans has several nicknames, one being “The Big Easy.” But the NBA team’s nickname is the Hornets. Therefore, “The Big Easy” is the noun, whereas “Hornets” is the verb connotation. So, both are properly used. Often, team nicknames are derived from people, places or things that are indicative of the area’s culture. Such was the case with the Indiana Racers (Indy 500 annual race) of the defunct World Hockey Association or the Minneapolis Lakers. Another good example is the Dayton Triangles in the early days of the NFL. Their name came from three area factories which aligned in a triangle. Let’s take a look at how each NFL team got its name. And for no particular reason, this list is presented in reverse alphabetical order. Washington Redskins 1933 Boston Redskins The franchise was first based in Boston. George Preston Marshall and three others acquired an NFL franchise in 1932 and named it the "Boston Braves" after the city’s existing baseball team, which back then was a common practice. At the end of the first year and with losses upward of $46,000, Marshall was left as the sole owner. The following year Marshall hired as his head coach Lone Star Dietz, a Native-American, as well as many other Native-American players. The Native-American players disliked the name Braves so Marshall abandoned the name in favor of "Boston Redskins." On opening day 1933, the entire team lined up for the team photo in war paint, feathers and some even in full headdress. In 1936 as the team was on its way to its first Eastern crown, Marshall raised ticket prices on game day from 50 cents to 75 without advance notice. This upset both the public as well as the media and although the team was winning, the crowds boycotted the games and picketed in protest outside. This angered Marshall. Set to host the NFL Championship Game, he instead moved it to New York City, where his “home” Redskins lost 21-6 to the Packers marking the first NFL championship held on neutral ground. Marshall owned a chain of laundries in the Washington, D.C. area and the following year because of the problems he encountered in Boston, he moved the club to his hometown and retained its nickname. In 1958, Texas oilman Clint Murchison. Jr. struck a deal to purchase the Redskins. When Marshall changed several last-minute details in the contract, Murchison balked and cancelled. Murchison would later become the first owner of the Cowboys; and yes, his intention was to move the club to Dallas. The Redskins have won five NFL titles, which includes three Super Bowls. Origin Facts: Original Owner: George Preston Marshall Original Colors: Burgundy and mustard yellow First Stadium: Braves Field, seating 40,000 Retired Jerseys: No. 33 Sammy Baugh Tennessee Titans Oilers RB Earl Campbell The Titans began as an original member of the 1960s American Football League (AFL) as the "Houston Oilers." The club was one of the AFL’s most dominant teams early on, capturing two of the league’s first three championships. The Oilers were the first AFL team to sign an active NFL player. Later, the team would play their home games in the Houston Astrodome, which revolutionized the outdoor game. In 1997, the Oilers announced that the club would relocate to Nashville. However, the new stadium was still two years from being completed. So the team moved to Memphis and became the "Tennessee Oilers," playing at the Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium. The following season, the team played its home games in the city of Nashville but at Vanderbilt University. In 1998, owner Bud Adams wanted a nickname change. He set up an advisory committee to choose the new moniker. In Nashville, there is a full-scale replica of the Parthenon and other Greek influences and the city was already known as “the Athens of the South.” Adams chose "Titans" from a list of suggestions to reflect heroic qualities. Adams elected to call his team by the state name instead of “Nashville” to better represent the entire region instead of only one city. This franchise has won two AFL titles: 1960 and 1961. One note of interest: The Titans logo contains three red stars. These represent the three main cities in the State of Tennessee—Nashville, Memphis and Knoxville. Origin Facts: Tampa Bay Buccaneers Quarterback Steve Spurrier of the Buccaneers Tampa is located on Florida's western shore of the Gulf of Mexico. There are several large cities other than the city of Tampa that make up the region commonly known as Tampa Bay: Clearwater, Bradenton, Largo, St. Petersburg, Dunedin, Pinellas Park and Tarpon Springs. This particular portion of Florida cuts out into a huge body of water which extends over 400 square miles and is named “Tampa Bay.” In fact, the Port of Tampa is currently the 10th-largest port in the United States. “Tampa Bay” is not an actual city but simply a label commonly used for the region it represents, as well as the bay’s actual title. Thus, with so many cities in such a compressed area every sports team has simply called themselves Tampa Bay, such as the NHL’s Lightning, the Arena League’s Storm or the Rowdies of the defunct North American Soccer League. The Buccaneers got their nickname from pirate invasions of long ago. Florida’s western coast (including Tampa Bay) was invaded almost annually during the late 18th and early 19th centuries by a Spanish captain named Jose’ Gaspar, commonly called Gasparilla. When Tampa was awarded an NFL expansion team in 1976, the team held a “name-the-team” contest. From there, an advisory board selected “Buccaneers” from over 400 nickname possibilities based on the local pirate legend. Today, the "Gasparilla Pirate Festival" held in January is celebrated every year and draws almost 500,000 partiers. This team has won one NFL title: Super Bowl XXXVII. Origin Facts: Super Bowl Before the Super Bowl name, there was the AFL-NFL Championship Game In 1960, the newest rival to the NFL began playing: the American Football League. After half a decade of running up player contracts, the two leagues secretly met to agree to merge into one league. Part of the agreement was a common draft beginning in 1967, plus a championship game played immediately after each league's own championship games had concluded. In 1967, the first championship game between the two leagues was played in Los Angeles between the NFL Champion Packers and the AFL Champion Chiefs. The first two games were called the "AFL-NFL Championship Game." Before the third "AFL-NFL Championship Game" between the AFL Champion Jets and the NFL Champion Colts, Chiefs owner Lamar Hunt began loosely calling the game the "Super Bowl" while attending various league and merger meetings. He called it a "bowl" game because in college football, bowl games were the most important and prominent games of each team's season. The "super" portion was coined from his children playing with a Wham-O toy called the Super Ball. Soon, the term "Super Bowl" was being used by various media, and even coaches and players, although an unofficial name for the game. The commissioner of the NFL, Pete Rozelle, didn’t like the term “super” thinking it had no sophistication and was simply an ordinary term. He recommended that the game be called "The Big One," but by the time the third game was set to play, the moniker "Super Bowl" was already wide-spread. For the third championship game, it was made official and the first Super Bowl was born. Today, the Super Bowl is an unofficial national holiday affectionately entitled "Super Sunday." It is also the biggest food production day in the food retail business. One in every six televisions is bought just prior to the game. Snack companies increase production of potato and tortilla chips in anticipation of higher sales. Pizza delivery companies hire more drivers and sell more pies than at any other time of the year. The big game sends sales of beer, soda, chips and salsa through the roof. Super Sunday is the third largest alcohol consumption celebration behind New Year’s Eve and St. Patrick’s Day. One in four workers will participate in a game pool while the weekend is the slowest for weddings. Basically, the Super Bowl is the most influential amphitheater in the universe of TV advertising. In the world of advertising it is viewed as judgment day. New ad campaigns often begin their kickoff airing during the game. The only television event that generates more viewers for a singular event is the UEFA Champions League final. What is unusual about the Super Bowl broadcast is that it was created on the premise that the primary audience would be watching the game on television. Of the NFL's existing 32 teams, few have not played in a Super Bowl. Teams such as the Tennessee Titans and Minnesota Vikings have won their respective league titles, but failed to win a Super Bowl. The NFL has named a league champion since 1920. The NFL titles won from 1920 to 1969 and the AFL titles won from 1960-1969 are still valid despite not being coined a Super Bowl champion. The Super Bowl is simply a modern term for the NFL Championship. After Super Bowl 50, if the NFL decided to change the name of its championship game to something new, the 50 Super Bowl championships would still be valid. St. Louis Rams 1942 Cleveland Rams vs.Chicago Bears During the 1934 NFL season, there was a team named the Cincinnati Reds. They relocated in mid-season to St. Louis and were renamed the Gunners. After the season the franchise folded. For the next two NFL seasons, the league operated with an uneven number of teams and began its quest for another city to level out the schedule. During the same time, the "Cleveland Rams" became a member of the one of the NFL’s first rival leagues, the American Football League (often referred to as AFL II) in 1935. The AFL II was in shambles after its first year, so Rams owner Homer Marshman applied for a spot in the NFL. Coincidentally, two other prospective owners applied for the vacant NFL slot--one from Houston and the other from Los Angeles. Cleveland was granted the franchise based upon the fact that the other NFL owners preferred to keep the league in the Midwest and East because of travel concerns. The Rams did not play the 1943 season because most of their players were involved in World War II; including their owner Dan Reeves who was a lieutenant in the Army. In 1946, the Rams moved to Los Angeles and became the NFL’s first Pacific Coast team. Then in 1995, the "Los Angeles Rams" relocated again and became the "St. Louis Rams." In 1983, the Rams drafted RB Eric Dickerson second overall. He would break the single season rushing record the following season with 2,105 yards—a record that remains today. The team has won three NFL titles, including one Super Bowl. The team got its nickname from the Rams’ general manager Damon Wetzel. His favorite football team was the Fordham University Rams. Marshman liked the nickname and coined his own team as such. One note of interest: While in Los Angeles, the Rams were the first NFL team to use helmet logos. Origin Facts: Seattle Seahawks Seahawks original helmet design In 1972, a group of Seattle business leaders formed “Seattle Professional Football, Inc.” in an attempt to secure an NFL team. Two years later, their efforts paid off and the City of Seattle was granted an expansion franchise. The 1976 season brought into the fold WR Steve Largent, who is considered to be one of the best to play his position. