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Which is the closet planet to the sun to have a moon ? | Planet Mercury: Facts About the Planet Closest to the Sun
Planet Mercury: Facts About the Planet Closest to the Sun
By Charles Q. Choi, Space.com Contributor |
November 30, 2016 08:44pm ET
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This view is one of the first from the MESSENGER probe's Oct. 6, 2008 flyby of Mercury.
Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/CIW
Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. As such, it circles the sun faster than all the other planets, which is why Romans named it after their swift-footed messenger god.
The Sumerians also knew of Mercury since at least 5,000 years ago. It was often associated with Nabu, the god of writing . Mercury was also given separate names for its appearance as both a morning star and as an evening star. Greek astronomers knew, however, that the two names referred to the same body. Heraclitus believed that both Mercury and Venus orbited the sun, not Earth. [ Latest Photos: Mercury Seen by NASA's Messenger Probe ]
Mercury's physical characteristics
Because the planet is so close to the sun, Mercury's surface temperature can reach a scorching 840 degrees Fahrenheit (450 degrees Celsius). However, since this world doesn't have a real atmosphere to entrap any heat, at night temperatures can plummet to minus 275 F (minus 170 C), a temperature swing of more than 1,100 degrees F (600 degree C), the greatest in the solar system.
Mercury is the smallest planet — it is only slightly larger than Earth's moon. Since it has no significant atmosphere to stop impacts, the planet is pockmarked with craters. About 4 billion years ago, an asteroid roughly 60 miles (100 kilometers) wide struck Mercury with an impact equal to 1 trillion 1-megaton bombs, creating a vast impact crater roughly 960 miles (1,550 km) wide. Known as the Caloris Basin, this crater could hold the entire state of Texas. Another large impact may have helped create the planet's odd spin .
As close to the sun as Mercury is, in 2012, NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft discovered water ice in the craters around its north pole, where regions may be permanently shaded from the heat of the sun. The southern pole may also contain icy pockets, but MESSENGER's orbit did not allowed scientists to probe the area. Comets or meteorites may have delivered ice there, or water vapor may have outgassed from the planet's interior and frozen out at the poles. [Related: First Photos of Water Ice on Mercury Captured by NASA Spacecraft ]
As if Mercury isn't small enough, it not only shrank in its past but is continuing to shrink today . The tiny planet is made up of a single continental plate over a cooling iron core. As the core cools, it solidifies, reducing the planet's volume and causing it to shrink. The process crumpled the surface, creating lobe-shaped scarps or cliffs, some hundreds of miles long and soaring up to a mile high. In the past, the surface was constantly reshaped by volcanic activity , some fairly recently in the planet's past.
"The young age of the small scarps means that Mercury joins Earth as a tectonically active planet with new faults likely forming today as Mercury's interior continues to cool and the planet contracts," Tom Watters, Smithsonian senior scientist at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., said in a statement .
Mercury is the second densest planet after Earth, with a huge metallic core roughly 2,200 to 2,400 miles (3,600 to 3,800 km) wide, or about 75 percent of the planet's diameter. In comparison, Mercury's outer shell is only 300 to 400 miles (500 to 600 km) thick. The combination of its massive core and abundance of volatile elements has left scientists puzzled for years.
A completely unexpected discovery Mariner 10 made was that Mercury possessed a magnetic field. Planets theoretically generate magnetic fields only if they spin quickly and possess a molten core. But Mercury takes 59 days to rotate and is so small — just roughly one-third Earth's size — that its core should have cooled off long ago.
"We had figured out how the Earth works, and Mercury is another terrestrial, rocky planet with an iron core, so we thought it would work the same way," Christopher Russell, a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles, said in a statement .
An unusual interior could help to explain the differences in Mercury's magnetic field when compared to Earth. Observations from MESSENGER revealed that the planet's magnetic field is approximately three times stronger at its northern hemisphere than at its southern. Russell co-authored a model that suggests that Mercury's iron core may be turning from liquid to solid at the core's outer boundary rather than the inner.
"It's like a snow storm in which the snow formed at the top of the cloud and middle of the cloud and the bottom of the cloud too," said Russell. "Our study of Mercury's magnetic field indicates iron is snowing throughout this fluid that is powering Mercury's magnetic field."
The discovery in 2007 by Earth-based radar observations that Mercury's core may still be molten could help explain its magnetism, though the solar wind may play a role in dampening the planet's magnetic field.
Although Mercury's magnetic field is just 1 percent the strength of Earth's, it is very active. The magnetic field in the solar wind — the charged particles streaming off the sun — periodically touches upon Mercury's field, creating powerful magnetic tornadoes that channel the fast, hot plasma of the solar wind down to the planet's surface.
Instead of a substantial atmosphere, Mercury possesses an ultra-thin "exosphere" made up of atoms blasted off its surface by solar radiation, the solar wind and micrometeoroid impacts. These quickly escape into space, forming a tail of particles.
Mercury's orbital characteristics
Mercury speeds around the sun every 88 Earth days, traveling through space at nearly 112,000 mph (180,000 km/h), faster than any other planet. Its oval-shaped orbit is highly elliptical, taking Mercury as close as 29 million miles (47 million km) and as far as 43 million miles (70 million km) from the sun. If one could stand on Mercury when it is nearest to the sun, it would appear more than three times as large as it does when viewed from Earth.
Oddly, due to Mercury's highly elliptical orbit and the 59 Earth-days or so it takes to rotate on its axis, when on the scorching surface of the planet, the sun appears to rise briefly, set, and rise again before it travels westward across the sky. At sunset, the sun appears to set, rise again briefly, and then set again.
Mercury is the closest planet to the sun and has a thin atmosphere, no air pressure and an extremely high temperature. Take a look inside the planet.
Credit: Karl Tate, SPACE.com
| Earth |
What is the predominant colour of a Harrods carrier bag ? | Mars Close Approaches | Mars Exploration Program
Mars Close Approach to Earth:
May 30, 2016
See Mars in the Night Sky!
Simply go outside and look up, contact your local planetarium, or look for a star party near you.
In 2016, the planet Mars will appear brightest from May 18 to June 3.
Mars Close Approach is May 30, 2016. That is the point in Mars' orbit when it comes closest to Earth. Mars will be at a distance of 46.8 million miles (75.3 million kilometers). Mars reaches its highest point around midnight -- about 35 degrees above the southern horizon, or one third of the distance between the horizon and overhead. Mars will be visible for much of the night.
By mid-June, Mars will become fainter as Mars and Earth travel farther away from each other in their orbits around the Sun.
Miss seeing Mars Close Approach in 2016? The next Mars Close Approach is July 31, 2018.
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What's Up For May 2016
What can you see in the sky this month? Mercury transits the sun and Mars is closer to Earth than it has been in 11 years. Watch to learn how and where to look for them.
In 2016, Mars will appear brightest from May 18-June 3. Its closest approach to Earth is May 30. That is the point in Mars' orbit when it comes closest to Earth. Mars will be at a distance of 46.8 million miles (75.3 million kilometers). Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
Mars Close Approach
What is Mars Close Approach?
Close approach is when Mars and Earth come nearest to each other in their orbits around the sun. Close is a relative term. The minimum distance from the Earth to Mars is about 54.6 million kilometers. However, that doesn't happen very often.
If Earth and Mars had perfectly circular orbits, their minimum distance would always be the same. However, they have elliptical (egg-shaped) paths.
In addition, gravitational tugging by planets constantly changes the shape of their orbits a little bit. Giant Jupiter especially influences the orbit of Mars.
The orbits of Mars and Earth are also slightly tilted with respect to each other.
All of these factors mean that not all close encounters are equal. In 2003 , Mars made its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years! It won't be that close again until the year 2287.
When Mars and Earth are close to each other, Mars appears very bright in our sky. It also makes it easier to see with telescopes or the naked eye. The Red Planet comes close enough for exceptional viewing only once or twice every 15 or 17 years.
Close Approach: Mars Hoax
However, don't be fooled by the Mars Hoax! Since 2003 , this urban legend gets circulated through email and social media every time Mars makes a close approach.
The message is that Mars will look as big as the Moon in our night sky. If that were true, we'd be in big trouble given the gravitational pulls on Earth, Mars, and our Moon!
When does Mars Close Approach Occur?
Mars Close Approach happens about every 26 months. It is closely related to Mars Opposition and Mars Retrograde .
Since Mars and Earth are at their closest, it's generally the best time to go to Mars. Many Mars missions have taken advantage of the close distance to visit the red planet. That's why, depending on budgets, you'll often see that Mars missions launch about every two years:
| i don't know |
What month did Osama bin Laden die? | The Day Osama bin Laden Died - NY Daily News
The Day Osama bin Laden Died
The Day Osama bin Laden Died
Tuesday, May 1, 2012, 6:29 AM
Osama bin Laden ’s demise took many years. But when it came, it came fast.
From the moment top secret stealth helicopters loaded with dozens of hard-bitten Navy SEALs landed at the terror leader’s compound, to their arrival back across the Afghan border — minus one chopper and plus one corpse — the raid took just 40 minutes.
Operation Neptune Spear was the product of a decade of painstaking, often-frustrating intelligence work — a vague clue here, a hunch there, and lots of dead ends.
In September 2010, the CIA began to zero in on a heavily secured, three-story compound on a dirt road in Abbottabad, Pakistan.
First Published by TIME
Defense Secretary Leon Panetta 's hand-written note concerning the raid on Osama Bin Laden's compound
President Obama ’s military advisors were divided over a bombing mission — which would have left no evidence that Bin Laden had been killed — or risking the lives of commandoes on a raid that could be for nothing.
Several urged him to wait for confirmation that Bin Laden was really there.
After several secret powwows, the President decided to order the raid on Friday, April 29.
In Washington that weekend, all eyes were on Obama — and he fooled everyone.
JASON REED/REUTERS
President Obama speaks at the annual White House Correspondents Association Dinner at a hotel in Washington April 30, 2011 after having given order to send Navy SEAL team after Osama bin Laden.
On Saturday night, wearing a tuxedo and a wide grin, he was at the White House Correspondents Dinner, needling Donald Trump with birth certificate jokes. Not one of the many reporters in the room had the smallest inkling of what was afoot.
On Sunday afternoon, wearing a windbreaker and a pinched expression, Obama sat tensely in the Situation Room with his top military advisors, watching the operation play out on a wall screen.
Two dozen SEALs — some wearing helmet cameras — had flown into Pakistan from nearby Afghanistan and were landing in Bin Laden’s front yard at 11 p.m. local time on a moonless night.
Pete Souza/AP
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton , President Obama and Vice President Joe Biden , along with with members of the national security team, receive an update on the mission against Osama bin Laden in the Situation Room of the White House in Washington.
“We were, in real time, aware of what was happening,” Secretary of State Clinton said later.
Things immediately went wrong: one of the helicopters, which was supposed to hover over the compound dropping men by rope, instead crash-landed.
Aqeel Ahmed/AP
Residents and reporters stand outside the house where Al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden was caught and killed by U.S. forces.
When the commandoes rushed into the building, the cameras cut out.
“We could see or hear nothing when they went into the house. There was no communication or feedback coming,” Clinton said. “I’m not sure anybody breathed for 35 or 37 minutes.”
Inside, SEALs were running up to Bin Laden’s third floor bedroom, shooting as they went. They killed two bodyguards and one of their wives, as well as one of Bin Laden’s sons.
In Bin Laden’s bedroom, two SEALs found the terror leader blocked by two screaming women. One of the commandoes pushed the women aside and the SEAL behind him shot Bin Laden in the chest and eye, killing him instantly.
Mohammad Zubair/AP
The wreckage of a helicopter next to the wall of the compound where according to officials, Osama bin Laden was shot and killed by U.S. forces.
“For God and country — Geronimo, Geronimo, Geronimo,” he radioed his commanders, using the code word for success. “ Geronimo EKIA ” — enemy killed in action.
In the Situation Room, people began to breath again. “We got him,” Obama said.
The SEALs herded the survivors to safety, piled explosives into the damaged aircraft and blew it up.
They left with Bin Laden’s body, which was photographed, DNA tested and dumped into the sea to ensure there was no shrine.
Pool/Getty Images
President Obama stands after addressing the nation on TV from the East Room of the White House to make a televised statement May 1, 2011 in Washington, DC. that Bin Laden has been killed near Islamabad, Pakistan.
At 9:45 p.m., the White House announced that the President was planning an extraordinary late night address.
Hungover correspondants, anchors and writers rushed to work.
At 11:35 p.m., Obama was on TV, announcing that Bin Laden was no more.
Crowds gathered spontaneously outside the White House, in Times Square and at Ground Zero, chanting “USA! USA!” and sing “The Star-Spangled Banner” — celebrating a day long awaited.
Spencer Platt/Getty Images
People celebrate in the streets at Ground Zero, the site of the World Trade Centre, waving American flags and honking horns to celebrate the death of al Qaeda founder and leader Osama bin Laden on May 1, 2011.
| May |
What was the date of Muammar Gadhafi's death? | Osama bin Laden Was the Most Wanted Face of Terrorism - The New York Times
The New York Times
World |The Most Wanted Face of Terrorism
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World | Obituary | Osama bin Laden, 1957-2011
The Most Wanted Face of Terrorism
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FREEDOM FIGHTER Osama bin Laden in 1989 with anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan as he was building his terrorism network, with American help. Credit Essam Draz/Balkis Press/SIPA
Osama bin Laden , who was killed in Pakistan on Monday, was a son of the Saudi elite whose radical, violent campaign to recreate a seventh-century Muslim empire redefined the threat of terrorism for the 21st century.
With the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on Sept. 11, 2001, Bin Laden was elevated to the realm of evil in the American imagination once reserved for dictators like Hitler and Stalin. He was a new national enemy, his face on wanted posters. He gloated on videotapes, taunting the United States and Western civilization.
“Do you want Bin Laden dead?” a reporter asked President George W. Bush six days after the Sept. 11 attacks.
“I want him — I want justice,” the president answered. “And there’s an old poster out West, as I recall, that said, ‘Wanted: Dead or Alive.’ ”
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It took nearly a decade before that quest finally ended in Pakistan with the death of Bin Laden in a firefight with American forces who attacked a compound where officials said he had been hiding. He was generally believed to be 54.
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The manhunt was punctuated in December 2001 by a battle at an Afghan mountain redoubt called Tora Bora, near the border with Pakistan, where Bin Laden and his allies were hiding. Despite days of pounding by American bombers, Bin Laden escaped. For more than nine years afterward, he remained an elusive, shadowy figure frustratingly beyond the grasp of his pursuers and thought to be holed up somewhere in Pakistan and plotting new attacks.
Long before, he had become a hero in much of the Islamic world, as much a myth as a man — what a longtime C.I.A. officer called “the North Star” of global terrorism. He had united disparate militant groups, from Egypt to the Philippines, under the banner of Al Qaeda and his ideal of a borderless brotherhood of radical Islam.
Terrorism before Bin Laden was often state-sponsored, but he was a terrorist who had sponsored a state. From 1996 to 2001 he bought the protection of the Taliban, then the rulers of Afghanistan, and used the time and freedom to make Al Qaeda — which means “the base” in Arabic — into a multinational enterprise for the export of terrorism.
After the Sept. 11 attacks, the names Al Qaeda and Bin Laden spread to every corner of the globe. Groups calling themselves Al Qaeda, or acting in the name of its cause, attacked American troops in Iraq, bombed tourist spots in Bali and blew up passenger trains in Spain.
To this day, the precise reach of his power remains unknown: how many members Al Qaeda could truly count on, how many countries its cells had penetrated — and whether, as Bin Laden had boasted, he was seeking chemical, biological and nuclear weapons.
He waged holy war with modern methods. He sent fatwas — religious decrees — by fax and declared war on Americans in an e-mail beamed by satellite around the world. Qaeda members kept bomb-making manuals on CDs and communicated through encrypted memos on laptops, leading one American official to declare that Bin Laden possessed better communications technology than the United States. He railed against globalization, even as his agents in Europe and North America took advantage of a globalized world to carry out their attacks, insinuating themselves into the very Western culture he despised.
He styled himself a Muslim ascetic, a billionaire’s son who gave up a life of privilege for the cause. But he was media savvy and acutely image-conscious. Before a CNN crew that interviewed him in 1997 was allowed to leave, his media advisers insisted on editing out unflattering shots. He summoned reporters to a cave in Afghanistan when he needed to get his message out, but like the most controlling of C.E.O.’s he insisted on receiving written questions in advance.
His reedy voice seemed to belie the warrior image he cultivated, a man whose constant companion was a Kalashnikov rifle that he boasted he had taken from a Russian soldier he had killed. The world’s most threatening terrorist, he was also known to submit to dressings down by his mother. While he built his reputation on his combat experience against Soviet troops in Afghanistan in the 1980s, even some of his supporters questioned whether he had actually fought.
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And though he claimed to follow the purest form of Islam, many scholars insisted that he was glossing over the faith’s edicts against killing innocents and civilians. Islam draws boundaries on where and why holy war can be waged; Bin Laden declared the entire world as fair territory.
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COMMANDER Directing the mujahedeen in 1989. Some supporters doubted his combat experience. Credit Essam Draz/Balkis Press/SIPA
Yet it was the United States, Bin Laden insisted, that was guilty of a double standard.
“It wants to occupy our countries, steal our resources, impose agents on us to rule us and then wants us to agree to all this,” he told CNN in the 1997 interview. “If we refuse to do so, it says we are terrorists. When Palestinian children throw stones against the Israeli occupation, the U.S. says they are terrorists. Whereas when Israel bombed the United Nations building in Lebanon while it was full of children and women, the U.S. stopped any plan to condemn Israel. At the same time that they condemn any Muslim who calls for his rights, they receive the top official of the Irish Republican Army at the White House as a political leader. Wherever we look, we find the U.S. as the leader of terrorism and crime in the world.”
The Turning Point
For Bin Laden, as for the United States, the turning point came in 1989, with the defeat of the Soviets in Afghanistan.
To the United States, which had supported the Afghan resistance with billions of dollars in arms and ammunition, the Soviet retreat was the beginning of the end of the cold war and the birth of a new world order; to Bin Laden, who had supported the resistance with money, construction equipment and housing, it was an affirmation of Muslim power and an opportunity to recreate Islamic political power and topple infidel governments through jihad, or holy war.
He declared to an interviewer in 1998 , “I am confident that Muslims will be able to end the legend of the so-called superpower that is America.”
In its place he built his own legend, modeling himself after the Prophet Muhammad, who in the seventh century led the Muslim people to rout the infidels, or nonbelievers, from North Africa and the Middle East. Just as Muhammad saw the Koran revealed to him amid intense persecution, Bin Laden regarded his expulsions from Saudi Arabia and then Sudan in the 1990s as signs that he was a chosen one.
In his vision, he would be the “emir,” or prince, in a restoration of the khalifa, a political empire extending from Afghanistan across the globe. “These countries belong to Islam,” he told the same interviewer, “not the rulers.”
Al Qaeda became the infrastructure for his dream. Under it, he created a web of businesses — some legitimate, some less so — to obtain and move the weapons, chemicals and money he needed. He created training camps for his foot soldiers, a media office to spread his word and even “shuras,” or councils, to approve his military plans and his fatwas.
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Through the 1990s, Al Qaeda evolved into a far-flung and loosely connected network of symbiotic relationships: Bin Laden gave affiliated terrorist groups money, training and expertise; they gave him operational cover and furthered his cause. Perhaps the most important alliance was with the Taliban, who rose to power in Afghanistan largely on the strength of Bin Laden’s aid, and in turn provided him refuge and a base for holy war.
Long before Sept. 11, though the evidence was often thin, Bin Laden was considered in part responsible for the killing of American soldiers in Somalia and Saudi Arabia; the first attack on the World Trade Center, in 1993; the bombing of the Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia; and a foiled plot to hijack a dozen jets, crash a plane into the C.I.A. headquarters and kill President Bill Clinton.
In 1996, American officials described Bin Laden as “one of the most significant financial sponsors of Islamic extremism in the world,” but he was not thought of as someone capable of orchestrating international terrorist plots. When the United States put out a list of the most wanted terrorists in 1997, neither Bin Laden nor Al Qaeda was on it.
Bin Laden, however, demanded to be noticed. In February 1998, he declared it the duty of every Muslim to “kill Americans wherever they are found.” After the bombings of two American embassies in East Africa in August 1998, President Clinton declared Bin Laden “Public Enemy No. 1.”
The C.I.A. spent much of the next three years hunting him. The goal was to capture Bin Laden using recruited Afghan agents or to kill him with a precision-guided missile, according to the 2004 report of the 9/11 Commission and the memoirs of George J. Tenet, the director of central intelligence from July 1997 to July 2004.
The intelligence was never good enough to pull the trigger. By the summer of 2001, the C.I.A. was convinced that Al Qaeda was on the verge of a spectacular attack. But no one knew where or when it would come.
The Early Life
Osama bin Muhammad bin Awad bin Laden was born in 1957, the seventh son and 17th child, among 50 or more, of his father, people close to the family say. Many experts believe he was born in March of that year, though Steve Coll, in his book “The Bin Ladens: An Arabian Family in the American Century,” reported that Bin Laden himself said he was born in January 1958.
His father, Muhammad bin Awad bin Laden, had immigrated to what would soon become Saudi Arabia in 1931 from the family’s ancestral village in a conservative province of southern Yemen. He found work in Jidda as a porter to the pilgrims on their way to the holy city of Mecca; years later, when he owned the largest construction company in Saudi Arabia, he displayed his porter’s bag in the main reception room of his palace as a reminder of his humble origins.
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SEPT. 11, 2001 With thousands dead in New York, Bin Laden became one of history's most notorious villains. Credit Chang W. Lee/The New York Times
The elder Bin Laden began his family’s rise by skillfully navigating the competing interests within and around the House of Saud in the 1950s. He first built palaces for the royal family and was then chosen to renovate holy sites, including those at Medina and Mecca. In 1958, when several Arab countries set about to renovate the Dome of the Rock and the Al Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem, on one of the holiest sites in Islam, he won the bid for the Saudis by offering to do the job at a loss. In interviews years later, Osama bin Laden would recall proudly that his father had sometimes prayed in all three holy places in one day.
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By the 1960s, King Faisal decreed that all construction projects be awarded to the Bin Laden group.
All of the Bin Laden children were required to work for the family company, meaning that Osama spent summers working on road projects. Muhammad bin Laden died in a plane crash in 1967, when Osama was 10. The siblings each inherited millions — the precise amount was a matter of some debate — and led a life of near-royalty. Osama — the name means “young lion” — grew up playing with Saudi princes and had his own stable of horses by age 15.
But some people close to the family paint a portrait of Bin Laden as a misfit. His mother, the last of his father’s four wives, was from Syria, and was the only one not from Saudi Arabia. The elder Bin Laden had met her on a vacation, and Osama was their only child. Within the family, she was said to be known as “the slave” and Osama “the slave child.”
Within the Saudi elite, it was rare to have both parents born outside the kingdom. In a profile of Osama bin Laden in The New Yorker , Mary Anne Weaver quoted a family friend who suggested that he had felt alienated in a culture so obsessed with lineage. “It must have been difficult for him,” the family friend said. “Osama was almost a double outsider. His paternal roots are in Yemen, and within the family his mother was a double outsider as well — she was neither Saudi nor Yemeni but Syrian.”
According to one of his brothers, Osama was the only Bin Laden child who never traveled abroad to study. A biography of Bin Laden provided to the PBS television program “Frontline” by an unidentified family friend asserted that Bin Laden had never traveled outside the Middle East.
That lack of exposure to Western culture would prove a crucial distinction; the other siblings went on to lead lives that would not be unfamiliar to most Americans. They took over the family business, estimated to be worth billions, distributing Snapple drinks, Volkswagens and Disney products across the Middle East. On Sept. 11, 2001, several Bin Laden siblings were living in the United States.
Bin Laden had been educated — and, indeed, steeped, as many Saudi children are — in Wahhabism, a puritanical, ardently anti-Western strain of Islam. Even years later, he so despised the Saudi ruling family’s coziness with Western nations that he refused to refer to Saudi Arabia by its modern name, instead calling it “the Country of the Two Holy Places.”
Newspapers have quoted anonymous sources — particularly an unidentified Lebanese barber — about a wild period of drinking and womanizing in Bin Laden’s life. But by most accounts he was devout and quiet, marrying a relative, the first of his four wives, at age 17.
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Soon afterward, he began earning a degree at King Abdulaziz University in Jidda. It was there that he shaped his militancy. He became involved with the Muslim Brotherhood, a group of Islamic radicals who believed that much of the Muslim world, including the leaders of Saudi Arabia, lived as infidels, in violation of the true meaning of the Koran.
And he fell under the influence of two Islamic scholars: Muhammad Quttub and Abdullah Azzam, whose ideas would underpin Al Qaeda. Mr. Azzam became a mentor to the young Bin Laden. Jihad was the responsibility of all Muslims, he taught, until the lands once held by Islam were reclaimed. His motto was, “Jihad and the rifle alone: no negotiations, no conferences and no dialogue.”
The Middle East was becoming unsettled in 1979, when Bin Laden was at the university. In Iran, Shiite Muslims mounted an Islamic revolution that overthrew the shah and made the United States a target. Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty. And as the year ended, Soviet troops occupied Afghanistan.
Bin Laden arrived in Pakistan-Afghanistan border within two weeks of the occupation. He said later that he had been asked to go by Saudi officials, who were eager to support the resistance movement. In his book “Taliban,” the Pakistani journalist Ahmed Rashid said that the Saudis had originally hoped that a member of the royal family might serve as an inspirational leader in Afghanistan, but that they settled on Bin Laden as the next closest thing when no princes volunteered.
He traveled more like a visiting diplomat than a soldier, meeting with leaders and observing refugees coming into Peshawar, Pakistan. As the family friend said, it “was an exploratory rather than an action trip.” He returned twice a year for the next few years, in between finishing his degree and lobbying family members to support the Afghan mujahedeen.
Bin Laden began traveling beyond the border into Afghanistan in 1982, bringing with him construction machinery and recruits. In 1984, he and Mr. Azzam began setting up guesthouses in Peshawar, which was the first stop for holy warriors on their way to Afghanistan. With the money they had raised in Saudi Arabia, they established the Office of Services, which branched out across the world to recruit young jihadists.
The recruits were known as the Afghan Arabs, though they came from all over the world, and their numbers were estimated as high as 20,000. By 1986, Bin Laden had begun setting up training camps for them as well, and he was paying roughly $25,000 a month to subsidize them.
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THE PENTAGON Almost 200 people died in Al Qaeda's attack on the Defense Department headquarters. Credit PAUL HOSEFROS/The New York Times
To young would-be recruits across the Arab world, Bin Laden’s was an attractive story: the rich young man who had become a warrior. His own descriptions of the battles he had seen, how he had lost the fear of death and slept in the face of artillery fire, were brushstrokes of an almost divine figure.
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But intelligence sources insist that Bin Laden actually saw combat only once, in a weeklong barrage by the Soviets at Jaji, where the Arab Afghans had dug themselves into caves using Bin Laden’s construction equipment.
“Afghanistan, the jihad, was one terrific photo op for a lot of people,” Milton Bearden, the C.I.A. officer who described Bin Laden as “the North Star,” said in an interview on “Frontline,” adding, “There’s a lot of fiction in there.”
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Still, Jaji became a kind of touchstone in the Bin Laden myth. Stories sent back from the battle to Arab newspaper readers, and photographs of Bin Laden in combat gear, burnished his image.
The flood of young men following him to Afghanistan prompted the founding of Al Qaeda. The genesis was essentially bureaucratic; Bin Laden wanted a way to track the men so he could tell their families what had happened to them. The documentation that Al Qaeda provided became a primitive database of young jihadists.
Afghanistan also brought Bin Laden into contact with leaders of other militant Islamic groups, including Ayman al-Zawahri, the bespectacled doctor who would later appear at Bin Laden’s side in televised messages from the caves of Afghanistan. Ultimately Dr. Zawahri’s group, Egyptian Jihad, and others would merge with Al Qaeda, making it an umbrella for terrorist groups.
The Movement
Through the looking glass of Sept. 11, it seemed ironic that the Americans and Osama bin Laden had fought on the same side against the Soviets in Afghanistan — as if the Americans had somehow created the Bin Laden monster by providing arms and cash to the Arabs. The complex at Tora Bora where Qaeda members hid had been created with the help of the C.I.A. as a base for the Afghans fighting the Soviets.
Bin Laden himself described the fight in Afghanistan this way: “There I received volunteers who came from the Saudi kingdom and from all over the Arab and Muslim countries. I set up my first camp where these volunteers were trained by Pakistani and American officers. The weapons were supplied by the Americans, the money by the Saudis.”
In truth, the Americans did not deal directly with Bin Laden; they worked through the middlemen of the Pakistani intelligence service.
In the revisionism of the Bin Laden myth, his defenders would say that he had not worked with the Americans but that he had only tolerated them as a means to his end. As proof, they insisted he had made anti-American statements as early as 1980.
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Bin Laden would say in retrospect that he was always aware who his enemies were.
“For us, the idea was not to get involved more than necessary in the fight against the Russians, which was the business of the Americans, but rather to show our solidarity with our Islamist brothers,” he told a French journalist in 1995. “I discovered that it was not enough to fight in Afghanistan, but that we had to fight on all fronts against Communism or Western oppression. The urgent thing was Communism, but the next target was America.”
Afghanistan had infused the movement with confidence.
“Most of what we benefited from was that the myth of the superpower was destroyed not only in my mind but also in the minds of all Muslims,” Bin Laden told an interviewer. “Slumber and fatigue vanished, and so was the terror which the U.S. would use in its media by attributing itself superpower status, or which the Soviet Union used by attributing itself as a superpower.”
He returned to Saudi Arabia, welcomed as a hero, and took up the family business. But Saudi royals grew increasingly wary of him as he became more outspoken against the government.
The breaking point — for Bin Laden and for the Saudis — came when Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990. Bin Laden volunteered to the Saudis that the men and equipment he had used in Afghanistan could defend the kingdom. He was “shocked,” a family friend said, to learn that the Americans — the enemy, in his mind — would defend it instead. To him, it was the height of American arrogance.
The United States, he told an interviewer later, “has started to look at itself as a master of this world and established what it calls the new world order.”
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SHANKSVILLE, PA. Passengers aboard United Flight 93 fought the hijackers and brought the jet down. Credit AP Photo/Tribune-Democrat/David Lloyd
The Saudi government restricted him to Jidda, fearing that his outspokenness would offend the Americans. Bin Laden fled to Sudan, which was offering itself as a sort of haven for terrorists, and there he began setting up legitimate businesses that would help finance Al Qaeda. He also built his reserves, in 1992, paying for about 500 mujahedeen who had been expelled from Pakistan to come work for him.
The Terrorism
It was during that time that it is believed he honed his resolve against the United States.
Within Al Qaeda, he argued that the organization should put aside its differences with Shiite terrorist groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon, the better to concentrate on the common enemy: the United States. He called for attacks against American forces in the Saudi peninsula and in the Horn of Africa.
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On Dec. 29, 1992, a bomb exploded in a hotel in Aden, Yemen, where American troops had been staying while on their way to Somalia. The troops had already left, and the bomb killed two Austrian tourists. American intelligence officials came to believe that it was Bin Laden’s first attack.
On Feb. 26, 1993, a bomb exploded in a truck driven into the underground garage at the World Trade Center, killing six people. Bin Laden later praised Ramzi Yousef, who was convicted of the bombing. In October of that year, in Somalia, 18 American service members were killed — some of their bodies dragged through the streets — while on a peacekeeping mission; Bin Laden was almost giddy about the deaths.
After leaving Afghanistan, the Muslim fighters headed for Somalia and prepared for a long battle, thinking that the Americans were “like the Russians,” he told an interviewer.
“The youth were surprised at the low morale of the American soldiers and realized more than before that the American soldier was a paper tiger and after a few blows ran in defeat,” he said. “And America forgot all the hoopla and media propaganda about being the world leader and the leader of the new world order, and after a few blows, they forgot about this title and left, dragging their corpses and their shameful defeat.”
By 1994, Bin Laden had established new training camps in Sudan, but he became a man without a country. The Saudi government froze his assets and revoked his citizenship. His family, which had become rich on its relations with the royal family, denounced him publicly after he was caught smuggling weapons from Yemen.
This seemed to make him only more zealous. He sent an open letter to King Fahd outlining the sins of the Saudi government and calling for a campaign of guerrilla attacks to drive Americans from Saudi Arabia. Three months later, in November 1995, a truck bomb exploded at a Saudi National Guard training center operated by the United States in Riyadh, killing seven people. That year, Belgian investigators found a kind of how-to manual for terrorists on a CD. The preface dedicated it to Bin Laden, the hero of the holy war.
The next May, when the men accused of the Riyadh bombing were beheaded in Riyadh’s main square, they were forced to read a confession in which they acknowledged the connection to Bin Laden. The next month, June 1996, a truck bomb destroyed Khobar Towers, an American military residence in Dhahran. It killed 19 soldiers.
Bin Laden fled to Afghanistan that summer after Sudan expelled him under pressure from the Americans and Saudis, and he forged an alliance with Mullah Muhammad Omar, the leader of the Taliban. In August 1996, from the Afghan mountain stronghold of Tora Bora, Bin Laden issued his “Declaration of War Against the Americans Who Occupy the Land of the Two Holy Mosques.”
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“Muslims burn with anger at America,” it read. The presence of American forces in the Persian Gulf states “will provoke the people of the country and induces aggression on their religion, feelings, and prides and pushes them to take up armed struggle against the invaders occupying the land.”
The imbalance of power between American forces and Muslim forces demanded a new kind of fighting, he wrote, “in other words, to initiate a guerrilla war, where sons of the nation, not the military forces, take part in it.”
That same month in New York City, a federal grand jury began meeting to consider charges against Bin Laden. Disputes arose among prosecutors and American law enforcement and intelligence officers about which attacks against American interests could truly be attributed to Bin Laden — whether in fact he had, as an indictment eventually charged, trained and paid the men who killed the Americans in Somalia.
His foot soldiers, in testimony, offered different pictures of Bin Laden’s actual involvement. In some cases he could be as aloof as any boss with thousands of employees. Yet one of the men convicted of the bombings of the embassies said that Bin Laden had been so involved that he was the one who had pointed at surveillance photographs to direct where the truck bomb should be driven.
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WARNING STRIKE Not many Americans had heard of Bin Laden when Al Qaeda attacked the destroyer Cole in October 2000, killing 17. Credit Reuters
Bin Laden was becoming more emboldened, summoning Western reporters to his hide-outs in Afghanistan to relay his message: He would wage war against the United States and its allies if Washington did not remove its troops from the gulf region.
“So we tell the Americans as a people,” he told ABC News, “and we tell the mothers of soldiers and American mothers in general that if they value their lives and the lives of their children, to find a nationalistic government that will look after their interests and not the interests of the Jews. The continuation of tyranny will bring the fight to America, as Ramzi Yousef and others did. This is my message to the American people: to look for a serious government that looks out for their interests and does not attack others, their lands or their honor.”
In February 1998, he issued the edict calling for attacks on Americans anywhere in the world, declaring it an “individual duty” for all Muslims.
In June, the grand jury that had been convened two years earlier issued its indictment, charging Bin Laden with conspiracy to attack the United States abroad, for heading Al Qaeda and for financing terrorist activities around the world.
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On Aug. 7, 1998, the eighth anniversary of the United States order sending troops into the gulf region, two bombs exploded simultaneously at the American Embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The Nairobi bomb killed 213 people and wounded 4,500; the bomb in Dar es Salaam killed 11 and wounded 85.
The United States retaliated two weeks later with strikes against what were thought to be terrorist training camps in Afghanistan and a pharmaceutical plant in Sudan, which officials contended — erroneously, it turned out — was producing chemical weapons for Al Qaeda.
Bin Laden had trapped the United States in a spiral of tension, where any defensive or retaliatory actions would affirm the evils that he said had provoked the attacks in the first place. In an interview with Time magazine that December , he brushed aside President Clinton’s threats against him, and referred to himself in the third person, as if recognizing or encouraging the notion that he had become larger than life.
“To call us Enemy No. 1 or Enemy No. 2 does not hurt us,” he said. “Osama bin Laden is confident that the Islamic nation will carry out its duty.”
In January 1999, the United States government issued a superseding indictment that affirmed the power Bin Laden had sought all along, declaring Al Qaeda an international terrorist organization in a conspiracy to kill American citizens.
The Aftermath
After the attacks of Sept. 11, Bin Laden did what had become routine: He took to Arab television. He appeared, in his statement to the world, to be at the top of his powers. President Bush had declared that the nations of the world were either with the Americans or against them on terrorism; Bin Laden held up a mirror image, declaring the world divided between infidels and believers.
Bin Laden had never before claimed or accepted responsibility for terrorist attacks. But in a videotape found in the southern Afghan city of Kandahar weeks after the attacks, he did precisely that, reveling in the horror of Sept. 11.
“We calculated in advance the number of casualties from the enemy, who would be killed based on the position of the tower,” he said. “We calculated that the floors that would be hit would be three or four floors. I was the most optimistic of them all.”
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In the videotape , showing him talking to followers nearly two months after the attacks, Bin Laden smiles, hungers to hear more approval and notes proudly that the attacks let loose a surge of interest in Islam around the world.
He explained that the hijackers on the planes — “the brothers who conducted the operation” — did not know what the mission would be until just before they boarded the planes. They knew only that they were going to the United States on a mission of martyrdom.
Bin Laden’s voice continued to be heard, off and on, for almost the next 10 years as he issued threats, warnings and pronouncements on video and audiotape from wherever he was hiding. As recently as October he appealed for aid for flood victims in Pakistan and blamed the West for causing climate change .
Bin Laden long eluded the allied forces in pursuit of him, moving, it was said, under cover of night with his wives and children, at first between mountain caves. Yet he was determined that if he had to die, he too would die a martyr’s death.
His greatest hope, he told supporters, was that if he died at the hands of the Americans, the Muslim world would rise up and defeat the nation that had killed him.
Correction: May 5, 2011
An obituary on Monday about Osama bin Laden misstated in some copies the chronology in which Bin Laden’s father was hired to renovate a number of Islamic holy sites. He received the contract to restore Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem in 1958, not 1969, and he refurbished sites at Medina and Mecca before doing work on Aqsa, not afterward. (He died in 1967.)
Michael T. Kaufman, a foreign correspondent, reporter and columnist for The Times, died in 2010; Tim Weiner contributed reporting.
A version of this article appears in print on May 2, 2011, on Page A10 of the New York edition with the headline: An Emblem of Evil in the U.S., an Icon to the Cause of Terror. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe
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As well as becoming man and wife, William and Kate became Duke and Duchess of where? | Royal Wedding: Prince William is Duke of Cambridge and Kate Middleton is Duchess | Daily Mail Online
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Kate Middleton has left behind her commoner roots and her name to become Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge.
Prince William was given a dukedom, the highest rank in British peerage, on his wedding day by the Queen, and will be known from now on as the Duke of Cambridge.
He also became the Earl of Strathearn and Baron Carrickfergus, and Kate the Countess of Strathearn and Baroness Carrickfergus – though the titles are expected to be used only rarely, mainly in Scotland, where they met and fell in love, and Northern Ireland respectively.
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Now meet the crowds. Prince William and his wife Kate, Duchess of Cambridge, travel in the 1902 State Landau carriage along the Processional Route to Buckingham Palace after the ceremony at Westminster Abbey
To help William and Kate get accustomed to their new names, they passed a statue of the Duke sat on a horse close to the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall in their carriage procession
JUST LIKE WILLIAM, THE LAST DUKE FELL FOR A COMMONER
The last Duke of Cambridge (right), like Prince William, married a commoner for love. Prince George, known as the 2nd Duke of Cambridge, was born in 1819.
He was a grandson of George III and the only son of Prince Adolphus Frederick, the 1st Duke of Cambridge.
He refused to have an arranged marriage and declared such unions were 'doomed to failure'.
He became captivated by the actress Sarah Louisa Fairbrother, who was said to be a classic beauty and a graceful dancer.
They wed in 1847 when she was already the mother of two of his children and pregnant with his third.
But the Duke did not seek the sovereign's approval and the marriage was never recognised.
Miss Fairbrother (right) was ostracised by the Royal Family and never given the title the Duchess of Cambridge. Instead she became known by the nickname Mrs FitzGeorge.
Unlike Kate Middleton, she was the Duchess of Cambridge who never was.
There are, however, claims that the Duke was actually reticent about the marriage.
According to author and genealogist Anthony J Camp, the Duke was not correctly described in the marriage entry and did not use his normal signature.
Whatever his intentions, the Duke had a wandering eye and it was not long after he married that he took up with mistress Louisa Beauclerk.
She remained his lover for more than 30 years until her death and he once described her as 'the idol of my life and my existence'.
Like William, this Duke of Cambridge joined the Army. He served in the Crimean War and was promoted to Commander-in-Chief in 1887.
There is an equestrian statue of him in the middle of London's Whitehall which William and Kate will be able to see from their carriage procession after the service.
The Duke was said to be a disciplinarian, who believed Army promotions should be based on social connections rather than ability. He died in 1904.
His father was also the Duke of Cambridge.
Prince Adolphus Frederick (1774-1850) was the 1st Duke of Cambridge and the seventh son of George III. This Duke of Cambridge was a Chancellor of St Andrews University in Scotland where William and Kate met. He held the post from 1811 to 1814.
He was also Prince William's great-great-great-great grandfather.
The Duke's granddaughter was Mary of Teck, who became Queen Mary and was Elizabeth II's grandmother.
The Duke was a military man and a popular figure. He was apparently very fond of interrupting church services by bellowing out 'By all means' if the priest said 'Let us pray'.
He was also a great support of charities, literature and the sciences.
He married the glamorous German born Princess Augusta Wilhelmina Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, who was Duchess of Cambridge - the last to hold the title before Miss Middleton takes on the name.
She was the longest-lived daughter in law of George III and outlived her husband by 39 years, dying in 1889 at the age of 91.
According to protocol, Kate should also be called Princess William of Wales rather than Princess Catherine or Princess Kate, because she was not born with royal blood.
Instead she adopts her husband’s first name, like Princess Michael of Kent did when she married the Queen’s cousin Prince Michael of Kent.
But on hearing the new, formal titles for the first time, members of the public lining the route to Westminster Abbey were already indicating that Kate will be known more familiarly as ‘princess’.
‘She’s a young lady, princess suits her better than duchess,’ one woman said.
All titles are gifts from the Queen, but Her Majesty conferred them following private discussions with her grandson, 28, and his bride, 29.
All three titles were announced early Friday via Twitter, by email and on the royal wedding's official website.
Former royal correspondent Jennie Bond said there was a hint that William was going to get the title.
'The queen went to visit Cambridge the day before yesterday so a lot of people thought that was how it was going to be,' she said.
She called the title 'a personal gift from the queen, a mark of her esteem for her grandson'.
Another option mooted in the run-up to the wedding was the Duke of Clarence, but Duke of Cambridge remained the favourite for William’s new title. The Queen even gave a clue by visiting the historic university city three days ago.
Charles Kidd, editor of Debrett’s Peerage, said: ‘It’s a well-known place and I think it will have some resonance with the public.’
To help William and Kate get accustomed to their new names, they passed a statue of the Duke sat on a horse close to the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall in their carriage procession.
The title the Earl of Strathearn will link William and Kate, who met and fell in love in Scotland, to the picturesque area of Perthshire.
Strathearn has had Royal Connections since Robert Stewart, High Steward of Scotland, was created Earl of Strathearn in 1357.
The Duke of Cambridge has been a royal title since the reign of Charles II.
The first Duke of Cambridge was a Stuart prince who only lived for a few months, followed by others who were styled with title but also died very young.
George, Elector of Hanover, also held the title and went on to become King George II.
He was the last English monarch to lead his troops into battle - at Dettingen in 1743.
The title - a popular name for pubs - will link William to the city the Cambridge where his father the Prince of Wales went to university.
The title Duke comes from the Latin 'Dux' meaning "a leader".
It is the highest rank in British Peerage. The Queen is also the Duke of Lancaster, while the Prince of Wales is the Duke of Cornwall.
By becoming Baron and Baroness Carrickfergus, William and Kate will be linked to Northern Ireland. Carrickfergus is County Antrim’s oldest town. The word means Rock of Fergus.
An Irish Viscountcy of Chichester of Carrickfergus now held by the Marquess of Donegall was created in 1625, but Carrickfergus alone only existed as a title between 1841 and 1883.
Prince William’s uncles Andrew and Edward were given several royals titles when they married, but his father Prince Charles did not receive any additional titles.
As heir to the throne, Charles already had eight titles including Duke of Cornwall. His wife Camilla took the title Duchess of Cornwall.
Barons, viscounts, earls, marquesses and dukes are all orders of British nobility, in ascending order of prestige. The titles can be created and become extinct, for example when a duke or earl ascends to the throne or when he dies without leaving legitimate heirs.
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The latest major earthquake to hit Christchurch, New Zealand happened in which month? | Why we’ll never see ‘Princess Catherine’ – Royal Central
Thanks!
Duncan Scott Bennie
Princess Alexandra could choose to keep her title after marriage as she is in line to the Luxembourg throne so she can keep calling herself Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg if she chooses to retain her rights in place of becoming a “Duchess of Sussex” in other words she would remain part of the Luxembourg nobility rather than British
Ricky
If she married into the British Royal Family, she would have to stop using her Luxembourgish titles. She would not have a choice in the matter. Carolina’s post above explains in detail the same kind of situation that disturbed Princess Marina so much.
She was born a princess of a foreign royal house, but could not continue to style herself as a princess after marrying Prince George, Duke of Kent. It would be exactly the same today for a hypothetical marriage of Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg to Prince Harry.
Verity Pendelton
Earlier, Marina was still styled as Princess and that is why they still called her princess Marina. Prince Philip could have remained a Prince, but he renounced all his titles, because of the war.
llewellynh
The Queen could do that today but will not because of the problems that would arise with what to call Camilla. (Be still my soul.)
Rachel
I agree. The Queen made Philip a Prince in 1957. He renounced his title of Prince when he married her so he was NOT a Prince at the time she granted him that title in his own right in 1957. At some point in the future she could do the same for Catherine, but she won’t because of the problems you mention. However, I really believe Charles will make her a Princess in her own right when he becomes King….Long Live the Queen!!
fourscoreandseven
Absolutely NOT! Your mad desire to “democratize” EVEN ROYALTY is complete nonsense!
A PRINCESS IS BORN, NOT MADE!!!! It is a CONDITION OF BIRTH not a “rank.” Diana was NEVER MADE a princess! She gave birth to royalty because of her HUSBAND’S RANK! Princess Margaret was ALWAYS a princess. Diana NEVER WAS AND NEVER WILL BE! (That’s why Tony Blair ran with that “Princess of People’s Hearts” baloney!)
NO ONE CAN “CREATE” ANYONE A PRINCESS!!!! She is either born a princess, or she never will be. That is why it is such a RARE title.
adamson
Oh, but what to call Camilla when her husband predeceases his mother?
Ricky
If Prince Charles died before the Queen, Prince William would become the Prince of Wales, with several subsidiary titles including Duke of Cornwall. As his wife, Catherine would become the Princess of Wales, Duchess of Cornwall, and all the corresponding titles according to William’s elevated status.
Camilla would then be known as the Dowager Duchess of Cornwall —- unless the Queen published a Letters Patent indicating otherwise.
Scott
Not so. The Prince of Wales title must be granted…while the Dukedom of Cornwall is automatic. Were Charles to die before the Queen, she could decide to grant the Prince of Wales title to William. However, Cornwall is limited to the “eldest living son and heir” of the sovereign – meaning, if Charles dies while QEII is still on the throne, William will never become Duke of Cornwall.
Ricky
Thank you, Scott. I stand corrected!
Carolina
It isn’t really likely that we’ll ever again see a royal “dowager” since The Queen has instituted the tradition of styling royal widows as HRH Princess HerName, Duchess of Husband’sPeerage. It is an elegant modernization of how royal dowagers are styled. HRH Princess Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall is the most likely title for Camilla in this sad scenario.
Ricky
I think Camilla would much rather have the title you mention, Carolina. That was also the case for Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, wasn’t it?
Carolina
Mary, like all other queens, stopped being HM The Queen and used the title HM Queen Mary after she was widowed. She never used dowager because ‘Queen Mary’ instead of THE Queen is how it is customarily done. The Queen Mother decided to use the style HM Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother to avoid confusion with her namesake daughter.
Yes, it was the case with Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester and Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent. I rather like using this for dowagers.
Verity Pendelton
Princess Marina was already a princess before she was married, that is why she retained the title.
A. P. Schrader
When the Queen granted special permission to her aunt, the late Princess Alice, Her Majesty established a precedent but I think it’s going a bit far to call it a “tradition”. It will be interesting to see what happens if the current Duke of Kent, for example, were to predecease his wife. Given her professed distain for continued use of her royal style (she purportedly prefers to be addressed nowadays simply as ‘Katharine Kent’), I think it unlikely that the Duchess of Kent would petition the Queen to style herself ‘Princess Katharine’. So I would bet that, in due course, she would come to be known as ‘HRH The Dowager Duchess of Kent’.
As for the Duchess of Cornwall, as has already been said, if the Prince of Wales were to predecease his mother then, all things being equal, she would become ‘HRH The Dowager Duchess of Cornwall’.
Charles 742
If Prince Charles passed away before his mother, The Queen. The Duke of York would be King surely?
Royal Central
Ricky
Thanks for your question, Charles. This is a lot of fun, isn’t it?
Prince Andrew, the present Duke of York, was indeed second in line for the throne for many years, but that changed with the birth of his nephew, Prince William, in 1982.
Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales, is of course first in line. Prince William is second; after him comes his newborn son, Prince George of Cambridge, who is third in the line of succession. Prince Harry is fourth at present.
Because of a recent change in the rules of succession, Princess Anne is fifth. Only then comes Prince Andrew, now sixth in line. He will be farther down the list if and when William and Kate have any more children.
I hope this is helpful (and not too much information!).
Royal Central
Princess Anne is most certainly not 5th in line to the throne. Firstly because the Succession to the Crown act hasn’t come into force yet and secondly, the clause on primogeniture is only retrospective to those born after 28th October 2011 – Princess Anne was born in 1950! Prince Andrew is and will remain 5th in line to the throne, even when the Succession to the Crown Act is in force. Princess Anne remains 11th in line.
Ricky
Once again, this brash American has learned something new on this fascinating subject, and stands corrected.
But I hope you will agree I was right about one thing:
This really is a lot of fun!
Patrick
I don’t think the recent change bumped Anne up in line. I think it went into effect for George’s generation
Ricky
You’re correct. I’ve done some research into this since I posted my earlier comment, and I have to retract that part of my post.
llewellynh
That’s true and somewhat sad really.
llewellynh
Good news. With Princess Charlotte, Prince Andrew goes down another peg to 7th in line.
llewellynh
And his two daughters also drop down yet another peg.
llewellynh
And it seems both of Andrew’s daughters soon will be living in the US.
llewellynh
Absolutely not. Prince William, Prince George, Princess Charlotte, Prince Harry – all come before Andrew.
fourscoreandseven
Charles, your question makes sense, if one thinks of the monarchy as “linear.” But, it descends, rather like a dog’s leg. When there was no “third generation,” and starting with the Queen it made sense to think of the succession as (linear) the eligible receivers were (1) Charles, (2) Andrew, (3) Edward, and (4) Anne. BUT, as soon as Charles was married and had legitimate children, the “dog leg” appears, because it drops down a level, and works out through (1) William, or (2) Harry. BUT, as soon as William was married and had legitimate children, the line of succession drops down another level. And, as soon as Prince George grows up, and starts a family, the line of succession will drop down another level. HOWEVER, if Prince George does NOT have “legitimate” issue, the right of succession transfers (in a linear fashion) to Princess Charlotte (who may have married and had (for example) 3 children, and the line would then go to Charlotte and then her first born. But, the line would first go to George, whether or not he had children. Only when “King George” dies without issue (or volunteers to give up his throne, since he has no obvious issue), does the crown go to Princess Charlotte. If she is dead, then it would go to her oldest child, and his/her issue; if he/she dies without issue, then it goes to Charlotte’s second child, then the third. However, if both George and Charlotte die without issue, then we look to Harry, or Harry’s children as the next in line.
Queen Victoria became the (unlikely) next in line to become monarch when her father (Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the 4th son of King George III, married a beautiful young widow, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburn-Saalfeld and they had his first legitimate child and her third child, Princess Victoria, who became the likely next Queen of England (due to all of his older brothers having no issue or out of wedlock issue).
That was a wide linear, until Queen Victoria, who then produced a long direct (downward) line of succession that produced first King Edward VII, who produced King George V, who produced King George VI, who produced Queen Elizabeth II. (Yes, there was the “year” of Edward VIII, that generally is reduced to an asterisk (he was “proclaimed” the next
“king” after George V, but was never crowned.)
Patty Caudle
Lets not go there for the way she has done to Prince Charles and the rest of the Royal family. The only thing she is deserving is the title is Divorcee for treating Prince Charles like she over ranks him and orders him around!
Patty Caudle
I dislike hearing talk of the death of Her Majesty, The Queen. She is a wonderful woman and Queen and I pray that she lives many more years. Everyone seems to be in the planning stage. LONG LIVE THE QUEEN!
Verity Pendelton
Catherine can become a princess in her own right, by letters patent as a gift of the Sovereign, just as the Duke of Edinburgh was granted the title Prince of the United Kingdom
Mark Arbeen
The only difference is that Prince Philip was already a Blood Prince (he was born a Prince of Greece and Denmark), so granting him the title, while a wonderful gift, was not a surprise since he was already royal in his own right.
Ricky
He first had to renounce his non-British princely titles, then become a commoner as Philip Mountbatten. King George gave him the title Duke of Edinburgh just before his wedding, but he wasn’t a prince anymore.
He didn’t become a prince again until ten years later, when in 1957 the Queen issued a Letters Patent giving him the designation of Prince of the United Kingdom.
Mark Arbeen
That is not totally correct. In the 1948 Letters Patent, King George VI stated: GEORGE THE SIXTH by the Grace of God of Great Britain Ireland and the British Dominions beyond the Seas King Defender of the Faith To all to whom these Presents shall come Greeting Whereas His late Majesty King George the Fifth by His Letters Patent dated the thirtieth day of November in the eighth year of His Reign did declare His Royal Pleasure that certain members of the Royal Family therein more particularly mentioned should have the style title or attribute of Royal Highness And Whereas We are desirous of defining and fixing the style and title by which the children of the marriage solemnised between Our Most dearly beloved Daughter Her Royal Highness Princess Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Duchess of Edinburgh and His Royal Highness Prince Philip Duke of Edinburgh shall be designated And Whereas for that purpose We deem it expedient that the aforesaid Letters Patent should be amended and extended la manner hereinafter declared Now Know Ye that in the exercise of Our Royal and undoubted prerogative and of our especial grace we do hereby declare Our Royal Will and Pleasure that the children of the aforesaid marriage shall have and at all times hold and enjoy the style title or attribute of Royal Highness and the titular dignity of Prince or Princess prefixed to their respective Christian names in addition to any other appellations and titles of honour which may belong to them hereafter And We do further declare Our Will and Pleasure that our Earl Marshal of England or his Deputy for the time being do cause these Our Letters or the Enrolment thereof to be recorded in our College of Arms to the end that Our Officers of Arms and all others may take due notice thereof In Witness Whereof We have caused these our Letters to be made Patent Witness Ourself at Westminster the twenty-second day of October in the twelfth year of Our Reign.”
So, as you can see, in 1948 he was considered Prince Philip Duke of Edinburgh.
Royal Central
There’s a lot of confusion over the Duke of Edinburgh’s title at this time because of this reference to him as a Prince in the 1948 letters patent. Whilst he is referred to as ‘Prince Philip’ in this document, all subsequent documents and official communique thereafter until 1957 refer to him without the Princely style. Additionally, the King himself amended a reference to ‘Prince Philip’ on Prince Charles’s birth certificate in 1948 to just ‘Philip, Duke of Edinburgh’.
Ricky
I was hoping Royal Central would see this discussion so we could be sure about Philip’s titles. I’ve read about this issue from many different sources and was pretty sure of my facts.
And while I have your attention, I’d like to say this:
I sometimes post comments in other forums, and I often see posts that are so vicious they make me cringe. How I wish they could be as civil as the discussions here at Royal Central.
We can discuss issues here with courtesy and respect for each other, even when we might disagree. We can justly be proud of ourselves and our site, and other blogs could take a lesson from Royal Central.
Many thanks to the editors, writers, and other staff at Royal Central for the education and enjoyment they provide. I think we have something very special here, and their work is much appreciated. 😉
Mark Arbeen
Amen Ricky. I think the civil discourse is evidence that we Royalists truly understand the concept of discussion without rancor!
Steven Read
Sophia Naturalization Act 1705; This naturalized Empress Sophia of Hanover and “the issue of her body” if Protestant. Any descendant of Sophia could claim to be the “issue of her body”, as Philip is, therefore making him a British subject and also a Prince of the United Kingdom.
Nancy Broertjes
Descendant, certainly. British subject, yes after he renounced his Greek and Danish titles. But not being a son of the monarch or grandson in the male line, until Elizabeth made him one was he Prince of the United Kingdom. Not sure of King George VI intentions in referring to him as prince but perhaps Elizabeth felt the need to make certain.
Nancy Broertjes
Rather interesting that husband’s of Elizabeth I and Victoria are titled “prince” while the husband of Mary I was king consort in England and king regnant in Spain. Henry, Lord Darnley may or may not have been king consort as was Lord Bothwell of Scotland, of course. Victoria had been so dominated by her mother that she wanted to be ABSOLUTELY certain that her rank as Queen was unsurpassed.
Ricky
Queen Elizabeth I never married.
Richie Hayward-Keen
But it was not an individual one. This covered the mediate royal family ; the future children of the Queen and The Duke as the Queen and heir presumptive not and heir apparent, due to being female and the male perogative succession. If The Queens father had not done this then the children of the Queen and Duke would have had not tiles at all being only grand children of reigning monarch through the female line as created by George V in 1917. Hope that helps
Sezzieb
Actually it came to light a few years ago that those looking into it at the time gave the incorrect information and that Prince Phillip need not and should not have had to renounce his non British titles. That was because of his blood line through his mother with Queen Victoria. It has been suggested that the civil servants in the Royal Household were so displeased at his marrrying Elizabeth that they were thrilled at any means to put him in his place.
Ricky
That’s incorrect. Whenever foreign royalty marries into the House of Windsor, they must renounce all their non-British titles.
While it’s true that many palace courtiers thought Philip was an unsuitable husband for Princess Elizabeth, it had nothing to do with why he had to renounce his Greek and Danish titles.
caroline nolan
i agree but you know who will be offended,charles missus,thats why,which she shouldnt anyway being a devorcee,but kate should be granted as she gave birth to a future king of england,and the queen mother wasnt royal either but was given the title,so as you say the queen could grant it,charles wont because if hes not allowed to give the title to camilla he wont let kate have it either.
Ted Thomas Martin
What about Queen Mary also.
Ricky
What about her?
Jaie
WTF planet are you on!? For a start she is NOT “Charle’s missus” she’s Her Royal Highness The Duchess of Cornwall. For another, Charles cannot grant any titles to anybody, he isn’t King yet. When he becomes King, I fully expect him to grant Camilla the title Queen Consort, which will be only right. Also, Camilla IS at the moment The Princess of Wales, she just chooses not to use that title out of respect for the previous holder. Who by the way was NEVER “Princess Diana”, as this article rightly says.
Nancy Broertjes
It has been announced that if and when Charles becomes King, Camilla will take the title Princess Consort even though her Constitutional title would be Queen Consort. I wonder if she will be crowned like Elizabeth, the Queen Mother?
Jennifer Lydon
Well, the Queen Mother was the last Queen Consort crowned. Like others here, I assume The Duchess of Cornwall will be crowned Queen Consort. I’ve not heard of Princess Consort before!
Kathleen Ames
What they said is that Camilla is ‘likely’ to take the title Princess Consort. Prince Charles has made it know that he wants Camilla to be his Queen. As the wife of The King she is automatically The Queen. Whether they choose to call her that remains to be seen.
Kathleen Ames
Sorry but her title will be Queen as the wife of a King,, Queen Consort is a title which could bestowed only by the Monarch as is Princess Consort. As the wife of Prince Charles she should and probably will be crowned alongside him just as the late Queen Mum was.
Richie Hayward-Keen
What a load of crap your talking you obviously know nothing about royality go home please!!!
fourscoreandseven
caroline: Your post is both nasty and incorrect. You are completely ignoring the “context” of each situation. And, Charles PAYS CATHERINE’S BILLS so he isn’t exactly “mean” to her! Your thoughts of Charles, his relationship to his mother, and to Camilla, are odd and mean and sad.
Kathleen Ames
Sorry you are also incorrect HM The Queen could not create Catherine a Princess in her own right. She can only ever be Princess William, etc. The title of Prince/Princess is reserved for a child of a Prince or Princess and currently, the title will not be granted to any royal babies other than those in direct line to the throne – i.e the children of Prince William and the children of Prince Harry. Th
Kathleen Ames
Sorry but you are incorrect. HM The Queen could not create Catherine a Princess in her own right, Her title is Princess William, Duchess of Cambridge. The title of Princess is only for children or Royal Blood. Catherine is not, It is for a child of a Prince/Princess which Catherine is not, Currently, and in the future, the title of Prince/Princess will be granted only to those children in direct line to the throne. The Queen Mother was never ‘princess’, nor was she Queen Consort, she was Queen, as wife of The King. Just as Camilla will be Queen as wife of The King. The title Queen Consort or Prince Consort is a title bestowed by the Monarch to a husband or wife. If, at the time, they decided Camilla will be ‘Queen Consort (which is currently only a suggestion) Prince Charles will have to confer that title on he after his Coronation.
Alison
Prince Phillip is a Prince in his own right. He was Prince Phillip of Denmark and Greece when he married Princess Elizabeth. He relinquished any claim to these kingdoms to marry Elizabeth.
Verity Pendelton
No, he wasn’t….he renounced all his titles and was plain Lt. Mountbatten when he was engaged. He was born a prince, but wasn’t a prince at the time of his engagement. He was created HRH Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by George VI. The Queen issued letters patent making him a Prince in his own right in 1957, so that Charles wouldn’t out rank his father. He was then officially known as Prince Philip, The Duke of Edinburg.
Nancy Broertjes
The title of Prince of the United Kingdom was given to Phillip as a salve to his ego since his children would not have his surname but that of the royal family.
Verity Pendelton
Originally it was so Charles wouldn’t outrank his father. The Queen issued him Letters Patent in 1957 so he became Prince Phillip. Now the family is known as Mountbatten-Windsor. So Edward & Sophie’s daughter is known as Lady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor, although technically she is a princess.
Kathleen Ames
Not quite true. Only direct descendants of the Monarch take the title Prince or Princess.
Verity Pendelton
No, the Queen can bestow a title by letters patent as she did for Prince Philip in 1957. She created him HRH. She has also done the same thing for the children of the Cambridges, she issued letters of patent to be sure that their children would be HRHs since as great grandchildren, they would not have been eligible.
Ricky
Not quite.
The day before he married Princess Elizabeth in 1947, Lieutenant Philip Mountbatten, RN knelt before King George VI, his soon-to-be father-in-law.
The King created him Duke of Edinburgh, along with several subsidiary titles, and conferred the style of Royal Highness on him.
He also invested Philip and Elizabeth into the Most Noble Order of the Garter, doing this for the Princess first, so she would have precedence in the order before her husband-to-be.
Kathleen Ames
She can. But she chooses not to. It is believed that this step has been taken at the request of Prince Charles who wishes the Royal Family to be slimmed down to promote only the direct descendants to the throne unlike earlier times. Hence currently only direct descendants of Prince William and Prince Harry will be styled Prince/Princess. Beatrice and Eugenie are the only exceptions.
Verity Pendelton
Charles made noise about the time Lady Louise was born that Beatrice and Eugenie should also be known as “Lady” but Andrew through a fit! The Queen had to issue the letters patent before George was born so that he would be a HRH at the time of his birth. Otherwise he would have been a Lord.
fourscoreandseven
WRONG AGAIN! None of the HRH’s have surnames, so you don’t know what you are talking about. “Salving his ego” is ridiculous. DO NOT apply your own insecurities and jealousies to others.
Verity Pendelton
Yes they do have a surnames! It was Windsor but now it is Mountbatten-Windsor. Lady Louise tho technically a princess goes by the name of lady Louise Mountbatten Windsor..
Ricky
Lady Louise Windsor is not a princess, and her brother James, Viscount Severn is not a prince. The Earl and Countess of Wessex wanted it that way.
Verity Pendelton
Technically, they ARE prince and princess, because they are the grandchildren of the sovereign by a male son, (based on the letters patent by George VI) but both the Earl and the Countess do NOT want them addressed that way. The title hasn’t been revoked, it just isn’t used.
Ricky
Prince Edward’s children are entitled to have the rank of Prince/Princess of the Blood, along with the style of Royal HIghness.
I’m not sure if a Letters Patent was issued to establish their present status without them, though. Without it, they’d automatically have those princely titles and dignities from birth, so it’s possible that a different status might’ve required a Letters Patent.
You’re correct about their parents not wanting them to be addressed as such. I can understand their reasons for that, but I have mixed feelings about it.
Jax
Could someone explain the reason as to why the Earl and Countess do not want their children to be addressed as Prince/Princess. Also, why do neither of Princess Anne’s children have any titles? I have read that after Anne’s marriage they preferred not to have titles. Is this true? As someone outside of the United Kingdom, I don’t quite understand why. Do the members of the royal family that do not have titles receive the same benefits? For example would Zara Phillips be entitled to the same benefits (income,housing,etc.) as Princess Beatrice? I am trying to find more research on these things, but its seems hard to find. Thanks in advance for your explanations!
Ricky
Good question. The Princess Royal and Mark Phillips wanted to give their children as normal an upbringing as possible, and thought that royal or noble titles would be a burden on them. Much to his credit, Mr Phillips declined the Queen’s offer of an earldom when he married Princess Anne.
I don’t know for sure, but the Earl and Countess of Wessex probably declined titles for their children for the same reason as Princess Anne and Mark Phillips.
fourscoreandseven
Verity: YOU have missed the point! The Duke of Edinburgh was a Prince TWICE, having been born the ONLY son of a Prince of Greece and Denmark. His great-grandfather (on his father’s side) was King Christian IV of Denmark. His grandfather was King George I of Greece. His great-great-grandmother was Queen Victoria. He is a DIRECT DESCENDANT OF QUEEN VICTORIA the same as the Queen. In fact, Philip’s titles were MORE numerous and grand than the Queen’s!!!! (After all, Bertie married a commoner; Lady Elizabeth Marguerite Bowes-Lyon. The Queen Mother (though loved) was the daughter of an Earl and their French cook.)
Philip GAVE UP all of his royal titles, and any loyalty to any foreign countries, just to marry Princess Elizabeth (heir apparent) to the British throne.
King George VI (the Queen’s father) knew that the nation should NOT have a female monarch who was “out-ranked” by her husband. Or, some of the people would wonder WHY Philip was not the King (he was, after all, just as “related” to Queen Victoria, as Elizabeth was, AND he was “higher born” than she was. King George VI used ALL of his power to make sure that Philip was stripped of his titles BEFORE he was welcomed into the family (this was done to PROTECT his daughter). Therefore, in consideration for his sacrifice, and to have a husband “worthy” of Princess Elizabeth (the next monarch) King George “restored” Philip’s birth title of “Prince” but he made it “of the United Kingdom and NOT those other countries.
You seem to be looking for romantic reasons, but this monarchy business is a BUSINESS, and there were political reasons for taking away Philip’s titles, and then, for making him a prince again. None such reasons surround Catherine; chiefly of all (1) SHE WAS NOT BORN A PRINCESS, and (2) SHE IS NOT A PRINCESS OF ANOTHER COUNTRY and (3) SHE IS NOT A DIRECT DESCENDENT OF QUEEN VICTORIA!!!
Verity Pendelton
Phillip gave his titles when he joined the navy. And neither f Elizabeth ‘s parents liked him or wanted him for a son in law. And if thecQueen wants to, she can make Catherine a princess in her own right
Kathleen Ames
I am afraid you are incorrect. HM The Queen could not make Catherine a Princess in her own right. She is Princess William, Duchess of Cambridge. A female can only be a Princess if she is of Royal blood, i.e the child of a Prince/Princess
Verity Pendelton
No, she can bestow the title on Catherine if she wanted to do so. Her father created Philip HRH Duke of Edinburgh, and in 1957, the Queen, through letters patent, created him a Prince of the UK. She recently issued letters patent declaring that any children of William and Kate would be Royal Highnesses. This is because the letters patent only went as far as grandchildren, and not great-grandchildren. So she could do it, but there isn’t any need to make Kate a princess in her own right. Many people thought she would make Diana a princess since she was the mother of a future King, but that didn’t happen.
Kathleen Ames
Sorry, but you are quite wrong, Prince or Princess can only be bestowed upon a person of Royal birth, Catherine is not. Prince Phillip is a totally different situation. He was born a Royal Prince. Prior to his engagement he was a Prince of Denmark and Greece ands is therefore a Prince in his own right, He was conferred Prince of other UK by George VI to increase his status and to compensate for giving up his ‘foreign’ titles in order to marry Elizabeth who was heir to the British throne. The two situationsare entirely different and entirely incompatible, Catherine can never be a Princess in her own right any more than Diana Princess of Wales could.
Ricky
Philip renounced his title of Prince of Greece and Denmark before he married then-Princess Elizabeth in 1947. The day before the wedding he knelt before King George VI, who ennobled him with several titles, gave him the style of Royal Highness, and made him a Garter Knight.
But the King did not make him a prince; it was the Queen did that by a Letters Patent in 1957. From the time he took the name Philip Mountbatten until 1957, he was not a prince.
Kathleen Ames
Hi Ricky. I can’t get back to the link. Sorry but I must have clicked on the wrong ‘reply’. Currently have a thumb in plaster! Long time no speak.
Ricky
Hello, Kathleen. Sorry to hear you hurt your hand, but glad you’re on the mend. Get better soon!
Verity Pendelton
The queen mum was not the daughter of a cook. That story was made up by Edward VIII and his waspish wife Wallis
Nancy Broertjes
Elizabeth was born Princess Elizabeth of York and became heiress presumptive upon the abdication of Edward VIII. While Phillip was indeed a direct descendant of Queen Victoria, his English/UK was in the female line and therefore he was NOT a Prince of the United Kingdom until his wife made him one. While King George VI REFERRED to him as Prince Phillip he didn’t issue letters patent MAKING him one. His intentions were thus unclear. Phillip had renounced his foreign titles as had the Battenburgs become Mountbatten in 1917 so they wouldn’t sound German or in this case simply foreign. And make no mistake, William is VERY MUCH in love with his wife and very protective of her. The Queen revised the order of precedence such that if Kate is on her own, she is outranked by the “blood Princesses,” and thus must curtsey to them but when she is with her husband, she is sort of an extension of him and outranks them.
Kathleen Ames
Actually she was heiress presumptive from birth and would have remained so until Edward had children.
Ricky
Princess Elizabeth was not heiress presumptive until her father became King in December, 1936.
Kathleen Ames
OK smarty pants. Forget the word presumptive. She was heir to the throne from birth.
Ricky
At the time of Princess Elizabeth’s birth in 1926, her grandfather, HM King George V was on the throne. At that time the heir apparent was HRH Edward, Prince of Wales.
When he became HM King Edward VIII, the heir apparent was his brother, HRH Albert, Duke of York.
When the Duke of York took the throne as HM King George VI, only then did Princess Elizabeth become heiress presumptive.
Kathleen Ames
Yes I know all of that as well as you do and you have already replied to that affect.. Why do you feel the need to comment on everything twice? She was still in direct line to the throne and therefore was heir to it! You must lead a very shallow life.
VikkiB
No, she wasn’t heir to the throne from birth. She only became heir when EdwardVIII abdicated and her father became George VI.
Kathleen Ames
Sorry to contradict you but she was a direct heir to the throne from the moment of her birth behind Edward VII, David, Prince of Wales, (later Edward VIII) her father Albert Duke of York,( later George VI). She would have remained in direct line to the throne until Edward VIII had children – which we now all know did not happen.
Erika
She was not HEIR to the throne – she was IN LINE for the throne while her grandfather and her uncle were the sitting monarchs. If Edward was first in line, his brother Albert would have been the heir presumptive. When George (Albert) became King after Edward’s abdication, THEN and only then did Elizabeth become the heir presumptive. It’s just a matter of wording but yes you are correct in saying she was in line for the throne from birth – 3rd when her uncle was King, had he stayed King and had children then she would probably never have become Queen at all. She would just have kept moving down the line of succession just like Prince Harry does every time Will and Kate have a child. In all honesty I think had Edward not abdicated he probably still would never have had children, so when Elizabeth’s father passed before his brother it still would have made her heir presumptive and she would have taken the throne when her uncle passed away. Luckily Albert had a daughter who was able to step up and knew what she had to do no matter how hard it was. Otherwise can you imagine Princess Margaret on the throne? Might not have ended up so great.
Ricky
King Edward VIII was unable to have children because he caught mumps at an age when his hormonal development was at a delicate stage. When friends would ask the Duchess of Windsor why she and the Duke had no children, she would respond by saying he wasn’t “heir conditioned.”
So even if he had stayed on the throne until his death in 1972, the succession to the throne would’ve been the same; only delayed 20 years. Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh would’ve then become Queen.
Ricky
Philip’s great grandfather was King Christian IX, not Christian IV.
Kathleen Ames
And the first King of Greece – Wilhelm – was Austrian anyway not Greek and Christian was German. They were given the throne of Greece byte the powers that be of Europe!
Nancy Broertjes
That was when he renounced his Greek titles. It wasnt until the Queen GAVE him that title.
Verity Pendelton
He was created HRH The Duke of Edinburgh by the Queen’s father. SHE made him a Prince in his own right, in 1957, so Charles wouldn’t outrank him. The Queen is able to grant titles as she did for William and Catherine, creating a Royal Dukedom.
Ricky
The Queen gave a royal dukedom to Prince William, not to Catherine. As his wife, she automatically takes the female form of her husband’s title, but the Queen bestowed no title on her specifically.
Verity Pendelton
True, she takes the rank of her husband.
Kathleen Ames
But he was already a Prince in his own right. Catherine isn’t.
Ricky
When the Duke of Edinburgh married then-Princess Elizabeth, he was not a prince. He had to renounce his foreign titles (Prince of Greece and Denmark) before the wedding, and upon doing so, he had the status of a commoner. Philip Mountbatten was a “Duke of ordinary station” at that time.
On his wedding day, he was HRH Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (plus his subsidiary titles). He didn’t become a Prince again until The Queen issued the Letters Patent in 1957.
Kathleen Ames
He was born a Prince but gave up his titles to marry. A mere formality.The fact that he was born a Prince gave him the right to accept later titles. Catherine was not born a Princess and therefore does not have that right.
Ricky
It was no mere formality; once Philip renounced his Greek and Danish titles, he was no longer a prince. His former status entitled him to nothing in regard to the British royal family. Anyone can receive titles by means of a Letters Patent by the sovereign, and that is the only reason he’s a prince today.
Kathleen Ames
In Royal terms it was a mere formality. Do you imagine this was not discussed and agreed before he gave up his titles? All this was discussed and agreed in the previous year before the engagement was confirmed and announced. He gave up his titles conditional to marrying Princess Elizabeth and receiving those of a Prince of the British Isles.
Ricky
As a royal historian of over 20 years, I am quite sure of my facts. When a member of a foreign royal house marries into the British royal family, they must renounce all their foreign titles. There are no exceptions, and no secret deals are made to arrange otherwise.
And there is not such title as “Prince of the British Isles.” Philip became a Prince of the United Kingdom by means of a Letters Patent in 1957, and for the ten years before that he was not a prince of any country.
Kathleen Ames
Oh you are such a smarty pants and not nearly as clever as you think. I have in fact corrected you on a number of occasions earlier You seem to think you are the only expert on here. But you are wrong. OK the wording is Prince of the United Kingdom if we are being torrent but to the majority of people on this site British Isles is The United Kingdom. Get a life is this all you do?
Ricky
I have had to correct you a number of times, and the facts speak for themselves.
As for my life, it is a rich and varied one. I could ask the same question of you, but to answer you, I can go on correcting your errors until you stop posting them.
Kathleen Ames
You have NEVER had to correct me actually except in the earlier today title which in my opinion would be more understandable to many on here. I know all the stories as well and better than you and have lived through them. AND unlike you I have not been on here since our last discussion last year until yesterday because I do have a life
Kathleen Ames
Haven’t been on here since the last time I corrected you about the titles for the Earl Of Wessex’ children. So my reply to this one Ricky is ‘In your dreams. You haven’t got a clue’.
Verity Pendelton
Philip renounced all his titles and was just plain Lt. Mountbatten when he became engaged to Elizabeth. George VI then created him the Duke of Edinburgh. There was disagreement if he was a Prince in his own right, so Elizabeth rectified that in 1957 with her letters patent.
Kathleen Ames
He was a Prince of Greece. There is no doubt of that. Conditional to his marriage to Princess Elizabeth and acceptance as a Prince of The British Isles, he renounced those titles. The confusion as to whether he was a Prince of Great Britain was rectified by the Queen
Verity Pendelton
Correct. He renounced all his titles, and the Queen issued the letters patent to make sure he was a Prince of the UK. She could do that for anyone, including a spouse of her children or grandchildren, but she doesn’t interfere in that way.
Ricky
There is absolutely no confusion in regard to this uncomplicated situation.
Philip stopped being a prince when he voluntarily renounced his Greek and Danish titles in 1947. He became a Prince of the United Kingdom (not the British Isles) through a Letters Patent issued by the Queen in 1957.
For a period of ten years he was not a prince of any country; he was HRH Philip, Duke of Edinburgh from 1947 to 1957. It’s really quite simple.
Fiametta
The easy way to explain this is to say that she is a princess by marriage, as all royal duchesses are, but not a princess by birth, so she cannot use the title “Princess” before her own given name. Only princesses by birth can do that.
She is also not a duchess by birth (very few women have ever been duchesses by birth), and the title “Duchess” is simply never used before a given name.
Ricky
There was one notable exception of a royal duchess who was also a princess by birth. Before the death of King George VI, the present queen was known as HRH the Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh.
Duncan Scott Bennie
It was Philip though that was made Duke of Edinburgh so Elizabeth was Duchess by marriage she was not invested with the title herself
Ricky
Yes, Philip was given the title by King George VI. Common law directs that as his wife, Elizabeth takes the title, too. It’s the same with his children’s titles before his wife’s accession; when Prince Charles was born he was known as Prince Charles of Edinburgh (plus the other titles).
It’s the same today; Prince William’s son is styled “Prince George of Cambridge,” taking his title from his father.
Celoptra
I don’t think Elizabeth took the title duchess of Endiburg despite the fact her husband the duke. I mean considering the fuss her mom made about the “Windsor” house turning into a complication last name thing again-beside she was already heir to the throne-totally different there.
Ricky
In official documents of the time, she was referred to as “Her Royal Highness the Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh,”
which was her full title from the time of her wedding until the death of King George VI.
I remember seeing her referred to by this title on the announcement of Prince Charles’ birth, for example.
Royal Central, am I not correct?
Nancy Broertjes
WAS Charles a Prince at birth or simply Lord Charles? As grandchildren of the sovereign in the female line even though Elizabeth was heiress presumptive I dont think her children would have been titled prince and princess.
Ricky
Before Charles was born, King George VI issued a Letters Patent which would give all of then-Princess Elizabeth’s children the title of prince or princess, with the style of Royal Highness.
Nancy Broertjes
I know it sounds absurd but Princess Elizabeth was heiress presumptive, not Princess of Wales because of the unlikely possibility that her parents might have the miracle of the birth of a son.
Ricky
This is incorrect. The title Princess of Wales is only given to the wife of a Prince of Wales.
This issue did arise in the 1940’s, when a royal courtier suggested to King George VI that Princess Elizabeth be created Princess of Wales. But this title was not bestowed on her because of the reason I mentioned above.
Nancy Broertjes
There is no reason Elizabeth could not have been created Princess of Wales in her own right. Not having happened before doesn’t mean it couldn’t. TECHNICALLY if her parents HAD produced a son, the heiress presumptive part would go out the window.
Ricky
If King George VI had a son at any time, he could — and almost certainly would’ve been — created Prince of Wales. But this is only for sons, not daughters.