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame " href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Football_Hall_of_Fame"> Pro Football Hall of Fame and later became a U.S. Congressman from 1994 until 2002. A “name-the-team” contest was offered with over 1,742 different nicknames amidst 20,365 entries. "Seahawks" was suggested by 151 entrants and selected by new General Manager John Thompson. A Seahawk is another name for an osprey, which are fierce hawks whose main diet is fish. They are found near bodies of water and can have up to a six-foot wingspan. Origin Facts: San Francisco 49ers All-Universe head coach Joe Walsh after his first Super Bowl victory The 49ers began as charter members of the "All-America Football Conference" (AAFC) in 1946. In 1950, the 49ers were one of three teams which merged into the NFL. From 1954 to 1957, the 49ers sported the famous “Million Dollar Backfield” which included QB Y.A. Tittle and running backs Joe Perry and Hugh McElhenny as well as fullback John Henry Johnson . All four have since been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame and are the only complete backfield enshrined. This club is one of the few teams that have not changed their city name or their nickname. In 1985, the club drafted what is considered the greatest wide receiver of all time: Jerry Rice. Other greats include Ronnie Lott and Joe Montana. After San Francisco was awarded a franchise, the wives of the two original owners, Tony Morabito and his younger brother Victor, suggested the nickname "49ers" in honor of the men who were part of the 1849 gold rush in the Sierra Nevada mountains east of San Francisco. In 1964, the team switched their colors from silver, red and white, to gold, red and white. And in 1994, the uniforms began using black as an accent and numeral dropshade. This storied franchise has won five NFL titles (tied: fifth most) - all Super Bowls. The team is known as “The Team of the 1980s” due to their four Super Bowl victories and seven division titles. Origin Facts: Original Owner: Tony and Victor Morabito Original Colors: Silver, red and white First Stadium: Kezar Stadium, seating 59,942 Retired Jerseys: No. 34 Joe Perry, No. 73 Leo Nomellini, No. 39 Hugh McElhenny, No. 79 Bob St. Clair, No. 12 John Brodie, No. 70 Charlie Kruger, No. 37 Jimmy Johnson, No. 16 Joe Montana, No. 87 Dwight Clark, No. 42 Ronnie Lott, No. 80 Jerry Rice, No. 8 Steve Young QB Next » San Diego Chargers The "Los Angeles Chargers" were charter members of the AFL in 1960 and one of the first franchises awarded in the new league. Owner Barron Hilton was very wealthy and had ties to the Southern California region which was desirable for the infant league. Before the first season began, however, Barron threatened to pull his team from the league unless another West Coast team was placed. The AFL eventually franchised a team in Oakland. The problem in Los Angeles wasn’t on-the-field talent as the Chargers went 10-4-0 in their first season and won the Western Division crown. The sad sight was the empty seats in the cavernous LA Coliseum. For example, in the final game in Los Angeles, only 11,545 witnessed the Chargers' 50-43 thrilling victory over the New York Titans. Later, the club would play and lose 24-16 to the Oilers in the first-ever AFL Championship Game. The next year, the Chargers relocated to San Diego and subsequently went 12-2-0, only to lose to the Oilers once again in the title game. San Diego, in 1963, had what is considered pro football’s first Super Team. They had a tremendous offensive attack and threw the ball on almost every down during a time in pro football when the run dominated offenses. A “name-the-team” contest was held the first year. From the finalists, General Manager Frank Ready chose "Chargers" and Hilton readily agreed. At the time, Hilton also owned a credit card company called Carte Blanche. He wanted his brand to become more memorable and desired fans to become “chargers.” Fan Gerald Courtney of Hollywood submitted the winning entry. On the coaching staff from 1960-1965 was a young buck by the name of Chuck Noll. Origin Facts: Pittsburgh Steelers 1936 Pittsburgh Pirates In 1933 Pittsburgh native Art Rooney was awarded an NFL franchise. He named his club the "Pirates" after the city’s baseball team, which was a common practice at the time. At the conclusion of the 1939 season with years of futility on the field as well as the gate, Rooney wanted a new start and decided a new nickname was in order. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette promoted a “name-the-team” contest. Several different entries were submitted, but in the end Rooney chose the moniker “Steelers.” Dozens of fans had submitted the nickname Steelers and the winner drawn was Margaret O’Donnell. Rooney sold the Steelers for $160,000 in the winter of 1940 and then bought half-ownership of the Eagles for $80,000. Pittsburgh’s new owner, Alexis Thompson, renamed the club the "Iron Men." Before the next season resumed, Rooney and Thompson switched franchises so that Thompson could be closer to his home and work in New York City and Rooney wouldn't have to drive from his home in Pittsburgh across the state to Philly. Rooney then renamed his Eagles team the Steelers while Thompson renamed his Iron Men team the Eagles. From that moment until as late as 1945, Pittsburgh was officially owned by the "Philadelphia Football Club, Inc." During World War II, the team merged with the Eagles to become the "Steagles" and then melded with the Chicago Cardinals the following season and was known as Card-Pitt. But as the team was on its way to losing every game, a sportswriter labeled them the "Carpits." In 1944, the Steelers were once again the team nickname. The colors were taken from the city's emblem. The franchise has won six NFL titles (fourth most) - all Super Bowls. The team is known as “The Team of the 1970s” due to their four Super Bowl victories and seven division titles. Origin Facts: Philadelphia Eagles Eables QB Donovan McNabb in Yellow Jackets throwback uniform The Eagles began as the "Frankford Yellow Jackets." Frankford is a section of Philadelphia and began as a football club in 1899 known as the Frankford Athletic Association. In the early 1920s, Frankford was regarded as one of the better independent football teams and often competed regularly against NFL teams. In 1924, the club was granted an NFL franchise and became the Yellow Jackets. The team captured the 1926 NFL title with a 14-1-1 record. The Great Depression devastated the club and after the 1931 season, the team folded due to financial reasons. In July of 1933, Bert Bell borrowed $2,500 from his fiancée and along with his friend Lud Wray, they bought the remains of the Yellow Jackets. The Eagles used the Yellow Jackets old uniforms, which were yellow, blue and white, from 1933 to 1936. In 1936, new unies were purchased with green jerseys and socks, with the standard white helmets and pants. Bert Bell renamed the club the "Eagles" after the eagle logo on the National Recovery Administration’s emblem. The emblem was in honor of President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deals National Recovery Act. In 1941, Bell and new half-owner Art Rooney swapped franchises with the new owner of the Pittsburgh Iron Men (formerly Steelers), Alexis Thompson. For several months, the Eagles were officially the Iron Men until Thompson renamed his new team the Eagles before any games were played. One of the NFL's greatest linebackers played for the Eagles from 1949 through 1962: Chuck Bednarik. The team has won three NFL titles. Origin Facts: Original Owner: Bert Bell & Lud Wray Original Colors: Powder blue, yellow & white First Stadium: Baker Bowl, seating 18,800 Retired Jerseys: No. 70 Al Wistert, No. 15 Steve Van Buren, No. 60 Chuck Bednarik, No. 40 Tom Brookshier, No. 44 Pete Retzlaff, No. 92 Reggie White, No. 99 Jerome Brown Next » Oakland Raiders The Raiders were a charter member of the AFL in 1960. They entered that league as a desperation move. The AFL already had its eight teams set to begin its inaugural season. However, on the eve of the first AFL draft, the Minneapolis group was awarded an NFL expansion and subsequently bolted the infant league. Obviously, the NFL’s intentions were to squelch the new league. An eighth team was in order with Minneapolis’ deflection and would take two months to find a replacement owner group. Meanwhile, Los Angeles owner Barron Hilton wanted to drop out of the AFL unless the league gave his team a natural coastal rival. Oakland businessman Chet Soda was head of a group that purchased the final franchise. The team was first dubbed the “Señors” in April of 1960 via a "name-the-team" contest held by the local paper. What was odd about the nickname was that Soda was known for calling everyone he met señor. The public hated the name, and several weeks later, the nickname was dropped for the supposedly runner-up choice the "Raiders." Things were not rosy for the Raiders in that first season. For one, the team was forced to play its home games across the Bay in San Francisco and averaged a mere 9,611 fans per contest. The situation was so rocky that in 1961, the team was loaned $400,000 from Bills’ owner Ralph Wilson in order to stay afloat. The AFL merged with the NFL in 1970 and the Raiders were placed in the American Football Conference (AFC) along with their other AFL brethren. Back in 1967 when the merger’s negotiations first emerged, the NFL wanted to kill off the franchise in order to eliminate regional competition with the 49ers. It was discovered that when the merger proposal went before congress for approval, any club that folded or moved would only cause every legislator in the state to rise up in opposition to the merger as a whole. After that revelation, the Raiders were safe. The team later moved to Los Angeles in 1982 and became the "Los Angeles Raiders' and then back to Oakland in 1995. The franchise has won one AFL title and three NFL crowns, each of which a Super Bowl. Current owner Al Davis was on the coaching staff from 1963 to 1966 and was named the AFL's Coach of the Year in 1963. Origin Facts: New York Jets Joe Namath of the Jets waiting to go back on the field As with a lot of teams, the Jets were members of the AFL in its first season of 1960. It was important for the new league to anchor a club in New York City. And so, the New York Titans were born. The NFL already had the Giants. New owner Harry Wismer called his team the "Titans" because he accessed “titans are bigger and stronger than giants.” The team languished in the gloomy antiquated Polo Grounds with the gate usually fewer than 10,000 per game. After the first few games in 1962, the players went on strike after not receiving either game check. By the third year, debt mounted and only a $40,000 bailout by the AFL allowed the team to make payroll for the end of the season. On December 15, 1962, the Titans lost 44-10 at home to the Oilers. The gate was announced as 8,167 but more realistically was around 2,000. The AFL office had been covering player checks since November and at the conclusion of the year, the AFL revoked Wismer’s franchise as the team went into bankruptcy. A five-man group headed by Sonny Werblin purchased the club in 1963 for $1.3 million, which covered all debts including the $225,450 value of the team. The new organization was officially named the Gotham Football Club, Inc. Werblin changed the colors to green and white to honor his St. Patrick’s day birthday, moved the club into Shea Stadium and renamed them the "Jets." His reasoning was that the United States was entering the space age and also that the new stadium was located between LaGuardia and JFK airports. Shea was also the home of the Mets, and the name association was friendly. When the AFL and NFL merged in 1970, the Jets were placed in the AFC. And just like the Raiders, the NFL's initial plan was to fold the club in order to give the cross-town Giants New York City in its entirity; or relocate them to possibly Los Angeles. But the risk of repealing the merger by Congress caused the NFL brass to accept every AFL team and in their existing location. The franchise has won one AFL title and one Super Bowl. Origin Facts: New York Giants Giants RB Frank Gifford magazine ad The New York Football Giants were founded in 1925 by Tim Mara, who paid $500 for the franchise. He stated that "any team in the city of New York was worth that much." It was an oddity at the time for a team to be located in such a large city in the NFL as many clubs were located in towns such as Toledo, OH, Pottsville, PA, Decatur, IL and Canton, OH. In 1926, the team was close to bankruptcy and was saved only when the Giants hosted the Bears before 70,000 who paid to see Chicago’s Red Grange. The club rebounded and won the NFL Championship in only its third season. At the time, every NFL club introduced their offensive players before every game. Around 1956, the franchise became known for its defensive stars, such as linebacker Sam Huff and defensive end Rosey Grier. This marked the first time fans put more emphasis on the defense and would chant "De-fense, de-fense, de-fense" during games. This was the first NFL team to do this. In the 1980s, the team drafted LB Lawrence Taylor who would go on to become one of the game’s greatest defensive forces. Other notable players are Frank Gifford, Eli Manning , Y.A. Tittle, Harry Carson, Mel Hein, Fran Tarkenton, Roosevelt Brown and Phil Simms. In 1970 when the NFL merged with the AFL, it was decided that the two AFL teams which shared a geographic region, the Jets and the Raiders, would have to be relocated. Wellington Mara, Tim Mara’s son who was now running the Giants, suggested that the Jets were too entrenched and were now a viable part of New York. Therefore, the Jets were allowed to remain in New York. Tim Mara originally named the team after the National League baseball Giants, who were a longtime favorite in New York. At the time, baseball was the king of professional sports so owner Tim Mara wanted the same name recognition in hopes that fans would support both clubs. By the way, the baseball Giants got their name from all the giant buildings that made up New York City. The franchise has won eight NFL titles (third most), four of which are Super Bowls. One note of interest: in all four Super Bowl victories, the Giants were losing at halftime. Origin Facts: 43 years of waiting finally paid off The Saints became a franchise as a direct result of the AFL-NFL merger. Several pro football teams had looked to the City of New Orleans as a possible home, such as the Dallas Texans (AFL) in 1963. After years of war, escalating player salaries, and dwindling profits, the AFL and NFL began discussions about a possible merger of the two leagues. On June 8, 1966, it was announced that the leagues would merge completely beginning with the 1970 season. All franchises in both leagues would remain in their present location, with a common draft and common preseason schedule beginning in 1967. But, there was a problem. Even though representatives of both leagues agreed to the unification, the House Judiciary Committee (HJC) in Washington, D. C. had to exempt the merger from antitrust law sanctions. At the time, the