Princess Elizabeth would’ve lost her position as Heiress Presumptive if a baby brother had been born. As I’ve said twice before, the title Princess of Wales is only for the wife of the Prince of Wales.
Nancy Broertjes
The fact that it hadn’t happened before doesn’t mean it couldn’t. This was the first heiress presumptive that had children. Mary I was childless, as was Victoria before shebecame Queen.
Ricky
While not absolutely impossible, protocol regarding titles relies very heavily on precedent, or the absence of it.
Sherry
This is true. To refer to her as Princess
Catherine is incorrect just as it was when
Diana was referred to as Princess Diana
The correct title would be HRH The Duchess of Cambridge. That is why when she is not with William she has to courtesy to Princess Beatrice as she was born and styled Princess. When Catherine is with William Beatrice would have to curtesy to her as she than ranks
higher with her husband
“Have to courtesy”? Is that the correct spelling of “curtsy”?
Nancy Broertjes
Typos puhlees
llewellynh
And that, too, is absurd. Why really should Catherine have to curtsey to those two young ladies. It is border line insulting.
fourscoreandseven
Queen Mary CURTSYED to her own son (George VI) when he became monarch. And YOU are concerned about cousins?
Philip and Charles curtsy to the Queen! Maybe British Royalty isn’t your cup of tea.
Nancy Broertjes
Phillip and Charles bow. Women curtsy.
Kathleen Ames
They are royals and direct descendants of HM The Queen. Catherine is not.
Ricky
The critical difference here is that Beatrice and Eugenie are “Princesses of the Blood.” This means that they were born royal, as opposed to marrying into the Royal Family the way Catherine did.
This is why the York Princesses have precedence over the Duchess of Cambridge, unless she’s with her husband. In that case, Beatrice and Eugenie would be obliged to curtsey to Catherine.
Terrylee Warren
I really enjoyed the way that you explain that. I didn’t understand about Catherine having to curtsey to Beatrice unless she’s with her husband William His Royal Highness William. Anyway I really like the way you explained it thank you for that
CeeEmDee
I don’t think that is true anymore than Diana ever curtsied to Anne. I don’t think since her marriage she even curtsies to Charles. This is some weird rumor or if there is a rule book that says so, it’s ignored.
Nancy Broertjes
The order of precedence was changed after the death of the Princess of Wales by Her Majesty. The reason was to recognize that the Princesses of York are Princesses by birth and The Duchess of Cambridge takes her rank from her husband.
Ricky
Nothing of the kind happened after the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. The order of precedence has always been the way it is now for princes and princesses of the blood versus people who marry into the royal family.
And by the way, Diana was not the Princess of Wales at the time of her death. After her divorce from Prince Charles she was given the title Diana, Princess of Wales. A small difference, but the two titles aren’t the same.
Verity Pendelton
Technically, they never curtsy to each other – and during the most formal occasions, Catherine would be with William so they would curtsy. But you NEVER see them curtsy when they are together, unless they curtsy to the Queen. She is the only one that gets a curtsy during informal situations.
Kathleen Ames
The Duchess of Cambridge has to curtsy to anyone of higher rank including foreign Royals, and that includes the Duchess of Cornwall and Princes Anne. It would not normally include Princess Anne, the Princess Royal but HM The Queen made it clear that Anne is the Senior Princess and retained Anne’s rank and title when Prince Charles married Camilla. Normally The Princess of Wales would outrank the Princess Royal;.
JSH
Actually Catherine doesn’t “have to” curtsy to anyone but the Queen and possibly the Duke of Edinburgh. Beyond those two, hardly any Royals bow or curtsy to each other although strict precedence says they should.
llewellynh
It now though is out of whack when it comes to Catherine. She is a Countess married to a Prince and now she is the mother of a Prince and a Princess. It’s awkward and would seem that at some point she should be a Princess but not one latched onto her husband’s first name. There should be a level playing field title wise within a household.
Ricky
There’s nothing at all awkward about Catherine’s titles. You say she is a Countess, which is true enough; but she is also a Princess, a Duchess, a Baroness, and has the style of Royal Highness as well.
Whenever a woman of any station marries into the British Royal Family, she takes titles and styles corresponding to those of her husband unless she already holds other British titles of greater rank.
She has every legal right to all the titles she acquired when she married Prince William. Nothing is ‘out of whack’ here.
llewellynh
I really do understand all of that but I was addressing the fact that colloquially speaking Countess Anybody is a mouthful and while I realize she is Princess William, that, too is awkward. Looking back it was only on formal occasions that Diana was given her proper titled name and she rather quickly slipped into the “Princess Di” name that was completely against the rules of formal British Etiquette.
Maybe my using “out of whack” was the wrong phrase. Let’s see what she does now that she is the mother of a Prince and a Princess. She could use Princess William as does Princess Michael but honestly it’s the problem of Camila that hovers over this. Camilla is I suppose the Princess of Wales but I don’t know a soul who would refer to her that way. So when she married Charles the alternative of Countess was chosen because it made sense given the awkward circumstances but that seems to have spilled over to Kate – dare I say it.
And I realize that a Countess is not necessarily a downgrade from a Princess but to make things a bit simpler it might be better for Catherine to be called Princess – and that the Queen can do though she won’t again because of the Camilla problem. All will change when Charles becomes King. However, God Save the Queen.
Louise Vecchio
She’s not a Countess, she’s a Duchess – Sophie, Countess of Wessex is a Countess.
Ricky
Catherine acquired several titles when she married; Princess William, Duchess of Cambridge, Countess of Strathearn, and Baroness Carrickfergus. She also has the style of Royal Highness.
fourscoreandseven
But, you DON’T “UNDERSTAND” at all!
It is simply delusional to claim to understand, and then make assumptions that do not follow! Or, ask questions that do not apply!
And, “Countess Anyone” is NOT a mouthful! It is TWO extra syllables (as is Duchess if you are talking about Catherine Middleton). We say “doctor (two syllables) so and so” or “professor” (three syllables) so and so,” all the time. Depending on your country, we say “President (three syllables) so and so” or “Prime Minister (four syllables) so and so” or “Senator (three syllables) so and so” or “Representative (FIVE syllables) so and so” or “Ambassador (four syllables) so and so” and it hasn’t killed us yet!!!!
“Princess William” is NOT “awkward.” (Again, you are allowing your (less than accurate) opinion rule the day, when it only applies to YOU!!!!!)
I refer to Charles’ present wife as “The Princess of Wales” because THAT IS HER TITLE!!! So, please stop saying that “nobody” does!!! If she is forced to use an alternate title, to make her life easier, that is fine with me.
FACT: If the Prince of Wales has a wife, she is the Princess of Wales!!!!!! (Charles DOES have a wife and she is the Princess of Wales, whether YOU like it or not).
FACT: Camilla OUTRANKS Catherine AND ALWAYS WILL!!!! That is because of her age and rank. SHE IS MARRIED TO THE “FATHER” and Catherine is married to the “SON.” That means the OLDER WOMAN outranks the younger woman. (If Catherine was to live in angst by having to curtsy to Andrew’s daughters (who were BORN into the family) then she should have passed on marrying William.
FACT: Camilla is Catherine’s mother-in-law and (hopefully) always will be. That means that Catherine owes a bit of respect to the woman who is married to William’s father. If that bothers her, she should not have “married in.”
FACT: Camilla (and her first husband, Andrew Parker Bowles) were “insiders” to the Royal family since they was teenagers; that’s about 50 years. (She and Andrew used to visit the Queen Mum at her Castle of Mey on the North Coast of Scotland; so they were VERY close friends.) Andrew used to date Princess Anne! The Queen, the Queen Mum, and Princess Margaret attended Camilla’s marriage to Andrew Parker Bowles. Charles is god-father to her children. Anne remains a friend; they were spotted chatting at an event a short time ago.
Catherine was NOT part of the family when Charles married Camilla. Let’s keep things in perspective.
You also said: “And I realize that a Countess is not necessarily a downgrade from a Princess…” THIS MAKES NO SENSE! You don’t “realize” a single thing!
Nancy Broertjes
Camilla outranks Catherine NOW. Unlike Russia where Tsar Nicholas II’s mother, the Dowager Tsarina outranked his wife, the then current Tsarina, when William becomes King, HIS wife will outrank the newly Dowager……who will be Dowager NOT Queen Mother.
fourscoreandseven
I was referring to any situation when they are BOTH alive, and in relation to each other. If Charles dies, then Camilla is obviously diminished in rank. Catherine will ALWAYS be “the mother of a monarch.” However, if Charles lives, and William dies, her rank will also be minimalized. Their lives depend on their husbands, EXCEPT of course, Catherine will always be the mother of a monarch, and Camilla never will. However, the notion of William diminishing Camilla seems unlike him. He seems like a decent person, who knows of his own mother’s demons, even if he cannot publicly recognize them. (Although, as a sponsor of mental health problems, he certainly must realize how some will interpret his sponsorship.) I was referring to the fact that William, as son, will always be second to his father. OF COURSE, I mean that that means as long as they both live. When a rank is subject to the husband, EVERYTHING depends on his status as a living or dead person. What if the Royal great-grands die of some odd disease, when they are children? What is Catherine’s status then? We can make note of any and all eventualities, but the normal progression is parent to child. Just because YOU prefer Catherine (for whatever reason) to Camilla, does NOT diminish her status as the wife of Charles, the Prince of Wales, and future king. Of course if Charles dies before becoming King, Camila will always be an erstwhile “Princess of Wales and
Duchess of Cornwall, and Duchess of Rothesay, yadda, yadda” but her future (and final) title seems to depend on the (then) current monarch, which could be the current Queen, or King William. We could nit-pick this to death. . . . (I’m willing).
Mike Cotter
Um if Charles for whatever reason is no longer sitting on the throne, and William succeeds him while Camilla is alive, Catherine would indeed outrank Camilla.
Lynn Davis
Fact: Camilla is not Catherine’s mother-in-law. She is not Williams mother.
Fact: When Charles married Camilla we were assured she would not use the title Princess of Wales and would never be Queen Consort. It was not her or Charles decision but the government along with constitutional experts some of whom questioned the legality of such a marriage for the heir to the throne. It was nodded through on the principal of Charles being entitled to a family life.
Ricky
Your first sentence is indeed factual, but the rest isn’t.
No “assurance” was ever made about Camilla never being Queen Consort. At the time of the wedding in 2005, it was announced from Clarence House (not by the government) that it was the intention that Camilla would take the title Princess Consort when the Prince of Wales becomes King.
This was done to quell some of the hostility the public had toward the couple at the time. But over the last 11 years, opinion polls show a steady rise in the number of people in the UK who approve of Camilla being Queen.
This will happen automatically anyway, when Charles becomes King. After his accession, it would take an act of Parliament to downgrade Camilla’s status. It would also require Royal Assent; that is, the monarch’s signature. Do you really think King Charles II would sign such a document?
Nancy Broertjes
TECHNICALLY Camilla is Princess of Wales. It was her choice to USE the title Duchess of Cornwall out of sensitivity toward thoughts of the late Diana, Princess of Wales. If Her Majesty didn’t want to put a finer point on it, she would NOT have revised the order of precedence.
Nancy Broertjes
(A Duchess, not a Countess) Edwards wife Sophie is a Countess.
Kathryn
I imagine Sophie is technically Princess Edward also. As a non Brit who is enthralled by the monarchy, the fact that they rely on Public interest and constantly ‘evolve’ is of interest. I have read that name cards at private events read William and Catherine Wales. Will curtsying become obsolete as a less modern tradition?
Mike Cotter
Goodness, I sure hope curtsying and bowing/kneeling don’t go anytime soon!
It’s great that Royal traditions change with time, but courtesy amongst Royals shouldn’t change in my opinion.
But hey, I’m from across the pond. We don’t kneel over here, so what would I know!?
Ricky
Prince William holds several subsidiary titles, including Earl of Strathearn. As his wife, Catherine takes the female equivalent titles, so she’s also the Countess of Strathearn.
Kathryn
Ricky, I find your knowledge interesting. The Royal family ‘evolve’ and very much rely on public interest. As an obsessed non Brit, I find the styles/ titles interesting. I understand why Camilla doesn’t use Princess of Wales, but is Sophie Wesswx not technically Princess Edward as the wife of a monarch’s son? Few modern women would use the title Princess followed by their husbands name as it’s rather demeaning- Princess Michael for example. So- I’ve read that the Cambridges use William and Catherine Wales at private events outside the family. True? Will the Middletons as grandparents to the future king ever be granted courtesy titles?
Ricky
Kathryn, titles and styles certainly are interesting topics!
Most members of the royal family prefer to use their titles with a geographic designation, in this case, Wessex. If Sophie’s husband had not been granted the earldom of Wessex, she would be known as Princess Edward because it would be her highest title/rank.
I understand that The Queen had originally intended to give Prince Edward the title Duke of Cambridge when he married. However, he asked for the title Earl of Wessex instead, and Her Majesty accommodated him.
HRH Princess Michael of Kent uses that title because her husband does not hold a dukedom or earldom, so Princess is her only title.
Her Majesty and her successors could issue a Letters Patent to grant titles to the Middletons anytime they wish. But there is no precedent for doing this for commoners, so I think it’s very unlikely.
Nancy Broertjes
The wife of Edward IV had numerous relatives that received titles, as did Anne Boleyn’s father and brother, so yes, there is precedent. Not recent.
fourscoreandseven
With all due respect, it is ridiculous to be “offended” or “concerned” when you have a number of basic elements wrong! IOW, you need to have complete understanding of a situation before you become incensed that “something is wrong” when there is absolutely nothing wrong.
Nancy Broertjes
At the time of King George and Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother) the spouse of the sovereign was also crowned. I’m not sure if they’ll crown Camilla as it has been announced she’ll use the title Princess Consort….or if the Duchess of Cambridge will become Queen Catherine.
fourscoreandseven
READ HISTORY!!! When Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret were born, their mother was merely “Duchess of York” (and the world continued to turn on its axis). Of course, the next “Queen Consort” was willing to be a mere Duchess, married to a Duke and a Prince, because there was a possibility that she would be the next Queen. I would SUSPECT that Catherine is willing to curtsy to ALL kinds of people, to be the next after Queen.
You used the term “level playing field” while talking about the Royals. That’s funny. And, you also have an odd notion of family dynamics.
Verity Pendelton
The duchess of York was a princess by marriage. They take the title and rank of their husbands. Royal dukedoms are given to prohibit calling a wife princess Charles or princess William.
Ricky
I don’t presume to speak for others, but I believe the other commenter was referring to the late Queen Mother. She was known as the HRH the Duchess of York before her husband became King George VI.
Bestowing royal dukedoms has nothing to do with a wife’s title. The living example of Princess Michael of Kent comes to mind.
Verity Pendelton
Yes the late queen mum was the duchess or York before she became queen. The queen can bestow a title and usually does if the person is in direct line to the throne. She bestowed titles on all her sons, her brother in law and prince philip
Nancy Broertjes
When did Catherine become a Countess? Sophie is, I know.
Ricky
The same day she married Prince William. When he was created Duke of Cambridge, he also received the subsidiary titles of Earl of Strathearn, and Baron Carrickfergus.
As his wife, she takes the female form of all his titles; Duchess of Cambridge, Countess of Strathearn, and Baroness Carrickfergus.
Claudia Marek
If the Duke and Duchess have a daughter and name her Catherine, there will be a Princess Catherine.
Nancy Broertjes
Now we’re getting picky. That wasn’t the subject. When Queen Mary’s husband died, her first act was to curtsey to her son, now her King.
Kathleen Ames
That’s the first thing everyone who meets does to the new Monarch. It’s a case of “The King is dead. Long Live the King.”
fourscoreandseven
Proud of being a smart aleck?
There is a rule of argument; about changing the topic. I suggest YOU learn the “rules of engagement” for argument.
A. P. Schrader
A reasonable article, though I would contest that referring to the Duchess as ‘HRH Princess William’ is ‘correct’ in the strictest sense. While it is technically one of her titles, I don’t think it can ever be ‘correct’ etiquette to address/refer to her by that title instead of as the Duchess of Cambridge.
rich
Princess Michael of Kent has had no trouble with being known as that.
Verity Pendelton
Her title is HRH The Princess William Arthur Philip Louis, Duchess of Cambridge. She takes the titles of her husband. The Queen will usually grant a dukedom to avoid calling her Princess William, especially for those in line to the thrown.
Ricky
Only a child of the monarch is entitled to the word “the” in front of their name. The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge do not qualify for this, but the Duke will, when his father becomes King.
Charles 742
The whole world are assuming that HRH Prince George will one day be King, but if HM The Queen outlives Prince Charles then the current Duke of York would be King and as such, his daughter would on his death become Queen
Royal Central
No, if The Queen outlives Prince Charles, Prince William will be King. That’s how the line of succession works. After Prince William is Prince George, this is how it will always be. Prince George will be King bar any unfortunate incident or converting to catholicism etc.
Elizabeth
Charles 742, I am confused by your assertions regarding the Duke of York’s claim to the throne. Do you think that Princes William, George, and Harry do not have precedence in succession? If you recognize the succession rights of the Duke of York’s daughters, why not that of Prince Charles’ sons? Is this merely an oversight or are you trying to make a point of some kind?
Since you have made this statement more than once, I am curious as to your reasoning.
Duncan Scott Bennie
I think he is going on the custom of some other European monarchies from the dark ages like the Russian and Kieven monarchies where only the decedents of the Grand Prince could inherit the throne so if your father died before becoming grand prince then all his decedents are removed from the line of succession. Not something that has been used anywhere in centuries and centuries anywhere as far as I know. That is the only place I think he could have gotten it from
Gary
The line of succession was the eldest son of the eldest son. Now eldest child of the eldest child. If Charles had died before producing a child, only then would Andrew & his family have become next in line.
llewellynh
You are right but now stick in Princess Charlotte between George and Harry.
Steven
The Duke of York could be king if Prince Charles and his descendants would die.
llewellynh
Lots of them would have to die. Prince Charles, Prince William, Prince George, Princess Charlotte and Prince Harry. The Duke of York isn’t measuring for furniture at any of the palaces because he is out of the main picture now.
peter
even if you are born of the blood royal it is your mum and dad who decide ask princess zara phillip
Royal Central
Well Zara Phillips isn’t a Princess – she was never entitled to the title of Princess, even by birth.
Amanda
Not necessarily in every case. Titles are passed through the father, not the mother. When Princess Anne married Captain Phillips, the Queen had to issue a special proclamation to re-title her as Anne, Princess Royal. If she wouldn’t have done that, Anne would have lost her title due to her husband being untitled. HM also offered a title to Captain Phillips so that their children could inherit titles, but the couple turned it down.
David
I thought that women inherit their husbands title (or lack of title) only if their current title is below that of their future husbands.
Royal Central
Yes, this is correct. A wife takes her husband’s title unless her own title is higher, thus Princess Anne’s title was unaffected by her marriage to Captain Phillips.
Ricky
Anne didn’t receive the title of Princess Royal at the time of her marriage to Mark Phillips; that came in the late 1980’s.
Her Majesty could have given Anne this title anytime after 1965, when the previous holder died. This was the Queen’s aunt, Princess Mary, who was King George V’s only daughter. There can only be one living Princess Royal at any given time.
When this title was bestowed on Princess Anne, the media reported the Queen did this this because of Anne’s many years of royal duties and her work on behalf of charities, especially Save the Children.
milifabian
Princess Anne was created Princess Royal in 1987, not when she got married.
Verity Pendelton
Anne didn’t lose her title when she married, she was still The Princess Anne. She would actually be know as The Princess Anne, Mrs. Mark Phillips in the court circular. Her husband didn’t want a title. The Queen’s sister was still Princess Margaret, but her husband did receive a title, The Earl of Snowdon, that is why she as also knows as The Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon.
duncan
If Will became king tomorrow he would be HM King William V…. And kate would be ?? HRH Queen consort Katherine, or something? And the baby, HRH Prince George?
Royal Central
Prince William would become His Majesty King William V and his wife would become Her Majesty The Queen or Her Majesty Queen Catherine – Prince George would become HRH The Prince George, Duke of Cornwall.
Guest
Is it not true that William can choose to use a different name as king, as Elizabeth’s father, Albert, did when he became George? He will not necessarily be “His Majesty King William V,” though that seems most likely.
Chloe Howard
Each Monarch can choose their regnal (ruling) name. Albert chose George to give some familiarity and stability to his reign after the Abdication Crisis. William could choose something else if he wanted, but for many of us, it would sound wrong to call him anything other than William. Doubt this will happen again in future.
Ricky
William could choose any of his 4 names (William Arthur Philip Louis) as a regnal name, but it’s unlikely he would choose anything other than William V.
The Queen’s father chose not to be known as King Albert because it was thought that it sounded too German. This is understandable in the context of the times, when relations between Hitler and the rest of Europe were very tense.
Liz Feola
This is great! I’m sharing it with my American friends, so I don’t have to explain it again!
Jane
Why was Diana allowed to be called “Princess Diana”? She also had the title, “HRH Diana Princess of Wales”.
Amanda
That was a concession made by the Queen and Prince Charles during the divorce negotiations. As the mother of a future monarch, Buckingham Palace agreed that she needed to have some sort of title, even though she was having HRH stripped. They settled for ‘Princess’. Same thing actually happened to Prince Philip when he married HM. His previous title of Prince was removed once he married (I can’t remember why just now, but I know it’s easy to find if you wish to look into it), but the Queen issued a proclamation declaring that he still be known as Prince Philip.
Verity Pendelton
Prince Philip renounced his greek titles and became Lt. Mountbatten. When he married Elizabeth, her father George VI granted him, by letters patent, the title HRH the Duke of Edinburgh. In 1957, Queen Elizabeth granted him the title of Prince, by letters patent, so that Charles wouldn’t outrank his father. Victoria did the same thing with Albert, although he was created a Prince Consort.
CP
She wasn’t. That is what the media and the public called her but that was never her title. Before the divorce she was HRH The Princess of Wales (no use of her first name). After the divorce she was Diana, Princess of Wales.
Simple, “commoner” example – the traditional British way, if you like.
Miss Anne Smith marries Mr Alan Brown and her formal title is Mrs Alan Brown
They divorce
She is now Mrs Anne Brown.
Guest USA
Why do the Royals allow the name Kate Middleton to be used instead of Catherine? Do the Royals not like Catherine? Some proclamation needs to be made by some higher royal as to the correct use of her name or punitive damages will be put of those magazines that call her Kate Middleton which is not her name by any means. The Royals and the public are bullying Catherine again!
Bella
No matter what anyone says on the subject, the media is still going to call her Kate Middleton even though she has been a married woman for almost 3 years now. Kate Middleton, Princess Kate and Princess Catherine sell papers and magazines rather than her proper title The Duchess of Cambridge or Catherine, The Duchess of Cambridge.
I personally tend to ignore any magazines that refuse to use her proper title when they use her image on the front pages.
Lulu in the Palace
No, no one is bullying her. It has to do with SEO (Search Engine Optimization). People search for things online based on certain words. The average person on the street knows who Kate Middleton is but they may not know who The Duchess of Cambridge is.
It’s not a sign of disrespect. People seem to get overly emotional about this issue when there is no reason to. It is a simple case of addressing her in a way that people recognize. And there is no insult in calling a married woman by her maiden name. Many women keep their last names.
Gary
Catherine is known affectionately as “Kate”. The same as Diana was known as “Di”. We, as British, like to shorten names of people we love. i suppose you could call it a “term of endearment”!!!
fourscoreandseven
So, then you don’t like Queen Elizabeth (or you would call her Queen Liz), according to your claim that “British shorten names as a “term of endearment.”
Gary: Would it surprise you to know that we referred to John F. Kennedy, as”Jack” and Mrs. John F. Kennedy, as “Jackie?” Or, do you think that is just a “British” trait? We also call Barbara, “Babs.” We call Robert, “Bob.” We call Edward, “Teddy.”
llewellynh
It’s not really bullying. That was her name for a long time when we met her. Think back to Princess Di which was not said to bully her at all. Some of these titled names are more than a mouthful and it seems those royals who are especially liked do pick up nick names. I’m all for Princess Kate but it doesn’t seem to be going that way.
fourscoreandseven
To refer to HRH Catherine, Princess of Cambridge, as “Princess Kate” is a TERRIBLE insult. (1) It is an intentional “mess up” of her name. (2) It is a reminder that she is NOT Royal, and (3) that her daughter outranks her.
Kindness, and courtesy, DEMAND that she be referred to as “HRH Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge. Or, Kate Middleton. Or, Catherine Middleton. Or HRH Princess William.
It is NEVER wrong to refer to someone by their birth name. It is never wrong to refer to someone by their married name. It is never wrong to refer to someone by names that have been (in their case) issued by the monarchy. Any questions about names of the British Royals can be referenced by contacting Buckingham Palace, or Clarence House, or St. James Palace, or Kensington Palace.
But, to “make up a name that YOU think is “cute” or “makes sense to you” is never correct. (Would you like for me to call you “little llewe?”)
llewellynh
Funny, within the last two weeks someone stumbled over what to call her and Catherine said, “Please call me Kate.”
SopranoAscends
Perhaps we use “Kate Middleton” due to several reasons. Her name appeared for many years in the press as such. But more than that, I would never assume any woman changes her name at marriage. As persons delay marriage, especially educated ones, to about age 30, a woman’s life is established, and thus her indentity, which includes her name. Changing one’s ID, banking, pension, et al is a pain, and often costly. Not that Kate has to personally process those changes. But real women do. I don’t believe the royals have anything to do with “Kate Middleton” being of common usage in most press. Name-changing at marriage is primarily a Western-Anglo convention.
Lulu in the Palace
I think the use of “Kate Middleton” as more to do with SEO than anything else. That is how most people know her & they are more inclined to click on a link that says “Kate Middleton” than if it said, “The Duchess of Cambridge”. And I agree that these days a lot of women don’t change their names & it shouldn’t be seen as a sign of disrespect when she is referred to as KM.
Patty Caudle
The Duchess of Cambridge, Catherine gave birth to a Prince and is a distant cousin to her Prince husband and must do the duties of a Princess. She deserves the right to be Princess Catherine and all of these politics around it should end. She married a prince and is the mother of a Prince. Give her the rightful title. Her son out ranks her. I can see her son ordering her around if he became a belligerent child. SO WRONG!!!!!! Please reconsider this. Then there is the possibility of Prince Charles advocating his son Prince William to King what will Catherine be then? I just do not see this as fair. She’s a Princess in her every right. Let the Queen give her what is is rightfully hers.
Patrick
Diana wasn’t really Princess?
Amanda
She was whilst she was married to Charles, but she lost the title HRH Princess of Wales when she divorced him. She was allowed to continue to have the title ‘Princess’ as part of divorce negotiations, but she was no longer a Princess in anything but name.
No, actually even when she was married she was never ACTUALLY a Princess. Only in title.
Ricky
“Princess” IS a title.
llewellynh
She was a Lady before she met Charles and had more English roots than he ever had.
Ricky
While she was married she was Princess Charles, plus other titles like Duchess of Rothesay, Countess of Chester, Princess of Wales, and one or two others. But at no time was she ever “Princess Diana.”
makilby
The references to Prince Phillip were, and still technically are, a courtisy afforded due to his not unique, but certainly rare, instance of birth.
Prior to his marriage to the present soverign, Prince Phillip was Prince of Greece and Prince of Denmark.
Although he renounced these titles upon his marriage to our present Queen, he is often refered to as Prince Phillip because of his former enoblement under other Crowns; it’s not concidered good form to demote a Royal!
Rather like deposed monarchs, the titles of King, Queen, Prince, and Princess, are the personal possession of the bearer, even though they may no longer reign. The European Court ruled that King Constantine of the Hellenes was fully entitled to retain the title, even although he was no longer the Head of State, there are numerous other examples.
Ricky
Excellent post, and very well thought out.
I see you describe yourself as an Englishman who will one day live abroad. I’m an Atlanta Anglophile American, so let’s switch residences and we’ll both realize our dreams!
I do hope you’re in central London!
lol
Verity Pendelton
Philip was created a Prince of the United Kingdom by letters patent as a gift from the Queen, that is why he is now Prince Philip. She did that in 1957 so that Prince Charles wouldn’t outrank his father.
Kristie Lewis
I believe that Prince Charles Will bestow on Catherine the title of Princess when he is king George the 6th or 7th….(or on the slim chance he keeps King Charles). It will curry favor of the world who adore Catherine.
Ricky
Catherine became a princess the day she said “I do” in Westminster Abbey. The Duchess of Cambridge has several titles, one of which is “Princess William.”
Chloe Howard
Charles has no intention, as far as Royal reporters are aware, of taking any regnal name other than his own. Catherine will be made Princess of Wales eventually, but I highly doubt she will be made a Princess in her own right for the reasons stated.
Rachel
She currently is a princess because of her marriage but I understand what you are saying and I agree I think Charles will make her a princess in her own right (as if she were a blood princess). I think he views her as the daughter he never had.
Dhian S. S. Widayat
Royal by birth, which means blue blood, it is God’s grace. (people can’t afford it by themselves)
and when you are someone with a blue blood but not in this era anymore, which is extinct, which means no more about it, you only have it by birth like the ancestors,
yes, you feel something which can’t be understood and can not be explained in words,
but
it’s true, you feel it, when you have it in blood.
Therefore i respect the UK Royals that should be strictly maintained.
God bless.
P
If the Queen’s mum was called the Queen Mother, what will Kate be called when William dies if by that stage he is already King?
Just came to me then and i am now intrigued.
Ricky
She will be styled Her Majesty Queen Catherine. If King William V is succeeded by King George VII or any of their other children, there’s no reason why she couldn’t be called the Queen Mother.
AJ
Dowager Queen….not just Queen Catherine
llewellynh
Why not the Queen mother? That’s how the current Queen’s mother decided to have people refer to her. Dowager today has depressing connotations and I doubt if anyone will ever use it again.
Brett Salem
Does it really matter if she ever becomes “Princess Catherine”? When William becomes King, she will be Her Majesty The Queen. :0). What’s more interesting, if Prince William bypasses Prince Charles as King, Prince Harry’s children will not become Princes or Princesses based on the Letters Patent similar to Prince Michael’s children. They probably will be given courtesy titles of Lord and Lady unless he is made a Duke at the time of his marriage. Also, his children will not be HRH.
Nikki
If all children born to any sons of the sovereign, then why aren’t Prince Edwards children titled Prince and Princess?
Ricky
Because the Earl and Countess of Wessex wanted it that way. Their children have the titles “James, Viscount Severn,” and “Lady Louise Windsor.” But neither of them have the style of “Royal Highness.”
Royal Central
This is correct. Though on a technicality, Edward won’t ‘inherit’ Duke of Ed title – it’ll have to be recreated for him, but only after both The Queen and Prince Philip die.
Louise
Is it correct that the Wessex children automatically inherit the HRH prince and princess titles but that their parents choose they be styled as the children of a non royal duke? They are still technically a prince and princess though, aren’t they?
Ricky
Viscount Severn and Lady Louise Windsor aren’t children of a Duke at present. Prince Edward is an Earl.
I don’t think the children of a royal Earl like Edward would automatically be princes or princesses. I’m not absolutely sure about this since I can’t recall any other such situations in British royalty.
Perhaps the moderator would know?
llewellynh
And the Princess Royal (Anne) went further and neither of her children have any title at all.
Janet Smithson
If Kate will never be a Princess how come Dianna was Dianna Princess of wales
Ricky
The article doesn’t say Catherine isn’t a princess; it says we’ll never see a “Princess Catherine.” She acquired several titles when she married Prince William, one of which is Princess William.
As far as Diana, she became the Princess of Wales when she married the Prince of Wales. If/when Prince William becomes the Prince of Wales, Catherine will be the Princess of Wales.
But neither Catherine nor Diana were ever Princesses in their own right; only by marriage.
Cindy
As an American who studies the British monarchy (not just the modern day monarchy), what bothers me more than the media’s incorrect use of Catherine’s name and title is the lack of use of Camilla’s title. Every reference I see to Catharine, and Diana for that matter, it’s always Princess Kate or Duchess Kate and Princess Diana (all incorrect); however, whenever they cover Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall, it’s just Camilla. Why doesn’t the media ever use her title and call her Duchess Camilla?
Emily
Won’t she eventually be known as “Catherine, Princess of Wales”? Just as Diana was known as “Diana, Princess of Wales”?
Indeed, she’ll become HRH the Princess of Wales if and when Prince William is made Prince of Wales. But this still won’t make her ‘Princess Catherine’.
Ricky
Diana used to have the title HRH the Princess of Wales, but when she and Prince Charles divorced her title was changed. A short time later, the Queen issued a Letters Patent that stripped Diana and the Duchess of York of their HRH status.
Frank Graham
Somebody please enlighten me as to the circumstances around the Royal Family’s renaming to Mountbatten-Windsor at about the time of Prince Andrew’s birth. Apparently some minor courtier pointed out that the name-change was needed to “legitimise” the birth as it was taking place post-coronation. Charles and Anne were, of course, born before it.
Kathie
Yes
Stephanie Ruiz
Regarding the Prince Harry, the future wife Duchess will also? And the future of his children will be princes / princesses?
Royal Central
Prince Harry will almost certainly be made a Duke when he marries, yes, so his wife would be a Duchess.
As it stands, any children of Prince Harry right now would be Lords and Ladies. As soon as Prince Charles becomes king, however, they’d become princes and princesses, however I suspect if Prince Harry did have children during The Queen’s reign, she would act to ensure they were princes/princesses from birth.
Ricky
He isn’t “the Prince Harry” yet. Only a child of the monarch is entitled to the word “the” in front of their name. He will have that designation when Prince Charles inherits the throne.
Stephanie Ruiz
My question is whether future wife and the children of Harry respectively will have the title of Duchess and Prince or Princess.
Ricky
They will be princes and princesses with the style of HRH, but a Letters Patent might be necessary for this if they’re born while The Queen is on the throne. When Prince Charles is King, Harry’s children would automatically be princes and princesses because Harry would then be a child of the monarch.
If Harry becomes the Duke of Sussex (hypothetical dukedom), his wife will be HRH the Duchess of Sussex, and the children will be HRH Prince/Princess X of Sussex.
If Harry has a son who outlives him, that son would become the next Duke of Sussex.
fourscoreandseven
Harry is NOT “the” Prince Harry. He is barely Prince Harry through the vagaries of the law and precedent and not wanting to embarrass Prince Charles. He is best not press his luck, and he knows it. The fate of his mother is (even after 19 years) much too close for comfort.
Ted Thomas Martin
If and when William becomes king????
Ricky
When he becomes HM King William V, she will be HM the Queen. If William predeceases her after becoming King, she will be HM Queen Catherine.
Norma Stevlingson
Will she be queen when William is King, as Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother was?
Ricky
Why then is Prince Philip not know as King Philip?
fourscoreandseven
Because a King outranks a Queen. Philip is not the monarch, so he cannot outrank his wife.
fourscoreandseven
No, that is up to William.
John Yamawaki
I mean I feel this is quite lame. We all know that catherine’s title come from her marrige to prince William, she was a normal person before that so it’s quite obvious that she isn’t a princess in her own right. but either way she’s gonna be in the future the “princess of wales” bc of that too. and in some point the queen consort of england and maybe she will recive the letters patents to become a princess in her own right we don’t know that.
Ricky
There has been only one precedent for conferring a royal rank on someone giving them that status in their own right. That was when the Queen issued a Letters Patent in 1957 that made the Duke of Edinburgh a Prince of the United Kingdom.
For someone in Catherine’s position there’s no real possibility of that ever happening.
Rachel
Never say never. I think Prince Charles would do it to make William happy and also he sees her as a daughter. And as King, he could grant the letters of patent if he wants to.
Ricky
There is no precedent for doing this kind of thing on the basis of a monarch’s personal affection for a member of the extended family.
Theoretically, anything is possible but such a move is extremely unlikely. It’s a romantic fantasy.
Rachel
I hope this happens. I really want her to be “Princess Catherine.”
Victoralvinkrugervonplessen
My bloodlines predate Alexander the great. Holy Roman empire.1100years.queen is a cousin.from prussia monarchy.all cousins.time to grant her official princess title,Victoraivinkrugervonplessen .she’s a princess to me
Jean-Jacques Mwangelu
Sir How should some one refer or adress to the Duchess of Cambrige. HRH/YRH Duchess Catherine of Cambrige?
Ricky
The correct form of address would be “Your Royal Highness” when first meeting her (for example, at a garden party), thereafter you would call her “Ma’am.”
The correct form of reference would be Her Royal Highness.
Rachel
I would almost be willing to bet that when Charles becomes King, he will make Catherine a princess of the UK in her own right as Queen Elizabeth made Philip a prince in his own right. I have heard it is what William wanted when they married but the Queen would not agree to it. I have a feeling that Charles will.
Ricky
Would you care to cite your source for this, please?
Leif Aho
If William became King, would Catherine be granted title of Queen?
Ricky
She would automatically become Her Majesty The Queen.
Echo Stennitt
Being a princess takes a lot of focus, dedication and love. Life experience can be important as well.
Richie Hayward-Keen
Hi Princess Marina was a greek and danish princess by birth. Prince Phillip was made a Prince of the United Kingdom by the Queen in 1957. He had already renounced his greek and danish tiles before they were married and the Queens father created him HRH The Duke of Edinburgh. If The Monarch chooses to, Catherine can be created a Princess in the same way.
Jenevievie
OMG.!! Bloodyyy nuisances!!! WHAT is this … I am so confused she is called princess of wales but she is NOT a princess…what in the willy are u talking about…ahahhaha… !! what in Gods green earth are u on about… makes NO SENSE TO ME AT ALL… oiiiiiii dear LORD…SHE IS NOT A HRH OR SHE IS … really at the end of the day she is married to the HEIR to the THRONE of UK n all Commonwealth nations n he is Crown Prince which makes her Crown PRINCESS as well n some day he shall be KING n she will be QUEEN so who really cares n can understand this BS…damnnnnnnnnnn confusing!!
stormyweather79
I’m glad I’m an American!
Arthur@Stoller
Useful suggestions – I learned a lot from the info – Does someone know if my company might access a blank a form document to fill out ?
Jerry Hoover
I find the royal family as sort of a cliche. If you are not born into the royal family you are always consider 1/2 as good or a commonor. The Duichess of Cambridge you are nothing without your husband even though you birthed him to children a “Prince” and “Princess” you are nothing without him. God half your blood runs through their veins you are married to a prince but yet you are nothing more than a breeding chamber. Not right do away with this nonesense.
Jerry Hoover
Yes and eveyone is aware of the abdication that shook the UK back in the 1930’w yet the Prince of Wales was allowed to continue an affair with a divorced tramp and even so much marry her. Thank God she had enough brains to not take the title of Princess of Wales you would have seen riots in the streets I am sure. but my question is how is he able to marry a divorcee and maintain his sucession rights. Oh I get it he has his legitimate son to follow him born of a pure virgin and a spare no less and now he can marry whoever he wants. That issue is taken care of. Although Duchess of so called Cornwall has soften the hostility of the English people I dont think the people will forget her-she is a homewrecker always will be she is a power seeking H-e who does not deserve the HRH title as much as I do. And I am not even English! I dont ever see her as a Queen consort maybe a princess consort but that is all.
joann
Is that why The Queen hasn’t given Catherine the Royal Family Order?
Kevin Ridge
Princess Marina was a Princess of Greece and Denmark. She merely reverted to the title she had held from birth rather than be known as HRH The Dowager Duchess of Kent.
Ricky
This is incorrect. HRH Marina, the Dowager Duchess of Kent was given permission by the Queen to be known as Princess Marina in her widowhood. It was not a reversion to her previous titles, but a courtesy title.
The Queen gave the same permission to HRH the Dowager Duchess of Gloucester, Princess Alice, who had been a commoner before she married Prince Henry.
Barbara Szalay
Wait–if Prince Charles predeceases HMQ, does the title of Duke of Cornwall go to Anne as the oldest surviving child of a monarch? Anne would be the Duke of Cornwall just as Elizabeth is Duke of the Channel Islands. No Duchess of Cornwall because the husband doesn’t get that title? So no need for Dowager title for Camilla? If Anne were gone too, Andrew would receive the title and he’s not married–so again no need for Dowager title for Camilla. But if Edward were the only one still living and he received it, then Sophie would be Duchess of Cornwall & Camilla would be Dowager Duchess. Is that correct?