chairman of the HJC was Emanuel Celler from New York. By the fall of 1966, Celler refused to let the bill out of committee. The NFL commissioner, Pete Rozelle, was introduced to Louisiana House Majority Leader Hale Boggs; who was looking for some political enhancement ever since he voted for the civil rights amendment in his state. Boggs offered to help push the bill through in exchange for an NFL expansion franchise granted for the Crescent City. Boggs covertly attached the league bill to a budget bill that was certain to pass, thus detouring Celler altogether. When the budget bill passed on October 21, 1966, the NFL and AFL got their merger and New Orleans got an immediate franchise. At a league meeting on November 1, it became official. That date just happened to the Catholic holiday All-Saints Day. New Orleans has a large Catholic population and numerous centuries-old Catholic churches. It was only fitting to nickname the team the "Saints" for the day they were officially conceived. History was made in 1970 when kicker Tom Dempsey booted a 63-yard field goal to defeat the Lions 19-17. The franchise has won one NFL title: Super Bowl XLIV. Origin Facts: Original Owner: John Mecom, Jr. Original Colors: black, gold & white First Stadium: Tulane Stadium, seating 80,985 Retired Jerseys: No. 31 Jim Taylor, No. 81 Doug Atkins, No. 57 Ricky Jackson New England Patriots 1960 Patriots AFL helmet The Boston Patriots began as a charter member of the AFL in 1960. AFL founder Lamar Hunt had been working with a group of investors in Seattle and another group in Baltimore, but neither were able to secure stadium rights. Hunt was then introduced to Billy Sullivan, a former Notre Dame football publicity director. With that meeting, a franchise developed for Boston—the eighth and final AFL entry. The Patriots played the very first pre-season game of the new league as well as the very first regular season AFL game. From 1961-1964, the Patriots were one of the top teams in the AFL. However, the team’s lone appearance in the AFL Championship Game was a loss in the 1963 contest. The team sported the league’s All-time leading scorer in running back Gino Cappelletti. A year after the AFL merged with the NFL in 1970, the Patriots relocated into a new stadium situated in nearby Foxborough. The stadium was called Schaefer Stadium, which is one of the first stadiums named after a corporate sponsor (Schaefer Brewing Company). The land where the new digs reside was granted by Bay State Raceway, a harness racing track. In the February 19, 1971 edition of the “Gettysburg Times,” it was announced that the club would be renamed the “Bay State Patriots", however, the NFL owners rejected the name change. A more regional team label was desired to attract fans between Boston and Providence, Rhode Island, so the appellation “New England” was inserted (instead of Boston) as noted in the March 23, 1971 issue of the New York Times. Over the years, the Patriots have been involved in numerous memorable moments. Wide receiver Darryl Stingley was injured in 1978 and spent the rest of his life as a quadriplegic . 1982 was the famous “Snowplow Game.” In January of 1986, the club was blown out by the Bears 46-10 in Super Bowl XX. Boston Herald reporter Lisa Olsen was sexually harassed in 1990. A proposed move to Hartford in 1999. The Coach Bill Belichick hiring drama. 2007 Spygate. But with Belichick finally settling in with the Patriots, pieces began to fall into place. The franchise subsequently won Super Bowls in 2001, 2003 and 2004. The team would accomplish a sterling 16-0-0 record in 2007 and were on their way to a perfect 19-0-0 season only to lose Super Bowl XLII 17-14 with a mere 35 seconds left in the game. The team is known as “The Team of the 2000s” due to their three Super Bowl victories and seven division titles. The franchise got their nickname from suggestions from fans. Sullivan chose "Patriots" from the entries to reflect the area’s role in the American revolution. Origin Facts: Next » National Football League Just as most of its member clubs have endured change, the league itself spawned transformation of its own. As early as 1900, there was talk about forming a professional football league. In 1902, the first National Football League made its debut. It wasn’t a league in as much as it was a group of teams, three to be exact: Philadelphia Phillies, Pittsburgh Stars and Philadelphia Athletics. All three teams were financed by their parent baseball team with the Stars connected to the Pirates. Fabled Connie Mack was the GM of the Athletics. After two seasons, the league folded. This league has no connection with the National Football League of today. During the early 1900s through 1918, several professional football leagues sprouted up across the United States. The Ohio League and the New York State League were among the largest and widely known, but others formed in Pennsylvania and the Pacific Coast. The problems these early leagues encountered were numerous. Clubs had to be within travel distance which at the time was mainly by bus or train. Another situation was that teams routinely used college players under assumed names. But the largest problem was that players would jump from team-to-team at will depending on who was paying the most money to play that particular week. Rising salaries and the desire to avoid financial ruin were the key components to why the NFL was birthed. In 1919, several team owners decided to start a national professional football association. They had a meeting which decided that teams wouldn’t steal each other’s players. However, a salary base could not be agreed upon and no further action was taken. It would take another year before those conversations would finally come to fruition. On August 20, 1920, Ralph Hay, owner of the Canton Bulldogs, held a meeting at his Hupmobile auto showroom in Canton, Ohio. Four teams were represented: Akron, Cleveland, Dayton and Canton. The group officially named their new league the "American Professional Football Conference" (APFC). According to the Canton Repository, the three reasons which began the league were “to raise the standard of professional football in every way possible, to eliminate bidding for players between rival clubs and to secure cooperation in the formation of schedules.” On September 17, 1920, another meeting was held at Hay’s auto dealership. So many team representatives showed up that it spilled into the showroom. Along with the four original teams, also represented were Muncie, Hammond, Rochester, Rock Island, Decatur and Racine (Chicago). At this meeting, the league name was changed to the "American Professional Football Association" (APFA) which would carry as the league name for the first two seasons. In 1922, Chicago’s George Halas recommended the name change to the "National Football League." After the NFL merged with the AAFC in 1950, the league was renamed the "National-American Football League." Months later, the “American” portion was dropped and instead, the divisions were renamed from Eastern and Western to American and National. Vikings QB Fran Tarkenton began a new term in pro football: The Scramble The Vikings became a franchise because of the AFL’s very existence. A Minneapolis ownership group led by Max Winter bought an AFL franchise to begin playing in 1960. On the day before the AFL’s first draft, Winter’s group accepted an NFL expansion team instead and dumped the upstart league. George Halas of the Bears led an NFL owner’s group whose quest was to destroy the AFL before it began. Halas had gone through the years of the AAFC in the late 1940s and knew exactly what another pro football league’s existence produces—loss of players and contract escalations. The headline of the November 21, 1959 edition of the Minneapolis Star-Tribune read, “Minnesota to Get NFL Franchise.” But instead of beginning the team in 1960, it was decided to kick their new club off in the 1961 campaign as an expansion team. The team took on the name of the state for several reasons. For one, to represent the entire region. The second was because Minneapolis and St. Paul are adjoining sister cities, and the club couldn’t be named for one without being named for the other. And the Minneapolis-St. Paul Vikings was simply too long of a title. Minnesota is known as the hub of Scandinavian-American culture. Bert Rose, the first general manager of the club, named the team the "Vikings" because so many people in the state of Minnesota and the surrounding area traced their heritage back to Scandinavia. The franchise has won one NFL title, the very last before the 1970 merger: 1969. One note of interest: before the "Lombardi Trophy" was conceived and given to the league champ, the NFL champion was presented with the "Ed Thorpe Memorial Trophy." Each year's champion was engraved on the cup, and remained with the current NFL champion and then passed on to the next titleholder. Teams were also presented with a smaller replica which they were able to keep. In 1969, the Vikings won the last NFL title before the merger and were presented the Thorpe Trophy. Presently, the whereabouts of the trophy is unknown. Origin Facts: Miami Dolphins 1972 Miami Dolphins The Dolphins were the first expansion team of the AFL. Owner Joe Robbie and actor Danny Thomas purchased the franchise for $7.5 million. After Robbie was awarded the franchise, he wanted to place it in Philadelphia even though the NFL already had the Eagles. The AFL’s commissioner, Joe Foss, talked Robbie into going to South Florida’s tropical climate which was also without direct competition. A “name-the-team” contest was held with a total of 19,843 entries. A committee comprised of local media selected Mustangs, Moons, Sharks, Dolphins, Suns, Mariners, Missiles and Marauders as the nickname finalists. "Dolphins" was selected and submitted by 622 entrants, with the winner Mrs. Robert Swanson. In the first game, the Dolphins’ Joe Auer ran back the kickoff for a touchdown. The team would lose, however, 23-14 to the Raiders. The turnaround for the club occurred with the hiring of head coach Don Shula in 1970. In 1972, the Dolphins garnished history as the team went a sterling 17-0-0. Although four other teams in the history of pro football have gone unbeaten during their season, this club is the only NFL team to go unbeaten and untied. Interesting enough, even though the team was 15-0-0. they played the AFC Championship Game on the road in Pittsburgh. In 1983, five QBs were taken in the first round of the NFL draft. As the Dolphins were about to draft at No. 27—the second to last slot—the franchise selected what would become one of pro football's most prominent QBs: Dan Marino. The franchise has captured two NFL championships, both Super Bowls. Origin Facts: Original Owner: Joe Robbie & Danny Thomas Original Colors: Teal, orange & white First Stadium: Orange Bowl, seating 74,476 Retired Jerseys: No. 39 Larry Csonka, No. 12 Bob Griese, No. 13 Dan Marino Kansas City Chiefs AFL MVP Abner Haynes of the Texans gains yardage in a mostly empty stadium The Chiefs began as a charter member of the AFL in 1960. It was originally based in Texas and called the "Dallas Texans." In the spring of 1958, owner Lamar Hunt had tried to get an NFL expansion team or purchase an existing club and move it to Dallas. At one point, he thought he had a deal to buy the Chicago Cardinals but was rebuffed by Chicago owner Charles Bidwell who would constantly hedge on whether the Cards were really for sale or not. In frustration, he teamed up with Bud Adams out of Houston and began his own league. As Hunt was lining up franchises in several cities and the new league was imminent, the NFL suddenly announced expansion into four cities; one of which just happened to be located in Dallas and eventually named the Cowboys. This was an obvious attempt to squelch the new league before it began. The Texans were an early success on the field and would later capture the 1962 AFL Championship. Off the field was a totally different matter however. At the time, Dallas was not the sprawling metropolis that it is today with a population of only 679,684. It could barely support one team, much less two. In three years the Cowboys lost $2 million while Hunt’s Texans were in the hole $2.5 million. Despite having a better team than the cross-town Cowboys, 1,100 more season ticket holders and a better gate average, Hunt couldn’t absorb the losses any longer. He began to scout other cities. His first interest was New Orleans, but the city’s only large stadium was still segregated. Coincidentally, Kansas City mayor H. Roe Bartle had on his agenda to bring a pro football team to his city just as he had brought the Major League Athletics from Philadelphia years earlier. Bartle wooed Hunt to transfer his club to the Midwest. He promised to enlarge the stadium and guaranteed three times the season ticket sales as the Texans had experienced in Dallas. After losing money in Dallas despite winning, Hunt relocated his club to Kansas City for the 1963 season. At first, the team was to be called the Kansas City Texans. As a secondary thought, Hunt offered a “name-the-team” contest to drum up fan interest. A total of 1,020 different names were submitted amongst 4,866 entries. After the finalists were formulated, Hunt chose "Chiefs" in honor of Mayor Bartle, whose