Ricky
Princess Anne could never hold the title “Duke of Cornwall” because it is reserved for the eldest son of the monarch. If Prince Charles was to predecease The Queen, the title would pass to Prince Andrew.
Barbara Szalay
I thought the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 changed the Cornwall title to go to the eldest child of the monarch, not the oldest son.
Ricky
No, it had no bearing on that particular title. As it now stands, only the eldest son of the sovereign can hold the title Duke of Cornwall.
Barbara Szalay
I think Calmeilles is saying now the Dukedom is given to the eldest child of the reigning monarch, whether that child be a man or woman. From Calmeilles above, “Because the Cornwall title pertains only to the eldest child (since the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 not just son) of the monarch the need to prefix Dowager wouldn’t arise until William had acceded to the throne and George had married.”
Calmeilles
No. The dukedom of Cornwall is uniquely given to the eldest child of a monarch when that child is heir apparent. If a duke of Cornwall pre-deceases the monarch the title (and the revenues of the duchy) revert to the crown and remain so merged until there is again a monarch with an heir apparent.
So if Charles were to die before the queen there could not be another duke of Cornwall until William became king, whereupon Prince George would be Duke, and no duchess of Cornwall until George married. Only then would it be necessary to distinguish Camilla as dowager duchess.
The title Prince of Wales differs in two respects, first it can be given to any heir apparent and second it is in the gift of the monarch so were Charles to die the title reverts to the crown and the Queen would have to decide whether to give it to Prince William or not.
Barbara Szalay
Okay, thanks. But I thought when Catherine of Aragon bore two boys in a row who died quickly, both called Henry, that both were Duke of York. So in that case the first heir apparent predeceased the monarch, and the next heir apparent took the title. But maybe I’m incorrect.
If I follow your reasoning, there is always an heir apparent, but unless that heir apparent is also the eldest child (not the eldest surviving child), they do not receive the dukedom of Cornwall.
So Anne would never be Duke of Cornwall, not because she is a woman, but because she could only be the eldest surviving child, not the oldest child, of the reigning monarch. Charles will always be the oldest, just as George will be, regardless of whether they predecease their fathers.
I find this discussion fascinating. It’s nice to have landed in the right place.
Barbara Szalay
And now I see my error. Both of Henry’s sons were Duke of York, not of Cornwall. But perhaps I am more confused because I see that Duke of York is traditionally given to the second son. But in either case, it’s a Dukedom that is given by the monarch, like the Principality of Wales, not automatically conferred to the eldest child, man or woman, as the Dukedom of Cornwall is. Do I have it right now?
Barbara Szalay
Cancel that. Both of Henry VIII’s shortly lived sons with Catherine were Dukes of Cornwall, according to Wikipedia. So both the eldest son received the title, and after he died, the next son. Not just the eldest son/child. So if Charles predeceases HMQ, why wouldn’t Anne (or before the 2013 Act, Andrew) get it? What has changed since Henry VIII’s time? Is the distinction that Henry’s first son died before the second son was even born, unlike the case with Charles, Anne, Andrew, etc., who are contemporaries?
Barbara Szalay
And now I see Edward, son of Henry VIII, was Duke of Cornwall too. This is what I found on Wikipedia: “The dukedom of Cornwall can only be held by the oldest living son of the monarch who is also heir apparent. In the event of a Duke of Cornwall’s death, the title merges in the Crown even if he left surviving descendants.[citation needed] The monarch’s grandson, even if he is the heir apparent, does not succeed to the dukedom. Similarly, no female may ever be Duke of Cornwall, even if she is heir presumptive or heir apparent (that being a distinct and even likely possibility in the future after the passage of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013) to the throne. However, if a Duke of Cornwall should die without descendants and has no elder sister, his next brother obtains the duchy, this brother being both oldest living son and heir apparent. It is possible for an individual to be Prince of Wales and heir apparent without being Duke of Cornwall. The title “Prince of Wales” is the traditional title of the heir apparent to the throne, granted at the discretion of the Sovereign,[2] and is not restricted to the eldest son.”
So the heir presumptive can be a man or woman now. But the Dukedom of Cornwall, unlike some other Dukedoms, still only goes to a son, the oldest surviving son who is also the Heir Apparent. If Charles had had no issue, then upon his death that predeceased HMQ’s, Andrew would have received that title, as both the oldest surviving son & the Heir Apparent. (Andrew would have been Heir Apparent because the Succession Act doesn’t apply to Anne, because she was born after 2011 or whatever. If the Succession Act applied to Anne, and she had become Heir Apparent, then Andrew would likewise not receive the Duchy.) Since Charles had issue, if he predeceases HMQ, George becomes the Heir Apparent. But since George would not be the oldest surviving son of the reigning monarch, the dukedom would be reabsorbed into the Crown for now, & would not reemerge until George was King and had a first-born son. Correct?
joann
If Prince William writes letters requesting Kate be made a Princess in her on right will she be made princess or when he becomes King will Kate become a Queen?
Ricky
There’s no conceivable reason why William would ever do such a thing. As things stand now, when William becomes King, Catherine will automatically become Queen.
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Ohio police had to put down dozens of wild animals, including 17 lions and 18 rare tigers after the owner of a zoo opened pens and gates before shooting himself. What date? | UPDATE: Federal Judge Upholds Ohio's New Exotic Animal Law
UPDATE: Federal Judge Upholds Ohio's New Exotic Animal Law
By The Associated Press; WSAZ News Staff |
Posted: Thu 12:06 PM, Dec 20, 2012
UPDATE 12/20/12 @ 12:05 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- A federal judge has upheld Ohio's new restrictions on exotic animals after several owners sued the state over the law.
The judge in Columbus ruled Thursday the owners failed to prove constitutional rights were violated.
Seven owners had claimed the law forces them to join private associations with which they disagree and possibly give up their animals without compensation. They also challenged a requirement that animals be implanted with a microchip, which would allow the creatures to be identified if they get lost or escape.
Ohio officials have defended the law as a common sense measure to address the growing public safety problem of private ownership of exotic animals.
State lawmakers passed the tougher restrictions after a suicidal owner released dozens of creatures from his farm in Zanesville last year.
UPDATE 11/5/12 @ 10:40 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An attorney for animal owners who are suing over Ohio's new law regulating exotic wildlife says they've reached an agreement with state officials in the case.
Attorney Robert Owens said Monday the state has agreed not to enforce certain provisions of the law until there's a hearing on the lawsuit. For instance, Ohio officials wouldn't refer owners for prosecution if they don't register their animals.
Under the law, owners faced a Monday deadline to register their creatures.
Four owners filed a federal lawsuit on Friday against the state's agriculture department and its director. They claim the law threatens their First Amendment and property rights.
Owens said there's no court order yet because the agreement is still being reviewed. A state spokeswoman declined to comment on the lawsuit and the agreement.
UPDATE 5/1/12 @ 9:55 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio zoo spokeswoman says details are still being worked out for returning five exotic animals to a woman whose suicidal husband released dozens of wild creatures last fall.
Patty Peters of the Columbus zoo says the facility's staff spoke Tuesday afternoon to Marian Thompson's veterinarian to begin coordinating the animals' transfer.
Two leopards, two primates and a bear have been held at the zoo since October under a state-issued quarantine order. That quarantine was lifted Monday.
Peters says the transfer would not happen Wednesday, and no date has been set.
She says one of the first hurdles is deciding what crates to use. Thompson's crates would have to meet federal guidelines. If the animals were transported in the zoo's steel crates, Thompson would need a forklift.
UPDATE 4/30/12 @ 10:30 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) - Ohio officials say they will allow for the return of five surviving exotic animals to a woman whose husband released dozens of wild creatures last fall before he committed suicide.
The Ohio Agriculture Department announced the decision Monday at an agency hearing in which they were to defend state's authority to quarantine the animals on suspicion of infectious diseases.
It's unclear when the animals would be released to Marian Thompson.
Ohio's agriculture director was expected to lift the quarantine later Monday.
Thompson's husband released dozens of exotic animals from their Zanesville farm Oct. 18 before killing himself.
Authorities were forced to shoot 48 creatures. Three leopards, two primates and a bear survived and have been held at the Columbus zoo. One leopard later had to be euthanized.
UPDATE 4/24/12 @ 10:50 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio Senate committee has accepted a slew of changes to a measure aimed at regulating exotic animals in the state.
The Senate's agriculture panel agreed to revisions Tuesday that include easing rules for snake ownership and exempting certain service monkeys who help the disabled. The changes would exempt animals from a required microchip implantation if it would endanger their health.
The panel has scheduled a possible vote on the measure Tuesday, though it could come Wednesday. It would ban new ownership of exotic animals while allowing current owners to keep their pets by obtaining a new state-issued permit by 2014 and meeting other strict conditions.
The measure follows the October release of dozens of exotic animals by their suicidal owner from Zanesville, forcing authorities to kill 48 animals.
UPDATE 4/23/12
REYNOLDSBURG, Ohio (AP) -- Preliminary test results indicate the five surviving animals from an exotic animal escape in October are free of dangerously contagious or infectious diseases.
The Columbus zoo began caring for three leopards, two primates and a bear after their suicidal owner released dozens of animals that had to be killed by authorities near Zanesville. One leopard was euthanized after it was struck by a door lowering between two enclosures.
The state had directed the animals be held at the zoo on suspicion of potential dangerous infectious diseases. The owner's widow has sought to appeal the quarantine order.
The Ohio Department of Agriculture on Monday said the state veterinarian received and reviewed the test results, and the animals will remain under quarantine at the zoo while observation continues for signs of rabies.
UPDATE 4/23/12
REYNOLDSBURG, Ohio (AP) -- An administrative hearing has been delayed a week over Ohio's quarantine order for five animals kept at a zoo since an exotic animal escape in October.
The Columbus zoo began caring for three leopards, two primates and a bear after their suicidal owner released dozens of animals that had to be killed by authorities near Zanesville. One leopard was euthanized after it was struck by a door lowering between two enclosures.
A spokeswoman for the agriculture department says the hearing was delayed at the request of Marian Thompson, the owner's window, who had demanded the appeal hearing.
An attorney for the widow declined to comment.
Thompson has questioned whether the state had the authority to quarantine the animals on the suspicion of potential dangerous infectious diseases.
UPDATE 4/18/12
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio lawmakers considering regulations on exotic animals have eased proposed rules for snakes and decreased requirements for property warning signs as part of two dozen changes to the bill.
Boa constrictors were removed from the suggested list of restricted species as a committee considered the measure Tuesday. Other changes would let animal owners use surety bonds instead of liability insurance and exempt animals from a required microchip implantation if it would endanger their health.
The measure would ban new ownership of exotic animals, allowing current owners to keep their pets by obtaining a new state-issued permit by 2014 and meeting other conditions.
The hearing room was packed Tuesday as lawmakers heard testimony from dozens of witnesses, including a woman son was fatally mauled by a bear in northeast Ohio.
UPDATE 3/21/12 @ 9:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Medical testing is planned Thursday for five creatures held at an Ohio zoo since an exotic animal escape in October.
The Columbus zoo began caring for three leopards, two primates and a bear after their suicidal owner released dozens of animals that had to be killed by authorities near Zanesville. One leopard was euthanized after being struck by a door lowering between two enclosures.
Under a quarantine order, the animals can't be released unless they're free of dangerous diseases.
Officials had concerns about whether the animals were strong enough to survive being anesthetized for testing. The state veterinarian observed the animals Tuesday and determined they were.
The Ohio Department of Agriculture says they'll undergo physical exams, X-rays and blood testing.
A message was left Wednesday for the owner's lawyer.
UPDATE 2/3/12 @ 10:05 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Proposed legislation in Ohio would ban the purchase of lions, bears, gorillas and other exotic animals, but it also would allow current owners of such animals to keep the pets if they meet strict new requirements.
Republican state Sen. Troy Balderson of Zanesville sent a letter Friday afternoon to state lawmakers, asking them to sign on to his proposal. He plans to introduce the bill Tuesday, and hearings are planned next week.
Zoo, circuses and research facilities would be exempt from the ban.
Efforts to strengthen the state's law took on new urgency in October when authorities were forced to kill 48 wild animals -- including endangered Bengal tigers -- after their owner freed them from his Zanesville farm and then committed suicide.
UPDATE 1/18/12 @ 10:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff's final report on the freeing of dozens of exotic, wild animals shows it's still not clear where their owner got the gun he then used to kill himself.
The report released to the Associated Press indicates owner Terry Thompson was troubled over caring for his animals and about being confined to his property after a year in prison on a gun conviction. He also was upset that his wife was away.
The report includes Thompson's previously reported statement to a caretaker the day before the animals were set loose that he "had a plan."
Authorities say Thompson fatally shot himself after releasing the animals at his farm in eastern Ohio on Oct. 18.
Police were forced to kill 48 animals, including lions and Bengal tigers.
UPDATE 1/5/11 @ 4:35 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- A prosecutor says charges will be dropped against four Ohio men accused of trying to steal the carcass of a lion from an exotic-animal compound as long as they each complete 40 hours of community service.
The lion was among dozens of animals killed by police outside Zanesville last fall after their owner released them and committed suicide.
Muskingum County assistant prosecutor Maria Kalis said Thursday the case involved youthful hijinks and poor decision-making by men ranging in age from 19 to 21. She says authorities don't want the men's futures to be affected by bad decisions on one night.
The men were charged with theft. A message left with their attorney hasn't been returned.
The prosecutor doesn't know the status of a 17-year-old boy charged in the case.
UPDATE 12/2/11 @ 10:55 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The Ohio Department of Agriculture tentatively plans to begin medical tests Dec. 15 on three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear kept at a zoo since their owner released dozens of exotic animals at his farm and killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo has cared for the animals since Terry Thompson released them at his farm near Zanesville in October and set off a hunt by authorities who fatally shot four dozen animals, including rare Bengal tigers, lions and bears.
The state ordered that the surviving animals be kept under quarantine at least until they can be tested for disease. State Department of Agriculture officials say the animals have been eating well and their health has appeared to improve so the tentative date was set to begin testing.
UPDATE 11/30/11 @ 10:50 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The expected sponsor of a bill that would ban casual ownership of exotic animals in Ohio says it will likely be introduced early next year.
Ohio state Sen. Troy Balderson says the two weeks left in the 2011 legislative calendar aren't enough to craft a comprehensive bill.
Lawmakers were waiting on a report from Gov. John Kasich's exotic animal task force start drafting a bill. They released the report Wednesday.
Kasich called for an expedited report after sheriff's deputies had to kill 48 animals released near Zanesville by owner Terry Thompson before he killed himself.
The report suggests the ban start in 2014. Owners would have to meet new temporary safety standards before then and register their animals with the state.
Zoo, circuses and research facilities would be exempt.
UPDATE 11/29/11 @ 10:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- Four Ohio men will face trial early next year on charges they tried to steal the carcass of a lion that was one of many exotic animals set free by a suicidal owner.
The lion was among 48 loose wild animals killed by sheriff's deputies in eastern Ohio's Muskingum County last month after their owner opened the cages and then killed himself.
Multiple media outlets report a Jan. 6 trial has been scheduled for the four men. Each is charged with a misdemeanor count of theft and faces up to six months in jail and a $1,000 fine if convicted.
A 17-year-old boy taken into custody with them has been charged in juvenile court.
Prosecutors haven't said what they believed the group planned to do with the dead lion.
UPDATE 11/23/11 @ 5:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The widow of an Ohio man who released dozens of tigers, bears and other animals at his farm before killing himself is appealing the state's quarantine of the six surviving creatures.
Marian Thompson's lawyer requested a hearing in a letter to the Ohio Department of Agriculture this week. The lawyer did not cite a specific reason.
A department spokeswoman says lawyers for Thompson and the state will arrange a date to present their arguments to a hearing officer. The officer would make a determination to be reviewed by the head of the department.
The Columbus zoo has cared for three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear since Terry Thompson released animals at his farm near Zanesville last month. The state ordered the animals be kept under quarantine.
UPDATE 11/21/11 @ 11 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio's governor wants to halt exotic animal auctions and wonders why anyone owns wild animals such as bears or primates.
Gov. John Kasich spoke of the ideas last month to a working group studying ways to change the state's laws on exotic animals. The meeting minutes were released late last week.
The group sped up its work on recommendations after dozens of exotic animals were released last month by their private owner, who then killed himself, leaving deputies to put down many of the beasts.
Kasich told the group during their Oct. 31 meeting that no one should own wild animals such as bears or primates.
Kasich also called for a ban on auctions where exotic wild animals are sold, and suggested that fees be significant.
UPDATE 11/4/11
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- New reports detailing how authorities in Ohio responded when dozens of exotic animals escaped last month show that a lion and a bear charged at deputies before they were shot and killed.
The reports released Friday describe a chaotic scene around the private compound in eastern Ohio.
Two deputies shot a pair of lions running near a fence along an interstate highway. A deputy says one lion got up and charged at him before he killed it.
Sheriff's deputies were forced to kill 48 wild animals, including bears, lions and endangered Bengal tigers, after their owner freed them late in the afternoon on Oct. 18 and then committed suicide.
Deputies say they couldn't get near the man at first because a tiger was standing over his body.
UPDATE 11/02/11
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says handling the escape of dozens of dangerous wild animals from a private compound last month cost his agency about $8,500.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz told a working group studying Ohio's exotic animals laws that the cost was for his department only.
The figure is contained in minutes of the group's Oct. 24 meeting reviewed by The Associated Press after they were published Wednesday.
Sheriff's deputies were forced to kill 48 wild animals, including bears, lions and endangered Bengal tigers, after their owner freed them late in the afternoon of Oct. 18, then committed suicide.
The working group is proposing recommendations that would likely ban dangerous animals and allow existing owners to keep such wildlife but require new permit rules for them.
UPDATE 11/01/11 @ 5:45 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio's governor has prodded a study committee to complete its work on new, permanent measures for dealing with private ownership of exotic wild animals in the state.
Gov. John Kasich made a conference call to members of the panel on Monday. Ohio Department of Natural Resources spokeswoman Laura Jones says the governor wanted to encourage them to stay on track and wrap up quickly.
Kasich last month ordered a temporary crackdown on dangerous wild animals in private hands after a suicidal owner released dozens of exotic beasts. Police killed 48 animals, including 18 endangered Bengal tigers.
The study committee has until the end of November to draft permanent legislation. The panel continued its discussions during a lengthy private meeting Monday at the Columbus Zoo.
UPDATE 10/31/11 @ 2 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio's state veterinarian says testing of a half-dozen exotic animals that survived release after their owner killed himself won't begin for several weeks.
Dr. Tony Forshey said Monday the animals must be anesthetized to have blood drawn. He's worried they're too weak to survive the procedure.
The Columbus Zoo is caring for three leopards, two monkeys and a young grizzly bear taken from a Zanesville home two weeks ago after owner Terry Thompson freed dozens of animals, then shot himself.
Police were forced to kill 48 animals, including lions, bears and 18 endangered Bengal tigers.
An email seeking comment was sent Monday to an attorney for the owner's widow, Marian Thompson, who had sought to reclaim the animals. Both she and her attorney have repeatedly declined comment.
UPDATE 10/27/11 @ 2:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The office of Ohio Gov. John Kasich says the state Department of Agriculture has ordered six exotic animals to be quarantined.
That's instead of transferring them from a zoo to a woman whose suicidal husband freed them.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium says it was notified that Marian Thompson would pick up the animals Thursday afternoon. She planned to reclaim three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear that have been cared for by the zoo since last week.
The zoo says it took the surviving animals from the farm in Zanesville with Thompson's permission but has no legal rights to them.
Terry Thompson mysteriously freed the animals and dozens of others last week before killing himself. Authorities had to hunt down and kill many of them.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets.
UPDATE 10/27/11 @ 1 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio zoo says despite its opposition, a woman plans to reclaim three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear that have been cared for by the zoo since her husband freed dozens of exotic animals at their farm and killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium says it was notified that Marian Thompson will pick up the animals Thursday afternoon.
The zoo says it took the six surviving animals last week from a farm in Zanesville with Thompson's permission but has no legal rights to them. A spokeswoman says the zoo has contacted state and federal agencies in search of a way to keep the animals in its care and isn't giving up yet.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets.
UPDATE 10/27/11 @ 12:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The Columbus Zoo is trying to stop an Ohio woman from reclaiming three leopards, two primates and a bear that have been cared for by the zoo since her husband freed dozens of exotic animals at their farm and killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium says it took the six surviving animals with Marian Thompson's permission but has no legal rights to the animals. It says her lawyers notified the zoo that she will reclaim the beasts, possibly as early as Thursday.
A spokeswoman says the zoo has contacted state and federal agencies in search of a way to keep the animals.
Police shot and killed four dozen more animals that escaped from the eastern Ohio farm near Zanesville last week, including rare Bengal tigers, lions and bears.
UPDATE 10/26/11 @ 8:20 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Activists urging Ohio officials to prohibit ownership of exotic animals say they believe such a ban could have prevented the deaths of four dozen tigers, lions and other beasts that were freed at a farm near Zanesville.
About a dozen supporters of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals stood outside the Statehouse on Wednesday with signs bearing slogans such as "Wild animals are not pets."
The gathering was spurred by the shooting by authorities of 48 animals released by a farm owner last week before he committed suicide. Six other animals were captured and taken to a zoo.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets. Gov. John Kasich has ordered temporary measures regarding private ownership of such animals while tougher laws are drafted.
UPDATE 10/25/11 @ 1:20 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Jack Hanna has urged a state panel to draw up strict rules for owning exotic animals in Ohio, where a man set loose more than 50 beasts last week and then killed himself - but the TV personality has stopped short of advocating a complete ban.
Hanna, the former Columbus Zoo director, said he told a working committee during its closed-door meeting on Monday that Ohio must make sure that what just happened never happens again. Police killed dozens of the released animals while schools closed and motorists were warned to stay in their vehicles.
Hanna says his message was: "No more lions and tigers and bears as pets."
On Friday, Gov. John Kasich ordered a temporary crackdown on private ownership of exotic wild animals. The study committee has until Nov. 30 to draft permanent legislation, with one more meeting scheduled next week.
Kasich said Tuesday that Hanna has told him there may need to be exceptions to a complete ban.
"What Jack Hanna's told me is you may have some breeders, you may have some circumstances where it's legitimate for somebody to have it, but they clearly have to be qualified, they have to be certified," Kasich told reporters after a public appearance.
The Republican governor said he has difficulty comprehending exotic animal ownership.
"I have a really hard time understanding why somebody ought to have a grizzly bear on their private compound, or lions or Bengal tigers. I just don't get it, but it's a complicated issue," he said.
UPDATE 10/24/11 @ 12:15 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- People getting tattoos have helped the surviving exotic animals from an Ohio farm where the owner opened the cages and then killed himself last week.
Tattoo artist Billy White says he'll donate the proceeds from tattoos of tigers and other exotic animals that customers bought through Saturday at his shop in Zanesville, the city near Terry Thompson's farm.
Multiple media outlets report White raised more than $1,000 for the six animals that were captured and are now being cared for at the Columbus Zoo. Police shot to death 48 others, including 18 rare Bengal tigers, 17 lions and eight bears.
White says he wanted to make something positive out of the tragedy.
No one knows for sure why the 62-year-old Thompson did what he did.
UPDATE 10/21/11 @ 4:40 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio Gov. John Kasich has proposed temporary measures to crack down on private ownership of exotic wild animals while tougher laws are drafted this fall.
Kasich also announced Friday that a northeast Ohio auction house long known as a source for animals like bear and tiger cubs is continuing a self-imposed ban.
The moves come after dozens of lions, bears and tigers were shot to death in Zanesville after their owner freed them Tuesday, then killed himself.
Kasich says the state will work with health departments and humane societies to better enforce existing laws, try to temporarily halt other auction sales and shut down unlicensed auctions.
Humane Society of the United States Executive Director Wayne Pacelle says the trade in such animals needs to be stopped altogether.
UPDATE 10/21/11 @ 1:35 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio Gov. John Kasich has announced he'll sign an executive order cracking down on dangerous exotic pets.
The governor made the decision Friday, a few days after an owner in Ohio set dozens free this week and committed suicide.
Kasich had let an order cracking down on the ownership of exotic animals expire this spring, arguing it lacked legal authority.
Activists have complained that Ohio has some of the nation's laxest regulations on exotic pets.
Police were forced to shoot most of the animals freed this week to ensure public safety. They included tigers, bears and lions.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 5:50 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- The owner of an exotic animal farm who set dozens of tigers, lions and bears free into the Ohio countryside had been deep in debt.
Court records show that Terry Thompson and his wife had money problems dating to the 1990s but that their debt escalated in recent years. They owed at least $68,000 in unpaid income and property taxes.
Thompson also just got out of prison last month after spending a year behind bars for possessing unregistered guns.
Investigators have refused to speculate about what pushed him to unleash more than 50 animals on Tuesday before killing himself. Deputies shot and killed dozens of the escaped animals.
Neighbors say they are shocked that Thompson did anything that could have harmed his beloved animals.
CHARLESTON, W.Va. (AP) -- Like its neighbor to the west, West Virginia wildlife officials lack the authority to regulate ownership of exotic animals such as those released from an Ohio park earlier this week.
Sheriff's deputies in Ohio shot 48 animals -- including 18 rare Bengal tigers and 17 lions -- after their owner Terry Thompson let them out of their cages before committing suicide Tuesday.
In Ohio and West Virginia, state law regulates the possession of native animals like bears but says nothing about exotic animals.
West Virginia Department of Natural Resources assistant chief Paul Johansen tells the Associated Press residents would not need a permit to have exotic pets.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture regulates exotic animals that are put on public display, but not those kept as pets.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 1 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says a coroner has confirmed that the owner of an exotic animal farm died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound and then was bitten.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said at a news conference Thursday that the autopsy showed farm owner Terry Thompson had a bite wound on the head that appeared to have come from a large cat, such as a Bengal tiger.
Lutz says it appears the bite occurred quickly after Thompson shot himself.
Authorities say Thompson released his more than 50 animals before killing himself on Tuesday. Dozens of escaped tigers, lions and other beasts were shot by officers.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 9:40 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (WSAZ) -- New legislation has been introduced to ban private ownership of large exotic animals in Ohio.
State Representative Debbie Phillips (D-Athens) proposed the legislation Thursday. The proposal come sin response to the recent events in Muskingum County in which an owner apparently released nearly 50 exotic animals into the area near his home.
“Although an owner’s intentions to keep exotic animals may be good, unfortunately, most private citizens do not have the proper training or resources to take care of wild animals. Their properties often are not equipped to safely contain wild animals, which poses a danger to themselves as well as other community members,” said Rep. Phillips.
The bill, which includes an emergency clause, closely mirrors the expired executive order issued by former Governor Strickland in January of this year. The bill permits existing owners with federal licenses to keep their animals but requires that they must register them with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources’ Division of Wildlife. Owners must also embed microchips in the animals so they can be tracked if there is an escape from the owner’s property.
“It is unfortunate that Governor Kasich chose to let this common sense provision expire earlier this year. Had he chosen to continue these regulations, we may not have seen today’s tragic events unfold,” said Rep. Phillips.
Ohio is one of only a few states with little or no regulation over the private ownership of wild animals, and has one of the highest incidences of injuries and deaths caused by exotic animals.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 9:20 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- A zoo says the surviving animals from an Ohio farm where exotic animals were set free by their owner seem to be OK.
Some four dozen animals were killed by police after authorities say the owner opened cages at the farm near Zanesville on Tuesday and then killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo says it's now caring for a young grizzly bear, two monkeys and three leopards. The zoo said in a statement Thursday that the rescued animals seem to be doing very well.
The animals that were killed include 18 rare Bengal tigers and 17 lions.
One monkey from the farm is still unaccounted for. The county sheriff has said in interviews that it's very possible the monkey was eaten by one of the big cats.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 7:30 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (WSAZ) -- As of Wednesday evening, only a monkey and a wolf remained on the loose-- the other 48 exotic animals on the run had been killed in Muskingum County, Ohio.
Late Tuesday and earlier Wednesday, dozens of wild animals were on the run after they escaped from an exotic animal farm in Zanesville. Their owner Terry Thompson set them free before shooting himself to death, Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said.
Some of the animals on the farm included: 18 tigers, 17 mountain lions and eight bears. Out of about 56 animals, 48 were put down. Several others were taken to the Columbus Zoo.
The exotic animal farm is just a couple miles outside of Zanesville, which has a population of about 25,000. Of course, wild animals and people simply don't mix, and it was a race against the clock to get the animals before they got the people.
“This was a very, very bad situation," Lutz said. "To keep that number restricted to this property is phenomenal."
When officers arrived to the exotic animal farm, they found an animal kingdom gone wild.
"I had deputies who had to shoot animals with their side arms at close range," Lutz said. "That's how volatile this situation was. These are not your average house cats or dogs. We're talking about 300-pound (Bengal tigers)."
Renowned animal expert Jack Hanna said, "It was like Noah's Ark exploded here."
Sadly, it was a gruesome roundup of tigers, leopards, lions, wolves, bears and monkeys.
Hanna, who is director of the Columbus Zoo, was on the scene to assist. He says the sheriff did the right thing for public safety in killing the animals.
"Water buffalo, I can tell you, they're powerful," Hanna said.
Thompson was found laying dead in the driveway -- police say from suicide. But, this wasn't the first time police have responded to the farm.
"We've gotten 34 to 35 calls since April 5 that we've ran on our computer about problems at Mr. Thompson's from animals running at large to them not being treated properly," Lutz said. "So, this has been a huge problem for us for a lot of years."
Meanwhile, the surrounding community spent Wednesday on lockdown. Schools closed, and warning signs urged people to stay inside.
Now, law enforcement officers start to breathe a sigh of relief with most of the animals accounted for. But, tense times remain while one monkey is still on the loose carrying a dangerous virus.
Known as the herpes B virus, it is carried by macaque monkeys. The virus doesn't affect monkeys, but is considered to be dangerous for people.
A bite wound is considered a very dangerous condition, and that's why Lutz is recommending not to approach the monkey. Call your local 911 center if you see it.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 3:30 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says 48 of about 56 exotic animals were killed by deputies after their owner freed them and committed suicide.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz says that included 18 Bengal tigers. Other animals killed near the preserve in eastern Ohio included 17 lions, eight bears and a wolf.
Lutz says the only remaining animals are a wolf and a monkey. Authorities say the monkey should be shot if caught because it could be carrying a disease.
Several schools closed to keep children out of harm's way. The sheriff says that he believes the danger to residents has passed and that schools can reopen.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 10:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- A sheriff says exotic animals on the loose in eastern Ohio were set free by their owner, who apparently killed himself on his farm.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said at a news conference Wednesday that investigators feel Terry Thompson died from a self-inflicted wound. Lutz says authorities are awaiting autopsy results on the cause of death.
The sheriff says it appears Thompson left the animals' gates open and even cut open their pens so they would get out. The animals included lions and bears.
Deputies found Thompson's body on Tuesday when they went to the farm on reports of wild animals running free.
Officials spent the night hunting down and shooting to death most of the nearly 50 animals.
Schools closed and motorists were warned to stay in their vehicles as officers with assault rifles hunted Wednesday for bears, big cats and other beasts that escaped from a wild-animal preserve after the owner was found dead and cages housing dozens of dangerous animals were left open.
Officers were under orders to shoot to kill because officials said it wasn't safe to tranquilize the animals in the dark.
Authorities were investigating whether Muskingum County Animal Farm owner Terry Thompson killed himself after freeing the animals, and officials spent the night hunting down and shooting to death nearly 30 of the 48 animals.
As officials warned that more animals still were on the loose, three school districts in the region and some private and special schools canceled classes as the remaining bears, big cats and other beasts from the Muskingum County Animal Farm were hunted down.
Flashing signs along area highways told motorists, "Caution exotic animals" and "Stay in vehicle."
The animals' cages had been opened and the farm's fences had been left unsecured, police said. It was "very possible" that Thompson left the cages open, Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said.
Lutz told NBC's "Today" show that authorities were awaiting autopsy results on the farm owner. Lutz had said earlier that the death was not suspicious.
"Once daybreak hits here, we're going back in to get an accountability of how many animals have been put down, how many animals are still penned up," the sheriff told NBC.
The preserve in Zanesville, about 55 miles east of Columbus, had lions, tigers, cheetahs, wolves, giraffes, camels and bears. Police said bears and wolves were among the escaped animals that were killed and there were multiple sightings of exotic animals along a nearby highway.
Lutz called the animals "mature, very big, aggressive" but said a caretaker told authorities the animals had been fed on Monday.
Tuesday night, more than 50 law enforcement officials - including sheriff's deputies, highway patrol officers, police officers and officers from the state Division of Wildlife - patrolled the 40-acre farm and the surrounding areas in cars and trucks, often in rainy downpours. Lutz said they were concerned about big cats and bears hiding in the dark and in trees.
Neighbor Danielle White, whose father's property abuts the animal preserve, said she didn't see loose animals this time but did in 2006, when a lion escaped.
"It's always been a fear of mine knowing (the preserve's owner) had all those animals," she said. "I have kids."
Lutz said his office started getting phone calls at about 5:30 p.m. Tuesday that wild animals were loose just west of Zanesville on a road that runs under Interstate 70.
He said four deputies with assault rifles in a pickup truck went to the animal farm, where they found the owner Thompson dead and all the animal cage doors open.
He wouldn't say how Thompson died but said several aggressive animals were near his body when deputies arrived and had to be shot.
Thompson, who lived on the property, had orangutans and chimps in his home, but those were still in their cages, Lutz said.
The deputies, who saw many other animals standing outside their cages and others that had escaped past the fencing surrounding the property, began shooting them on sight.
Staffers from the Columbus Zoo went to the scene, hoping to tranquilize and capture the animals after daybreak Wednesday. The zoo's director emeritus, TV host Jack Hanna, said that was something that could not be done in the dark.
"You cannot tranquilize an animal like this, a bear or a leopard or a tiger (at nighttime)," Hanna told ABC's "Good Morning America on Wednesday. "If you do that, the animal gets very excited, it goes and hides, and then we have his (Lutz's) officer in danger of losing their life, and other people."
Lutz said his main concern was protecting the public in the rural area, where homes sit on large lots of sometimes 10 acres.
White, the preserve's neighbor, said Thompson had been in legal trouble, and police said he had gotten out of jail recently.
"He was in hot water because of the animals, because of permits, and (the animals) escaping all the time," White said. A few weeks ago, she said, she had to avoid some camels which were grazing on the side of a freeway.
At a nearby Moose Lodge, Bill Weiser remembered Thompson as an interesting character who flew planes, raced boats and owned a custom motorcycle shop that also sold guns.
"He was pretty unique," Weiser said. "He had a different slant on things. I never knew him to hurt anybody, and he took good care of the animals."
Weiser said he regretted that the escaped animals had to be killed. "It's breaking my heart, them shooting those animals," he said.
Bailey Hartman, 20, a night manager at McDonald's, also said it saddened her that the animals were being shot. But, she said, "I was kind of scared coming in to work."
Hartman said Thompson's wife, who no longer lives with him, was her teacher in middle school and used to bring small animals such as a monkeys, snakes and owls to school. "It was a once-a-year type of thing, and everyone would always get excited," she recalled.
Thompson had permits to keep four black bears, said Laura Jones, a spokeswoman for the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. The department licenses only native species, Jones said Wednesday.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets and among the highest number of injuries and deaths caused by them.
In the summer of 2010, an animal caretaker was killed by a bear at a property in Cleveland. The caretaker had opened the bear's cage at exotic-animal keeper Sam Mazzola's property for a routine feeding.
Though animal-welfare activists had wanted Mazzola charged with reckless homicide, the caretaker's death was ruled a workplace accident. The bear was later destroyed.
This summer, Mazzola was found dead on a water bed, wearing a mask and with his arms and legs restrained, at his home in Columbia Township, about 15 miles southwest of Cleveland.
It was unclear how many animals remained on the property when he died, but he had said in a bankruptcy filing in May 2010 that he owned four tigers, a lion, eight bears and 12 wolves. The U.S. Department of Agriculture had revoked his license to exhibit animals after animal-welfare activists campaigned for him to stop letting people wrestle with another one of his bears.
Mazzola had permits for nine bears for 2010, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources said. The state requires permits for bears but doesn't regulate the ownership of nonnative animals, such as lions and tigers.
The Humane Society of the United States on Wednesday urged Ohio to immediately issue emergency restrictions on the sale and possession of dangerous wild animals. "
"How many incidents must we catalogue before the state takes action to crack down on private ownership of dangerous exotic animals," Humane Society Wayne Pacelle said in a statement.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 8:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says it's possible the owner killed himself at an Ohio wild-animal preserve where cages were opened and dozens of animals escaped.
When asked on NBC's "Today" show Wednesday whether farm owner Terry Thompson may have taken his own life, Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz would only say: "Anything's a possibility at this point." He said authorities are awaiting autopsy results.
Police have killed dozens of animals. Lutz says he believes up to 35 of the 48 loose bears, big cats and other beasts have been accounted for. He says daylight will allow for a more accurate count.
Deputies responding to the initial reports of wild animals found Thompson dead Tuesday.
Schools are closed in the region on Wednesday and flashing highway signs are telling motorists: "Caution exotic animals."
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 8 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- A sheriff says new, overnight animal sightings have not been confirmed in rural eastern Ohio, where police have killed dozens of animals that escaped from a wild-animal preserve.
Muskingum County Sheriff Sheriff Matt Lutz says he now believes up to 35 of the 48 animals were accounted for. He says daylight will allow officers to get a more accurate count.
Deputies responding to the initial reports of loose bears, big cats and other beasts found the farm's owner dead on Tuesday.
Authorities aren't saying how he died but say his death wasn't suspicious.
Police said the farm's fences had been left unsecured and the animals' cages were open.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 7 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- Flashing highway signs are warning motorists to stay in their vehicles in rural eastern Ohio, where police have killed dozens of animals that escaped from a wild-animal preserve.
Deputies responding to the initial reports of loose bears, big cats and other beasts found the farm's owner dead on Tuesday. Authorities aren't saying how he died but say his death wasn't suspicious.
Three school districts and some private and special schools canceled Wednesday's classes in the region around the farm in Zanesville. Police said the farm's fences had been left unsecured and the animals' cages were open.
Close to 30 of the 48 animals were shot and killed on Tuesday.
The Humane Society of the United States says the episode shows Ohio needs restrictions on the possession of wild animals.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 5 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- Police armed with rifles are patrolling rural Zanesville where dozens of animals escaped from a wild-animal preserve and where the owner's body later was found.
Some school districts were expected to cancel classes Wednesday as the remaining bears, big cats and other beasts from the Muskingum County Animal Farm were hunted down.
Police started getting phone calls at about 5:30 p.m. Tuesday that wild animals were loose just west of Zanesville.
Four sheriff's deputies with assault rifles in a pickup truck went to the animal farm, where they found the owner dead and all the animal cage doors open. The preserve had lions, tigers, cheetahs, wolves, giraffes, camels and bears.
There were 48 animals at the preserve in east-central Ohio and authorities say they killed up to 30 of them.
ORIGINAL STORY 10/18/11 @ 10:17 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP & WSAZ) -- Police say the owner of an Ohio exotic-animal farm where dozens of animals escaped has been found dead.
WBNS-TV in Columbus reports the body of owner Terry Thompson was found Tuesday outside his home on the farm property. Police say the fences had been left unsecured at the Muskingum County Animal Farm in Zanesville.
Police won't say what animals escaped but say the farm had lions, wolves, tigers, giraffes, camels and bears. They say bears and wolves have been shot and killed and there are multiple sightings of exotic animals along Interstate 70.
The Muskingum County Sheriff's Office tells Columbus television station NBC4 that they are actively searching for, "a gambit of wild and exotic animals."
Staffers from the Columbus Zoo are on the scene hoping to tranquilize and capture the animals.
Sheriff Matt Lutz says people should stay indoors and he might ask for local schools to close Wednesday.
Lutz confirmed the owner was found dead by deputies. He said deputies shot up to 25 animals on the way to the home to check on the owner.
The sheriff did not elaborate on how the owner died.
Officials said there could be up to 48 animals still on the loose and that deputies have been given the order, "shoot to kill."
"Public safety is the number one priority," Lutz said.
Lutz said the office has had issues with the owner in the past.
"This is a bad situation, its been a bad situation for a long time," he said.