nickname was Chief. Other finalists were Royals and Mules. This franchise has captured four championships: three AFL titles and one Super Bowl. One note of interest: the Chiefs helmet logo is patterned after the 49ers logo. Origin Facts: Next » Jacksonville Jaguars 1995 Jaguars proposed helmet design. Center stripe is gold, with a single black and teal stripe on each side. The Jaguars, along with the Panthers, are in all probability one of the final expansion teams in the NFL. The City of Jacksonville has had several pro football teams in the past in other leagues such as the Sharks and Express of the World Football League (WFL), and the Bulls in the United States Football League (USFL). In the WFL, Jacksonville was second in the league at the gate while in the USFL the Bulls ran away with the league's attendance title. Jacksonville also hosted numerous NFL preseason games over the years. The Baltimore Colts were in relocation discussions with the city in 1983 and in the late 1980s, the Houston Oilers came close to calling this Atlantic beach city their home. In 1993, the NFL unveiled plans to expand to two new areas. Eventually Charlotte, North Carolina was granted the first franchise. The other would be between St. Louis, Jacksonville, Baltimore or Memphis. On November 30, 1993, Jacksonville was announced as the winner. A “name-the–team” contest brought forth thousands of nicknames. The finalists were Stingrays, Sharks, Jaguars and Panthers. With "Jaguars" the choice, fan Ray Potts was randomly selected as the contest winner. Origin Facts: Indianapolis Colts Many franchises are lucky to have one great QB. The Colts have been blessed with a pair. This storied franchise first began in South Florida. In 1946, the AAFC placed a team in Miami called the Seahawks. The team accrued over $300,000 in debt and was eventually taken over by the league. The following season, the club was purchased by a group led by Robert Rodenburg and the team was relocated to Baltimore. In 1950, Baltimore was one of three AAFC teams which merged into the NFL. After going 1-11-0 with horrid crowds the first NFL season, then-Colts owner Abraham Watner sold the club to the NFL for $50,000. The team was moved to Dallas and renamed the Texans for the 1952 season. During the year, the team was taken over by the NFL for financial reasons. The next year, the team was back in Baltimore. In 1983, the Colts began talking with prospective cities for a possible relocation, such as Phoenix, Jacksonville, Birmingham, Indianapolis, Memphis and New York. The team moved to Indianapolis in 1984. Some of the NFL’s most eminent players have found a horseshoe on their helmet including Johnny Unitas, Bubba Smith, Peyton Manning and Raymond Berry, to name a few. This franchise has won five NFL titles, including two Super Bowls. The team got its nickname from a “name-the-team” contest won by Charles Evans of Maryland. The nickname "Colts" was chosen because of the tradition and history of horse racing and breeding in the area. Origin Facts: Houston Texans Even though the Texans are a young franchise, they still have their heroes. When the Houston Oilers left town for Nashville in 1997, the city felt the void left from not having pro football for the first time in 36 years. That same year Bob McNair and his business partner, Chuck Watson, were turned down for an NHL franchise. Not to be deterred, they turned their attention towards the NFL and a possible expansion franchise. First on the agenda was a plan with the Houston Livestock Rodeo to push for a retractable roof stadium which would be shared with the future NFL team. At the time, the NFL was focused on returning to Los Angeles. But chaos among L.A. officials coupled with McNair’s aggressive attitude and plans placed Houston on the short list along with L.A. and Cleveland. In 1998, the NFL Stadium Committee made a visit to view the proposed stadium and came away impressed. The league had already given L.A. six months to work out a feasibility ownership plan and stadium deal. When the Los Angeles effort failed, at the owner’s meeting in October of 1999 the NFL owners voted 29-0 to award an expansion franchise to McNair for $700 million. Months of extensive focus groups brought forward five nicknames as finalists: Stallions, Bobcats, Texans, Wildcatters and Apollos. On September 6, 2000, before thousands of fans and a live ESPN2 audience, owner Bob McNair unveiled the logo, colors and nickname of the "Texans." In the team’s first regular season game, the club hosted the Cowboys and came away happy with a 19-10 victory. It marked the first time an expansion team had won its opening game since 1961. One note of interest: the single star located within the logo represents the Lone Star of Texas. Origin Facts: Green Bay Packers One NFL stadium which will never display a corporate name: Lambeau Field The Packers began as a football team beginning in August of 1919. Curly Lambeau and George Calhoun were high school rivals and wanted to start a football team. At the time, Lambeau was a shipping clerk for the Indian Packing Company, who distributed canned meat sold as "Council Meats." Lambeau solicited his employer into becoming the team sponsor. The company agreed and put up $500 for equipment and also agreed to allow the team to use its athletic field for practices. The stipulation the company placed on Lambeau for its generosity was that the team would be named after the sponsor in order to advertise, much the same way a company softball team does today. Nicknamed the "Packers", the team played for two seasons with makeshift schedules against other teams from Wisconsin and Upper Michigan. In 1921, Lambeau was able to gain admission into the NFL, which was currently called the APFA and had just completed its maiden season. At the conclusion of its first year, the franchise was revoked and kicked out of the league for using college players under assumed names, a direct violation of league bylaws. Lambeau appealed to the league and then paid $250 to reinstate his team before the next season began. In 1923, the team once again was about to fold and was in need of $5,000 to continue. Five local businessmen, labeled the “Hungry Five,” helped incorporate the team as a non-profit corporation. They then sold stock, raised funds and established the Green Bay Packers Board of Directors . The five men were Curly Lambeau , Andrew Turnbull, Gerald Francis Clifford , Dr. Webber Kelly and Leland Joannes. A sportswriter coined the group’s label because each seemed to always have their hands out for funds. Today, the Packers are the only non-profit, community-owned major league professional sports team in the United States. One stipulation placed into the original covenants of the non-profit charter was that if the Packers were ever sold, the profits would benefit a local VFW Post; a stipulation that still exists. As of the 2010 United States Census , Green Bay, Wisconsin had a population of 104,057 and is the lone remaining small city team in the universe of professional sports franchises. The Packers have won 13 NFL titles, more than any other team. The franchise is also the only NFL organization to win three consecutive championships, and they executed this twice: 1929, 1930 and 1931, plus 1965, 1966 and 1967. The 1966 and 1967 championships are actually double championships as they were NFL Champs plus Super Bowl Champs (at the time called the "AFL-NFL Championship Game"). The team is doubly known as teams of the decades: “The Team of the 1930s” because of their four NFL Championships and four division titles; plus “The Team of the 1960s” due to their five NFL Championships, two Super Bowl victories and six division titles. The most notable Packer is former head coach Vince Lombardi, who took the helm from 1959-1967. Today, the Super Bowl trophy bears his name. Many of the NFL’s greatest players called Lambeau Field home including Bart Starr, Brett Favre , Ray Nitschke and Don Hutson, to name a few. Origin Facts: Detroit Lions 1966 Lions game-used helmet This team began in 1930 as the "Portsmouth Spartans." When the City of Portsmouth completed their new football stadium, the NFL offered a franchise. At the time, Portsmouth was the second smallest city in the NFL behind Green Bay. In its second season, Portsmouth would tie the Bears for the league’s best record and then lost 9-0 to Chicago in the NFL’s first playoff game. In spite of winning teams every year, financial distress coupled with the Great Depression decimated the team’s future. In 1934, a group from Michigan led by George Richards purchased the club for $7,952 and relocated it to Detroit. Richards named his club the "Lions" to go along with baseball’s Tigers. He would comment that the lion was the monarch of the jungle, and he intended him team to become the monarch of the NFL. The team was already loaded with talent in its first season as the Spartans were always a contender. The team would host the Bears on Thanksgiving Day, a tradition that continues today. The following season the Lions captured the 1935 NFL Championship. Unfortunately for fans, the club has encountered two winless seasons: 0-11-0 (1942) and 0-16-0 (2008). However, the Lions would dominate the 1950s as the club imprisoned the division four times and won three NFL Championships (1952, 1953 and 1957). This franchise has won a total of four NFL titles. One of the greatest NFL running backs played for the Lions: Barry Sanders. Origin Facts: Original Owner: The City of Portsmouth, Ohio Original Colors: Purple & white First Stadium: Universal Stadium, seating 8,200 Retired Jerseys: No. 7 Earl Clark, No. 20 Lem Barney, No. 20 Billy Sims, No. 20 Barry Sanders, No. 22 Bobby Layne, No. 37 Doak Walker, No. 56 Joe Schmidt, No. 85 Chuck Hughes, No. 88 Charlie Sanders Next » Denver Broncos October 11, 2009 game against the Patriots adorned in 1960 Broncos throwback uniforms. The game featured the famous brown and mustard vertical striped socks. The Broncos were in financial trouble from the start, beginning their inaugural year as a charter member of the AFL in 1960. Owner Bob Howsam was limited financially. He had owned a minor league baseball team called the Denver Bears and in 1958 inquired about an NFL team but was told expansion was years away. When he bought the AFL franchise, Howsam made every short-cut he could possibly make. He purchased used uniforms from the extinct Copper Bowl. One part of the uniforms were vertical striped socks, which has become one of the team’s most memorable early-year attributes. In 1963 the team hired Jack Faulkner as head coach. His first decision was to change the team colors from brown and gold to today’s orange, blue and white. The second order of business was a public sock burning ceremony. Faulkner did keep two pairs, for whatever reason, and today one pair an be viewed at the Pro Football Hall of Fame. The Broncos competed in the first-ever AFL game and came away with a 13-10 victory over the Patriots. In 1967, they became the first AFL team to defeat an NFL team in a pre-season game. In 1965, the club came close to relocating to Atlanta, but a local ownership group headed by Gerald and Allan Phipps put together a package and kept the team in Denver. Fan support subsequently increased from 7,993 season ticket holders to almost 23,000. A “name-the-team” contest was held in 1960. "Broncos" were the most submitted partly because of the popularity of a minor league baseball team in the 1920s of the same name. The franchise has won two NFL titles, both Super Bowls. Origin Facts: Dallas Cowboys Cowboys Emmitt Smith would go on to become the NFL's All-time rushing leader. The Cowboys became the NFL’s first expansion team and was the direct result of the rival AFL. All through the 1950’s, the NFL rejected the idea of expansion. When the newly formed AFL announced their plans to begin play in 1960, the established league suddenly announced plans to expand into four cities, the first of which would be Dallas. The AFL’s flagship team, the Texans, just happened to also be located in Dallas. Before any owner, office staff, coaching staff or players were assembled, the team was labeled the "Steers" by the league. At the owner’s meeting in Miami Beach, Florida, Clint Murchison and Bedford Wynne were awarded the expansion franchise, which was the NFL's hope to squelch the new AFL Dallas entry. The team was later renamed the "Rangers", which at the time was also the name of the local AAA minor league baseball team. But the baseball team had announced plans to relocate the following season. The addition of Dallas made an uneven number of clubs in the NFL. Dallas was designated as a “swing team” and played every team once instead of twice each within division opponents. Tex Schramm was hired away from the Rams to take the post of general manager. In the December 29, 1959 issue of the Dallas Morning News, the headline proclaimed, “Rangers Hire Tom Landry.” Coach Landry, a Texas native and University of Texas graduate, had also been courted by four other pro teams, one being the cross-town Texans. The Rangers would get a leg up on the Texans when they signed the rival teams' first-round draft choice QB Don Meredith to a personal services contract. With the emergency timing of forming the Dallas entry, the NFL college draft had already occurred. In order to fill the new team’s roster, the NFL held a dispersal draft from players left unprotected from each member team. When the dispersal draft was held, the team was still called the Rangers. A problem crept up when the baseball Rangers changed Major League affiliates and decided to stay put instead of the planned relocation. The Dallas NFL management didn’t want to create confusion and decided to change nicknames. Although Dallas wasn’t exactly the center of the livestock universe, the nickname "Cowboys" was catchy. The 1960 Cowboys would become one of pro football’s few winless teams as they drudged on to a 0-11-1 record. But with good draft picks, the team would go on to become one of the NFL’s greatest football teams. At one time, the team went to 18 straight playoff appearances. The Cowboys would draft one of the greatest running backs in the history of the league when they traded up four slots (via the Steelers) to select Emmitt Smith, III in 1990. Smith would go on to become the NFL’s career rushing leader with 18,355 yards. The franchise has won five NFL titles (tied: fifth most) - all Super Bowls. The team is known as “The Team of the 1990s” due to their three Super Bowl victories and six division titles. One note of interest: in the March 22, 1960 issue of the Dallas Morning News, sports editor Bill Rives wrote a column about the recent name change from Rangers to Cowboys. His column applauded the change in order to avoid confusion with the baseball team. He also penned that at some point, sports writers would eventually abbreviate Dallas’ new nickname to "the Boys." This marked the first time the team was referred to as such. Origin Facts: Original Owner: Clint Murchison & Bedford Wynne Original Colors: Blue & white First Stadium: Cotton Bowl, seating 92,100 Retired Jerseys: none Next » Cleveland Browns Browns head coach Paul Brown (right) invented the helmet face mask to help protect his QB Otto Graham (left). The Browns began in the AAFC in 1946 and competed in that league until 1949. The team dominated the new league and secured every championship. Paul Brown was head coach and became known as one of pro football’s most prominent strategists. For the next decade, his team would govern the game of professional football while his coaching methods would redesign the game. In 1950, the Browns were one of three teams which merged into the NFL. Cleveland promptly won their division and then defeated the Rams 30-28 to win the NFL Championship in their first year in the league. After the game, NFL commissioner Bert Bell told Coach Brown, “You are the greatest team to ever play football.” Cleveland would go on to win a total of four NFL titles to go along with their four AAFC crowns. The Browns would later draft one of the greatest players to ever suit up for pro football—Jim Brown. The team got its name from a “name-the-team” contest prior to its first season. Navy sailor John Hartnett won the contest with the name "Panthers." However, local businessman C. X. Zimmerman contacted management and informed them that he owned the rights to the name “Cleveland Panthers.” The Panthers were members of the very first American Football League in 1926 (commonly called AFL I). Midway through their first season, the Panthers folded. So it turned out, the new Panthers needed a new nickname. Paul Brown was already entrenched as one of the most famous individuals in the State of Ohio. While as head coach at Massillon (Ohio) High School, his teams accumulated an 80-8-2 record over nine seasons with four state titles. Today, the school’s address is 1 Paul E. Brown Drive S.E. while their stadium is named “ Paul Brown Tiger Stadium .” From there Coach Brown took the helm at Ohio State where he won a national championship. World War II shoved the coach into the Navy where as an enlisted officer he coached the Great Lakes Naval Academy football team which defeated several national college powers. With all the recognition and notoriety, while searching for a new nickname, the press and fans would routinely refer to the club as “Brown’s team.” A second contest was held with "Browns" being the most submitted. William Thompson was randomly selected as the winner. At first, Brown objected to the team being named after him but later rescinded his opposition and agreed. The team is known as “The Team of the 1950s” due to their three NFL Championships and eight division titles. During this time, they would also lose in the championship game four times. Origin Facts: Cincinnati Bengals Lots of helmet options for the Bengals The City of Cincinnati has a rich history in pro football. The Celts played in the unofficial Ohio League from 1910-1919 and scheduled exhibition games against several NFL teams in 1920 and 1921. From 1937-1941, a team called the Bengals competed in the third American Football League (commonly referred to as AFL III). In 1965, legendary coach Paul Brown was ready to get back into pro football after being out of the game for three years. Brown met with Ohio Governor Jim Rhodes to discuss whether the state could entertain another pro football club. Both men would be in agreement. The City of Cincinnati approved the construction of the 60,389-seat Riverfront Stadium in 1966. The following year, a group headed by Brown was awarded the AFL’s second-ever expansion franchise for $10 million. Having the famous coach associated with the AFL was a huge ego boost to the younger AFL as Brown was already enshrined into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Brown would become head coach as well as part-owner. He named the team the "Bengals" in order to give the new team a connection with the city’s professional football past. Oddly enough, at the time, the city’s zoo housed a rare white Bengal tiger. Brown chose as one of the team colors the familiar orange his former team, the Browns, used. He then added black to represent colors associated with a tiger. A solid orange helmet was designed (also similar to the Browns) with the word “Bengals” arched across the sides. Today, the Bengals have had one of the most unique helmets in the history of the NFL. Interesting enough, back in 1968 another helmet pattern was presented to Brown which he rejected, which was a striped helmet comparable to the helmet design in existence. The Bengals began playing in the 1968 season and defeated Denver 24-10 in its first home game. Brown stepped down as coach in 1975 and then served as GM and eventual majority ownership until his death in 1991. Brown himself was not a huge supporter of the AFL. Without any options to obtain an NFL team, his only recourse, was to approach the AFL. Brown already knew that the two leagues were going to merge beginnng in 1970 and that inclusion into the AFL would guarantee acceptance into the established league. Origin Facts: Chicago Bears 1920 Decatur Staleys One of the NFL’s most storied clubs; the team began as a company football team. George Halas was an exceptional athlete at the University of Illinois where he excelled in baseball and football. He was named the Rose Bowl MVP. After a stint in World War I, he played minor league baseball and eventually landed on the New York Yankees. A hip injury would end his baseball career. In 1919, he accepted a civil engineering job in the bridge department of the railroad. On weekends, he played for the Hammond Pros, an independent football team. A spectator at one game was a man by the name of Augustus Staley who owned a starch factory in Decatur, Illinois. Staley had a company baseball and basketball team he used for mainly advertising purposes. He wanted to start a football team and offered Halas a position with the A. E. Staley Company. His duties would be to learn the starch business, become the athletic director of the company, and play on the company teams. Halas went back to the railroad and thought about whether he would be happy sitting behind a desk for 25 years. He then accepted Staley’s offer. Halas played on each company sports team and started the football squad. The team colors chosen were those of his college team. It just so happened that a new league was being formed. Halas attended the meeting in Canton, Ohio and the "Decatur Staleys" were born right along with the NFL. The Staleys were a good team right from the beginning. Halas was strict and had the advantage that most other teams didn’t have—job opportunities. The starch company could offer the better players a job while they played for the company team. In the first season, the Staleys finished in second place. The following year, Augustus Staley began to downsize his athletic endeavors. He offered Halas $5,000 to continue for one more season with the stipulation that the Staleys nickname would continue for advertising purposes, but suggested relocation to a larger city in order to draw bigger crowds. Halas chose nearby Chicago. The "Chicago Staleys" were able to lease Wrigley Field, home of the Cubs., and captured the 1921 NFL title. In 1922, after the affliation with Staley was completed, Halas renamed his team the "Chicago Cubs" in hopes that fans would support both sports. Upon consideration, he noted that football players were bigger than their baseball counterparts, so if baseball players were cubs, then football players must be "Bears." The Bears have been one of the NFL’s most successful franchises over the decades. Halas signed Red Grange in 1925 and overflowing crowds waited wherever the Bears played. A game in New York was responsible for saving the Giants franchise from financial ruin. So many great players have been a member of the Bears throughout the years such as Dick Butkus, Gale Sayers, Red Grange, Walter Payton and Bronko Nagurski.. Only in eight of their first 50 years did the Bears finish worse than third place. The Bears, along with the Cardinals, are the only two charter members still in existence. This franchise has won nine NFL titles (second most), including one Super Bowl. The team is known as “The Team of the 1940s” due to their four NFL Championships and five division titles. Halas served the Bears as an owner, player, coach, general manager, traveling secretary and in virtually every other capacity imaginable with the Bears. Halas passed away on October 31, 1983. He is known as the “Father of the NFL.” Origin Facts: Original Owner: A. E. Staley Original Colors: Black & white First Stadium: Staley Field, seating: none Retired Jerseys: No. 3 Bronko Nagurski, No. 5 George McAfee, No. 7 George Halas, No. 42 Sid Luckman, No. 66 Bulldog Turner, No. 28 Willie Galimore, No. 77 Red Grange, No. 56 Bill Hewitt End, No. 61 Bill George, No. 40 Gale Sayers, No. 51 Dick Butkus, No. 41 Brian Piccolo, No. 34 Walter Payton Carolina Panthers 2003 Panthers NFC Champs ring The Panthers joined the NFL as an expansion team in 1995 along with the Jaguars. With the league currently a tidy 32 clubs, it is unlikely expansion will ever occur again. In 1987, Jerry Richardson submitted his interest in obtaining an NFL expansion team. The NFL had announced that the league would expand to two more teams and Richardson wanted to be at the front of the line. A stadium site was then selected, and in 1989, Richardson unveiled plans for a privately funded venue in uptown Charlotte. In 1992, the NFL cut their expansion list from 11 prospective cities to seven. In May, the list was reduced to five cities: Memphis, Baltimore, Jacksonville, Charlotte and St. Louis. Finally, on October 26, 1993, the NFL awarded Charlotte the first of two expansion teams. In only the fourth season, the team won their division. In 2003, the Panthers won the NFC crown and subsequently lost to the Patriots 32–29 in a tightly played Super Bowl XXXVIII . Richardson’s son Mark is responsible for the selection of the team name "Panthers." Mark felt that there should be some “synergy” between the name and the team colors and also suggested the team colors of black, blue and silver. Origin Facts: Next » Buffalo Bills Few pro football teams have been named for an actual person. "Buffalo Bill" Cody became famous for his "Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show" he organized with cowboy themes and actual Indian chiefs. The City of Buffalo has a long history with pro football with several different teams before the formation of the NFL, most notably the Niagras. The "Buffalo All-Americans" joined the NFL’s first season in 1920 and competed until 1923 when the team went through two other nickname changes. In 1946, the city held a franchise in the newly formed AAFC. The team was called the "Bisons" in the first season but was changed to the "Bills" for the other three years. The club did very well on the field and was widely supported at the gate. When the AAFC merged into the NFL in 1950, three clubs were admitted. Buffalo, however, was not one of them. The city was livid. Buffalo had an excellent following, better attendance and their team was far superior to the third team accepted—the Colts. Suddenly, their team was regulated to the junk pile which angered team followers. Bills’ fans petitioned the NFL for inclusion into the league, then generated over 15,000 season ticket pledges and raised $175,000. Later, it was divulged that the Colts had paid the NFL Redskins a $150,000 territorial fee, and that Bills’ owner Jim Breuil had accepted a one-fourth ownership package with the