UPDATE: Fire destroys Huntington home
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| October 18 |
On 4th June Pour Moi beat which horse in the Derby? | UPDATE: Federal Judge Upholds Ohio's New Exotic Animal Law
UPDATE: Federal Judge Upholds Ohio's New Exotic Animal Law
By The Associated Press; WSAZ News Staff |
Posted: Thu 12:06 PM, Dec 20, 2012
UPDATE 12/20/12 @ 12:05 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- A federal judge has upheld Ohio's new restrictions on exotic animals after several owners sued the state over the law.
The judge in Columbus ruled Thursday the owners failed to prove constitutional rights were violated.
Seven owners had claimed the law forces them to join private associations with which they disagree and possibly give up their animals without compensation. They also challenged a requirement that animals be implanted with a microchip, which would allow the creatures to be identified if they get lost or escape.
Ohio officials have defended the law as a common sense measure to address the growing public safety problem of private ownership of exotic animals.
State lawmakers passed the tougher restrictions after a suicidal owner released dozens of creatures from his farm in Zanesville last year.
UPDATE 11/5/12 @ 10:40 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An attorney for animal owners who are suing over Ohio's new law regulating exotic wildlife says they've reached an agreement with state officials in the case.
Attorney Robert Owens said Monday the state has agreed not to enforce certain provisions of the law until there's a hearing on the lawsuit. For instance, Ohio officials wouldn't refer owners for prosecution if they don't register their animals.
Under the law, owners faced a Monday deadline to register their creatures.
Four owners filed a federal lawsuit on Friday against the state's agriculture department and its director. They claim the law threatens their First Amendment and property rights.
Owens said there's no court order yet because the agreement is still being reviewed. A state spokeswoman declined to comment on the lawsuit and the agreement.
UPDATE 5/1/12 @ 9:55 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio zoo spokeswoman says details are still being worked out for returning five exotic animals to a woman whose suicidal husband released dozens of wild creatures last fall.
Patty Peters of the Columbus zoo says the facility's staff spoke Tuesday afternoon to Marian Thompson's veterinarian to begin coordinating the animals' transfer.
Two leopards, two primates and a bear have been held at the zoo since October under a state-issued quarantine order. That quarantine was lifted Monday.
Peters says the transfer would not happen Wednesday, and no date has been set.
She says one of the first hurdles is deciding what crates to use. Thompson's crates would have to meet federal guidelines. If the animals were transported in the zoo's steel crates, Thompson would need a forklift.
UPDATE 4/30/12 @ 10:30 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) - Ohio officials say they will allow for the return of five surviving exotic animals to a woman whose husband released dozens of wild creatures last fall before he committed suicide.
The Ohio Agriculture Department announced the decision Monday at an agency hearing in which they were to defend state's authority to quarantine the animals on suspicion of infectious diseases.
It's unclear when the animals would be released to Marian Thompson.
Ohio's agriculture director was expected to lift the quarantine later Monday.
Thompson's husband released dozens of exotic animals from their Zanesville farm Oct. 18 before killing himself.
Authorities were forced to shoot 48 creatures. Three leopards, two primates and a bear survived and have been held at the Columbus zoo. One leopard later had to be euthanized.
UPDATE 4/24/12 @ 10:50 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio Senate committee has accepted a slew of changes to a measure aimed at regulating exotic animals in the state.
The Senate's agriculture panel agreed to revisions Tuesday that include easing rules for snake ownership and exempting certain service monkeys who help the disabled. The changes would exempt animals from a required microchip implantation if it would endanger their health.
The panel has scheduled a possible vote on the measure Tuesday, though it could come Wednesday. It would ban new ownership of exotic animals while allowing current owners to keep their pets by obtaining a new state-issued permit by 2014 and meeting other strict conditions.
The measure follows the October release of dozens of exotic animals by their suicidal owner from Zanesville, forcing authorities to kill 48 animals.
UPDATE 4/23/12
REYNOLDSBURG, Ohio (AP) -- Preliminary test results indicate the five surviving animals from an exotic animal escape in October are free of dangerously contagious or infectious diseases.
The Columbus zoo began caring for three leopards, two primates and a bear after their suicidal owner released dozens of animals that had to be killed by authorities near Zanesville. One leopard was euthanized after it was struck by a door lowering between two enclosures.
The state had directed the animals be held at the zoo on suspicion of potential dangerous infectious diseases. The owner's widow has sought to appeal the quarantine order.
The Ohio Department of Agriculture on Monday said the state veterinarian received and reviewed the test results, and the animals will remain under quarantine at the zoo while observation continues for signs of rabies.
UPDATE 4/23/12
REYNOLDSBURG, Ohio (AP) -- An administrative hearing has been delayed a week over Ohio's quarantine order for five animals kept at a zoo since an exotic animal escape in October.
The Columbus zoo began caring for three leopards, two primates and a bear after their suicidal owner released dozens of animals that had to be killed by authorities near Zanesville. One leopard was euthanized after it was struck by a door lowering between two enclosures.
A spokeswoman for the agriculture department says the hearing was delayed at the request of Marian Thompson, the owner's window, who had demanded the appeal hearing.
An attorney for the widow declined to comment.
Thompson has questioned whether the state had the authority to quarantine the animals on the suspicion of potential dangerous infectious diseases.
UPDATE 4/18/12
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio lawmakers considering regulations on exotic animals have eased proposed rules for snakes and decreased requirements for property warning signs as part of two dozen changes to the bill.
Boa constrictors were removed from the suggested list of restricted species as a committee considered the measure Tuesday. Other changes would let animal owners use surety bonds instead of liability insurance and exempt animals from a required microchip implantation if it would endanger their health.
The measure would ban new ownership of exotic animals, allowing current owners to keep their pets by obtaining a new state-issued permit by 2014 and meeting other conditions.
The hearing room was packed Tuesday as lawmakers heard testimony from dozens of witnesses, including a woman son was fatally mauled by a bear in northeast Ohio.
UPDATE 3/21/12 @ 9:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Medical testing is planned Thursday for five creatures held at an Ohio zoo since an exotic animal escape in October.
The Columbus zoo began caring for three leopards, two primates and a bear after their suicidal owner released dozens of animals that had to be killed by authorities near Zanesville. One leopard was euthanized after being struck by a door lowering between two enclosures.
Under a quarantine order, the animals can't be released unless they're free of dangerous diseases.
Officials had concerns about whether the animals were strong enough to survive being anesthetized for testing. The state veterinarian observed the animals Tuesday and determined they were.
The Ohio Department of Agriculture says they'll undergo physical exams, X-rays and blood testing.
A message was left Wednesday for the owner's lawyer.
UPDATE 2/3/12 @ 10:05 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Proposed legislation in Ohio would ban the purchase of lions, bears, gorillas and other exotic animals, but it also would allow current owners of such animals to keep the pets if they meet strict new requirements.
Republican state Sen. Troy Balderson of Zanesville sent a letter Friday afternoon to state lawmakers, asking them to sign on to his proposal. He plans to introduce the bill Tuesday, and hearings are planned next week.
Zoo, circuses and research facilities would be exempt from the ban.
Efforts to strengthen the state's law took on new urgency in October when authorities were forced to kill 48 wild animals -- including endangered Bengal tigers -- after their owner freed them from his Zanesville farm and then committed suicide.
UPDATE 1/18/12 @ 10:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff's final report on the freeing of dozens of exotic, wild animals shows it's still not clear where their owner got the gun he then used to kill himself.
The report released to the Associated Press indicates owner Terry Thompson was troubled over caring for his animals and about being confined to his property after a year in prison on a gun conviction. He also was upset that his wife was away.
The report includes Thompson's previously reported statement to a caretaker the day before the animals were set loose that he "had a plan."
Authorities say Thompson fatally shot himself after releasing the animals at his farm in eastern Ohio on Oct. 18.
Police were forced to kill 48 animals, including lions and Bengal tigers.
UPDATE 1/5/11 @ 4:35 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- A prosecutor says charges will be dropped against four Ohio men accused of trying to steal the carcass of a lion from an exotic-animal compound as long as they each complete 40 hours of community service.
The lion was among dozens of animals killed by police outside Zanesville last fall after their owner released them and committed suicide.
Muskingum County assistant prosecutor Maria Kalis said Thursday the case involved youthful hijinks and poor decision-making by men ranging in age from 19 to 21. She says authorities don't want the men's futures to be affected by bad decisions on one night.
The men were charged with theft. A message left with their attorney hasn't been returned.
The prosecutor doesn't know the status of a 17-year-old boy charged in the case.
UPDATE 12/2/11 @ 10:55 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The Ohio Department of Agriculture tentatively plans to begin medical tests Dec. 15 on three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear kept at a zoo since their owner released dozens of exotic animals at his farm and killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo has cared for the animals since Terry Thompson released them at his farm near Zanesville in October and set off a hunt by authorities who fatally shot four dozen animals, including rare Bengal tigers, lions and bears.
The state ordered that the surviving animals be kept under quarantine at least until they can be tested for disease. State Department of Agriculture officials say the animals have been eating well and their health has appeared to improve so the tentative date was set to begin testing.
UPDATE 11/30/11 @ 10:50 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The expected sponsor of a bill that would ban casual ownership of exotic animals in Ohio says it will likely be introduced early next year.
Ohio state Sen. Troy Balderson says the two weeks left in the 2011 legislative calendar aren't enough to craft a comprehensive bill.
Lawmakers were waiting on a report from Gov. John Kasich's exotic animal task force start drafting a bill. They released the report Wednesday.
Kasich called for an expedited report after sheriff's deputies had to kill 48 animals released near Zanesville by owner Terry Thompson before he killed himself.
The report suggests the ban start in 2014. Owners would have to meet new temporary safety standards before then and register their animals with the state.
Zoo, circuses and research facilities would be exempt.
UPDATE 11/29/11 @ 10:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- Four Ohio men will face trial early next year on charges they tried to steal the carcass of a lion that was one of many exotic animals set free by a suicidal owner.
The lion was among 48 loose wild animals killed by sheriff's deputies in eastern Ohio's Muskingum County last month after their owner opened the cages and then killed himself.
Multiple media outlets report a Jan. 6 trial has been scheduled for the four men. Each is charged with a misdemeanor count of theft and faces up to six months in jail and a $1,000 fine if convicted.
A 17-year-old boy taken into custody with them has been charged in juvenile court.
Prosecutors haven't said what they believed the group planned to do with the dead lion.
UPDATE 11/23/11 @ 5:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The widow of an Ohio man who released dozens of tigers, bears and other animals at his farm before killing himself is appealing the state's quarantine of the six surviving creatures.
Marian Thompson's lawyer requested a hearing in a letter to the Ohio Department of Agriculture this week. The lawyer did not cite a specific reason.
A department spokeswoman says lawyers for Thompson and the state will arrange a date to present their arguments to a hearing officer. The officer would make a determination to be reviewed by the head of the department.
The Columbus zoo has cared for three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear since Terry Thompson released animals at his farm near Zanesville last month. The state ordered the animals be kept under quarantine.
UPDATE 11/21/11 @ 11 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio's governor wants to halt exotic animal auctions and wonders why anyone owns wild animals such as bears or primates.
Gov. John Kasich spoke of the ideas last month to a working group studying ways to change the state's laws on exotic animals. The meeting minutes were released late last week.
The group sped up its work on recommendations after dozens of exotic animals were released last month by their private owner, who then killed himself, leaving deputies to put down many of the beasts.
Kasich told the group during their Oct. 31 meeting that no one should own wild animals such as bears or primates.
Kasich also called for a ban on auctions where exotic wild animals are sold, and suggested that fees be significant.
UPDATE 11/4/11
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- New reports detailing how authorities in Ohio responded when dozens of exotic animals escaped last month show that a lion and a bear charged at deputies before they were shot and killed.
The reports released Friday describe a chaotic scene around the private compound in eastern Ohio.
Two deputies shot a pair of lions running near a fence along an interstate highway. A deputy says one lion got up and charged at him before he killed it.
Sheriff's deputies were forced to kill 48 wild animals, including bears, lions and endangered Bengal tigers, after their owner freed them late in the afternoon on Oct. 18 and then committed suicide.
Deputies say they couldn't get near the man at first because a tiger was standing over his body.
UPDATE 11/02/11
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says handling the escape of dozens of dangerous wild animals from a private compound last month cost his agency about $8,500.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz told a working group studying Ohio's exotic animals laws that the cost was for his department only.
The figure is contained in minutes of the group's Oct. 24 meeting reviewed by The Associated Press after they were published Wednesday.
Sheriff's deputies were forced to kill 48 wild animals, including bears, lions and endangered Bengal tigers, after their owner freed them late in the afternoon of Oct. 18, then committed suicide.
The working group is proposing recommendations that would likely ban dangerous animals and allow existing owners to keep such wildlife but require new permit rules for them.
UPDATE 11/01/11 @ 5:45 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio's governor has prodded a study committee to complete its work on new, permanent measures for dealing with private ownership of exotic wild animals in the state.
Gov. John Kasich made a conference call to members of the panel on Monday. Ohio Department of Natural Resources spokeswoman Laura Jones says the governor wanted to encourage them to stay on track and wrap up quickly.
Kasich last month ordered a temporary crackdown on dangerous wild animals in private hands after a suicidal owner released dozens of exotic beasts. Police killed 48 animals, including 18 endangered Bengal tigers.
The study committee has until the end of November to draft permanent legislation. The panel continued its discussions during a lengthy private meeting Monday at the Columbus Zoo.
UPDATE 10/31/11 @ 2 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio's state veterinarian says testing of a half-dozen exotic animals that survived release after their owner killed himself won't begin for several weeks.
Dr. Tony Forshey said Monday the animals must be anesthetized to have blood drawn. He's worried they're too weak to survive the procedure.
The Columbus Zoo is caring for three leopards, two monkeys and a young grizzly bear taken from a Zanesville home two weeks ago after owner Terry Thompson freed dozens of animals, then shot himself.
Police were forced to kill 48 animals, including lions, bears and 18 endangered Bengal tigers.
An email seeking comment was sent Monday to an attorney for the owner's widow, Marian Thompson, who had sought to reclaim the animals. Both she and her attorney have repeatedly declined comment.
UPDATE 10/27/11 @ 2:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The office of Ohio Gov. John Kasich says the state Department of Agriculture has ordered six exotic animals to be quarantined.
That's instead of transferring them from a zoo to a woman whose suicidal husband freed them.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium says it was notified that Marian Thompson would pick up the animals Thursday afternoon. She planned to reclaim three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear that have been cared for by the zoo since last week.
The zoo says it took the surviving animals from the farm in Zanesville with Thompson's permission but has no legal rights to them.
Terry Thompson mysteriously freed the animals and dozens of others last week before killing himself. Authorities had to hunt down and kill many of them.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets.
UPDATE 10/27/11 @ 1 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio zoo says despite its opposition, a woman plans to reclaim three leopards, two primates and a young grizzly bear that have been cared for by the zoo since her husband freed dozens of exotic animals at their farm and killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium says it was notified that Marian Thompson will pick up the animals Thursday afternoon.
The zoo says it took the six surviving animals last week from a farm in Zanesville with Thompson's permission but has no legal rights to them. A spokeswoman says the zoo has contacted state and federal agencies in search of a way to keep the animals in its care and isn't giving up yet.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets.
UPDATE 10/27/11 @ 12:30 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- The Columbus Zoo is trying to stop an Ohio woman from reclaiming three leopards, two primates and a bear that have been cared for by the zoo since her husband freed dozens of exotic animals at their farm and killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium says it took the six surviving animals with Marian Thompson's permission but has no legal rights to the animals. It says her lawyers notified the zoo that she will reclaim the beasts, possibly as early as Thursday.
A spokeswoman says the zoo has contacted state and federal agencies in search of a way to keep the animals.
Police shot and killed four dozen more animals that escaped from the eastern Ohio farm near Zanesville last week, including rare Bengal tigers, lions and bears.
UPDATE 10/26/11 @ 8:20 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Activists urging Ohio officials to prohibit ownership of exotic animals say they believe such a ban could have prevented the deaths of four dozen tigers, lions and other beasts that were freed at a farm near Zanesville.
About a dozen supporters of People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals stood outside the Statehouse on Wednesday with signs bearing slogans such as "Wild animals are not pets."
The gathering was spurred by the shooting by authorities of 48 animals released by a farm owner last week before he committed suicide. Six other animals were captured and taken to a zoo.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets. Gov. John Kasich has ordered temporary measures regarding private ownership of such animals while tougher laws are drafted.
UPDATE 10/25/11 @ 1:20 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Jack Hanna has urged a state panel to draw up strict rules for owning exotic animals in Ohio, where a man set loose more than 50 beasts last week and then killed himself - but the TV personality has stopped short of advocating a complete ban.
Hanna, the former Columbus Zoo director, said he told a working committee during its closed-door meeting on Monday that Ohio must make sure that what just happened never happens again. Police killed dozens of the released animals while schools closed and motorists were warned to stay in their vehicles.
Hanna says his message was: "No more lions and tigers and bears as pets."
On Friday, Gov. John Kasich ordered a temporary crackdown on private ownership of exotic wild animals. The study committee has until Nov. 30 to draft permanent legislation, with one more meeting scheduled next week.
Kasich said Tuesday that Hanna has told him there may need to be exceptions to a complete ban.
"What Jack Hanna's told me is you may have some breeders, you may have some circumstances where it's legitimate for somebody to have it, but they clearly have to be qualified, they have to be certified," Kasich told reporters after a public appearance.
The Republican governor said he has difficulty comprehending exotic animal ownership.
"I have a really hard time understanding why somebody ought to have a grizzly bear on their private compound, or lions or Bengal tigers. I just don't get it, but it's a complicated issue," he said.
UPDATE 10/24/11 @ 12:15 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- People getting tattoos have helped the surviving exotic animals from an Ohio farm where the owner opened the cages and then killed himself last week.
Tattoo artist Billy White says he'll donate the proceeds from tattoos of tigers and other exotic animals that customers bought through Saturday at his shop in Zanesville, the city near Terry Thompson's farm.
Multiple media outlets report White raised more than $1,000 for the six animals that were captured and are now being cared for at the Columbus Zoo. Police shot to death 48 others, including 18 rare Bengal tigers, 17 lions and eight bears.
White says he wanted to make something positive out of the tragedy.
No one knows for sure why the 62-year-old Thompson did what he did.
UPDATE 10/21/11 @ 4:40 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio Gov. John Kasich has proposed temporary measures to crack down on private ownership of exotic wild animals while tougher laws are drafted this fall.
Kasich also announced Friday that a northeast Ohio auction house long known as a source for animals like bear and tiger cubs is continuing a self-imposed ban.
The moves come after dozens of lions, bears and tigers were shot to death in Zanesville after their owner freed them Tuesday, then killed himself.
Kasich says the state will work with health departments and humane societies to better enforce existing laws, try to temporarily halt other auction sales and shut down unlicensed auctions.
Humane Society of the United States Executive Director Wayne Pacelle says the trade in such animals needs to be stopped altogether.
UPDATE 10/21/11 @ 1:35 p.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) -- Ohio Gov. John Kasich has announced he'll sign an executive order cracking down on dangerous exotic pets.
The governor made the decision Friday, a few days after an owner in Ohio set dozens free this week and committed suicide.
Kasich had let an order cracking down on the ownership of exotic animals expire this spring, arguing it lacked legal authority.
Activists have complained that Ohio has some of the nation's laxest regulations on exotic pets.
Police were forced to shoot most of the animals freed this week to ensure public safety. They included tigers, bears and lions.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 5:50 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- The owner of an exotic animal farm who set dozens of tigers, lions and bears free into the Ohio countryside had been deep in debt.
Court records show that Terry Thompson and his wife had money problems dating to the 1990s but that their debt escalated in recent years. They owed at least $68,000 in unpaid income and property taxes.
Thompson also just got out of prison last month after spending a year behind bars for possessing unregistered guns.
Investigators have refused to speculate about what pushed him to unleash more than 50 animals on Tuesday before killing himself. Deputies shot and killed dozens of the escaped animals.
Neighbors say they are shocked that Thompson did anything that could have harmed his beloved animals.
CHARLESTON, W.Va. (AP) -- Like its neighbor to the west, West Virginia wildlife officials lack the authority to regulate ownership of exotic animals such as those released from an Ohio park earlier this week.
Sheriff's deputies in Ohio shot 48 animals -- including 18 rare Bengal tigers and 17 lions -- after their owner Terry Thompson let them out of their cages before committing suicide Tuesday.
In Ohio and West Virginia, state law regulates the possession of native animals like bears but says nothing about exotic animals.
West Virginia Department of Natural Resources assistant chief Paul Johansen tells the Associated Press residents would not need a permit to have exotic pets.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture regulates exotic animals that are put on public display, but not those kept as pets.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 1 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says a coroner has confirmed that the owner of an exotic animal farm died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound and then was bitten.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said at a news conference Thursday that the autopsy showed farm owner Terry Thompson had a bite wound on the head that appeared to have come from a large cat, such as a Bengal tiger.
Lutz says it appears the bite occurred quickly after Thompson shot himself.
Authorities say Thompson released his more than 50 animals before killing himself on Tuesday. Dozens of escaped tigers, lions and other beasts were shot by officers.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 9:40 a.m.
COLUMBUS, Ohio (WSAZ) -- New legislation has been introduced to ban private ownership of large exotic animals in Ohio.
State Representative Debbie Phillips (D-Athens) proposed the legislation Thursday. The proposal come sin response to the recent events in Muskingum County in which an owner apparently released nearly 50 exotic animals into the area near his home.
“Although an owner’s intentions to keep exotic animals may be good, unfortunately, most private citizens do not have the proper training or resources to take care of wild animals. Their properties often are not equipped to safely contain wild animals, which poses a danger to themselves as well as other community members,” said Rep. Phillips.
The bill, which includes an emergency clause, closely mirrors the expired executive order issued by former Governor Strickland in January of this year. The bill permits existing owners with federal licenses to keep their animals but requires that they must register them with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources’ Division of Wildlife. Owners must also embed microchips in the animals so they can be tracked if there is an escape from the owner’s property.
“It is unfortunate that Governor Kasich chose to let this common sense provision expire earlier this year. Had he chosen to continue these regulations, we may not have seen today’s tragic events unfold,” said Rep. Phillips.
Ohio is one of only a few states with little or no regulation over the private ownership of wild animals, and has one of the highest incidences of injuries and deaths caused by exotic animals.
UPDATE 10/20/11 @ 9:20 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- A zoo says the surviving animals from an Ohio farm where exotic animals were set free by their owner seem to be OK.
Some four dozen animals were killed by police after authorities say the owner opened cages at the farm near Zanesville on Tuesday and then killed himself.
The Columbus Zoo says it's now caring for a young grizzly bear, two monkeys and three leopards. The zoo said in a statement Thursday that the rescued animals seem to be doing very well.
The animals that were killed include 18 rare Bengal tigers and 17 lions.
One monkey from the farm is still unaccounted for. The county sheriff has said in interviews that it's very possible the monkey was eaten by one of the big cats.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 7:30 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (WSAZ) -- As of Wednesday evening, only a monkey and a wolf remained on the loose-- the other 48 exotic animals on the run had been killed in Muskingum County, Ohio.
Late Tuesday and earlier Wednesday, dozens of wild animals were on the run after they escaped from an exotic animal farm in Zanesville. Their owner Terry Thompson set them free before shooting himself to death, Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said.
Some of the animals on the farm included: 18 tigers, 17 mountain lions and eight bears. Out of about 56 animals, 48 were put down. Several others were taken to the Columbus Zoo.
The exotic animal farm is just a couple miles outside of Zanesville, which has a population of about 25,000. Of course, wild animals and people simply don't mix, and it was a race against the clock to get the animals before they got the people.
“This was a very, very bad situation," Lutz said. "To keep that number restricted to this property is phenomenal."
When officers arrived to the exotic animal farm, they found an animal kingdom gone wild.
"I had deputies who had to shoot animals with their side arms at close range," Lutz said. "That's how volatile this situation was. These are not your average house cats or dogs. We're talking about 300-pound (Bengal tigers)."
Renowned animal expert Jack Hanna said, "It was like Noah's Ark exploded here."
Sadly, it was a gruesome roundup of tigers, leopards, lions, wolves, bears and monkeys.
Hanna, who is director of the Columbus Zoo, was on the scene to assist. He says the sheriff did the right thing for public safety in killing the animals.
"Water buffalo, I can tell you, they're powerful," Hanna said.
Thompson was found laying dead in the driveway -- police say from suicide. But, this wasn't the first time police have responded to the farm.
"We've gotten 34 to 35 calls since April 5 that we've ran on our computer about problems at Mr. Thompson's from animals running at large to them not being treated properly," Lutz said. "So, this has been a huge problem for us for a lot of years."
Meanwhile, the surrounding community spent Wednesday on lockdown. Schools closed, and warning signs urged people to stay inside.
Now, law enforcement officers start to breathe a sigh of relief with most of the animals accounted for. But, tense times remain while one monkey is still on the loose carrying a dangerous virus.
Known as the herpes B virus, it is carried by macaque monkeys. The virus doesn't affect monkeys, but is considered to be dangerous for people.
A bite wound is considered a very dangerous condition, and that's why Lutz is recommending not to approach the monkey. Call your local 911 center if you see it.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 3:30 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says 48 of about 56 exotic animals were killed by deputies after their owner freed them and committed suicide.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz says that included 18 Bengal tigers. Other animals killed near the preserve in eastern Ohio included 17 lions, eight bears and a wolf.
Lutz says the only remaining animals are a wolf and a monkey. Authorities say the monkey should be shot if caught because it could be carrying a disease.
Several schools closed to keep children out of harm's way. The sheriff says that he believes the danger to residents has passed and that schools can reopen.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 10:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- A sheriff says exotic animals on the loose in eastern Ohio were set free by their owner, who apparently killed himself on his farm.
Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said at a news conference Wednesday that investigators feel Terry Thompson died from a self-inflicted wound. Lutz says authorities are awaiting autopsy results on the cause of death.
The sheriff says it appears Thompson left the animals' gates open and even cut open their pens so they would get out. The animals included lions and bears.
Deputies found Thompson's body on Tuesday when they went to the farm on reports of wild animals running free.
Officials spent the night hunting down and shooting to death most of the nearly 50 animals.
Schools closed and motorists were warned to stay in their vehicles as officers with assault rifles hunted Wednesday for bears, big cats and other beasts that escaped from a wild-animal preserve after the owner was found dead and cages housing dozens of dangerous animals were left open.
Officers were under orders to shoot to kill because officials said it wasn't safe to tranquilize the animals in the dark.
Authorities were investigating whether Muskingum County Animal Farm owner Terry Thompson killed himself after freeing the animals, and officials spent the night hunting down and shooting to death nearly 30 of the 48 animals.
As officials warned that more animals still were on the loose, three school districts in the region and some private and special schools canceled classes as the remaining bears, big cats and other beasts from the Muskingum County Animal Farm were hunted down.
Flashing signs along area highways told motorists, "Caution exotic animals" and "Stay in vehicle."
The animals' cages had been opened and the farm's fences had been left unsecured, police said. It was "very possible" that Thompson left the cages open, Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz said.
Lutz told NBC's "Today" show that authorities were awaiting autopsy results on the farm owner. Lutz had said earlier that the death was not suspicious.
"Once daybreak hits here, we're going back in to get an accountability of how many animals have been put down, how many animals are still penned up," the sheriff told NBC.
The preserve in Zanesville, about 55 miles east of Columbus, had lions, tigers, cheetahs, wolves, giraffes, camels and bears. Police said bears and wolves were among the escaped animals that were killed and there were multiple sightings of exotic animals along a nearby highway.
Lutz called the animals "mature, very big, aggressive" but said a caretaker told authorities the animals had been fed on Monday.
Tuesday night, more than 50 law enforcement officials - including sheriff's deputies, highway patrol officers, police officers and officers from the state Division of Wildlife - patrolled the 40-acre farm and the surrounding areas in cars and trucks, often in rainy downpours. Lutz said they were concerned about big cats and bears hiding in the dark and in trees.
Neighbor Danielle White, whose father's property abuts the animal preserve, said she didn't see loose animals this time but did in 2006, when a lion escaped.
"It's always been a fear of mine knowing (the preserve's owner) had all those animals," she said. "I have kids."
Lutz said his office started getting phone calls at about 5:30 p.m. Tuesday that wild animals were loose just west of Zanesville on a road that runs under Interstate 70.
He said four deputies with assault rifles in a pickup truck went to the animal farm, where they found the owner Thompson dead and all the animal cage doors open.
He wouldn't say how Thompson died but said several aggressive animals were near his body when deputies arrived and had to be shot.
Thompson, who lived on the property, had orangutans and chimps in his home, but those were still in their cages, Lutz said.
The deputies, who saw many other animals standing outside their cages and others that had escaped past the fencing surrounding the property, began shooting them on sight.
Staffers from the Columbus Zoo went to the scene, hoping to tranquilize and capture the animals after daybreak Wednesday. The zoo's director emeritus, TV host Jack Hanna, said that was something that could not be done in the dark.
"You cannot tranquilize an animal like this, a bear or a leopard or a tiger (at nighttime)," Hanna told ABC's "Good Morning America on Wednesday. "If you do that, the animal gets very excited, it goes and hides, and then we have his (Lutz's) officer in danger of losing their life, and other people."
Lutz said his main concern was protecting the public in the rural area, where homes sit on large lots of sometimes 10 acres.
White, the preserve's neighbor, said Thompson had been in legal trouble, and police said he had gotten out of jail recently.
"He was in hot water because of the animals, because of permits, and (the animals) escaping all the time," White said. A few weeks ago, she said, she had to avoid some camels which were grazing on the side of a freeway.
At a nearby Moose Lodge, Bill Weiser remembered Thompson as an interesting character who flew planes, raced boats and owned a custom motorcycle shop that also sold guns.
"He was pretty unique," Weiser said. "He had a different slant on things. I never knew him to hurt anybody, and he took good care of the animals."
Weiser said he regretted that the escaped animals had to be killed. "It's breaking my heart, them shooting those animals," he said.
Bailey Hartman, 20, a night manager at McDonald's, also said it saddened her that the animals were being shot. But, she said, "I was kind of scared coming in to work."
Hartman said Thompson's wife, who no longer lives with him, was her teacher in middle school and used to bring small animals such as a monkeys, snakes and owls to school. "It was a once-a-year type of thing, and everyone would always get excited," she recalled.
Thompson had permits to keep four black bears, said Laura Jones, a spokeswoman for the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. The department licenses only native species, Jones said Wednesday.
Ohio has some of the nation's weakest restrictions on exotic pets and among the highest number of injuries and deaths caused by them.
In the summer of 2010, an animal caretaker was killed by a bear at a property in Cleveland. The caretaker had opened the bear's cage at exotic-animal keeper Sam Mazzola's property for a routine feeding.
Though animal-welfare activists had wanted Mazzola charged with reckless homicide, the caretaker's death was ruled a workplace accident. The bear was later destroyed.
This summer, Mazzola was found dead on a water bed, wearing a mask and with his arms and legs restrained, at his home in Columbia Township, about 15 miles southwest of Cleveland.
It was unclear how many animals remained on the property when he died, but he had said in a bankruptcy filing in May 2010 that he owned four tigers, a lion, eight bears and 12 wolves. The U.S. Department of Agriculture had revoked his license to exhibit animals after animal-welfare activists campaigned for him to stop letting people wrestle with another one of his bears.
Mazzola had permits for nine bears for 2010, the Ohio Department of Natural Resources said. The state requires permits for bears but doesn't regulate the ownership of nonnative animals, such as lions and tigers.
The Humane Society of the United States on Wednesday urged Ohio to immediately issue emergency restrictions on the sale and possession of dangerous wild animals. "
"How many incidents must we catalogue before the state takes action to crack down on private ownership of dangerous exotic animals," Humane Society Wayne Pacelle said in a statement.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 8:30 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- An Ohio sheriff says it's possible the owner killed himself at an Ohio wild-animal preserve where cages were opened and dozens of animals escaped.
When asked on NBC's "Today" show Wednesday whether farm owner Terry Thompson may have taken his own life, Muskingum County Sheriff Matt Lutz would only say: "Anything's a possibility at this point." He said authorities are awaiting autopsy results.
Police have killed dozens of animals. Lutz says he believes up to 35 of the 48 loose bears, big cats and other beasts have been accounted for. He says daylight will allow for a more accurate count.
Deputies responding to the initial reports of wild animals found Thompson dead Tuesday.
Schools are closed in the region on Wednesday and flashing highway signs are telling motorists: "Caution exotic animals."
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 8 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- A sheriff says new, overnight animal sightings have not been confirmed in rural eastern Ohio, where police have killed dozens of animals that escaped from a wild-animal preserve.
Muskingum County Sheriff Sheriff Matt Lutz says he now believes up to 35 of the 48 animals were accounted for. He says daylight will allow officers to get a more accurate count.
Deputies responding to the initial reports of loose bears, big cats and other beasts found the farm's owner dead on Tuesday.
Authorities aren't saying how he died but say his death wasn't suspicious.
Police said the farm's fences had been left unsecured and the animals' cages were open.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 7 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- Flashing highway signs are warning motorists to stay in their vehicles in rural eastern Ohio, where police have killed dozens of animals that escaped from a wild-animal preserve.
Deputies responding to the initial reports of loose bears, big cats and other beasts found the farm's owner dead on Tuesday. Authorities aren't saying how he died but say his death wasn't suspicious.
Three school districts and some private and special schools canceled Wednesday's classes in the region around the farm in Zanesville. Police said the farm's fences had been left unsecured and the animals' cages were open.
Close to 30 of the 48 animals were shot and killed on Tuesday.
The Humane Society of the United States says the episode shows Ohio needs restrictions on the possession of wild animals.
UPDATE 10/19/11 @ 5 a.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP) -- Police armed with rifles are patrolling rural Zanesville where dozens of animals escaped from a wild-animal preserve and where the owner's body later was found.
Some school districts were expected to cancel classes Wednesday as the remaining bears, big cats and other beasts from the Muskingum County Animal Farm were hunted down.
Police started getting phone calls at about 5:30 p.m. Tuesday that wild animals were loose just west of Zanesville.
Four sheriff's deputies with assault rifles in a pickup truck went to the animal farm, where they found the owner dead and all the animal cage doors open. The preserve had lions, tigers, cheetahs, wolves, giraffes, camels and bears.
There were 48 animals at the preserve in east-central Ohio and authorities say they killed up to 30 of them.
ORIGINAL STORY 10/18/11 @ 10:17 p.m.
ZANESVILLE, Ohio (AP & WSAZ) -- Police say the owner of an Ohio exotic-animal farm where dozens of animals escaped has been found dead.
WBNS-TV in Columbus reports the body of owner Terry Thompson was found Tuesday outside his home on the farm property. Police say the fences had been left unsecured at the Muskingum County Animal Farm in Zanesville.
Police won't say what animals escaped but say the farm had lions, wolves, tigers, giraffes, camels and bears. They say bears and wolves have been shot and killed and there are multiple sightings of exotic animals along Interstate 70.
The Muskingum County Sheriff's Office tells Columbus television station NBC4 that they are actively searching for, "a gambit of wild and exotic animals."
Staffers from the Columbus Zoo are on the scene hoping to tranquilize and capture the animals.
Sheriff Matt Lutz says people should stay indoors and he might ask for local schools to close Wednesday.
Lutz confirmed the owner was found dead by deputies. He said deputies shot up to 25 animals on the way to the home to check on the owner.
The sheriff did not elaborate on how the owner died.
Officials said there could be up to 48 animals still on the loose and that deputies have been given the order, "shoot to kill."
"Public safety is the number one priority," Lutz said.
Lutz said the office has had issues with the owner in the past.
"This is a bad situation, its been a bad situation for a long time," he said.
UPDATE: Fire destroys Huntington home
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January 2011 England beat Australia winning the Ashes once again. Where did they play the final test? | BBC Sport - Cricket - Ashes: England wrap up 3-1 series win over Australia
Ashes: England wrap up 3-1 series win over Australia
Fifth Ashes Test, Sydney (day five):
England 644 beat Australia 280 & 281 by an innings and 83 runs
TMS highlights on BBC Radio 5 live sports extra and online (UK only) and review on the TMS podcast; highlights on ITV4
England celebrate Ashes triumph
By Oliver Brett
England won the final Ashes Test in Sydney by an innings and 83 runs to wrap up the series 3-1 and secure their first win down under in 24 years.
Australia began day five in a hopeless position at 213-7, 151 runs behind, and after a rain delay they were all out for 281 with Steve Smith not out on 54.
The crowd, made up almost entirely of England fans, was let in free and noisily roared their approval.
England captain Andrew Strauss said: "We're delighted with what we've done."
Smith, doughtily supported by tail-ender Peter Siddle, kept England's champagne on ice before the players were forced off by rain after 25 minutes of action.
When they returned 40 minutes later in glorious sunshine, Siddle hung around for a few more overs before departing for 43 with the second new ball almost due. Having added 86 with Smith, he slog-swept Graeme Swann to deep midwicket.
TOM FORDYCE BLOG
It was as if every ex-pat in the country had decided to be there. Beaches, backpacker dorms and Bondi bars were emptied, this corner of a foreign field for once entirely England
The last two wickets fell within a further six overs - Ben Hilfenhaus providing Matt Prior with his 23rd catch of the series and James Anderson his 24th wicket - before Michael Beer chopped Chris Tremlett onto his stumps.
Emotional celebrations for England and their supporters ensued, while the contrast in the Australian camp could not have been starker.
The chaos in the home dressing room was underlined when Michael Clarke, the stand-in skipper for this Test, resigned from Twenty20 internationals minutes after the official presentations.
The Barmy Army's songs and chants echoed around the Sydney Cricket Ground long after the final wicket had fallen.
Victorious skipper Andrew Strauss joined Sir Len Hutton and Mike Brearley to become only the third England captain to win Ashes series at home and away.
Strauss said: "We came over here desperately wanting to win the series. In Melbourne we retained the Ashes but we really wanted to finish with a bang here in Sydney.
"All credit to the guys, they've been outstanding again. We're certainly going to enjoy this evening, that's for sure."
Anderson, part of the England team whitewashed 5-0 in Australia four years ago, finished with 3-61 for 24 wickets in the series and the best haul by an England bowler in Australia since Frank "Typhoon" Tyson collected 28 in 1954-55.
Anderson and Cook both produced career-defining series
He said: "I'm delighted with my form this trip, enjoying my role in the team leading the attack. My job has been made easy by the guys at the other end, Steven Finn and Stuart Broad at the start of the series and Chris Tremlett and Tim Bresnan later on, and our fielding has been amazing.
"We've been working really hard on it, the catches we've taken this series are better than any I remember in any other series."
Paul Collingwood, given the honour of leading out the England team on his final day as a Test cricketer, said: "Today is absolute number one. It's a special, special day and I can't think of a better way to step out of Test cricket. A lot of guys in the dressing room put a lot of hard work in to achieve this.
"My role in the side is to score runs, I'm disappointed I haven't done that. But four years ago I scored a double century and we lost 5-0 and I much prefer it this way round. We deserve it."
It was the first time any team had won three Tests by an innings in a single series away from home. The last time England had done it against any opponents, India, had been in 1959.
It was also the first time Australia had lost three Tests at home since 1988-89, when Viv Richards' world-beating West Indies side also won by a 3-1 margin.
Alastair Cook was both man of the match and man of the series, having hit 189 in Sydney and 766 across all five matches.
"I couldn't imagine this seven weeks ago," he said.
"The double hundred [in Brisbane] was a very special moment for me and to win man of the match in the final game of the Ashes is a dream come true.
"Our bowlers have been fantastic throughout the whole series, they've made our job as batters far easier."
Kevin Pietersen hailed the team effort, saying: "It's amazing to win so convincingly in Australia. It's all credit to the team and the management. Every single bloke has done something to make it such a great trip.
"Every single time an occasion has been needed, one of us has stood up. I did in Adelaide, but every single bloke, player, member of the backroom staff has been outstanding."
England coach Andy Flower said the victory was an "emotional moment" for the players and the entire backroom team.
NICK BRYANT BLOG
Aussie sports fans can spot mediocrity a mile off, and have witnessed it for years in its now highly fallible cricket team
"A lot of hard work, effort, heartache and some sweat and tears go into winning any game of cricket. Over a five-match series it takes even more effort and no mean amount of skill, and I think the guys are very proud of all those things.
"We've got to enjoy it now - and share in the experience. We share the hardships along the way and we have to share the good moments too."
And British Prime Minister David Cameron paid tribute to the team, calling the series victory a "fantastic achievement".
England remain third in the International Cricket Council Test rankings, but have closed the gap on second-placed South Africa to two points.
India remain at the top of the table after their series in South Africa ended in a 1-1 draw just hours before England's triumph in Sydney.
| Sydney |
Who did Jai McDowall beat in this years final of Britain's Got Talent? | Ashes 2013-14: Australia crush England to seal 5-0 whitewash - BBC Sport
Ashes 2013-14: Australia crush England to seal 5-0 whitewash
By Tom Fordyce
Chief sports writer at the SCG
5 Jan 2014
Australia celebrate winning the Ashes
Fifth Test, Sydney (day three)
Australia (326 & 276) beat England (155 & 166) by 281 runs
Mobile scorecard
England folded in dismal fashion to lose the fifth Test within three days and with it the Ashes series 5-0 to end their miserable winter in entirely appropriate style.
Alastair Cook's men were bowled out for a feeble 166 inside 32 overs to be thrashed by 281 runs in Sydney, at one stage losing four wickets in 11 balls.
It was the story of the past six weeks compressed into one final chastening day as Mitchell Johnson took three more pivotal wickets with ferocious pace to end with 37 in the series at an average of 13.9. Ryan Harris mopped up the tail to claim 5-25.
Test Match Special analysis
"It's pathetic - there is no other word. It's humiliation. England have just disintegrated. How do you get bowled out in 32 overs?
"It's bad enough to lose all five, but it's how you lose. This is a worse loss than when we lost 5-0 [in 2006-07] because they had great players like McGrath, Warne and Gilchrist last time."
All of England's senior batsmen once again failed on a tour when not a single one has totalled 300 runs, and when six Australians have well in excess.
It is only the third whitewash in Ashes history, and is arguably the worst tour England have ever undertaken, after they came into this series as favourites and against a side beaten in seven of their previous nine Tests.
England won the toss here at the SCG but ended up humiliated once again, a team unrecognisable in personnel from the one that began the series in Brisbane but suffering an identical hiding.
Not in a single Test have they got close, losing by 381 runs, 218 runs, 150 runs, eight wickets and now this.
They were set a distant 448 to win but could not even last three hours as Michael Clarke's rampant side capped their remarkable renaissance by taking all 10 wickets in under two sessions.
Australia had been branded the worst team ever to tour England en route to losing last summer's corresponding series 3-0.
Ashes 2013-14
3-7 Jan 2014: 5th Test, Sydney: Australia won by 281 runs
But they fully deserved every thumping victory on their own soil, their tactics, aggression and desire dismantling opposition that had travelled with such confidence and expectation.
Johnson had Cook caught behind for seven before pace partner Ryan Harris took care of Ian Bell for 16 and Kevin Pietersen for six as England gave up with barely a whisper.
The carnage accelerated after tea when top scorer Michael Carberry top-edged Johnson behind for 43 and Gary Ballance was trapped in front for seven.
Nathan Lyon saw off Jonny Bairstow without scoring and Scott Borthwick to reduce England to 95-7.
Although Ben Stokes (32) and Stuart Broad (42) slogged with resigned abandon, Harris took the final three wickets to trigger giddy celebrations among a sold-out crowd.
Australia had earlier piled on the runs at pace as they added 136 runs to their overnight 140-4, Chris Rogers compiling his second century in two Tests to become the top run-scorer across these back-to-back Ashes series.
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Ashes 2013-14: Alastair Cook says England players have let fans down
Rogers made 119 before being caught and bowled by debutant Scott Borthwick, one of three wickets for the leg-spinner as the lower order slogged merrily.
Borthwick also picked up the wicket of Brad Haddin for 28, but not before Haddin had set a record for the most runs scored in a Test series by a man batting at seven or lower.
His 493 runs at an average of 61 take him past his predecessor Adam Gilchrist and, as much as Johnson's wickets have decided this series, so too have Haddin's runs.
It is just one in a litany of statistics that underline Australia's total dominance.
They scored 10 centuries to England's one, had the top six batsmen by average and three of the best four bowlers by average.
Test Match Special analysis
"I have never seen an England team throw in the towel, but they did this afternoon.
"When they come up against hostility and pace, this England side have not been able to cope with it. That last innings there showed how frazzled the team is."
Man of the series Johnson's 37 wickets came at just 13.9 apiece, while Harris ended with 22 at 19, Lyon 19 at 29 and Peter Siddle 16 at 24.
The magnitude of the latest defeat will bring with it much soul-searching in the England camp, with questions over the unresolved future of coach Andy Flower and several of the players.
No-one saw this whitewash coming, but that does not make its impact any less damning.
Listen to Jonathan Agnew and Geoff Boycott's review of the day and the series in the TMS podcast.
Relive the final day's play in Sydney in the Pint-Sized Ashes.
For a round-up of today's key moments check out the photo gallery on the BBC Sport Facebook page.
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In July this year we saw the final Space Shuttle mission. Which shuttle was used for the voyage? | The Most Memorable Space Shuttle Missions
The Most Memorable Space Shuttle Missions
By Clara Moskowitz, SPACE.com Assistant Managing Editor |
May 30, 2011 02:22am ET
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Credit: NASA
NASA's Prolific Space Shuttles
NASA's storied space shuttle program has seen some amazing highs, and a couple devastating lows over the course of its 30-year history. Soon, the world's first reusable spacecraft will retire to make way for NASA's next phase. But for now, here's a look back at the most memorable missions of the space shuttle's tenure.
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Credit: NASA
First Shuttle Flight: STS-1 (Columbia)
On April 12, 1981, NASA's maiden space shuttle Columbia lifted off for the first time 30 years ago, carrying astronauts John Young and Bob Crippen.
That mission marked many firsts, including the first time solid rocket engines were used to propel a spaceship into orbit, and the first time a spaceship landed back on Earth by gliding down a runway, instead of splashing into the ocean like Apollo capsules or on land like Russia's spacecraft. Columbia's flight was also the first powered test flight of the space shuttle, and marked the first time a spacecraft's debut test flight was manned, rather than unmanned.
Although the mission saw a few slight anomalies, overall the space shuttle performed exceptionally on its maiden voyage.
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Credit: NASA
A Shuttle Lands at White Sands: STS-3 (Columbia)
This March 22, 1982 shuttle mission, the third flight of the fleet, was focused on further testing of the shuttle, including its robotic arm system, Canadarm, and its thermal protection shielding.
Because of high winds at Columbia's planned landing site at Edwards Air Force Base in California, the shuttle was forced to glide down at the backup site of White Sands Test Facility near Las Cruces, N.M. While the site, now called the White Sands Space Harbor, still remains a backup landing facility for the shuttle, a shuttle never landed there following the STS-3 mission.
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Credit: NASA
First American Woman in Space: STS-7 (Challenger)
The STS-7 crew of space shuttle Challenger included Sally Ride when it sailed into orbit on June 18, 1983, making Ride the first American woman in space. The flight came 20 years after the mission that launched the first woman pilot into space, Russian cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, during the former Soviet Union's June 1963 flight of Vostok 6.
During the STS-7 mission, Ride and the other four astronauts onboard, led by Bob Crippen, deployed two telecommunications satellites—one for Canada and one for Indonesia.
This was the seventh space shuttle mission, and was the second mission for the Challenger orbiter. At the time, the five spaceflyers on STS-7 were the largest single crew to fly together in space.
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Credit: NASA
First African-American Astronaut Reaches Space: STS-8 (Challenger)
The very next shuttle mission after Ride's history-making launch saw the first flight of an African American in space. Guion Bluford launched aboard the shuttle Challenger on Aug. 30, 1983 along with four other astronauts led by commander Richard Truly. The crew released an Indian communications and weather satellite into orbit, and conducted a set of science experiments. They also tested the Canadarm on a dummy second payload.
This mission was also the first time the space shuttle launched and landed at night.
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Credit: NASA
Shuttle Fleet's Spacelab Debut: STS-9 (Columbia)
NASA's STS-9 flight of shuttle Columbia, the ninth shuttle flight, launched on Nov. 28, 1983 and was a mission dedicated entirely to science. It was the first mission to use the Spacelab module, a cylindrical laboratory of science experiments packed into the shuttle's cargo bay.
The six crewmembers onboard spent 10 days on a joint NASA/European Space Agency program to demonstrate the usefulness of the shuttle to conduct advanced scientific research. Spacelab would go on to be used on 22 shuttle missions until April 1998.
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Credit: NASA
First Untethered Spacewalk: STS-41B (Challenger)
The STS-41B flight of Challenger lifted off on Feb. 3, 1984 and marked the first time an astronaut spacewalked outside the shuttle without being tethered. Astronauts Bruce McCandless and Robert L. Stewart tested out the Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU), a robotic backpack with its own thrusters that allowed the spaceflyers to move around, becoming the first human satellites to orbit the Earth.
This mission also marked the first time a space shuttle landed back where it launched, at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Fla. While Kennedy is now the preferred landing site for shuttles, the first space shuttle missions landed at California's Edwards Air Force Base. Now Edwards is used as a backup landing site.
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Credit: NASA
A Satellite Repair Shop: STS-41C (Challenger)
On April 6, 1984, the shuttle Challenger launched on a mission to rendezvous with the malfunctioning Solar Maximum Mission satellite (SolarMax) in what became the first in-space satellite repair. The spacecraft had been launched in 1980 to study solar flares, but was in need of some repairs.
The shuttle astronauts used a combination of spacewalks and robotic arm maneuvers to grab Solar Max and replace its attitude control mechanism and electronics systems, significantly boosting the life of the satellite. The activities would pave the way for other spacecraft servicing missions, such as those to repair the Hubble Space Telescope.
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Credit: NASA
First Space Shuttle Disaster: STS-51L (Challenger)
On Jan. 28, 1986, NASA's space shuttle program saw its darkest day at the time, when seven astronauts lost their lives as Challenger disintegrated shortly after launch. One of them was high school teacher Christa McAuliffe, who had been selected to be the first teacher in space.
The problem began with exceptionally cold weather, which prevented a rubber O-ring on one of the shuttle's solid rocket boosters from maintaining its seal, allowing hot gas to leak and damage the shuttle's external fuel tank and the hardware attaching the booster to the vehicle.
The right solid rocket booster separated from the shuttle, and the fuel tank broke apart, causing the orbiter to be torn apart by aerodynamic stresses. [ Special Report: Space Shuttle Challenger Disaster – 25 Years Later ]
It would take two years of investigations and modifications before a NASA space shuttle flew in space again.
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Credit: NASA
Shuttle Fleet's Return-to-Flight Mission: STS-26 (Discovery)
It took NASA 2 1/2 years to regroup from the Challenger disaster and launch the first return-to-flight mission, the STS-26 voyage of Discovery, led by commander Frederick Hauck, on Sept. 29, 1988.
After Challenger, the space agency conducted a thorough review of the program and put many fixes in place to prevent another such accident. The STS-26 mission deployed a communications satellite and included a series of science experiments performed by Discovery's crew.
Unfortunately, Challenger wouldn't be the last shattering loss for the shuttle program, although NASA maintained a clean record for 15 years after Discovery's return-to-flight mission.
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Credit: NASA
Launching Hubble: STS-31 (Discovery)
The space shuttle Discovery added another notable launch to its list when it launched what remains the world's most famous telescope, the Hubble Space Telescope, on April 24, 1990.
Discovery's five-astronaut crew, led by commander Loren Shriver, spent five days in space deploying the observatory and conducting science experiments. Because of its vantage point in space, beyond Earth's blurring atmosphere, Hubble could take much more detailed photos than comparable ground telescopes.
However, soon after the telescope started snapping pictures, scientists realized that an error in the construction of Hubble's main mirror was significantly compromising image quality, causing pictures to come out blurry. Luckily, Hubble is the only telescope designed to be serviced in space by astronauts.
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Credit: NASA
First Three-Person Spacewalk: STS-49 (Endeavour)
On May 13, 1992, during the first mission of the space shuttle Endeavour, a trio of astronauts conducted the first spacewalk to involve more than two spacewalkers at once.
STS-49 mission specialists Pierre Thuot, Richard Hieb, and Thomas Akers conducted the extravehicular activity (EVA) to capture and repair the broken Intelsat VI-F3 satellite. The communications satellite had been stranded in the wrong orbit since its launch two years earlier in March 1990.
The astronauts successfully attached a new second stage rocket to boost the spacecraft into its intended geosynchronous orbit.
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Credit: NASA
Fixing Hubble: STS-61 (Endeavour)
Three years after Hubble launched into space with faulty optics, NASA launched the shuttle Endeavour on the STS-61 mission on Dec. 2, 1993. The mission came about after engineers completed a set of corrective optics to fix the problem, allowing NASA to launch seven astronauts on the first Hubble servicing mission.
The crew, led by commander Richard Covey spent 10 days performing five spacewalks to install the new hardware. The new optics proved to correct the blurring, and STS-61 was pronounced a triumphant success, opening the door for Hubble to revolutionize our understanding of the universe. [ Spectacular Photos From The Revamped Hubble Telescope ]
STS-61 would be followed by four more servicing missions to upgrade Hubble over the years.
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Credit: NASA
Space Shuttle Docks at Russia's Mir: STS-71 (Atlantis)
While the United States and Russia began the space race as competitors, they evolved into collaborators. One of the brightest moments of the partnership came on June 27, 1995 when a U.S. space shuttle docked to the Russian space station Mir.
Atlantis' STS-71 mission delivered two Russian cosmonauts to the station to begin their months-long stay on Mir. The mission also picked up a NASA astronaut and two other cosmonauts – who had been serving on the Mir crew – to give them a ride home.
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Credit: NASA
Shuttle Launches Oldest Astronaut: STS-95 (Discovery)
Shuttle Discovery carried the oldest person to space to date on Oct. 29, 1998 when it lifted off with Mercury astronaut and United States Senator John Glenn aboard. [ Photos: Shuttle Discovery Sets Sail On Final Voyage ]
The 77-year old Glenn was making his second spaceflight, after launching on Friendship 7 on Feb. 20, 1962. Glenn was one of the original Mercury 7, the first group of United States astronauts ever selected. He was the fifth person in space and the first American to orbit the Earth.
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Credit: NASA
Shuttle's First International Space Station Trek: STS-88 (Endeavour)
The now-complete International Space Station has been called one of the space shuttle's crowning achievements, because many of its large components were only possible to haul to space inside the shuttle's roomy cargo bay. But in 1998, construction of the space station was just getting under way.
NASA's first shuttle to visit the space station was Endeavour, which launched on the STS-88 mission on Dec. 4, 1998 and carried the first American module, the Unity node to the station. Unity was connected to the first space station segment, the Russian Zarya module, which Russia had launched less than a month earlier on a Russian Proton rocket.
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Credit: NASA/JSC
Columbia is Lost: STS-107 (Columbia)
The tragic loss of space shuttle Columbia – NASA's first shuttle to fly – on Feb. 1, 2003, dealt a withering blow to the space shuttle program. The seven-member crew, led by commander Rick Husband, launched on Jan. 16 of that year and was returning home after a successful 16-day mission filled with microgravity and Earth science experiments when the orbiter broke up during re-entry to Earth.
The cause was eventually traced to a piece of foam insulation on the shuttle's external tank, which had flaked off during launch and impacted the orbiter's left wing. Though no one knew it at the time, subsequent analysis showed the debris likely punched a plate-sized hole in the wing, causing the vehicle to fail to withstand the strains of reentry.
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Credit: NASA
NASA Shuttles Resume Spaceflights: STS-114 (Discovery)
On July 26, 2005, the space shuttle fleet once again resumed spaceflights following a fatal accident. Discovery's STS-114 mission came two years of investigation into the Columbia accident to identify improvements to enhance safety for the spaceflight program.
Like the first return-to-flight mission, after Challenger, this voyage was flown by shuttle Discovery.
The 13-day mission, led by commander Eileen Collins, tested out the new safety techniques that had been developed post-Columbia, including using a sensor system attached to a long pole to scan the orbiter after launch to make sure no catastrophic debris strikes have taken place. Discovery's crew also tested heat shield repair techniques during several spacewalks.
Since then, heat shield inspections have become a standard part of every shuttle mission since the Columbia accident.
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Credit: NASA
The Last Shuttle Mission: STS-135 (Atlantis)
In 2011, the space shuttle program flew its last flights. The final mission, slated to be flown by the shuttle Atlantis on June 28, 2011, will carry four astronauts and a cargo bay packed to the brim with spare supplies to the International Space Station.
The shuttle Discovery launched on its last mission Feb. 24, 2011. The orbiter delivered the final major U.S. contribution to the space station – the Permanent Multipurpose Module Leonardo – effectively completing the American portion of the orbiting lab.
The shuttle Endeavour is scheduled to lift off on its last space voyage June 29 to bring a cosmic ray-hunting astrophysics experiment and a load of extra hardware to the space station.
After the final space shuttle flights, NASA's three orbiters are to be retired to American museums.
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| Atlantis |
Sadly, Billy Jo Spears died on 14th December. Can you name her biggest hit, which, in 1975, became her only number one.? | NASA Launches Space Shuttle on Historic Final Mission
NASA Launches Space Shuttle on Historic Final Mission
<a href='http://www.space.com/contact_author.php?a=VFdsclpTQlhZV3hzS20xM1lXeHNLakU9'>Mike Wall</a>, SPACE.com Senior Writer<br /><a href="http://www.space.com" >Space.com</a>
Janelle Monáe's NASA photoshoot makes the space age cool again
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This story was updated at 2 p.m. EDT.
CAPE CANAVERAL, Fla. — The space shuttle Atlantis soared into the heavens and the history books Friday (July 8), kicking off the last-ever mission of NASA's storied shuttle program.
Despite a bleak forecast of thunderstorms and clouds, the shuttle beat the weather in a stunning midday launch, sailing into the sky on one final voyage. The coutndown toward liftoff took a dramatic pause at T minus 31 seconds while ground crews verified that a vent arm at the top of the shuttle was fully retracted. NASA was quickly able to push on toward liftoff.
Atlantis blasted off at 11:29 a.m. EDT (1529 GMT) from Launch Pad 39A here at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, thrilling huge throngs of spectators who had descended on Florida's Space Coast to see the swan song of an American icon. NASA estimated that between 750,000 and 1 million people turned out to watch history unfold before their eyes.
"On behalf of the greatest team in the world, good luck to you and your crew on the final flight of this true American icon," shuttle launch director Mike Leinbach told the astronauts just before launch. "And so for the final time, Fergie, Doug, Sandy and Rex, good luck, Godspeed and have a little fun up there."
"Thanks to you and your team, Mike. We're not ending the journey today, we're completing a chapter of a journey that will never end," Atlantis' commander Chris Ferguson replied. "Let's light this shuttle one more time Mike and witness this nation at its best. The crew of Atlantis is ready to launch."
After 135 launches over 30 years, the space shuttle will never streak into the sky again. [ Video: Last Launch Of Shuttle Atlantis ]
Atlantis and its four-astronaut crew are headed for a rendezvous with the International Space Station. The main goal of the shuttle's 12-day flight — Atlantis' 33rd mission after nearly 26 years of flying — is to deliver a year's worth of supplies and spare parts to the orbiting lab.
But the world's attention is fixed more on what Atlantis' last mission means than on what it will accomplish in orbit.
"For an entire generation who grew up with the space shuttle, this is a moment that won't be appreciated for some time to come," said space history expert Robert Pearlman, editor of collectSPACE.com and a SPACE.com contributor. "People have taken it for granted; I don't think its absence is going to be immediately felt."
A skeleton crew
Commander Chris Ferguson is leading a skeleton crew of four on Atlantis' STS-135 flight. He's joined by pilot Doug Hurley and mission specialists Rex Walheim and Sandy Magnus. Other shuttle missions over the years have typically carried six or seven spaceflyers, but NASA wanted to use every bit of available space to pack extra cargo on this last drop-off mission to the station.
The astronauts will deliver about 9,500 pounds (4,318 kilograms) of cargo to the station. Atlantis is also delivering several different science experiments, one of which — the Robotic Refueling Mission — is an attempt to demonstrate a way to refuel satellites robotically on orbit.
In addition, Atlantis is also carrying two iPhone 4 smartphones loaded with apps to help astronauts perform experiments in space. This represents the first time iPhones have ever gone to space .
Atlantis will chase the station down for a while, finally docking with the $100 billion orbiting lab on Sunday (July 10). The shuttle is scheduled to return to Earth for the final time on July 20.
Until Atlantis rolls to a stop on the runway, the astronauts plan to focus on the tasks they have to perform over the next 12 days, putting off meditations on their mission's historic significance as much as possible.
"We're not going to dwell on it too much until after landing," Ferguson said before launch in a recent NASA video. "Then we'll get a chance — hopefully following a great, successful mission — to kind of bask in the achievements of the program overall, and really reflect." [ NASA's Space Shuttle Program In Pictures: A Tribute ]
The end of an era
NASA's space shuttle program was born in January 1972, when President Richard Nixon announced its existence to the nation. Back in those days, the shuttle was billed as a breakthrough vehicle that could enable safe, frequent and relatively cheap access to space.
"The shuttle era really was an effort to do a whole new kind of spaceflight," Valerie Neal, curator of human spaceflight at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., told SPACE.com. The shuttle program, she added, "held with it the promise of making space just a normal part of human endeavor."
The first flight took place on April 12, 1981. Since then, the shuttle — the world's first and only reusable spacecraft — has become NASA's workhorse vehicle, with the five-shuttle fleet making 135 flights over three decades.
Some of these flights have deployed or repaired important pieces of scientific hardware, such as the Hubble Space Telescope . And many missions since 1998 have helped build the International Space Station, which is now nearly complete.
In addition to these hardware accomplishments, shuttle missions have carried 355 different individuals from 16 different countries into low-Earth orbit, according to NASA officials. So the shuttle delivered on part of its promise, experts say, opening space up to many more people than had been possible previously and helping humanity develop its nascent capabilities in low-Earth orbit.
But the space shuttle didn't turn out to be cheap or completely safe. NASA once estimated launches could cost as little as $20 million; they've turned out to run nearly $1.6 billion each. And two shuttle missions — Challenger's STS-51L flight in 1986 and Columbia's STS-107 mission in 2003 — ended in tragedy, killing a total of 14 astronauts.
Ultimately, historians will likely debate the shuttle program's legacy for years to come.
Retirement awaits
When Atlantis touches down later this month, its flying days will be over. But the orbiter will still have to be prepped for one final mission: educating the public about spaceflight, and perhaps inspiring youngsters to become astronauts themselves someday.
Like the two other remaining shuttles — Endeavour and Discovery — Atlantis will become a museum showpiece. Atlantis won't have to go far; it will assume a place of pride in the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex here.
Discovery is headed for the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, while Endeavour will make the trip west to the California Science Center in Los Angeles.
Without the space shuttles, NASA will rely on Russian Soyuz vehicles to ferry astronauts to and from the space station, which is slated to operate until at least 2020. The agency wants private American craft to take over this taxi service eventually, but that probably won't happen for at least four or five years.
For its part, NASA has begun shifting its focus beyond low-Earth orbit. Last year, President Barack Obama charged the space agency with sending astronauts to an asteroid by 2025, and then on to Mars by the mid-2030s.
As exciting as both of these exploration prospects are, they remain far off, both in space and time. Right now, most thoughts are with Atlantis as it streaks toward the space station, its final mission closing out the life of a spacecraft that came to represent a nation in many ways.
Over the years, the space shuttle became a symbol of America, its ambitious goals and its technological know-how, experts say.
"The shuttle became a very powerful icon," Roger Launius, space history curator at the National Air and Space Museum, told SPACE.com, "just as serviceable an icon as the astronauts landing on the moon, in terms of national prestige abroad and pride at home."
You can follow SPACE.com senior writer Mike Wall on Twitter: @michaeldwall . Visit SPACE.com for complete coverage of Atlantis' final mission STS-135 or follow us @Spacedotcom and on Facebook .
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Peter Falk AKA Columbo died this year. What month? | Columbo star Peter Falk dies at 83 after battle with dementia | Daily Mail Online
Columbo star Peter Falk dies at 83 after battle with dementia
Sad loss: Peter Falk's family announced today that the Columbo star had passed away, age 83
Peter Falk, the actor known to millions around the world as the TV detective Columbo, has died.
The 83-year-old passed away at his Beverly Hills home on Thursday night, his family said.
He had been ill for some time, battling against dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.
Despite a long and varied career, Falk gained fame for his portrayal of the glass-eyed, dishevelled but crafty Los Angeles Lieutenant.
Columbo always wore a grubby rain mac and smoked cigars, and usually made a false exit before uttering his catchphrase: ‘Just one more thing.’
His portrayal of the cop spawned numerous impressions.
The original series ran for seven years from 1971, but was constantly re-commissioned throughout the 1980s and 1990s due to its popularity.
A staple of Sunday afternoon TV, its repeats still regularly run throughout the world. The debut episode was directed by a young Steven Spielberg.
Falk won four Emmys for his portrayal of the policeman. His last appearance as Columbo was as recently as 2003.
Actor-director John Cassavetes referred to Falk as the man ‘everybody falls in love with’.
Peter Falk starred as Columbo from 1973 up until 2003 - with the show heralded as one of the greatest detective dramas of all time
Battle over: Prior to his death, Falk had been battling with dementia and Alzheimer's
At the height of his fame he was being paid some £300,000 per episode. Despite this he constantly asked network chiefs to release him from the role only for him to return again and again.
JUST ONE MORE THING...
After his stint in the Marines, Falk applied to join the CIA but was rejected and turned to acting - he made his debut as Richard III in Hartford, Connecticut where he was working as a management analyst before leaving for his native New York to pursue an acting career.
He arrived in 1956 and within six months was cast in his first professional role as Sagnarele in Don Juan.
Throughout the late 1950s Falk appeared in numerous off-Broadway productions.He made his Broadway debut as the young Joseph Stalin in The Passion of Joseph D in 1964.
His film debut came in 1958 in Wind Across The Everglades and followed it with a small role in The Bloody Brood.
In his first two years in Hollywood, Falk won considerable acclaim for both his film and television work
Between 1965 and 1966 Falk won considerable popularity in the role of the barrister Daniel O'Brian in The Trials of O'Brian. Falk's performance as the dishevelled but brilliant lawyer brought him to the attention of Link and Lewison, who were looking for an actor to play Lieutenant Columbo.
Falk agreed to do a pilot for the show and Prescription; Murder was made in 1968.
The film was a success and Falk began rehearsing the first series of Columbo in 1970.
Falk eventually left the series in 1977 after complaining that the quality of the scripts had deteriorated. He returned to his film career with a series of comedy roles in The Brink's Job, The Cheap Detective both in 1978 and The In-Laws in 1979, playing both criminals and detectives.
He also worked with indie auteur John Cassavetes on several improvisational films in the 1970s, including Husbands and A Woman Under the Influence.
But in the early 1980s Falk's film career faltered when he made the unwise choice of accepting the lead in The California Dolls as the manager of two female wrestlers.
However, in 1987 he endeared himself to a generation of younger fans when he took on the role of grandfather in The Princess Bride.
In 1989 Falk returned to the role of Lieutenant Columbo for one last series of films, he last donned the famous mac in 2003.
Falk was much more than just the role he achieved global fame for, the actor was also nominated twice for an Oscar - in 1960 for a film called Murder inc. and the following year for a movie called Pocketful of Miracles.
Other notable movies in which Falk appeared included It’s a Mad Mad Mad Mad World and The Great Race where he appeared as Jack Lemmon’s evil sidekick. He also appeared on Broadway, once as Soviet leader Stalin.
Columbo was a success as soon as the first episode was screened. The programme defied all the conventions of television detective drama.
The viewer saw the murderer commit the crime, there were no car chases, no sex or violence, and Falk often did not appear during the first half an hour of the programme.
The success of the series rested with Falk's performance, and input, in the lead role.
He invested the shabby, preoccupied detective with such depth that the show became one of the most successful detective series in the world
Falk excelled in embodying the class element of the show, as working for the Los Angeles Police Department, Columbo was almost always sneered at as a working class interloper by the super-rich of Beverly Hills, Malibu and Brentwood that he investigated.
The actor put much of his personality into ensuring that Columbo, who drove his battered old car into the vast estates of Bel Air, never cared about how much money anyone did or didn't have.
But the really likeable aspect of Falk's performance was the fact that he made his hero humble, he never gloated about bagging a condescending killer.
It was the dignified victory of the many over the cloistered few in every episode, and at the heart of Columbo's mass appeal.
Villains no matter how evil were always addressed as 'ma'am,' or 'sir' as the deceptively bumbling detective distracted their smooth patter midway by plucking a boiled egg from his pocket, or delivering that famous line after exiting a room.
Levinson and Link said that Falk wore the same suit, tie, and shoes for the entire run of the series.
Falk himself picked out the Peugeot car that Columbo rattled around L.A. in; its tan color matched his character’s coat.
It was even said that film director Frederico Fellini would leave dinner parties to go watch the latest episode of Columbo, such was the impact of Falk's performance.
Famous face: Peter Falk, in his role as Columbo, which was aired in over 40 countries
Big screen: Falk starred in the 2001 film Corky Romano portraying a Mafia boss
He was also an accomplished artist.
A New Yorker, Falk did not turn to acting until the age of 30. He was initally told not to turn to acting because of his glass eye.
Falk lost an eye at the age of three because of a malignant tumour.
The disability also saw him rejected from the armed services but undeterred Falk joined the United States Merchant Marine, and served as a cook and mess boy.
He recalled in his autobiography, Just One More Thing: 'There they don't care if you're blind or not, the only one on a ship who has to see is the captain. And in the case of the Titanic, he couldn't see very well, either.'
He served as a Marine in the years after World war Two before unsuccessfully applied to work for the CIA.
It was only after being rejected by the agency that he turned to acting.
Man of many talents: Falk, wearing a German police officer uniform on the TV show 'Wetten, dass...?' (Bet, That...) in Germany is survived by his wife Shera and daughter Catherine
In happier times: Peter, pictured left with his wife Shera who starred in Columbo herself, and right, presenting a Golden Camera Award in Berlin, Germany in 2004
Falk was married twice.
In 1960 he wed his fellow Syracuse University student Alyce Mayo.
They adopted two daughters but divorced in 1976.
A year later Falk married actress Shera Danese, who regularly appeared on Columbo, the actress, who survives him was 21 years his junior and in typical fashion he joked about the age difference.
When asked in the 70s what they had in common, he replied: 'I think it's safe to say that we both like the colour blue.'
In his last years he suffered from ill health. By 2007, doctors attested that he had the symptoms of dementia.
In 2009, a judge established a conservatorship for the ailing actor after a court battle between daughter Catherine and his wife.
It is being reported that the actor set up a trust years before he succumbed to illness to ensure that the bulk of his 5 million dollar estate go to his beloved wife Shera, he has also left six-figure inheritances to his two adopted daughters from his first marriage, Catherine and Jackie.
Radar Online goes on to report that the actor had been estranged from Catherine for some time, and suspected that she would challenge the will - so a clause is present to ensure she loses all of her inheritance, if she in any way contests his instructions.
Flashback: Peter Falk, pictured with actress Gena Rowlands in the film 'The Brinks Job'
Star: Falk alongside legendary British actor Peter Sellers, left, in the film 'Murder by Death'
| June |
What Shakespeare play did true love never run smooth? | Columbo Star Peter Falk Dies at 83 - Today's News: Our Take | TVGuide.com
Columbo Star Peter Falk Dies at 83
by Joyce Eng | Jun 24, 2011 3:03 PM EDT
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Peter Falk
Columbo star Peter Falk , who won four Emmys for playing the absent-minded detective, has died. He was 83.
Falk died at his Beverly Hills home Thursday evening, his family said in a statement. Falk had suffered from dementia, a result of a series of dental operations in 2007.
See other celebs we lost this year
A New York City native, Falk was 3 when he underwent an operation to remove a malignant tumor in his right eye that left him with a glass eye. Rejected from the armed forces because of his glass eye, he joined the United States Merchant Marines before becoming a management analyst in Hartford, Conn., where he kicked off his stage career in a community theater group. Falk made his Broadway debut in 1956 in Diary of a Scoundrel
and appeared in the Tony-winning The Prisoner of Second Avenue in 1971.After a string of small parts in feature films, Falk landed his breakout role as killer Abe Reles in 1960's Murder, Inc. , which earned him an Oscar nomination for Best Supporting Actor. He was Oscar-nominated a year later for his work in Frank Capra 's Pocketful of Miracles . Falk later reprised his role of Reles for the 1960s TV series Witness and also appeared on the series Studio One, New York Confidential, Naked City and Target: The Corruptors!His first regular TV role was on the short-lived The Trials of O'Brien , in which he played an attorney, but Falk's most iconic role remains the shabby but shrewd, trench coat-wearing Lieutenant Frank Columbo on the long-running series. Falk won four Emmys for Columbo — he has a fifth statuette for his work on The Dick Powell Theatre. Falk continued to play Columbo in sporadic, special-event TV movies, the last of which aired on ABC in 2003.
Judge places Columbo's Peter Falk in conservatorship
Younger audiences will remember Falk for playing Fred Savage 's storytelling grandfather in The Princess Bride and Paul Reiser 's father in 2005's The Thing About My Folks . His last film was 2009's American Cowslip.Falk was twice married. In 2009, his wife, Shera, and daughter, Catherine, battled in court over who should be in charge of Falk's personal affairs. A judge granted Shera control.Besides Shera and Catherine, Falk is survived by another daughter, Jackie.
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'All my Yesterdays' is which actors autobiography? | All my yesterdays; an autobiography (Book, 1973) [WorldCat.org]
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I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/743067 Title: All my yesterdays; an autobiography Author: Edward G Robinson; Leonard Spigelgass; Rouben Mamoulian Collection (Library of Congress) Publisher: New York, Hawthorn Books [1973] OCLC:743067
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Which type of full moon follows a harvest moon? | All my yesterdays : an autobiography (Book, 1974) [WorldCat.org]
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I thought you might be interested in this item at http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16233178 Title: All my yesterdays : an autobiography Author: Edward G Robinson; Leonard Spigelgass Publisher: London : W.H. Allen, 1974. ISBN/ISSN: 049101810X 9780491018104 OCLC:16233178
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Which pop singer was Glad to be Gay? | How we made: Tom Robinson and Nick Mobbs on Glad to Be Gay | Music | The Guardian
How we made
How we made: Tom Robinson and Nick Mobbs on Glad to Be Gay
The singer-songwriter and A&R man behind the 1978 song remember how punk energy fired up a gay-rights anthem
'Any tweeness vanished quickly' … Robinson in 1981. Photograph: David Corio/Redferns
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Tom Robinson, singer, songwriter
I had a nervous breakdown when I was 16, largely due to the stress of growing up gay, which was illegal back then . I was sent to a sort of retreat , where I was taught to accept myself. It also exposed me to all sorts of music.
In the 60s, there wasn't a single public figure who was openly gay, so we had no role models, no mentions of homosexuality. John Lennon sang You've Got to Hide Your Love Away , almost certainly about [Beatles manager] Brian Epstein's sexuality, but the gender was changed: "If she's gone, I can't go on." Then in the 1970s, along came David Bowie who declared he was bisexual . He had all these songs where you could think: "That's about me."
I wrote a song called Good to Be Gay for the Campaign For Homosexual Equality in 1975. But it was a completely different song. I'd become politicised after becoming the musician with a theatrical troupe from New York called Hot Peaches , who were very camp. They exposed me to the notion of being proud of being gay. I also saw the Sex Pistols , who kicked open the doors for the art of confrontation. At the time, the police were regularly targeting London's oldest gay pub, the Coleherne in Earls Court , on a regular basis. When the editor of Gay News famously tried to take a photograph of one raid, he was charged and fined for obstruction.
All these influences came together in the long, hot summer of 1976. I wrote Glad to Be Gay on an acoustic guitar in my flat, intending it as a one-off for a Gay Pride march. The title came from a slogan I'd seen on badges .
I put Bob Dylan's Sara on my cassette deck and, over it, started singing: "The British police are the best in the world,/ I don't believe one of these stories I've heard./ About them raiding our pubs for no reason at all,/ Lining the customers up by the wall." There was plenty of scope for anger and venom. The line about a friend getting beaten up by queer-bashers was true. But I realised I couldn't rip off Dylan, so I wrote new music, added the chorus and gave it that more upbeat swing.
I first recorded it as a demo in a vocal harmony band I was in called Café Society. The keyboard player refused to join in on backing vocals. The demo sounded like the Kinks, but once you start playing something like that to audiences – and feel in fear for your life – any tweeness vanishes quickly.
I formed Tom Robinson Band with [guitarist] Danny Kustow, a guy I'd met on that retreat. TRB were straight men, but Danny understood this was an important protest song. We tried recording it in a studio, but it sounded limp. It needed that thrill of "Are they going to bottle us off the stage?" which we captured on a live recording at London's Lyceum , released in 1978 on the EP Rising Free.
John Peel was the only Radio 1 DJ to play it, even though it's a great singalong song. People would join in with what begins as an anti-police number and, by the time they're at the chorus, they're all caught up in it, belting out: "Sing if you're glad to be gay."
I'm now married with kids, but Glad to Be Gay was about anyone who didn't conform, from lesbians to transgenders, a way of recognising that most of us have complex sexualities. I never imagined that, 35 years later, it would be called the gay national anthem, or that we'd have openly gay pop stars and a Tory prime minister campaigning for gay marriage. I received a letter from a US teenager who had been disowned by his Christian parents. He'd just taken an overdose when Glad to Be Gay came on his college radio station. He put his fingers down his throat, threw up, and moved to San Franscisco, where he was now living happily. It would have been worth writing the song for him alone.
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Nick Mobbs, head of A&R, EMI
In 1977, pubs and clubs were crawling with record company executives struggling to catch up with punk. At EMI, we'd signed then lost the Sex Pistols, so I was on a mission to get punk acts. I'm not saying Tom wouldn't have been signed otherwise, but the timing was perfect.
TRB had had an overnight success with the single 2-4-6-8 Motorway , but we'd no album ready, and were arguing about producers. Someone suggested using four tracks recorded at the Lyceum as an interim release to keep the band visible.
Glad to Be Gay was in every TRB live set I saw. Any "straight" singing loudly along with the chorus might have a few schoolboy sniggers of embarrassment – but after a few pints, no one cared. I viewed it as one of Tom's more whimsical ditties, useful for breaking up the hard-driving energy of TRB's live set. I don't think EMI ever realised it was one of the great protest songs.
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The Wheel Spins Ethel Lina White basis for what Hitchcock film? | Glad To Be Gay singer Tom Robinson on six best albums | Music | Entertainment | Daily Express
STEVIE WONDER: Fulfillingness’ First Finale (Universal/Island)
Stevie produced an astonishing trio of Seventies LPs. This is the one I liked best.
Listen to Boogie On Reggae Woman and you’re dancing. It is world-changing pop music.
BRIAN ENO: Ambient 4: On Land (Virgin)
Eno’s key insight was to make music designed to be heard rather than listened to. There are no melodies but it transports you to the East Anglian landscape where he grew up.
[PH]
PUBLIC ENEMY: It Takes A Nation Of Millions To Hold Us Back (Virgin EMI)
I’d heard rap in the early 1980s and hadn’t got it. This album was my entry to it after somebody gave it me on tour. It was a sonic soundscape of energy, power and rhythm with angry voices telling you stories you wouldn’t read in the newspapers.
It still quickens my pulse.
MS DYNAMITE: A Little Deeper (Polydor)
A female voice from urban Britain. It opened a window into somebody else’s world.
The song Put Him Out about domestic abuse is really assertive. I drop a track from this on to playlists to remind people of how good she is.
[PH]
SAM LEE: Ground Of Its Own (Nest Collective)
Sam is a young British folk artist who has managed to make folk music without the cliché of plucking an acoustic guitar and warbling about man’s inhumanity to man. It’s thrilling.
Tom Robinson is on tour until November 12.
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In Kipling's poem Gunga Din what job had Gunga Din? | Rudyard Kipling: Poems “Gunga Din” Summary and Analysis | GradeSaver
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Summary
The poem is told by a British soldier; he is expressing admiration for a native water-bearer who loses his life not long after he saves the soldier's.