four-time AAFC Champion Browns. But the success of the AAFC Bills would ultimately set the stage for the 1960 version. Buffalo was one of the first franchises named in the AFL. Owner Ralph Wilson was quite wealthy and had attempted to purchase a NFL expansion team, but like all the rest was repeatedly turned down. Because of the success of the AAFC Bills, it was a natural fusion with the newer rendition. The nickname originally came from the fabled Wild West showman, William “Buffalo Bill” Cody. Origin Facts: Baltimore Ravens When you think of the Ravens, you think of their defense led by LB Ray Lewis. Once upon a time, in order for a NFL team to move to another city a three-fourths majority vote by the other owners was mandatory. The Raiders changed all that. The owners had rejected Oakland owner Al Davis ’ request to relocate from Oakland to Los Angeles to which he moved the team anyway, filed a lawsuit and won. Baltimore Colts owner Robert Irsay wanted a better stadium and a better stadium deal. In 1972, a proposal was presented to build a magnificent stadium complex located next to Camden Yards including a stadium called the “Baltodome.” But the proposal did not receive enough support to pass the Maryland legislature to which then-Governor Marvin Mandel axed the project altogether. Irsay approached other cities for relocation including Jacksonville, Indianapolis, Birmingham, Memphis, New York and Phoenix. He asked for a league vote to approve any such move. The owners, fresh off the Raiders debacle, didn’t vote “yes” or “no." They simply stated that the Colts possible move wasn’t a league matter but rather a team matter. So, the Colts left Baltimore for Indianapolis in 1984. The City of Baltimore was suddenly without pro football. At the same time, the stadium problems Irsay had in Baltimore Browns' owner Art Modell was going through in Cleveland. So, Modell moved his Browns to Baltimore with the incentive of a new stadium, located next to Camden Yards. How ironic. But something happened in this relocation that has never occurred before. After legal actions were filed against Modell and the Browns, eventually Cleveland accepted a legal settlement from the NFL. The conditions of the settlement were exclusive to this situation: the Browns nickname, colors, player history, awards, records, logo, achievements, and even team history, would not accompany Modell to Baltimore but would remain in Cleveland. In addition, Cleveland would get another team either by expansion or by relocation of an existing team. In the meantime, the newly relocated former Browns Baltimore team needed some identity, like colors, a new nickname, and a logo. A “name-the-team” contest was held. Baltimore management poured through the entries and came up with a list of 17. From there, it was narrowed down to six and then to three: Americans, Ravens and Marauders. The last step was for the fans to vote on the final three entries. From the 33,288 voters, "Ravens" won out to honor author Edgar Allan Poe, who lived and is buried in Baltimore. Four years later, the franchise would win Super Bowl 35. Origin Facts: Falcons great LB Tommy Nobis The Falcons are a team that exists simply because of the rival AFL. In June of 1965, a group of Atlanta businessmen were granted an AFL franchise provided they could get exclusive use of the newly-opened Atlanta Stadium. The NFL had discussed expansion to Atlanta in the past, but had not made any moves to this effect. When NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle heard that the new league was going to set up shop in Atlanta, he booked the next flight and forced the group to decide between the AFL or the NFL as an expansion team. The established league won out. In 1989, the Falcons drafted one of the best cornerbacks in NFL history with Deion Sanders. In a “name-the-team” contest, 558 separate nicknames were submitted. Several suggested "Falcons", but the entry of school teacher Julie Elliott was chosen with her summation that “the falcon is proud and dignified with great courage and fight.” Origin Facts: Original Owner: Rankin Smith, Sr. Original Colors: red, black & white First Stadium: Atlanta Stadium, seating 60,606 Retired Jerseys: No. 60 Tommy Nobis, No. 87 Claude Humphrey, No. 57 Jeff Van Note, No. 10 Steve Bartkowski, No. 78 Mike Kenn, No. 31 William Andrews, No. 58 Jessie Tuggle Arizona Cardinals Morgan Athletic Club The Cardinals are an NFL charter member and the oldest continuous professional football team in existence dating back to 1898. The franchise began as a Chicago neighborhood football team called the "Morgan Athletic Club." They then began known as the "Racine Normals" after playing their home games at a football field on Racine Street near Normal Boulevard. In 1901, team owner Chris O’Brien got an exceptional deal on some used red football uniforms from the University of Chicago. When the uniforms arrived, upon unloading the jerseys, the team manager commented that the jerseys were “faded red,” to which O’Brien exclaimed that they weren’t faded red but indeed “cardinal red.” After that, the club was known as the "Racine Cardinals," which the nickname was originally about the color rather than the bird. The team became champions of the Chicago Football League in 1917. In September of 1920, O’Brien's Racine Cardinals joined the newly formed American Professional Football Association (later renamed the NFL) for a $100 entry fee. The Racine Cardinals changed their team name in 1922 after a team from Racine, Wisconsin began playing in the NFL. Not to be confused with the "Racine Legion," the club was now known as the "Chicago Cardinals." In 1944, the team was short of players as most of their roster went into World War II. The club merged with the Pittsburgh Steelers and became "Card-Pitt." After losing most of their games, a sports writer dubbed them the "Carpits." In 1945, the franchise was renamed the Chicago Cardinals. The Cardinals moved from Chicago to St. Louis in 1960 and became the "St. Louis Cardinals." In 1988, the club relocated to Tempe, Arizona and was christened the "Phoenix Cardinals." Then in 1994, the franchise endured another name change and became the "Arizona Cardinals", based in the Phoenix area. Currently, the team plays and is headquartered in Glendale, Arizona. The team has won two NFL titles: 1925 and 1947. The 1925 title was controversial in that the "Pottsville Maroons" claim they were the true champions. As late as 2003, members of the Pottsville community had petitioned the NFL to award the league title, but were finally denied 30-2 by the league owners and commissioner Paul Tagliabue. Currently, in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, rests a hand-carved trophy out of coal by members of the 1925 Maroons. Origin Facts: Original Owner: Chris O’Brien Original Colors: Cardinal red & white First Stadium: Normal Park, seating 6,000 Retired Jerseys: No. 99 Marshall Goldberg, No. 77 Stan Mauldin, No. 8 Larry Wilson, No. 88 J.V. Cain, No. 40 Pat Tillman American Football Conference / National Football Conference Original 1970 AFC and NFC logos After the merger between the AFL and NFL was agreed upon and announced in 1966, there were several items dangling that needed to be addressed. One of which would be how the conferences and divisions would be structured. Even though the leagues would meld into one, there was still quite a bit of animosity among AFL and NFL owners towards each other. This is understandable since each had attempted to destroy the other for years. At the time, the NFL comprised 16 teams while the AFL had 10. At the 1969 owners meeting, NFL commissioner Rozelle announced that the two conferences would be called "American Football Conference" (AFC) and "National Football Conference" (NFC). And as an aside, the AFC would consist of the 10 AFL teams while the NFC would contain the 16 NFL clubs. The AFL owners were livid, especially Bengals owner/coach Paul Brown and Raiders owner Al Davis . Before the meeting was adjourned, Rozelle relented and said that both conferences would somehow contain 13 teams. This meant one thing: three NFL clubs would have to join up with the AFL and the newly formed AFC. At the next owners' meeting, Rozelle stated that any club that switched would receive a one-time stipend of $3 million if they agreed to join the AFC. It was mutually decided that the Packers, Bears, Cowboys and Giants would not be part of the jump, but every other team was open. Rozelle kept the owners together for 30 hours until finally Colts' owner Carroll Rosenbloom relented. Browns' owner Art Modell then stated he would go to the AFC, but only if his friend Art Rooney of the Steelers would join him. Ironically, the very first Super Bowl after the merger pitted the Colts against the Cowboys--two former NFL teams.	i don't know
Who was both the last President of Czechoslovakia and the first President of the Czech republic?	President of Czech Republic \| Current Head of State President of Czech Republic 08.03.2013 - 11:25 \| Tags: President Czech Republic , Vaclav Klaus \| Category: All , Europe Leaders Milos Zeman, President of Czech Republic (since Mar 8, 2013) Miloš Zeman (born 28 September 1944) is the third and current President of the Czech Republic, in office since 8 March 2013. Previously he served as the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic from 1998 to 2002. As leader of the Czech Social Democratic Party during the 1990s, he transformed it into one of the country’s major parties. He was Chairman of the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the Czech parliament, from 1996 to 1998. In January 2013, Zeman was elected as President of the Czech Republic. He is the first directly elected President in Czech history; both of his predecessors, Václav Havel and Václav Klaus, were elected by the Parliament. Early years (Communist Czechoslovakia) Zeman was born in Kolín; his parents divorced when he was two years old, and he was raised by his mother, who was a teacher. He studied at a high school in Kolín; from 1965 he continued his studies at the University of Economics in Prague, graduating in 1969. In 1968, during the Prague Spring, he became a member of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia; however, he was expelled in 1970, due to his disagreement with the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia. He was dismissed from his job and spent more than a decade as an employee of the sports organisation Sportpropag (1971–84). Since 1984, he worked in the company Agrodat. However, he was dismissed again in 1989, this time due to his critical article “Prognostika a přestavba” (Prognostics and Reconstruction). Activities since 1989 In summer 1989, he appeared on Czechoslovak Television with a critical commentary about the unsatisfactory state of the Czechoslovak economy. His speech caused a scandal. However, the same opinions helped him to join the leaders of the Civic Forum few months later, during the Velvet Revolution. In 1990, Zeman became a member of the Chamber of the Nations of the Czechoslovak Federal Assembly. In 1992, he successfully ran for the Chamber of the People of the Federal Assembly, already as a member of the Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD), which he joined the same year. In 1993, he was elected the chairman of the party, and in the following years he transformed it into one of the country’s major parties. Miloš Zeman and Vladimir Putin in April 2002 The success of ČSSD in the 1996 legislative election allowed him to prevent his rival Václav Klaus and his Civic Democratic Party (ODS) from creating majority government. Zeman became the Chair of the Chamber of Deputies of the Parliament of the Czech Republic and held this post until the early election in 1998. In 1998, the ČSSD won the election and Zeman became the Prime Minister of his own minority government, which he led throughout the next four years. In April 2001, he was replaced by Vladimír Špidla as the party leader. Zeman then retired and moved to live in the countryside (Vysočina Region). His nomination for Czech president failed at the 2003 presidential election (to Václav Klaus), due to the party disunity. Zeman became an outspoken critic of his former party’s leaders. He left the Czech Social Democratic Party on 21 March 2007, due to conflicts with the leader and chairman of the Czech Social Democratic Party, Jiří Paroubek. In October 2009, he founded a new party, Party of Civic Rights – Zemanovci. The party did not win any seats in the 2010 legislative election. Presidency Miloš Zeman announced his comeback and the intention to run in the first direct presidential election in the Czech Republic in February 2012. Together with Jan Fischer, polling showed him to be one of the two strongest candidates in the election. Zeman narrowly won the first round of the elections and went into the second round to face Karel Schwarzenberg, winning by a clearer margin. His term began in March 2013. Personal Views Zeman has a similar view on global warming as his former opponent Klaus. According to his opinion, human activity probably could not influence global warming. In June 2011, Zeman, referring to Islam, said “The enemy is the anti-civilisation spreading from North Africa to Indonesia. Two billion people live in it.” He likened Muslims who believe in the Qur’an to antisemitic and racist Nazis. A complaint was lodged against him following the comments. In November 2012, during a speech at the University of Economics in Prague, he explained the dislike that he has for Madeleine Albright, former US Secretary of State. Zeman stated that Albright had promised that there would be no bombardment of civilians during the 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia. “And Madeleine Albright made a promise, and Madeleine Albright didn’t keep the promise. Since that, I don’t like her.” Zeman has said that he will not let the Czech Republic send any ambassador to Kosovo. He has expressed that he is against the recognition of Kosovo as a state, and views it as a terror regime financed by the narcotics mafia. He describes himself as a “tolerant atheist”. Personal life In the 1970s, Zeman was married to Blanka Zemanová; the couple divorced in 1978. In 1993, he married his assistant Ivana Bednarčíková[30] (born 29 April 1965). He has an adult son named David from the first marriage. His daughter from the second, Kateřina Zemanová (born 1 January 1994), was one of the most visible faces in Zeman’s presidential election team. In a post-election speech, Zeman informally asked her to be his “informal first lady”, as his wife is allegedly shy and doesn’t like the attention of media. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milo%C5%A1_Zeman Vaclav Klaus, Former President of Czech Republic Vaclav Klaus, President of Czech Republic Vaclav Klaus was born in the Vinohrady district of Prague on June 19, 1941. He spent his childhood and youth in the neighbourhood of Tylovo namesti square. He obtained his university education at the University of Economics, Prague (majoring in the Foreign Trade Economics and graduating in 1963), and economics thus became his specialist field for his entire life. He took advantage of the relative liberalisation in the then Czechoslovakia in order to study in Italy (1966) and the USA (1969). As a research worker at the Institute of Economics of the Czech Academy of Sciences he completed his postgraduate scientific studies and in 1968 was awarded the title of app. PhD. in Economics. In 1970 he was forced to abandon his research career for political reasons, and left to work at the Czechoslovak State Bank for many years. In 1987 he returned from the bank to his academic work at the Prognostic Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences at the end of 1987. Immediately after the events of November 17, 1989 he entered politics, but did not lose contact with the world of economic science. He continued to lecture and publish occasionally, and in 1991 he was engaged as a lecturer at Charles University in the field of economics. In 1995 he was appointed professor for the field of finances at the University of Economics, Prague. He embarked on his political career in December 1989, when he became Federal Minister of Finance. Later, in October 1991 he was appointed vice chairman of the government of the Czechoslovak Federal Republic. At the end of 1990 he became the chairman of the then strongest political entity – the Civic Forum. Following its demise in April 1991 he co-founded the Civic Democratic Party, of which he was chairman from its inception until December 2002. He won a parliamentary election with this party in June 1992 and became Prime Minister of the Czech Republic. In this role he shared in the “Velvet Divorce” of the Czechoslovak Federation and the foundation of an independent Czech Republic. In 1996 he successfully defended his post as Prime Minister in election to the Chamber of Deputies. Following the collapse of the governing coalition he tendered his resignation in November 1997. Following a forced general election in 1998 he became chairman of the Chamber of Deputies of the Czech parliament for a four-year period. On February 28, 2003 he was elected President of the Czech Republic. On February 15, 2008 he was elected President of the Czech Republic. Vaclav Klaus is married to the economist Livia Klausova and has two sons and five grandchildren. His son Vaclav is the headmaster of a private grammar school in Prague, and his son Jan works as a financial analyst. For many years in his youth Vaclav Klaus was top sportsman, playing basketball and volleyball, and also enjoys skiing and playing tennis. In his free time he enjoys reading fictitious literature and listening to music, in particular jazz. He has published over 20 books on general social, political and economic themes, and has been awarded a number of international prizes and honorary doctorates from universities all over the world. Source: http://www.hrad.cz/en/president-of-the-cr/current-president-of-the-cr-vaclav-klaus/curriculum-vitae.shtml	Václav Havel
What was the name of the American singer-songwriter, best known for his 1994 debut album 'Grace', who drowned whilst swimming in a tributary of the Mississippi River in 1997?	A Brief History of the Czech Republic A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CZECH REPUBLIC By Tim Lambert THE FIRST CZECHS From about 400 BC what is now the Czech Republic was inhabited by a Celtic race. The Romans called them the Boii and they gave their name to Bohemia. Then about 100 AD a Germanic people called the Marcomanni conquered the area. The Romans traded with the Marcomanni and sometimes fought with them but they never conquered this part of the world. In the sixth century a Slavic people entered what is now the Czech Republic. According to legend a man called Cech led them. However for centuries they were only a collection of tribes not a single, united people. However in the 9th century a people called the Moravians from the frontier of the Czech Republic and Slovakia created an empire in Central Europe. It was called the Great Moravian Empire and it included what is now the Czech Republic, Slovakia and parts of Germany and Poland. German missionaries began to convert the people of the empire to Christianity. Then the ruler Ratislav (846-870) asked the Byzantine emperor to send missionaries. He sent St Methodius and St Cyril. Wenceslas inherited the throne of Bohemia (Czech Republic) in 921 when he was 14. When he came of age he tried to convert his people to Christianity. However people led by his brother Boleslav opposed him. In 929 Wenceslas was murdered. Afterwards he was canonized (declared a saint). Moreover the march of Christianity could not be stopped and soon all of Bohemia was converted. The Moravian Empire reached a peak under Svatopluk (871-894). However in 896 a fierce people from the east called Magyars invaded. They conquered Slovakia but the Czechs remained independent. THE CZECHS IN THE MIDDLE AGES Furthermore the different tribes in what is now the Czech Republic gradually became united under the Premyslid dynasty. However the Germans overshadowed them. In 950 Bohemia became part of the Holy Roman Empire. What was this empire? The Christian writer Augustine claimed that God created the Roman Empire for the good of mankind. He said there should be one empire led by an emperor just as there was one church led by the pope. In the early 9th century a man named Charlemagne conquered most of western and central Europe. He claimed he was the successor of the old Roman emperors (even though his empire did not include Rome). After his death his empire split into three parts. The eastern part eventually became Germany. However the ruler of the eastern past kept the title emperor. In time his realm became known as the Holy Roman Empire. However it soon became a patchwork quilt of states and the emperor had little power. The Czechs resisted any interference by the emperors in their domestic affairs. In the 13th century Bohemia (Czech Republic) prospered. Silver and gold were discovered and mining became an important industry. German settlers, craftsmen, farmers and miners were encouraged to come and live in Bohemia. Towns and trade flourished. The Premyslid dynasty ended in 1306 when Vaclav III was assassinated. Eventually the Czech nobles offered the throne to John of Luxembourg, husband of Vaclav's sister. The 14th century was a golden age for the Czechs. John, who ruled until 1346 spent most of his time abroad but his son Charles or Karel IV was a great ruler. Under him Bohemia became rich and powerful. In 1355 he was elected Holy Roman Emperor. In 1356 he issued a golden bull which confirmed that the Holy Roman Empire was a commonwealth of sovereign states not a single empire. Charles introduced more efficient farming methods from France. This together with its gold and silver mines made Bohemia prosperous. Charles built many new public buildings and under him the arts flourished. Furthermore in 1348 Charles founded a university in Prague - the first in central Europe. THE HUSSITES By the late 14th century the church was very rich and powerful. It had also fallen into disrepute. The church had split and there were two popes, both claiming to be the 'true' pope. Some people began to demand reform. In England John Wycliffe criticized some of the church's practices and beliefs. His teaching spread to Prague University. Leading the reformers was Jan Hus. At first the king was willing to support the Hussites for political reasons. However Prague University was founded not just for Czech students from all over the Holy Roman Empire. They were divided into four groups called nations, Saxons, Bavarians, Poles and Czechs. Each had equal voting rights. However in 1409 Vaclav IV changed the system. He decreed that in future the Czech nation would have 3 votes and the other nations would have one each. In protest German students and lecturers left. Yet Vaclav IV changed sides in 1412 when he was offered a percentage of the money from sales of papal indulgences. (An indulgence was a document. If you bought one your sins were forgiven). The Hussites disapproved of this practice and they split with the king. In 1412 Hus and his supporters were expelled from Prague University and excommunicated. They then became wandering preachers. Eventually Hus was called to the Council of Constance to answer charges of heresy. The Holy Roman Emperor, Sigismund promised him safe conduct. Nevertheless Hus was burned to death in July 1415. The Czechs were appalled and afterwards many of the practices of the Czech church were reformed. Certain priests were removed from their parishes. However in 1419 King Vaclav agreed to their reinstatement. This provoked rebellion. Hus's supporters threw their enemies out of the windows of a building. The Pope preached a 'crusade' against the 'heretics'. However the Czechs defeated them in battle. Under their leader Jan Zizka they went out to meet the 'crusaders'. The Hussites surrounded themselves with heavy wooden wagons for protection. Women fought alongside men and they used farm tools adapted as weapons. Using these unorthodox methods they crushed the 'crusaders' at the battle of Vitkov. Meanwhile the Hussites had split into two groups. The more radical wing founded a new town called Tabor. They became known as Taborites. The Taborites did not only criticize the church they attacked all wealth and privilege. Not surprisingly they were very unpopular with the upper class. The more moderate wing of the Hussites wanted only religious not social changes. They were called Utraquists. At first the Taborites and the Utraquists were forced to unite to fight the Catholics. The Bohemian Diet (parliament) devised the Four Articles of Prague, which was meant to be a compromise. However the unity did not last long. In 1431 the Catholic 'crusaders' were crushed in a battle near Domazlice. Afterwards the Catholic church realized it had to resort to diplomacy. In 1433 they made peace with the Utraquists. The Taborites refused to stop fighting and as a result the Utraquists turned against them. (Wealthy Czechs feared the Taborites because they were opposed to the existing social order). Together Utraquists and Catholics crushed the Taborites at the battle of Lipany in 1434. Afterwards the church in Bohemia (Czech Republic) remained a moderate Hussite one. In the 15th century Bohemia, like the rest of central Europe, was faced with the growing threat from Turkey. Meanwhile Bohemia had a succession of weak rulers and the Czech nobility grew more powerful at the expense of the king and the towns. THE CZECHS UNDER HAPSBURG RULE However in 1526 a Hapsburg became Ferdinand I. (The Hapsburgs were a powerful family who ruled several European states). The Hapsburgs restored strong central rule. However Ferdinand was a Catholic. At first he was forced to accept the Hussite Church in Bohemia but in 1546-47 he joined in a war against Protestants in Germany. Many Czechs rebelled but the rebellion failed. Afterwards many prominent Czech Protestants were executed. Furthermore Ferdinand invited the Jesuits to Bohemia to try and convert his people to Catholicism. However he had to tread carefully to avoid alienating his Czech subjects. His son Rudolf II was even more tolerant and privately said he was neither Catholic nor Protestant but Christian. He was also a patron of the arts and learning and under him Czech culture flourished. However he abdicated in 1611 in favor of his brother Matthias. In 1617 Matthias named his staunchly Catholic cousin Ferdinand as his heir. The result