The soldier tells his audience that they might talk about beer and gin while they are stationed out here, and partake in small fights, but they can only lick the boots of "'im that's got it". In India's sunny land where he served England, the finest of the "blackfaced" crew was Gunga Din , a regimental bhisti (water-carrier). Everyone always ordered him to get them water and called him names, such as "You squidgy-nosed old idol, Gunga Din!"
His uniform was nothing much to speak of, and his only field equipment was a goatskin water-bag and a rag. When the soldiers would lie about in the heat, sweating, they would call out "O brother" to Din, and call him a heathen, asking him where he had been and threatening to hit him unless he filled up their water bottles quickly.
He did not seem to know fear; whenever the soldiers fought, he would be fifty paces behind with his water-skin on his back. He would wait for them until they were allowed to retire. The soldier muses that despite Gunga Din's dirty skin, he was white on the inside, especially when he went to tend the wounded after they had been fired upon. The men called out "Din!" "Din!" when the carriages ran out, and called for "ammunition mules" and Gunga Din.
The soldier says he can never forget the night when he was struck with a bullet and was "chokin' mad with thirst". Gunga Din, grinning and grunting, was the first to find him. He lifted up the soldier's head and staunched his wound and gave him the only water he had, even though it was green and slimy. This was still the best drink the soldier had ever tasted. He remembered his words – there was a man with a bullet in his spleen groveling on the ground, and "For Gawd's sake git the water, Gunga Din!"
Gunga Din carried him away, but the native was struck with a bullet. Right before he died he got the soldier inside and said he hoped he had enjoyed his drink. The soldier comments that he will meet Gunga Din in the future, in the same place where he squatted on the coals and gave drinks to "poor damned souls". He will get a swig in Hell from the native, and, he concludes, Gunga Din is a better man than he.
Analysis
This poem, included in Barrack-Room Ballads, and Other Verses, is one of Kipling’s most popular verses. It is written in the same cockney dialect as “Tommy”, “ Fuzzy-Wuzzy ”, “ Danny Deever ”, and others. It consists of five stanzas with rhyming lines. There is a lot of dialogue, as Kipling includes the words that the soldiers would shout out to Gunga Din. The name of the poem is familiar to many readers because of the 1939 film about three British soldiers (two of them played by Cary Grant and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.) and their water-carrier fighting a malicious band of Thuggee Indians. It is also the name of a song by The Byrds and the inspiration for an episode of the TV show “Mr. Magoo”.
The poem details the respect and admiration for a bhishti water-carrier on the part of a British soldier. A bhishti is the traditional water-carrier of South Asia, including India; they usually carry their water in a goatskin bag. It is rather interesting that Kipling expresses such blatant admiration for this figure, even going to the lengths of titling the poem after him, because it is common to ascribe to Kipling only the beliefs about "Oriental" peoples as found in the noxious "White Man's Burden". Indeed, Kipling's views on native peoples are complicated; even though there is clearly racism at play in this poem and in "The Ballad of East and West", there is also a frank portrayal of admiration.
The poem's speaker describes Gunga Din in a very racist way: the native comes from a "blackfaced crew" and is a "squidgy-nosed old idol". He is a "'eathen" who is simple and stupid – a "good, grinnin', gruntin' Gunga Din". This is a very disturbing portrait. However, the British soldiers are also depicted in an unflattering light. They are loud and coarse, full of insults and threats. They rely on Gunga Din for the basest sustenance, but cannot help but yell and mock, albeit in a (mostly) good-natured fashion. Using the traditional sense of black and white as depicting good and evil, Kipling uses Din's portrayal of blackness to contrast with his inner virtue: "'E was white, clear white, inside", which can be taken as both an insult to the members of Din's race, whose blackness signifies evil, and the narrator's fellow men for the low behavior that negates their own whiteness. At the close of the poem the narrator suggests both Din and the soldiers are doomed to hell.
The speaker of the poem owes Gunga Din for much more than just the normal sips of water, however; he is carried out of harm's way by the native and thus owes him his life. Unfortunately the native's heroic act is his last, for "a bullet came an' drilled the beggar clean". The soldier is very grateful to Gunga Din and ends the last stanza of the poem by proclaiming him a "better man than I am, Gunga Din!" Again, the poem is complicated by the reality of imperialism and the overtones of racism, but the soldier's tribute to the man who saved his life is touching nonetheless.
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What began in 1877 but banned women until 1884? | "Gunga Din" by Rudyard Kipling (read by Tom O'Bedlam) - YouTube
"Gunga Din" by Rudyard Kipling (read by Tom O'Bedlam)
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In Hindi, Gunga Din means "Spirit of the Ganges". British Tommies are not noted for pronouncing foreign words correctly. In fact deliberate mispronunciation seems to amuse them more: they pronounced "Ypres" as "Wipers", and "India" as "Injia". Nevertheless I am grateful to those who have provided the correct native pronunciations for the Hindi words.
It seems superfluous these days for the poet to say that some of the people of India were brave and noble as any white man. This might seem condescending now but it was bold in its time. Gunga Din was only a water carrier, but he played his part as bravely as any soldier, saved lives and earned their respect.
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Name only boxer to win a world title who never had a manager? | stumbleupon
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If the words breadbasket, catcher, chin and combination have multiple meanings to you, then you may find many familiar names on this list. For the casual boxing observer, this list will have a host of fighters with storied histories of fighting yet unbeknownst to them. One thing is true of all these men; they are grinders, fighting veterans who’ve had their hands raised far more times than they’ve felt the floor.
Boxing, however, is a very interpreted sport. These fighters may have won a staggering number of fights, but they aren’t all necessarily regarded as the best boxers of all time (our number #3 on this list often is, though). Household names like Floyd Mayweather Jr. and Muhammad Ali are spoken of commonly as some of the best ever (Mayweather’s story is not yet fully written, though). The list below is more of the iron men of sport, having endured and won hundreds of fights. . . And getting punched in the face thousands and thousands of times. I mean, is someone counting? The amount of times you’ve been punched in the face would be a heck of a way to reflect on one’s career.
10. Marcel Cerdan: 106-4
This North African Frenchman born in Algeria is an iconic athlete in French sports history. Of his four defeats, he was disqualified twice, lost once by a dubious split decision, and his only other loss came when he suffered a shoulder injury mid-fight against Jake LaMotta (the boxer Raging Bull was based on) while defending his World Middleweight title. He is regarded as the best boxer in French history, starting his career with 48 wins before suffering his first loss. During World War II he won the inter-allied boxing championship in 1944 (that must not have gone over well with the Brits and the Yanks). He is rated for fighting at Middleweight and spend most of his career as such. Cerdan has had 66 of his victories by knockout, and he has been inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. He also is famous for his tragic death at age 33, when an Air France flight to New York crashed in the Azores–Cerdan was one of 48 people aboard who died.
9. Julio Cesar Chavez: 108-6-2
Another famous boxer who is hailed as the premiere fighter of his country, Chavez is often regarded as the best boxer ever to have come from Mexico. Over his 25-year career Chavez amassed 5 championships in three different divisions: Super Featherweight, Lightweight and Light Welterweight. Son of a railroad worker, Chavez attributed his rise in boxing to a drive to make money, after growing up in poverty and watching his parents work tirelessly. He began at the age of 16, with his pro debut when he was 17–he knocked out his first opponent, Miguel Ruiz, in the first round. Over his career Chavez has records for most successful defenses of world titles with 27 (21 of those being knockouts); most title fights with 37; and most title fight victories with 31. He also holds the longest undefeated streak in boxing history– 13 years, 89-0-1 before he suffered his first defeat. Clearly, he earned his way into the International Boxing Hall of Fame; but despite his success he struggled heavily with alcohol and drug abuse. His son Julio Cesar Chavez Jr. followed his footsteps into boxing, and is a former Middleweight champion. Some life it must be to be a champion and forever pale in comparison to your father, eh?
8. Tony Canzoneri: 137-24-10
An unknown, hard-nosed young man’s life is upended as his family uproots from Slidell Louisiana to move to Staten Island, New York. That particular Italian American boy had found himself in the promised land of boxing, for which he would discover he had a undeniable penchant. Tony Canzoneri was his name. standing at 5’4″ he would go on to win five world titles over the course of his career. At the time he defeated Jackie ‘Kid’ Berg for the world junior Welterweight Championship in 1931, he was only the second boxer ever to win world titles in three different weight divisions, holding the title for Lightweight during that time and formerly winning the Featherweight championship. In 1934 The Ring Magazine proclaimed Canzoneri the fighter of the year. He’s regarded as one of the best boxers in history, and resides in the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
7. Sandy Saddler: 144-16-2
One of the more famous knockout artists ever, Joseph “Sandy” Saddler had one of the best punches in history. Of his 144 wins, an incredible 103 of them were by knockout. A lanky, rangy guy, Saddler fought mostly in Featherweight– he was a two-time champion in that division, along with once winning the Junior Lightweight crown. He was known for being a bit of a ruffian in the ring with a reputation as a dirty fighter, but he actually had great boxing fundamentals. Saddler is most famous for being one of the only boxers ever to have a winning record against Willie Pep, whom he fought four times and won three. He was forced to relinquish his title in 1957 after an auto accident resulted in him having a detached retina. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990, and was later named the 2nd greatest featherweight of the 20th century. Not too shabby for a guy whose nickname sounds like a snake might hiss it at you.
6. Henry Armstrong: 151-21-9
Henry Melody Jackson Jr. is often in the conversation for greatest boxer ever to grace the planet. This African American/Irish/Native American young man from Mississippi first fought professionally for $35 in St. Louis under the name Melody Jackson. He was knocked out in three rounds. He later would move to L.A. with his mentor, Harry Armstrong, fighting under the guise of being Harry’s little brother Henry Armstrong. In 1937, six years after his first fight as Melody Jackson, he had knocked out Petey Sarron to win the World Featherweight championship. He was named fighter of the year that year and would never look back. He’s the only boxer to ever hold three different championship titles in three different weight classes simultaneously– Featherweight, Lightweight and Welterweight. His fighting style is most known for being an unrelenting, unending rain of blows, for which he got the nickname “Hurricane Hank.” The man was a veritable ball of lighting in the ring. He fought 17 world champions, winning 15 over his career. In a display of just how much political correctitude has changed over the years, his most popular nickname was actually “Homicide Hank.” Very subtle, America. In reality, he became an ordained Minister and devoted his life to underprivileged children after his retirement. Well done, Henry.
5. Sam Langford: 167-38-37-3
It may seem unconscionable to put fighters like Langford, as great as they may be, past Henry Armstrong; but this list is looking for great fighters with the highest win counts. As for Langford, he’s hands down the greatest fighter never to fight for a title. Perhaps that seems like a strange way to measure a fighter, given how championships are so coveted. But Langford’s problem was more personal, as the World Champion at the time was Jack Johnson, who was the first Black World Heavyweight Champion wouldn’t fight him. . . because they were both black? Johnson’s argument was that people wanted to see white fighters, so a black Championship wouldn’t draw fans (keep in mind this was in the early 1900s). So Langford kept on fighting, decimating opponents despite the incredible fact that over his career he was completely blind in one eye, and partially blind in the other. He challenged World Heavyweight champ Jack Dempsey in 1920. Dempsey’s manager, told him “Sam, we were looking for someone easier.” Goes to show you how fearsome Langford was. In Dempsey’s autobiography, he admitted “I wouldn’t fight [him] because I knew he would flatten me. I was afraid of Sam Langford.” Langford kept fighting despite being nearly blind, staying close to his opponents so he could feel as much as see. However history wants to judge Sam Langford, his story is one of incredible determination and triumph over adversity.
4. Ted “Kid” Lewis: 173-30-14
A strong young Jewish boy by the name of Gershon Mendeloff grew up in gaslit tenements on the East End of London. That boy would join the London Judean Athletic Club, assume the name Kid Lewis, and fight for sixpence and a cup of tea when he was 14 years old. With an elusive style and a long left hook, Lewis became a professional boxer only a year later. Four years after that, in 1913, he won the British Featherweight title, and a year later he’d win the European Featherweight Championship. He started traveling to fight, and eventually won the world Welterweight Championship against Jack Britton in Madison Square Garden, N.Y. Lewis and Britton would go on to have a heated rivalry– they’d fight each other 20 times over their careers. Along with his lengthy fighting record he also recorded 65 no-decisions, in a time where there was an incredible amount of gray area in judging boxing. In 1992 Lewis was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
3. Sugar Ray Robinson: 175-19-6-2
Widely regarded as the greatest pound for pound fighter in boxing history, Walker Smith Jr., or Sugar Ray Robinson has he was called in the ring, amassed an 85-0 amateur boxing record with 40 first round knockouts before he even started his professional career. Makes you feel for all those amateur boxers who didn’t know they’d be fighting the greatest fighter who ever lived. Youngest of three kids, Robinson originally wanted to be a doctor when his mother moved him to Harlem at the age of 12. It certainly makes you think about what’s worse; the best fighter ever never stepping into a ring, or an aspiring physician instead punching people in the face for a living. As for that career, he won his first 40 fights before losing to Jake LaMotta (Raging Bull) in february of 1942; and after that fight he would go on another win streak of 91 straight fights. Wow. He’d fight LaMotta five more times and win them all. In 1952 Robinson would retire with a record of 131-3-2 but would come back to fight three years after retiring, adding 44 wins and 16 losses.
2. Archie Moore: 183-24-10-1
Arichie Moore earned his way to the #2 spot on this list. Known as “The Old Mongoose” Moore’s career was incredibly long, as he fought well into his forties. Born as Archibald Lee Wright on December 13th, 1913, Moore lied about his age, claiming to have been born in 1916 for many years. When it eventually was revealed he was older, he famously said “I have given this a lot of thought and have decided that I must have been three when I was born.” As for his career, he has the boxing record for most knockouts in history, with 131. He didn’t fight for a title until he was 39 years old, when he defeated Joey Maxim. When he was 45 Moore fought 20-year-old Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay) in 1962, and was knocked out in four rounds. It would be his second to last fight. He’s the only fighter ever to have fought both Rocky Marciano and Muhammad Ali. Moore was also the first fighter ever to knock Rocky Marciano to the mat in a fight. He obviously is in the International Boxing Hall of Fame, and was the inspiration for the 2006 movie Rocky Balboa.
1. Willie Pep: 229-11-1
Guglielmo Papaleo, Willie Pep, Will o’ the Wisp. This 5’5″ Italian American from Middletown, Connecticut has amassed an 241 boxing matches over his career, for a total of 1,956 rounds. He is often regarded as the best Featherweight boxer in history, and is renowned for his speed and defensive prowess in the ring. He once fought Sugar Ray Robinson in an amateur fight in the attic of a feed store in Norwich CT., losing by decision. He had no idea who Robinson was, as Robinson was fighting under a pseudonym. Another incredible fact about Willie Pep, he survived a plane crash in 1947 in which the copilot and two passengers died. He recovered from serious injuries in the crash and incredibly, he continued to fight successfully afterwards. He had amassed a record of 134-1-1 before he lost his Featherweight title to Sandy Saddler (#7 on this list) in 1948. He retired for good at the age of 43, with an illustriously long, victorious career behind him. It was not without some scandal, as he was often accused of throwing the fight against Lulu Perez in 1954 where he was knocked out in two rounds. A man with a good sense of humor, Pep once said: “All my wives were great housekeepers, after every divorce, they kept the house.” He was married six times, but had a career record of 0-6 outside the ring. Who says love isn’t a battlefield?
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Five tons of which precious jewels are mined annually - ? | stumbleupon
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If the words breadbasket, catcher, chin and combination have multiple meanings to you, then you may find many familiar names on this list. For the casual boxing observer, this list will have a host of fighters with storied histories of fighting yet unbeknownst to them. One thing is true of all these men; they are grinders, fighting veterans who’ve had their hands raised far more times than they’ve felt the floor.
Boxing, however, is a very interpreted sport. These fighters may have won a staggering number of fights, but they aren’t all necessarily regarded as the best boxers of all time (our number #3 on this list often is, though). Household names like Floyd Mayweather Jr. and Muhammad Ali are spoken of commonly as some of the best ever (Mayweather’s story is not yet fully written, though). The list below is more of the iron men of sport, having endured and won hundreds of fights. . . And getting punched in the face thousands and thousands of times. I mean, is someone counting? The amount of times you’ve been punched in the face would be a heck of a way to reflect on one’s career.
10. Marcel Cerdan: 106-4
This North African Frenchman born in Algeria is an iconic athlete in French sports history. Of his four defeats, he was disqualified twice, lost once by a dubious split decision, and his only other loss came when he suffered a shoulder injury mid-fight against Jake LaMotta (the boxer Raging Bull was based on) while defending his World Middleweight title. He is regarded as the best boxer in French history, starting his career with 48 wins before suffering his first loss. During World War II he won the inter-allied boxing championship in 1944 (that must not have gone over well with the Brits and the Yanks). He is rated for fighting at Middleweight and spend most of his career as such. Cerdan has had 66 of his victories by knockout, and he has been inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. He also is famous for his tragic death at age 33, when an Air France flight to New York crashed in the Azores–Cerdan was one of 48 people aboard who died.
9. Julio Cesar Chavez: 108-6-2
Another famous boxer who is hailed as the premiere fighter of his country, Chavez is often regarded as the best boxer ever to have come from Mexico. Over his 25-year career Chavez amassed 5 championships in three different divisions: Super Featherweight, Lightweight and Light Welterweight. Son of a railroad worker, Chavez attributed his rise in boxing to a drive to make money, after growing up in poverty and watching his parents work tirelessly. He began at the age of 16, with his pro debut when he was 17–he knocked out his first opponent, Miguel Ruiz, in the first round. Over his career Chavez has records for most successful defenses of world titles with 27 (21 of those being knockouts); most title fights with 37; and most title fight victories with 31. He also holds the longest undefeated streak in boxing history– 13 years, 89-0-1 before he suffered his first defeat. Clearly, he earned his way into the International Boxing Hall of Fame; but despite his success he struggled heavily with alcohol and drug abuse. His son Julio Cesar Chavez Jr. followed his footsteps into boxing, and is a former Middleweight champion. Some life it must be to be a champion and forever pale in comparison to your father, eh?
8. Tony Canzoneri: 137-24-10
An unknown, hard-nosed young man’s life is upended as his family uproots from Slidell Louisiana to move to Staten Island, New York. That particular Italian American boy had found himself in the promised land of boxing, for which he would discover he had a undeniable penchant. Tony Canzoneri was his name. standing at 5’4″ he would go on to win five world titles over the course of his career. At the time he defeated Jackie ‘Kid’ Berg for the world junior Welterweight Championship in 1931, he was only the second boxer ever to win world titles in three different weight divisions, holding the title for Lightweight during that time and formerly winning the Featherweight championship. In 1934 The Ring Magazine proclaimed Canzoneri the fighter of the year. He’s regarded as one of the best boxers in history, and resides in the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
7. Sandy Saddler: 144-16-2
One of the more famous knockout artists ever, Joseph “Sandy” Saddler had one of the best punches in history. Of his 144 wins, an incredible 103 of them were by knockout. A lanky, rangy guy, Saddler fought mostly in Featherweight– he was a two-time champion in that division, along with once winning the Junior Lightweight crown. He was known for being a bit of a ruffian in the ring with a reputation as a dirty fighter, but he actually had great boxing fundamentals. Saddler is most famous for being one of the only boxers ever to have a winning record against Willie Pep, whom he fought four times and won three. He was forced to relinquish his title in 1957 after an auto accident resulted in him having a detached retina. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1990, and was later named the 2nd greatest featherweight of the 20th century. Not too shabby for a guy whose nickname sounds like a snake might hiss it at you.
6. Henry Armstrong: 151-21-9
Henry Melody Jackson Jr. is often in the conversation for greatest boxer ever to grace the planet. This African American/Irish/Native American young man from Mississippi first fought professionally for $35 in St. Louis under the name Melody Jackson. He was knocked out in three rounds. He later would move to L.A. with his mentor, Harry Armstrong, fighting under the guise of being Harry’s little brother Henry Armstrong. In 1937, six years after his first fight as Melody Jackson, he had knocked out Petey Sarron to win the World Featherweight championship. He was named fighter of the year that year and would never look back. He’s the only boxer to ever hold three different championship titles in three different weight classes simultaneously– Featherweight, Lightweight and Welterweight. His fighting style is most known for being an unrelenting, unending rain of blows, for which he got the nickname “Hurricane Hank.” The man was a veritable ball of lighting in the ring. He fought 17 world champions, winning 15 over his career. In a display of just how much political correctitude has changed over the years, his most popular nickname was actually “Homicide Hank.” Very subtle, America. In reality, he became an ordained Minister and devoted his life to underprivileged children after his retirement. Well done, Henry.
5. Sam Langford: 167-38-37-3
It may seem unconscionable to put fighters like Langford, as great as they may be, past Henry Armstrong; but this list is looking for great fighters with the highest win counts. As for Langford, he’s hands down the greatest fighter never to fight for a title. Perhaps that seems like a strange way to measure a fighter, given how championships are so coveted. But Langford’s problem was more personal, as the World Champion at the time was Jack Johnson, who was the first Black World Heavyweight Champion wouldn’t fight him. . . because they were both black? Johnson’s argument was that people wanted to see white fighters, so a black Championship wouldn’t draw fans (keep in mind this was in the early 1900s). So Langford kept on fighting, decimating opponents despite the incredible fact that over his career he was completely blind in one eye, and partially blind in the other. He challenged World Heavyweight champ Jack Dempsey in 1920. Dempsey’s manager, told him “Sam, we were looking for someone easier.” Goes to show you how fearsome Langford was. In Dempsey’s autobiography, he admitted “I wouldn’t fight [him] because I knew he would flatten me. I was afraid of Sam Langford.” Langford kept fighting despite being nearly blind, staying close to his opponents so he could feel as much as see. However history wants to judge Sam Langford, his story is one of incredible determination and triumph over adversity.
4. Ted “Kid” Lewis: 173-30-14
A strong young Jewish boy by the name of Gershon Mendeloff grew up in gaslit tenements on the East End of London. That boy would join the London Judean Athletic Club, assume the name Kid Lewis, and fight for sixpence and a cup of tea when he was 14 years old. With an elusive style and a long left hook, Lewis became a professional boxer only a year later. Four years after that, in 1913, he won the British Featherweight title, and a year later he’d win the European Featherweight Championship. He started traveling to fight, and eventually won the world Welterweight Championship against Jack Britton in Madison Square Garden, N.Y. Lewis and Britton would go on to have a heated rivalry– they’d fight each other 20 times over their careers. Along with his lengthy fighting record he also recorded 65 no-decisions, in a time where there was an incredible amount of gray area in judging boxing. In 1992 Lewis was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame.
3. Sugar Ray Robinson: 175-19-6-2
Widely regarded as the greatest pound for pound fighter in boxing history, Walker Smith Jr., or Sugar Ray Robinson has he was called in the ring, amassed an 85-0 amateur boxing record with 40 first round knockouts before he even started his professional career. Makes you feel for all those amateur boxers who didn’t know they’d be fighting the greatest fighter who ever lived. Youngest of three kids, Robinson originally wanted to be a doctor when his mother moved him to Harlem at the age of 12. It certainly makes you think about what’s worse; the best fighter ever never stepping into a ring, or an aspiring physician instead punching people in the face for a living. As for that career, he won his first 40 fights before losing to Jake LaMotta (Raging Bull) in february of 1942; and after that fight he would go on another win streak of 91 straight fights. Wow. He’d fight LaMotta five more times and win them all. In 1952 Robinson would retire with a record of 131-3-2 but would come back to fight three years after retiring, adding 44 wins and 16 losses.
2. Archie Moore: 183-24-10-1
Arichie Moore earned his way to the #2 spot on this list. Known as “The Old Mongoose” Moore’s career was incredibly long, as he fought well into his forties. Born as Archibald Lee Wright on December 13th, 1913, Moore lied about his age, claiming to have been born in 1916 for many years. When it eventually was revealed he was older, he famously said “I have given this a lot of thought and have decided that I must have been three when I was born.” As for his career, he has the boxing record for most knockouts in history, with 131. He didn’t fight for a title until he was 39 years old, when he defeated Joey Maxim. When he was 45 Moore fought 20-year-old Muhammad Ali (Cassius Clay) in 1962, and was knocked out in four rounds. It would be his second to last fight. He’s the only fighter ever to have fought both Rocky Marciano and Muhammad Ali. Moore was also the first fighter ever to knock Rocky Marciano to the mat in a fight. He obviously is in the International Boxing Hall of Fame, and was the inspiration for the 2006 movie Rocky Balboa.
1. Willie Pep: 229-11-1
Guglielmo Papaleo, Willie Pep, Will o’ the Wisp. This 5’5″ Italian American from Middletown, Connecticut has amassed an 241 boxing matches over his career, for a total of 1,956 rounds. He is often regarded as the best Featherweight boxer in history, and is renowned for his speed and defensive prowess in the ring. He once fought Sugar Ray Robinson in an amateur fight in the attic of a feed store in Norwich CT., losing by decision. He had no idea who Robinson was, as Robinson was fighting under a pseudonym. Another incredible fact about Willie Pep, he survived a plane crash in 1947 in which the copilot and two passengers died. He recovered from serious injuries in the crash and incredibly, he continued to fight successfully afterwards. He had amassed a record of 134-1-1 before he lost his Featherweight title to Sandy Saddler (#7 on this list) in 1948. He retired for good at the age of 43, with an illustriously long, victorious career behind him. It was not without some scandal, as he was often accused of throwing the fight against Lulu Perez in 1954 where he was knocked out in two rounds. A man with a good sense of humor, Pep once said: “All my wives were great housekeepers, after every divorce, they kept the house.” He was married six times, but had a career record of 0-6 outside the ring. Who says love isn’t a battlefield?
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What country in distance is furthest from New Zealand? | The Furthest Place On Earth From Wherever You're Located | The Huffington Post
The Furthest Place On Earth From Wherever You're Located
02/04/2014 07:37 am ET | Updated Feb 04, 2014
230
Do you ever just want to get away? How about far away? How about as far away as possible?
FurthestCity is a nifty little website that lets you know the farthest city from wherever you're currently located.
We really couldn't help ourselves and looked up the farthest locations of some of the world's major cities. For your specific location, check out FurthestCity.com.
If You Live In New York City, Escape To Perth, Australia
Distance: 11,613 miles
If You Live In Los Angeles, Escape To Saint-Paul, La Réunion
Distance: 11,446 miles
If You Live In Shanghai, Escape To Concordia, Argentina
Distance: 12,397 miles
If You Live In Paris or London, Escape To Dunedin, New Zealand
Distance: 11,839 miles from Paris, 11,852 miles from London
If You Live In Sydney, Escape To San Cristóbal De La Laguna, Spain
Distance: 11,604 miles
If You Live In Tokyo, Escape To Criciúma, Brazil
Distance: 11,713 miles
If You Live In Buenos Aires, Escape To Jiangsu Province, China
Distance: 12,188 miles
If You Live In Cairo, Escape To Tauranga, New Zealand
Distance: 10,363 miles
If You Live In Cape Town, Escape To Honolulu, Hawaii
Distance: 11,529 miles
Tell us in the comments where the furthest place on Earth is from your location!
The World's Most Secluded Beaches
The World's Most Secluded Beaches
1
| Spain |
What word is in 1200 different languages without changing? | The Furthest Place On Earth From Wherever You're Located | The Huffington Post
The Furthest Place On Earth From Wherever You're Located
02/04/2014 07:37 am ET | Updated Feb 04, 2014
230
Do you ever just want to get away? How about far away? How about as far away as possible?
FurthestCity is a nifty little website that lets you know the farthest city from wherever you're currently located.
We really couldn't help ourselves and looked up the farthest locations of some of the world's major cities. For your specific location, check out FurthestCity.com.
If You Live In New York City, Escape To Perth, Australia
Distance: 11,613 miles
If You Live In Los Angeles, Escape To Saint-Paul, La Réunion
Distance: 11,446 miles
If You Live In Shanghai, Escape To Concordia, Argentina
Distance: 12,397 miles
If You Live In Paris or London, Escape To Dunedin, New Zealand
Distance: 11,839 miles from Paris, 11,852 miles from London
If You Live In Sydney, Escape To San Cristóbal De La Laguna, Spain
Distance: 11,604 miles
If You Live In Tokyo, Escape To Criciúma, Brazil
Distance: 11,713 miles
If You Live In Buenos Aires, Escape To Jiangsu Province, China
Distance: 12,188 miles
If You Live In Cairo, Escape To Tauranga, New Zealand
Distance: 10,363 miles
If You Live In Cape Town, Escape To Honolulu, Hawaii
Distance: 11,529 miles
Tell us in the comments where the furthest place on Earth is from your location!