was a rebellion by Protestant nobles. Other countries, both Catholic and Protestant took sides and as result Europe was plunged into a terrible war - The Thirty Years War. It began in 1618 when rebels threw Catholic nobles out of a window in Prague - the so-called defenestration of Prague. However the Czech Protestants were crushed at the battle of Bila Hora (White Mountain) in 1620. Afterwards a number of Protestant nobles were executed and their property was confiscated. In 1627 a new constitution was imposed. The powers of the Czech Diet (parliament) were curtailed and Roman Catholicism became the only recognized religion. Meanwhile the Czechs suffered terribly during the war. In 1632 the Protestant Saxons took Bohemia but the Catholic forces soon recaptured it. Then for 13 years from 1635 to 1648 the two sides, Protestant and Catholic fought over Bohemia. When the war finally ended in 1648 Bohemia was devastated and her population was greatly reduced. Afterwards Bohemia was a predominantly Catholic state. After the war Protestant landowners had their estates confiscated. (Much of this confiscated land was given to Catholic Germans). The Hapsburg rulers had much power and the Diet had little. The Czechs became part of an empire including Austria and Hungary. Czech culture suffered. However Czech fortunes revived in the mid-18th century. From 1740 Maria-Theresa was empress of Austro-Hungary. She was more sympathetic to the Czechs than previous rulers. However Bohemia was involved in the War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748. French soldiers occupied Prague in 1741-1742 and by the Prussians in 1744. Furthermore in 1757 the Prussians defeated the Austrians in a battle at Prague during the Seven Years War (1756-1763). In 1773 the empress banned the Jesuits but in 1781 her successor introduced religious toleration. THE CZECHS IN THE 19TH CENTURY In the early 19th century Czech industry grew rapidly. The textile industry boomed. The sugar industry and an iron industry also prospered. Meanwhile interest in Czech culture and history grew. Among the leading minds of the 19th century were Josef Dobrovsky (1753-1829) a linguist and Frantisek Palacky a historian. Furthermore during the 19th century the great Czech composer Antonin Dvorak (1841-1904) wrote operas, concertos and symphonies. Nationalism and the ideas of the French Revolution grew more and more important during the 19th century and in 1848 they exploded in revolution. It was ignited by a revolution in France in February, which was followed by revolutions in other parts of Europe. Alarmed by the unrest sweeping Europe the Austrian emperor at first backed down. He promised his people constitutional changes. In June a Slav Congress was held in Prague. At that time Czech radicals erected barricades in the streets of Prague. The army withdrew but used artillery to bombard Prague. The city surrendered. Soon revolutions in the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed. However in 1859 Austria was defeated in a war with France. In 1866 the Austrians suffered another defeat in a war with Prussia. Following these humiliations the Dual Monarchy was created in 1867. Austria and Hungary became independent states with one monarch. However the Czechs were not granted autonomy and nationalism and demands for independence grew. Meanwhile industrialization continued in what is now the Czech Republic. Coal mining boomed. So did an engineering industry. The textile industry also flourished. THE CZECHS IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR In 1914 the Czechs were reluctant to fight for the Austrians and Magyars. They were also reluctant to fight the Russians (fellow Slavs). On the eastern front thousands surrendered to the Russians rather than fight them. Meanwhile in Paris a university lecturer called Tomas Masaryk formed an organisation called the Czech Committee Abroad. (It later changed its name to the Czech National Committee). In November 1915 his organisation called for an independent Bohemia and Slovakia. On 29 June 1918 the Committee was recognized as the provisional government of Czechoslovakia by France. It was recognized by Britain on 9 August, by the USA on 18 September and by Italy on 3 October. By then Austria-Hungary was collapsing. On 14 October Masaryk gave US President Wilson the Czechoslovak declaration of independence. (Later called the Washington declaration). On 28 October 1918 an independent Czechoslovak Republic was declared in Prague. Meanwhile in 1916 some Czech prisoners of war agreed to join the French foreign legion and fight the Austrians. In 1917 a separate Czech army was formed in Russia. However in November 1917 the Communists staged a revolution. Russia then became embroiled in civil war. The Czech soldiers were keen to return home but on 20 May 1918 the Communists demanded that they disarm. They refused and they had to fight the Russian Communists to get home. CZECHOSLOVAKIA The new state of Czechoslovakia was the only industrialized state in eastern Europe. It also proved to be the only successful democracy. Its first president was Masaryk. He resigned in 1935. During the inter-war period Czechoslovakia produced the great writer Franz Kafka. Other writers were Jaroslav Hasek and Karel Capek who first used the word robot for a mechanical man in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). However the new republic was faced with the problem that it contained large national minorities. On 29 October 1918 Germans in north and west Bohemia declared their independence. However the wartime allies were afraid that they would join with Austria. French and Italian troops were sent to the German areas and they were made part of Czechoslovakia again but the German minorities desire for independence spelled trouble for the future. Meanwhile after 1929 Czechoslovakia suffered from the economic depression. By 1933 industrial output fell to only 60% of its pre-war level. Unemployment soared till it was almost one third of the workforce. However after 1935 the Czech economy slowly recovered. However in the late 1930s the main question was the Germans who lived in the Sudetenland. They formed a separatist party, the German Sudeten Party and by 1935 60% of the Germans who lived in the area voted from them. Then after annexing Austria in March 1938 Hitler turned his attention to Czechoslovakia. Konrad Henlein the head of the Sudeten German Party demanded full autonomy. In May German soldiers began moving towards the frontier. The Czech government ordered a partial mobilization. Henlein now demanded that the Sudetenland be joined with Germany. Shamefully, Britain and France were unwilling to fight to defend Czechoslovakia. On 15 September Chamberlain, the British prime minister met Hitler at Berchtesgaden. Later he met Hitler at Bad Godesbury in an attempt to 'appease' him. On 23 September the Czech army fully mobilized. Unfortunately on 30 September Chamberlain and the French prime minister met Hitler at Munich and agreed to all his demands. The Czechs had no option but to agree. President Benes resigned on 5 October. He left Czechoslovakia on 22 October. Then, on 15 March the Germans occupied the rest of the Czech lands. Slovakia became a separate country - and a German satellite. Finally on 21 July 1940 the British government recognized Benes as the leader of a Provisional Czechoslovakian government in exile. Also in 1941 Reinhard Heydrich was made 'Reichs Protector' or ruler of the Czech lands. A wave of executions followed. Heydrich also began deporting Jews to concentration camps. However on 27 May 1942 Heydrich was assassinated by Czech agents who had parachuted into the country. The Germans carried out a terrible revenge. They burned the villages of Lidice and Lezaky and killed all the men. Women and children were deported. On 6 October 1944 Czech soldiers fighting alongside the Russian army crossed the border from Poland into Czechoslovakia. On 4 April 1945 President Benes formed a provisional government at Kosice. It was made up of Socialists, Social Democrats and Communists. Finally on 5 May the people of Prague rose in revolt. They fought the Germans until 9 May when the Russian army arrived in the city. After the Second World War Germans from the Sudetenland were expelled from Czechoslovakia. COMMUNIST CZECHOSLOVAKIA Furthermore the Communists began taking over Czechoslovakia. Although Benes was president the Communists held the key posts of Prime Minister, Minister of Defense and Minister of the Interior. They also controlled the trade unions. In elections held in May 1946 the communists obtained 40% of the vote and emerged as the largest party. At the beginning of 1948 the Communist minister of the interior began to purge the police of 'unreliable' officers and replace them with Communists. In February 1948 the non-Communist members of the cabinet resigned in protest, hoping President Benes would dismiss the Communist prime minister Klement Gottwald. However the Communists held mass demonstrations and the Russian army began to build up along the Hungarian border. Prime minister Gottwald then demanded that President Benes appoint a new cabinet of Communists, which he did. Then on 9 May parliament passed a new constitution giving the Communist party a 'leading role'. Benes refused to sign it and resigned. Gottwald replaced him as president. Meanwhile a liberal politician named Jan Masaryk was murdered. The Communists lost no time in creating a totalitarian regime in Czechoslovakia. Industry was nationalized and in the 1950s agriculture was collectivized. At first the Communists arrested their opponents. Then they turned on their own people. In the early 1950s the Communist party was 'purged'. Members were executed or imprisoned. In 1953 after the death of Stalin Czechoslovakia was hit by demonstrations and strikes. The army was sent in to suppress them. Czechoslovakia remained a Stalinist society. However in the 1960s a slight 'thaw' happened. Censorship was relaxed and restrictions of foreign travel were made less rigorous. As a result criticism of the regime grew and it reached a crescendo in 1968. In January 1968 a Slovak named Alexander Dubcek became First Secretary of the Communist party. During the so-called Prague Spring of 1968 he introduced a more liberal regime. It was sometimes called 'socialism with a human face'. Censorship ended and people openly criticized the Communist party. However the Russians were appalled and they were determined to end the liberalization. Finally on the night of 20-21 August 1968 Russian forces and those from other Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia. The Prague spring was at an end. A long period of repression followed. On 16 January 1969 a student called Jan Palach (1948-1969) poured petrol over himself and set it alight in Wenceslas Square in Prague. He died in hospital on 19 January 1969. Despite his and other brave protests repression continued. However the demand for human rights in Czechoslovakia would not die. In 1977 a group of people formed Charta 77 (Charter 77) to protest about human rights abuses. Meanwhile in 1969 Czechoslovakia became the first country in the world to make wearing seat belts compulsory. In 1978 Vladimir Remek became the first Czech in space. In 1989 the Communist tyranny in Czechoslovakia crumbled. On 17 November the police attacked a student demonstration. Events then moved quickly. On 19 November human rights activists formed the Civic Forum. On 20 November huge demonstrations were held. More followed in the next few days. On 24 November the government resigned but the demonstrations continued. On 27 November a 2 hour strike was held. Eventually the Communist party agreed to end 1 party rule. They also promised to form a coalition government. However on 3 December it turned out that Communists dominated the coalition. The people were not satisfied and they held more demonstrations. Finally on 10 December a new government was formed. This time Communists were a minority. The Federal Assembly elected Vaclav Havel president of Czechoslovakia on 29 December. In June 1990 multi-party elections were held and the process of turning Czechoslovakia into a market economy began. Prague THE CZECH REPUBLIC The Velvet Revolution was followed by the Velvet Divorce. The Czechs and Slovaks were two quite different people with different histories. In June 1992 the Movement for a Democratic Slovakia won elections and pressed for Slovak independence. Czechs and Slovaks quickly reached agreement and on 1 January 1993 Czechoslovakia separated into two states, Slovakia and the Czech Republic. The first President of the Czech Republic was Vaclav Havel. In February 2003 he was replaced by Vaclav Klaus. Today the Czech Republic is a prosperous industrial nation. In 1999 the Czech Republic joined NATO. In 2004 it joined the EU. Like the rest of Europe the Czech Republic suffered in the recession of 2009. Yet the Czech Republic soon recovered and today it is a prosperous country. The Czech Republic is noted for making machines, paper, glass, steel and ceramics. It is also famous for beer. Then in 2016 Czechia became the official alternative name for the country. Today the population of the Czech Republic is 10.6 million.	i don't know

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