The World's Most Secluded Beaches
The World's Most Secluded Beaches
1
| i don't know |
Old Honiton Genoese and Mechlin all types of what? | January | 2009 | General Knowledge Current Affairs Quizzes everything in one stop.... | Page 10
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 Who was Douglas Elton Ullman better known as? Douglas Fairbanks Senior
2 In what does a steganographer write messages? Invisible ink
3 Charles Duff wrote the macabre Handbook of what? Hanging
4 In The Dukes of Hazard who was the sheriff? Roscoe P Coltrane
5 What would you do with a hecklephone? Play it – type of woodwind
6 In the famous song my true love sent me nine what? Drummers drumming
7 Richard Arkwright invented the Spinning Jenny what job had he? Barber
8 What is or was a Portuguese moidore? A Gold Coin
9 A husband and wife won gold medals 1952 Olympics who? Emile Dana Zatopek marathon javelin
10 Collective nouns – A Desert of what? Lapwings
11 Which writer created the detective Lord Peter Wimsey? Dorethy L Sayers
12 On the same subject who eventually married Lord Peter Wimsey? Harriot Vane
13 What is rayon made from? Wood pulp
14 Yorick in Shakespeare’s Hamlet had what job (when alive)? Jester
15 Sir Eyre Massey Shaw hold what Olympic record from 1900? Oldest gold yachting he was 70
16 What is the worlds third largest island? Borneo
17 Corporals Henshaw and Barbella report to which sergeant? Sergeant Bilko
18 The word electricity comes from the Greek word for what? Amber
19 Name the Motown star shot and killed by his father in 1984? Marvin Gaye
20 Collective nouns – A Fall of what? Woodcocks
21 Leslie Hornby became more famous as who? Twiggy
22 September should be seventh month by name why is it ninth? Its 7th year used to start in March
23 When introduced they were pockets for men only – what were? Handbags
24 What are or were The Adena, Cayuga, Haida and Nootka? North American native Indian tribes
25 Traditional wedding anniversaries what’s given on the twelfth? Silk
26 What are Grenadier, Idared and Ellison’s Orange types of? Apples
27 Who fought at the battles of Bastia, Calvi and Toulon? Horatio Nelson
28 A numismatist collects coins and what else? Medals
29 Where could you spend a Kyat? Burma
30 In what series of stories did Inspector Lestrade appear? Sherlock Holmes
31 Name the home city of the US football team nicknamed Falcons? Atlanta
32 Gilbert & Sullivan operetta subtitled The Peer and the Peri? Iolanthe
33 Hymen in Greek Genius in Roman Gods of what? Fertility and Marriage
34 What can come in types Blue, Spear, Couch and Arrow? Grass
35 Bees live in a hive what do seals live in? A Rookery
36 Hercules performed twelve labours what was number seven? Capture of the Cretan Bull
37 A philomath has a love of what? Learning
38 A young what can be called a Boyet, Eyas or Nyas? Hawk
39 What trade did Bonito, Calico Jack, and Dick Hatteraick follow? Pirates
40 What takes place at Montlhery France and Zandvoort Holland? Motor car racing
41 What is the literal meaning of the Spanish word tapas (snacks)? Cover or covers
42 The martial art tai quon do translates literally as what? Kick Art Way
43 Wings of Desire a foreign film remade as what with Nicolas Cage? City of Angels
44 Scooby Do is what breed of dog? Great Dane
45 Which book of The Bible is also a title of a Bob Marley album? Exodus
46 The Romans called it Eboracum name this English city? York
47 Who wrote “To err is human to forgive divine”? Alexander Pope essay on criticism
48 In England what can be private, public or approved? Schools
49 In what traditional entertainment does the dog Toby appear? Punch and Judy
50 Where could you spend a Sol? Peru
51 What UK football team nick The Glaziers play at Selhurst Park? Crystal Palace
52 Thanatos in Greek Mors in Roman Gods of what? Death
53 Robin, Rugby and Simple appear in which Shakespeare play? The Merry Wives of Windsor
54 Where would you find A Pope Empress Hermit and Juggler? They are Tarot Cards
55 In traditional anniversaries what is given for the thirtieth? Pearl
56 Apart from a brand name what is a Reebok? An Antelope
57 Jason sailed in the Argo but who steered the ship? Argus
58 What are pink, pram, snow, koff, buss, bark and dory types of? Boats or other water craft
59 What was Boucan that gave Buccaneers their name? Dried meat
60 Dacca is the capital of which country? Bangladesh
61 What links a Gig, Spider and Phaeton? Horse drawn carriages
62 What’s parts include barbican, oilette and donjon? A Castle
63 In London what are The Cavalry, Marlborough and Savile? Private Members Clubs
64 What does a phillumenist collect? Matchbox labels
65 Electric, Perse and smalt shades of which colour? Blue
66 What links Sword, Square, Floral and Barn? Types of Dance
67 What is a Kerry Blue? Dog type of Terrier
68 In Heraldry what is a canton? A Corner
69 What links the trees Bodhi, Peepul and Ailento? They are all sacred to someone
70 Fictional character lived at Montague street before moving? Sherlock Holmes
71 Chronos in Greek Saturnus in Roman Gods of what? The Harvest
72 A Grice is a young what? Wild Boar
73 International registration letters what country is ZR? Zaire
74 There are only two three letter herbs Rue and what? Bay
75 In mythology who rode an eight legged horse called Sleipner? Odin
76 Parr, Smolt and Grilse different names same thing what? Salmon – life stages
77 Name the raven in George Orwell’s Animal Farm? Moses
78 All US Presidents were Federalists Republicans Democrats or what? Whigs 1841 – 45 1850 – 53
79 Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Eli and Isaiah were all what in The Bible? Prophets
80 What family were the last ruling house of Italy? Savoy
81 Where would you find a Bonnet, Course, Dabbler and Driver? Ship they are sails
82 Who said Tis better to have loved and lost etc? Alfred Lord Tennyson In Memoriam
83 What Gilbert & Sullivan operetta was subtitled Bunthorns Bride? Patience
84 Which poet wrote A thing of beauty is a joy forever in Endymion? Keats
85 Copeland, Mason, Dux and Bow all types of what? Pottery
86 In Greek mythology who was Queen of the underworld? Persephone
87 Which writer created Tabitha Twitchet, Babbity Bumble, Mr Tod? Beatrix Potter
88 What links Bass, Messina, Hormuz and Torres? Straits of water
89 What does a philologist study? Languages
90 Which authors first (unsuccessful) book was Inland Voyage? Robert Louis Stevenson
91 Details of what can be found in The Blue Book? US Aristocracy
92 Backfall, diapason, pallet, gamba, sticker all parts of what? Pipe Organ
93 Oedipus married his mother – who was she? Jocasta
94 In Heraldry if things are accosted what position are they in? Side by Side
95 Pintado, Pochard, Scaup, Scoter and Smee types of what? Ducks
96 Name Shakespeare play Ariel, Miranda and Prospero appear? The Tempest
97 Xanthic, Fallow and Aureate shades of which colour? Yellow
98 Brickbat, Pecorino, Mycella and Tilsiter all types of what? Cheese
99 What is the capital of Panama? Panama
100 Name both the Greek and Roman God of Prophecy and Plagues? Apollo
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 Which game begins when the referee shouts draw? Lacrosse
2 What is litmus derived from? Lichens
3 Hydrosis is the medical term for what? Sweating
4 Misogamy is a dislike or hatred of what? Marriage
5 What car has been voted European car of the Century? Mini
6 In India what is a khidmutgar? A Waiter
7 Who sang about Saturday Night at the Movies? The Drifters
8 Who owned the sword Joyeuse? Charlemagne
9 It was finally abolished in Britain in 1948 – what was? Flogging
10 Beethoven’s sixth symphony is known as what? The Pastoral
11 Which English King had the most legitimate children (18)? Edward I
12 The windhover is an alternative name for which bird? Kestrel
13 Where is the US masters golf tournament always played? Augusta Georgia
14 Santa Cruz airport serves which city? Bombay
15 Silver hallmarks – what object is stamped on Birmingham items? Anchor
16 Graham Hill won 1968 world championship in which make of car? Lotus
17 Opaque 2 is a modern variety of which cereal crop? Maize
18 Who was the first tennis player to achieve the grand slam? Donald Budge
19 What are padmasana sirsasana and savasana? Yoga Positions
20 What is strange about the Golden Queen holly? It is male Golden King is female
21 What is the last book of the Old Testament? Malachi
22 Queen Mary II died at age 32 what killed her? Smallpox
23 What metal is used in galvanizing? Zinc
24 A 25 to 31 mph wind on the Beaufort scale is called what? Strong Breeze
25 The false plane tree is better known as what? The Sycamore
26 Baptista is Katherine’s father in which Shakespeare play? The Taming of the Shrew
27 Lepidoptera (from the Greek) literally means what? Scaly Winged
28 In what sport might you see a stem-christie? Skiing
29 Why a camel haired brushes (made from squirrel) called camel? Invented by Mr Camel
30 What common item has 32 points? The compass
31 In 1823 the British army soldiers were first issued with what? Trousers
32 Who was the first American to win a Nobel prize? Theodore Roosevelt
33 In Shakespeare Hamlet who is Ophelia’s brother? Laertes
34 What is the worlds largest airline? Aeroflot
35 What is the brightest star always in the Northern sky? Vega
36 24% of British men have no what? Real teeth
37 Most people associate the colour green with which flavour? Mint
38 Mendelssohn’s Wedding March comes from which work? A Midsummer Nights Dream
39 Whose autobiography was “Can you tell what it is yet”? Rolf Harris
40 What did Joseph Gayetty invent in 1857? Toilet Rolls
41 The Andaman Islands are in which bay? The Bay of Bengal
42 What colour are lobsters? Dark Blue/green pink when cooked
43 What does per capita literally mean? Per Head
44 J G Galle discovered it in 1846 – discovered what? The planet Neptune
45 Silent movie star Ben Turpin insured his what for $500000? His Squint
46 What does a potometer measure? Water intake
47 What was Winston Churchill’s favourite participation sport? Polo
48 The average person eats 800 in their lifetime 800 what? Chickens
49 What is the central part of a backgammon board called? The Bar
50 King Henry VIII trained as what? A Priest
51 What sports name translates as Little Game of War? Lacrosse
52 What are Claymore, Thistle and Piper? North Sea Oil Fields
53 What colour tranquillisers work best? Yellow
54 In what city did 8 year old Mozart compose his first symphony? London
55 In Yiddish what is your Pupik? Belly Button
56 Who was Ben Hurs rival in the great chariot race? Messala
57 Britain’s Frankie Wainman was world champion 1979 what sport? Stock Car Racing
58 John McEnroe won Wimbledon doubles with what partner? Peter Fleming
59 Pride, Avarice, Envy, Gluttony, Sloth, Lust what’s missing? Wrath
60 On average it rains 4 days a week in what European capital? Amsterdam or Brussels is wettest
61 What country used the ringgit as currency? Malaysia
62 What’s the name of the Bar Restaurant in the TV show Quincy? Danny’s
63 In what Dickens novel does Alfred Jingle appear? The Pickwick Papers
64 Ajax was the trade mark of the worlds first what? Flush lavatory
65 Brass instrument is thought to be the most difficult to play? The French Horn
66 SF the international car registration letters for which country? Finland
67 Jacques Garnerin made the first in 1797 the first what? Parachute Jump
68 The British army used to wear puttees what’s it literally mean? Bandages from Hindu
69 The orchestra usually tunes up to what instrument? Oboe
70 What is the most frequent cause of business errors? Illegible handwriting
71 Which magical city is located in the Valley of the Blue Moon? Shangri-La James Hilton Lost Horizon
72 In which European city is the Arch of Titus? Rome
73 Frank Oz was the voice of who? Miss Piggy in the Muppets
74 On a standard rainbow what colour is on the inside of the curve? Violet
75 What musical term means playing with each note detached? Staccato
76 What animal stands for the longest period? African Elephant over 50 years
77 In what country did the word plonk meaning wine originate? Australia
78 Alfred Packer in the USA was convicted of what strange crime? Cannibalism
79 Captain Flint buried his treasure where ( Ben Gunn dug it up )? Skeleton Island
80 Who composed a symphony nicknamed The Hen? Joseph Hayden
81 In Solar system there are 2 Mount Olympus’s Greece and where? Mars
82 Saint Lidwina is the Patron Saint of who? Skaters
83 Who would use a caret? Printer it’s an insertion mark
84 Who was the first woman to win 4 consecutive US tennis open? Chris Evert Lloyd
85 What is the lowest title handed down from father to son? Baronet
86 What is Britain’s largest carnivorous animal? Badger
87 How many women know the formula of Coca Cola? None – not allowed
88 Schubert’s fourth symphony is nicknamed the what? Tragic
89 What are Portland Vases made from? Glass
90 Where could you have a kip – then spend it? Laos its currency
91 What is a corduroy road made from? Logs laid down on swampy ground
92 In 18th century England what was known as Old Tom? Gin
93 In Goldfinger name the actress painted gold? Shirley Eaton
94 In 1949 what was introduced to cars for the first time? The Ignition key
95 Who was the father of Alexander the Great? Philip II of Macedon
96 The Italian Chianina is recognises as being the oldest what? Breed of Cattle
97 Which country makes the most films per year? India
98 In what Puccini opera does Scarpia appear? Tosca
99 Who wrote Travels with a Donkey on his honeymoon? Robert Louis Stevenson
100 The araucaria has what more common name? The Monkey Puzzle tree
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 Which game begins when the referee shouts draw? Lacrosse
2 What is litmus derived from? Lichens
3 Hydrosis is the medical term for what? Sweating
4 Misogamy is a dislike or hatred of what? Marriage
5 What car has been voted European car of the Century? Mini
6 In India what is a khidmutgar? A Waiter
7 Who sang about Saturday Night at the Movies? The Drifters
8 Who owned the sword Joyeuse? Charlemagne
9 It was finally abolished in Britain in 1948 – what was? Flogging
10 Beethoven’s sixth symphony is known as what? The Pastoral
11 Which English King had the most legitimate children (18)? Edward I
12 The windhover is an alternative name for which bird? Kestrel
13 Where is the US masters golf tournament always played? Augusta Georgia
14 Santa Cruz airport serves which city? Bombay
15 Silver hallmarks – what object is stamped on Birmingham items? Anchor
16 Graham Hill won 1968 world championship in which make of car? Lotus
17 Opaque 2 is a modern variety of which cereal crop? Maize
18 Who was the first tennis player to achieve the grand slam? Donald Budge
19 What are padmasana sirsasana and savasana? Yoga Positions
20 What is strange about the Golden Queen holly? It is male Golden King is female
21 What is the last book of the Old Testament? Malachi
22 Queen Mary II died at age 32 what killed her? Smallpox
23 What metal is used in galvanizing? Zinc
24 A 25 to 31 mph wind on the Beaufort scale is called what? Strong Breeze
25 The false plane tree is better known as what? The Sycamore
26 Baptista is Katherine’s father in which Shakespeare play? The Taming of the Shrew
27 Lepidoptera (from the Greek) literally means what? Scaly Winged
28 In what sport might you see a stem-christie? Skiing
29 Why a camel haired brushes (made from squirrel) called camel? Invented by Mr Camel
30 What common item has 32 points? The compass
31 In 1823 the British army soldiers were first issued with what? Trousers
32 Who was the first American to win a Nobel prize? Theodore Roosevelt
33 In Shakespeare Hamlet who is Ophelia’s brother? Laertes
34 What is the worlds largest airline? Aeroflot
35 What is the brightest star always in the Northern sky? Vega
36 24% of British men have no what? Real teeth
37 Most people associate the colour green with which flavour? Mint
38 Mendelssohn’s Wedding March comes from which work? A Midsummer Nights Dream
39 Whose autobiography was “Can you tell what it is yet”? Rolf Harris
40 What did Joseph Gayetty invent in 1857? Toilet Rolls
41 The Andaman Islands are in which bay? The Bay of Bengal
42 What colour are lobsters? Dark Blue/green pink when cooked
43 What does per capita literally mean? Per Head
44 J G Galle discovered it in 1846 – discovered what? The planet Neptune
45 Silent movie star Ben Turpin insured his what for $500000? His Squint
46 What does a potometer measure? Water intake
47 What was Winston Churchill’s favourite participation sport? Polo
48 The average person eats 800 in their lifetime 800 what? Chickens
49 What is the central part of a backgammon board called? The Bar
50 King Henry VIII trained as what? A Priest
51 What sports name translates as Little Game of War? Lacrosse
52 What are Claymore, Thistle and Piper? North Sea Oil Fields
53 What colour tranquillisers work best? Yellow
54 In what city did 8 year old Mozart compose his first symphony? London
55 In Yiddish what is your Pupik? Belly Button
56 Who was Ben Hurs rival in the great chariot race? Messala
57 Britain’s Frankie Wainman was world champion 1979 what sport? Stock Car Racing
58 John McEnroe won Wimbledon doubles with what partner? Peter Fleming
59 Pride, Avarice, Envy, Gluttony, Sloth, Lust what’s missing? Wrath
60 On average it rains 4 days a week in what European capital? Amsterdam or Brussels is wettest
61 What country used the ringgit as currency? Malaysia
62 What’s the name of the Bar Restaurant in the TV show Quincy? Danny’s
63 In what Dickens novel does Alfred Jingle appear? The Pickwick Papers
64 Ajax was the trade mark of the worlds first what? Flush lavatory
65 Brass instrument is thought to be the most difficult to play? The French Horn
66 SF the international car registration letters for which country? Finland
67 Jacques Garnerin made the first in 1797 the first what? Parachute Jump
68 The British army used to wear puttees what’s it literally mean? Bandages from Hindu
69 The orchestra usually tunes up to what instrument? Oboe
70 What is the most frequent cause of business errors? Illegible handwriting
71 Which magical city is located in the Valley of the Blue Moon? Shangri-La James Hilton Lost Horizon
72 In which European city is the Arch of Titus? Rome
73 Frank Oz was the voice of who? Miss Piggy in the Muppets
74 On a standard rainbow what colour is on the inside of the curve? Violet
75 What musical term means playing with each note detached? Staccato
76 What animal stands for the longest period? African Elephant over 50 years
77 In what country did the word plonk meaning wine originate? Australia
78 Alfred Packer in the USA was convicted of what strange crime? Cannibalism
79 Captain Flint buried his treasure where ( Ben Gunn dug it up )? Skeleton Island
80 Who composed a symphony nicknamed The Hen? Joseph Hayden
81 In Solar system there are 2 Mount Olympus’s Greece and where? Mars
82 Saint Lidwina is the Patron Saint of who? Skaters
83 Who would use a caret? Printer it’s an insertion mark
84 Who was the first woman to win 4 consecutive US tennis open? Chris Evert Lloyd
85 What is the lowest title handed down from father to son? Baronet
86 What is Britain’s largest carnivorous animal? Badger
87 How many women know the formula of Coca Cola? None – not allowed
88 Schubert’s fourth symphony is nicknamed the what? Tragic
89 What are Portland Vases made from? Glass
90 Where could you have a kip – then spend it? Laos its currency
91 What is a corduroy road made from? Logs laid down on swampy ground
92 In 18th century England what was known as Old Tom? Gin
93 In Goldfinger name the actress painted gold? Shirley Eaton
94 In 1949 what was introduced to cars for the first time? The Ignition key
95 Who was the father of Alexander the Great? Philip II of Macedon
96 The Italian Chianina is recognises as being the oldest what? Breed of Cattle
97 Which country makes the most films per year? India
98 In what Puccini opera does Scarpia appear? Tosca
99 Who wrote Travels with a Donkey on his honeymoon? Robert Louis Stevenson
100 The araucaria has what more common name? The Monkey Puzzle tree
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 What star sign is Harry Potter? Leo
2 The word Mongol means what in Mongolian? Brave
3 In the USA it’s the Oscars what is it in France? Caesars
4 What is the correct name for a virgin (uncalfed) cow? Heifer
5 In the USA what is Marine One? Presidents Helicopter
6 In the Bible who climbed Mount Nebo? Moses to see promised land
7 Where could you spend your Gourde? Haiti
8 What sausage gets it’s name from the Italian for Onion? Chipolata
9 What does a cadastral map show? Large scale individual properties
10 In what area of France is champagne made? Reims
11 The longest recorded one lasted 51.5 minutes – what? Tennis rally 1029 strokes
12 Who was the first British Royal to become a motorist? Prince of Wales Edward VII
13 Ford Prefect came from a star in which constellation? Orion (Betelgeuse)
14 What makes Argon, Neon and Helium unique in chemistry? No compounds
15 In the Bible who put Daniel in the lions den? King Darius
16 Cheval-vapeur in France is equal to what in English? Horse power
17 The author of Moll Flanders wrote which more famous work? Robinson Crusoe
18 On the Beaufort scale what is defined as force 11? A Storm
19 The Spink standard catalogue lists information about what? Coins
20 If you suffer from diplopia what have you got? Double vision
21 What Shakespeare play Course true love never did run smooth? Midsummer Nights Dream
22 All my Yesterdays is which actors autobiography? Edward G Robinson
23 Which type of full moon follows a harvest moon? Hunters Moon
24 Which pop singer was Glad to be Gay? Tom Robinson
25 The Wheel Spins Ethel Lina White basis for what Hitchcock film? The Lady Vanishes
26 On average it takes 1.5 hours to do what? Fully cremate a corpse
27 In Kiplings poem Gunga Din what job had Gunga Din? Water Carrier
28 What began in 1877 but banned women until 1884? Wimbledon Tennis
29 Who is the boss of UNCLE? Mr Waverley
30 Which cities public transport lost property office is busiest? Tokyo
31 Name only boxer to win a world title who never had a manager? Jake La Motta
32 The opera The Tsar Sultan contains what famous musical piece? The Flight of the Bumblebee
33 Five tons are mined annually – five tons of what? Diamonds
34 In Venezuela lovers use pink what? Envelopes – post half price
35 What country in distance is furthest from New Zealand? Spain
36 Whose girlfriend had a pet snake called Enid? Adolf Hitler
37 What word is in 1200 different languages without changing? Amen
38 Whose horse was Black Nell? Wild Bill Hickoks
39 Old Honiton Genoese and Mechlin all types of what? Lace
40 Name the first teddy bear in space? Mishka 1980 Olympic mascot
41 In France who are nicknamed the Kepis blancs? Foreign Legion
42 Name Ernest Hemmingway’s book dealing with bullfighting? Fiesta
43 Which animal pronks? Springbok
44 In the Wizard of Oz name the Good Witch of the North? Glinda
45 Britain France and who fought the battle of Trafalgar? Spain
46 Who’s first book was Pebble in the Sky? Isaac Asimov
47 Whose original back up group were The Blue Moon Boys? Elvis Presley
48 Britannia female embodiment of Britain who is the French? Marianne
49 Who wrote the line East is East and West is West? Rudyard Kipling
50 Which American city used to be called Yerba Buena? San Francisco
51 What’s capital of The Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen? Aden
52 Who played Louis Armstrong in 1954 film The Glen Miller Story? He played himself
53 The Old Aztecs played ollamalitzi what game does it resemble? Basketball
54 In literature who lived at 7 Savile Row? Phileas Fogg
55 What is the only Shakespeare play that mentions America? The Comedy of Errors (Act III Scene ii)
56 Jan Lodvik Hock changed his name to what? Robert Maxwell
57 What is the longest golf course to stage the British Open? Carnoustie 7066 yards
58 Atlanta burned in Gone With the Wind was what old film set? King Kong it needed clearing
59 What are Unaone, Soxisix and Novenine? International phonetic numbers 169
60 If something is caseous what is it like? Cheese
61 William Herschel astronomer was a musician what instrument? Organ
62 UK snooker players call it doubling what do US pool players say? Banking
63 In MASH what was the character Radars full name? Walter O’Reilly
64 Whose only novel was The Cardinals Mistress? Benito Mussolini
65 Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947 who was opponent? Sugar Ray Robinson
66 In 1900 Persian soldiers were paid with what? Donkeys
67 In Islington in London it’s a £50 fine for sleeping where? The Public Library
68 Dr Deidrich Knickerbocker invented which famous character? Rip Van Winkle
69 What occupation would use a dibble? Gardener – to make planting holes
70 Which group of people first used gold fillings? Incas of Peru
71 Miss Lemon is what detectives confidential secretary? Hercule Poirot
72 Name Alice’s pet cat? Dinah
73 In the siege of Mafeking who led the defenders? Robert Baden Powell
74 Beethoven’s fifth piano concerto is nicknamed what? The Emperor
75 What did Aristotle claim as the most delicate of table meats? Camel
76 Which annual world championship is held at Coxheath Kent? Custard Pie throwing
77 In which film did Cliff Richard sing Living Doll in 1959? Serious Charge
78 Which Lombardy town is famed for its cheese? Gorgonzola
79 Which acid dissolves glass? Hydrofluoric Acid
80 Who wrote The female of the species more deadly than the male? Rudyard Kipling
81 Musical terms – what does De Capo mean on a score? From the beginning
82 What is a half of a half of a half of a half? A Sixteenth
83 Who recorded as Dib Cochran and the Earwigs? Marc Bolan and David Bowie
84 In what country is Tiahuanaco? Bolivia
85 What exactly are chitterlings? Fried animals birds small intestines
86 What was Winston Churchill’s codename during WW2? Agent
87 There are 4.5 gallons of ale in what container? Pin
88 Of what did the poet John Milton die? Gout
89 The musical instrument piccolo means what in Italian? Small
90 In what country could you spend a tugrik? Mongolia
91 All the pictures of which king are always shown in profile? King of Diamonds
92 Pernell Roberts played which character in a TV western series? Adam Cartwright
93 1937 saw the first BBC TV broadcast of which event? Wimbledon Tennis
94 Which orchestral instrument can play the highest note? The Violin
95 Who was the runner up in the 1979 Le Mans 24 hour race? Paul Newman
96 Airman T E Shaw in WW2 was better known as who? T E Laurence of Arabia
97 Italian painter Jacopo Robusti is better known as who? Tintoretto
98 What were volitos first demonstrated in Soho London in 1823? Roller Skates
99 Which Mozart opera is subtitled School for Lovers? Cosi fan Tuti
100 In literature who married Mary Morstan? Dr John Watson
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 What star sign is Harry Potter? Leo
2 The word Mongol means what in Mongolian? Brave
3 In the USA it’s the Oscars what is it in France? Caesars
4 What is the correct name for a virgin (uncalfed) cow? Heifer
5 In the USA what is Marine One? Presidents Helicopter
6 In the Bible who climbed Mount Nebo? Moses to see promised land
7 Where could you spend your Gourde? Haiti
8 What sausage gets it’s name from the Italian for Onion? Chipolata
9 What does a cadastral map show? Large scale individual properties
10 In what area of France is champagne made? Reims
11 The longest recorded one lasted 51.5 minutes – what? Tennis rally 1029 strokes
12 Who was the first British Royal to become a motorist? Prince of Wales Edward VII
13 Ford Prefect came from a star in which constellation? Orion (Betelgeuse)
14 What makes Argon, Neon and Helium unique in chemistry? No compounds
15 In the Bible who put Daniel in the lions den? King Darius
16 Cheval-vapeur in France is equal to what in English? Horse power
17 The author of Moll Flanders wrote which more famous work? Robinson Crusoe
18 On the Beaufort scale what is defined as force 11? A Storm
19 The Spink standard catalogue lists information about what? Coins
20 If you suffer from diplopia what have you got? Double vision
21 What Shakespeare play Course true love never did run smooth? Midsummer Nights Dream
22 All my Yesterdays is which actors autobiography? Edward G Robinson
23 Which type of full moon follows a harvest moon? Hunters Moon
24 Which pop singer was Glad to be Gay? Tom Robinson
25 The Wheel Spins Ethel Lina White basis for what Hitchcock film? The Lady Vanishes
26 On average it takes 1.5 hours to do what? Fully cremate a corpse
27 In Kiplings poem Gunga Din what job had Gunga Din? Water Carrier
28 What began in 1877 but banned women until 1884? Wimbledon Tennis
29 Who is the boss of UNCLE? Mr Waverley
30 Which cities public transport lost property office is busiest? Tokyo
31 Name only boxer to win a world title who never had a manager? Jake La Motta
32 The opera The Tsar Sultan contains what famous musical piece? The Flight of the Bumblebee
33 Five tons are mined annually – five tons of what? Diamonds
34 In Venezuela lovers use pink what? Envelopes – post half price
35 What country in distance is furthest from New Zealand? Spain
36 Whose girlfriend had a pet snake called Enid? Adolf Hitler
37 What word is in 1200 different languages without changing? Amen
38 Whose horse was Black Nell? Wild Bill Hickoks
39 Old Honiton Genoese and Mechlin all types of what? Lace
40 Name the first teddy bear in space? Mishka 1980 Olympic mascot
41 In France who are nicknamed the Kepis blancs? Foreign Legion
42 Name Ernest Hemmingway’s book dealing with bullfighting? Fiesta
43 Which animal pronks? Springbok
44 In the Wizard of Oz name the Good Witch of the North? Glinda
45 Britain France and who fought the battle of Trafalgar? Spain
46 Who’s first book was Pebble in the Sky? Isaac Asimov
47 Whose original back up group were The Blue Moon Boys? Elvis Presley
48 Britannia female embodiment of Britain who is the French? Marianne
49 Who wrote the line East is East and West is West? Rudyard Kipling
50 Which American city used to be called Yerba Buena? San Francisco
51 What’s capital of The Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen? Aden
52 Who played Louis Armstrong in 1954 film The Glen Miller Story? He played himself
53 The Old Aztecs played ollamalitzi what game does it resemble? Basketball
54 In literature who lived at 7 Savile Row? Phileas Fogg
55 What is the only Shakespeare play that mentions America? The Comedy of Errors (Act III Scene ii)
56 Jan Lodvik Hock changed his name to what? Robert Maxwell
57 What is the longest golf course to stage the British Open? Carnoustie 7066 yards
58 Atlanta burned in Gone With the Wind was what old film set? King Kong it needed clearing
59 What are Unaone, Soxisix and Novenine? International phonetic numbers 169
60 If something is caseous what is it like? Cheese
61 William Herschel astronomer was a musician what instrument? Organ
62 UK snooker players call it doubling what do US pool players say? Banking
63 In MASH what was the character Radars full name? Walter O’Reilly
64 Whose only novel was The Cardinals Mistress? Benito Mussolini
65 Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947 who was opponent? Sugar Ray Robinson
66 In 1900 Persian soldiers were paid with what? Donkeys
67 In Islington in London it’s a £50 fine for sleeping where? The Public Library
68 Dr Deidrich Knickerbocker invented which famous character? Rip Van Winkle
69 What occupation would use a dibble? Gardener – to make planting holes
70 Which group of people first used gold fillings? Incas of Peru
71 Miss Lemon is what detectives confidential secretary? Hercule Poirot
72 Name Alice’s pet cat? Dinah
73 In the siege of Mafeking who led the defenders? Robert Baden Powell
74 Beethoven’s fifth piano concerto is nicknamed what? The Emperor
75 What did Aristotle claim as the most delicate of table meats? Camel
76 Which annual world championship is held at Coxheath Kent? Custard Pie throwing
77 In which film did Cliff Richard sing Living Doll in 1959? Serious Charge
78 Which Lombardy town is famed for its cheese? Gorgonzola
79 Which acid dissolves glass? Hydrofluoric Acid
80 Who wrote The female of the species more deadly than the male? Rudyard Kipling
81 Musical terms – what does De Capo mean on a score? From the beginning
82 What is a half of a half of a half of a half? A Sixteenth
83 Who recorded as Dib Cochran and the Earwigs? Marc Bolan and David Bowie
84 In what country is Tiahuanaco? Bolivia
85 What exactly are chitterlings? Fried animals birds small intestines
86 What was Winston Churchill’s codename during WW2? Agent
87 There are 4.5 gallons of ale in what container? Pin
88 Of what did the poet John Milton die? Gout
89 The musical instrument piccolo means what in Italian? Small
90 In what country could you spend a tugrik? Mongolia
91 All the pictures of which king are always shown in profile? King of Diamonds
92 Pernell Roberts played which character in a TV western series? Adam Cartwright
93 1937 saw the first BBC TV broadcast of which event? Wimbledon Tennis
94 Which orchestral instrument can play the highest note? The Violin
95 Who was the runner up in the 1979 Le Mans 24 hour race? Paul Newman
96 Airman T E Shaw in WW2 was better known as who? T E Laurence of Arabia
97 Italian painter Jacopo Robusti is better known as who? Tintoretto
98 What were volitos first demonstrated in Soho London in 1823? Roller Skates
99 Which Mozart opera is subtitled School for Lovers? Cosi fan Tuti
100 In literature who married Mary Morstan? Dr John Watson
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 Odele and Odette appear in what Tchaikovsky ballet? Swan Lake
2 In what country is The Duma part of parliament? Russia
3 Nonage is what reason to stop a marriage? Underage one or both
4 Kier Auro is good morning in what language? Maori
5 In what sport does herringboning take place? Skiing
6 What is a marcupium? A marsupials pouch
7 At epiquarian.com you would find information about what? Food or Restaurants
8 What does a konimeter measure? Dust
9 A stellate object is shaped like what? Star shaped
11 What is MMM minus MD? MD 3000-1500=1500
11 Balsa wood gets its name from Spanish what’s literal meaning? Raft
12 Who is the Patron Saint of Accountants? Saint Matthew
13 In what country did the Sabines live? Italy
14 Who often solved a three pipe problem? Sherlock Holmes
15 The tumblebug is an alternative name for which insect? Dung Beetle
16 St Stevens Tower is usually misnamed what? Big Ben
17 What type of clothing article is a Belcher? Neckerchief
18 Who was kidnapped in Robert Louis Stevenson’s Kidnapped? David Balfour
19 Jewish boys have a Barmitsva at 13 what do girls get at 12? A Batmitsva
20 What European capitol stands on the river Aare? Berne Switzerland
21 In which Dickens novel does Little Nell appear? The Old Curiosity Shop
22 Name Harry Potters non magical cousin? Dudley
23 Which real person took name meaning Man of Steel? Joseph Stalin
24 What are woolly and spider types of? Monkey
25 Where do boy scout leaders get their names from? The Jungle Book Rudyard Kipling
26 Where would you find a Mott Bailey and Keep? A Castle
27 In what country was fashion designer Yves St Laurent born? Algeria
28 What common British river name come from Celtic for river? Avon
29 Jayne Austin is famous but who reigned Britain when she wrote? George III
30 What composer was the there of the 1947 film Song of Love? Johannes Brahms
31 Who is known as The father of Poetry? Homer
32 Who was the first US president to be sworn in by a woman? Lyndon B Johnson when JFK killed
33 Who sometimes used the pseudonym Al Brown? Alphonse Capone
34 What does Monaco get most of its income from? Gambling Casinos etc
35 Professor Kelp transformed into who? Buddy Love Jerry Lewis Nutty Professor
36 What is the commonest item traded internationally? Petroleum and its by products
37 Lake Tittikaka is in Peru and what other country? Bolivia
38 Who was the first British monarch to visit America? George VI in 1939
39 Collective nouns – A nye of what? Pheasants
40 Where was the Hesperus wrecked? Massachusetts Normans Woe Glos.
41 Britain’s oldest existing TU was founded in 1747 what trade? Brushmakers and General Workers
42 In the creation myth on the fourth day God made what? Sun Moon Stars
43 All PCs have a BIOS what does bios stand for? Basic Input Output System
44 British soldiers mentioned in despatches get which bronze award? The Oak Leaf
45 In 1967 an Australian had one 11lb in weight – what? Carrot
46 Sissy Jupe adopted by Thomas Gradgrind which Dickens novel? Hard Times
47 Operation Thunderbolt was the nickname given to which raid? Israeli raid on Entebbe
48 In Japan what is Raku? Biscuit fired Pottery
49 Skimbleshanks was a T S Elliot cat what was his area? The Railway Cat
50 What is the largest Island in The Greater Antilles? Cuba
51 What country used the first aircraft equipped bomber in war? Italy Italian Turkish war 1912
52 In what sport would you find a coffin? Cross country riding it’s a fence
53 John Huxham in 1750 invented which word? Influenza
54 TABSO is the national airline of which country? Bulgaria
55 Who wrote the comic opera Robinson Crusoe? Offenbach
56 What was Didus Ineptus better known as? The Dodo
57 What sport featured in the 1980 film Breaking Away? Cycling
58 Ambigu was an early form of what card game? Poker
59 The cast iron plant is another name for which pot plant? Aspidistra
60 What does the name Tokyo mean? Eastern City
61 Sir Walter Raleigh found what odd lake in Trinidad? Lake of Tar orAsphalt
62 Worlds oldest existing treaty of 1373 between England and who? Portugal
63 Bargasse is what type of vegetable matter? Sugar Cane Pulp
64 Who was Hiawatha’s father? Mudjekeewis The West Wind
65 Kitty, fire, draw and tuck in are terms in what sport? Green Bowls
66 Ordinary seaman Able Seaman what comes next? Leading Seaman
67 What was Thin Lizzies first hit in 1973? Whiskey in the Jar
68 The sprat belongs to what fish family? Herring
69 The Horned Planet is better known as what? Venus
70 Who did the painting on the cover of The Bands first album? Bob Dylan
71 Carrantual is the highest peak in which country? Ireland
72 Who wrote The Symphony of a Thousand? Mahler his eighth
73 What is Greece’s second city after Athens? Selonika
74 What was Paul the Apostles real name? Saul
75 When is Superman’s birthday? 29th February
76 John Young, Gemini 3, 1968 first to do what in space? Eat a hamburger
77 What is the Curia? Administration of the Catholic Church
78 The locals call it Firenze what do we call it? Florence Italy
79 What common sign derived from the Medici family crest? Pawnbrokers balls
80 What is a sound below 20 cycles a second called? A Woof
81 Goldaming in Surrey was the first English town to have what? Electric street lighting
82 Jim Bakus supplied the voice of which cartoon character? Mr Magoo
83 Who speaks Quechua? Peruvian Indians
84 Generally cornflowers are what colour? Blue
85 Starting highest write the Roman Numerals in descending order? MDCLXVI or 1966
86 Yoi, Yame, Seremade and Hantai terms in what sport? Karate
87 Africa’s four great rivers Nile, Congo Zambezi and what? Niger
88 Catriona was a sequel to which famous novel? Kidnapped R L Stevenson
89 Who sang the original version of Blue Suede Shoes? Carl Perkins
90 What kind of material is guipure? Lace
91 Name a quadruped beginning with the letter N? Newt Nutria Nagli
92 Unusual role Bogart play in The Return of Doctor X 1939? A Vampire
93 In Norway what is a brisling? A Sprat
94 Who composed the Symphonies Fantastique? Hector Berlioz
95 Mediolanum was the Roman name for what Italian city? Milan
96 Which British city had the first pavements (sidewalks) in 1688? Edinburgh in High St and Cowgate
97 What is considered to be the worlds fastest team game? Ice Hockey
98 What song did Marilyn Munroe sing in the film Bus Stop? That Old Black Magic
99 Which King was the first to use the Royal We? Richard the Lionheart
100 The locals call it Shqiperia what do we call this country? Albania
Posted in QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on January 5, 2009 | Leave a Comment »
1 Odele and Odette appear in what Tchaikovsky ballet? Swan Lake
2 In what country is The Duma part of parliament? Russia
3 Nonage is what reason to stop a marriage? Underage one or both
4 Kier Auro is good morning in what language? Maori
5 In what sport does herringboning take place? Skiing
6 What is a marcupium? A marsupials pouch
7 At epiquarian.com you would find information about what? Food or Restaurants
8 What does a konimeter measure? Dust
9 A stellate object is shaped like what? Star shaped
11 What is MMM minus MD? MD 3000-1500=1500
11 Balsa wood gets its name from Spanish what’s literal meaning? Raft
12 Who is the Patron Saint of Accountants? Saint Matthew
13 In what country did the Sabines live? Italy
14 Who often solved a three pipe problem? Sherlock Holmes
15 The tumblebug is an alternative name for which insect? Dung Beetle
16 St Stevens Tower is usually misnamed what? Big Ben
17 What type of clothing article is a Belcher? Neckerchief
18 Who was kidnapped in Robert Louis Stevenson’s Kidnapped? David Balfour
19 Jewish boys have a Barmitsva at 13 what do girls get at 12? A Batmitsva
20 What European capitol stands on the river Aare? Berne Switzerland
21 In which Dickens novel does Little Nell appear? The Old Curiosity Shop
22 Name Harry Potters non magical cousin? Dudley
23 Which real person took name meaning Man of Steel? Joseph Stalin
24 What are woolly and spider types of? Monkey
25 Where do boy scout leaders get their names from? The Jungle Book Rudyard Kipling
26 Where would you find a Mott Bailey and Keep? A Castle
27 In what country was fashion designer Yves St Laurent born? Algeria
28 What common British river name come from Celtic for river? Avon
29 Jayne Austin is famous but who reigned Britain when she wrote? George III
30 What composer was the there of the 1947 film Song of Love? Johannes Brahms
31 Who is known as The father of Poetry? Homer
32 Who was the first US president to be sworn in by a woman? Lyndon B Johnson when JFK killed
33 Who sometimes used the pseudonym Al Brown? Alphonse Capone
34 What does Monaco get most of its income from? Gambling Casinos etc
35 Professor Kelp transformed into who? Buddy Love Jerry Lewis Nutty Professor
36 What is the commonest item traded internationally? Petroleum and its by products
37 Lake Tittikaka is in Peru and what other country? Bolivia
38 Who was the first British monarch to visit America? George VI in 1939
39 Collective nouns – A nye of what? Pheasants
40 Where was the Hesperus wrecked? Massachusetts Normans Woe Glos.
41 Britain’s oldest existing TU was founded in 1747 what trade? Brushmakers and General Workers
42 In the creation myth on the fourth day God made what? Sun Moon Stars
43 All PCs have a BIOS what does bios stand for? Basic Input Output System
44 British soldiers mentioned in despatches get which bronze award? The Oak Leaf
45 In 1967 an Australian had one 11lb in weight – what? Carrot
46 Sissy Jupe adopted by Thomas Gradgrind which Dickens novel? Hard Times
47 Operation Thunderbolt was the nickname given to which raid? Israeli raid on Entebbe
48 In Japan what is Raku? Biscuit fired Pottery
49 Skimbleshanks was a T S Elliot cat what was his area? The Railway Cat
50 What is the largest Island in The Greater Antilles? Cuba
51 What country used the first aircraft equipped bomber in war? Italy Italian Turkish war 1912
52 In what sport would you find a coffin? Cross country riding it’s a fence
53 John Huxham in 1750 invented which word? Influenza
54 TABSO is the national airline of which country? Bulgaria
55 Who wrote the comic opera Robinson Crusoe? Offenbach
56 What was Didus Ineptus better known as? The Dodo
57 What sport featured in the 1980 film Breaking Away? Cycling
58 Ambigu was an early form of what card game? Poker
59 The cast iron plant is another name for which pot plant? Aspidistra
60 What does the name Tokyo mean? Eastern City
61 Sir Walter Raleigh found what odd lake in Trinidad? Lake of Tar orAsphalt
62 Worlds oldest existing treaty of 1373 between England and who? Portugal
63 Bargasse is what type of vegetable matter? Sugar Cane Pulp
64 Who was Hiawatha’s father? Mudjekeewis The West Wind
65 Kitty, fire, draw and tuck in are terms in what sport? Green Bowls
66 Ordinary seaman Able Seaman what comes next? Leading Seaman
67 What was Thin Lizzies first hit in 1973? Whiskey in the Jar
68 The sprat belongs to what fish family? Herring
69 The Horned Planet is better known as what? Venus
70 Who did the painting on the cover of The Bands first album? Bob Dylan
71 Carrantual is the highest peak in which country? Ireland
72 Who wrote The Symphony of a Thousand? Mahler his eighth
73 What is Greece’s second city after Athens? Selonika
74 What was Paul the Apostles real name? Saul
75 When is Superman’s birthday? 29th February
76 John Young, Gemini 3, 1968 first to do what in space? Eat a hamburger
77 What is the Curia? Administration of the Catholic Church
78 The locals call it Firenze what do we call it? Florence Italy
79 What common sign derived from the Medici family crest? Pawnbrokers balls
80 What is a sound below 20 cycles a second called? A Woof
81 Goldaming in Surrey was the first English town to have what? Electric street lighting
82 Jim Bakus supplied the voice of which cartoon character? Mr Magoo
83 Who speaks Quechua? Peruvian Indians
84 Generally cornflowers are what colour? Blue
85 Starting highest write the Roman Numerals in descending order? MDCLXVI or 1966
86 Yoi, Yame, Seremade and Hantai terms in what sport? Karate
87 Africa’s four great rivers Nile, Congo Zambezi and what? Niger
88 Catriona was a sequel to which famous novel? Kidnapped R L Stevenson
89 Who sang the original version of Blue Suede Shoes? Carl Perkins
90 What kind of material is guipure? Lace
91 Name a quadruped beginning with the letter N? Newt Nutria Nagli
92 Unusual role Bogart play in The Return of Doctor X 1939? A Vampire
93 In Norway what is a brisling? A Sprat
94 Who composed the Symphonies Fantastique? Hector Berlioz
95 Mediolanum was the Roman name for what Italian city? Milan
96 Which British city had the first pavements (sidewalks) in 1688? Edinburgh in High St and Cowgate
97 What is considered to be the worlds fastest team game? Ice Hockey
98 What song did Marilyn Munroe sing in the film Bus Stop? That Old Black Magic
99 Which King was the first to use the Royal We? Richard the Lionheart
100 The locals call it Shqiperia what do we call this country? Albania
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In France who are nicknamed the Kepis blancs? | Mechelin lace, history, description and making
Mechlin History
PRIOR to 1665 nearly all Flanders laces were known under the name of Mechlin to the French commercial world. " The common people here," writes Regnard, who visited Flanders in 1681, "as throughout all Flanders, occupy themselves in making the white lace known as Malines." The laces of Ypres, Bruges, Dunkirk, and Courtrai passed under the name of Mechlin in Paris. A great deal of Malines was made in Antwerp, Mechlin, and Brussels.
In England Mechlin is not mentioned by name until Queen Anne's reign. In 1699 the Act prohibiting foreign lace was repealed in so far as it touched the Spanish Low Countries, and Anne, while prohibiting lace made " in the dominions of the French King," admits the import of Flanders lace, so that from the first years of the eighteenth century Mechlin was without rival in England among light laces.
Mechlin laces are the most beautiful after Brussels lace and last longer. It was eminently suited to the less severe modern costume which came in with the eighteenth century, and by reason of its open a jours and transparent appearance was worn as a trimming lace. It thus remained in fashion through the eighteenth century, when references like " Mechlin the queen of lace, "Mechlin the finest lace of all, bear witness to a vogue in England . The disappearance of lace ruffles before 1780 from women's sleeves, and the disappearance of the cravat and men's ruffles, put an end to lace as a fashionable adjunct to dress. In 1834 there were but eight houses where it was fabricated. Unfortunately, also, for the prosperity of the industry, Mechlin is of all laces the easiest lo copy in machine-made lace.
Mechlin's Design
Historically,Mechlin developed,like Valenciennes,from the straight-edged laces of indefinite pattern, with an irregular ground which has the appearance of being pierced at intervals with round holes.
The earliest examples of what we can recognise as Mechlin show a design consisting of groupings of heavily drawn flowers, clumsily designed rococo devices, cornucopias etc..
Later, with the adoption of the characteristic Mechlin reseau, the floral design becomes more delicate and light, and a French influence is apparent . Much of this lace, worn in France during the Regency and later, was made up in the style of modern insertion, with an edging on both sides, campane or scalloped, and used for the gathered trimmings called "quilles," like the Argentan sleeve-trimming.
Madame Louise de France, painted by Nattier in 1748.
Mechlin design influenced by Alencon style
The attempt to imitate Alencon extended not only to the motifs of its design, the characteristic winding ribbon and scattered sprays of flowers, but to the buttonhole-stitched cordonnet. In Mechlin a coarse thread was applied to the edges of the design, which gives higher relief than the flat cordonnet. The fillings are often, like Alencon, of the trellis type. The late eighteenth-century Mechlin has pieces quite undis-tinguishable in design from Alencon of the Louis XVI. period, no doubt owing to its large consumption in France, as a "summer lace." The very characteristic pattern of a flower (sun-flower?) in full blossom, and with closing petals, is often met with in Mechlin laces of the end of the eighteenth century. This lace has a border with a very shallow scallop or slightly waved. The pattern of repeated sprigs of flowers, or of leaves, follows the edge. The remaining ground is covered with small square spots, minute quatrefoils, or leaflets. The flower is Flemish in treatment: while the semes upon the reseau show the French influence of the late eighteenth century . Design in Mechlin is in general floral in character. But a curious figured design is illustrated in Seguin's "La Dentelle" (plate xiv., fig. i), and characterised by him as "une niaserie enfantine." This piece, which dates from the last years of Louis XV., represents two men in a carriage driving a horse. The men wear three-cornered hats, long coats, ruffles ; two birds are flying in the air, and the group is separated from its repeat by an ill-drawn tree. A piece in the Victoria and Albert Museum,§ has a pattern of trees, buds, and scrolls, with cupids blowing horns and shooting at winged and burning hearts. A fragment of an altar cloth in the Gruuthus Museum : shows a medallion containing figures representing some scriptural scene. A similar piece, including several similar medallions, is in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs at Brussels (Plate LVI.). The ground and ornament of Mechlin, like Valenciennes, are made in one piece on the pillow, and many and various experimental fancy groundings were tried before adopting the hexagon-meshed reseau made of two threads twisted twice on four sides, and four threads plaited three times on the- two other sides producing a shorter plait and a smaller mesh than that of the Brussels reseau.
The early grounds are varieties of the " fond de neige," and the fond-chant or six-pointed star mesh is met with. A reseau of interlaced double threads is also of frequent occurrence, and a reseau of four threads plaited to form a very large mesh having the effect of an enlarged fond-chant ground,
The most common form of ornamental filling is an arrangement of linked quatrefoils.
The toile is finer and less close in texture than Valenciennes, and appears to be now dense and cloudy, now thin and almost transparent, This unevenness of quality, together with the presence of the cordon-net which gives precision to the ornament, is responsible for the old name of ' broderie de Malines.
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Name Ernest Hemmingway's book dealing with bullfighting? | Hemingway's seminal writings on bullfighting - Telegraph
Books
Hemingway's seminal writings on bullfighting
Ernest Hemingway's 1926 novel “The Sun Also Rises” turned Pamplona's annual fiesta of San Fermin from a local event into an internationally recognised one that attracts around a million visitors each year.
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Ernest Hemingway's book 'Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises or Death' made the bull run famous Photo: GETTY
La Perla was Hemingway's favourite hotel Photo: ALAMY
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The novel describes a trip made by a group of Bohemians from Paris to Pamplona in the 1920s and is inspired by characters he met in post-war France and his initial visit to the capital of Navarra with his first wife Hadley in 1923.
The story centres on the friendships between a bed-hopping British aristocrat, Lady Brett Ashley, who eventually runs off with a bullfighter she meets at the fiesta, her ex-lover Robert Cohen and the narrator Jake Barnes, an American journalist left impotent by a war wound.
It describes the hedonistic 24 hour partying of the fiesta - the music, drinking, fireworks - and the daily running of the bulls and evening bullfights.
And it is his lively description that brings hoards of visitors to Pamplona each year seeking to recreate the experience.
But it his non-fiction book of 1932 “Death in the Afternoon” that explores the art of bullfighting for which he developed a deep passion and is still described by aficionados as a bible on the subject.
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In the Wizard of Oz name the Good Witch of the North? | Ernest Hemingway - Hemingway in Spain | don Quijote
Read the Spanish version
Ernest Miller Hemingway, born 1899 in Oak Park, Illinois is considered one of the greatest American novelists and short story writers. As a boy, Hemingway learned about the great outdoors from his father, Dr. Clarence Edmonds Hemingway. As a result Hemingway spent much of his time around soldiers, hunters, and bullfighters and was considered a sportsman. He had a deep respect for the rugged take-charge and dangerous lifestyle.
Many of Hemingway's themes for his novels and short stories included soldiers and bullfighters that he encountered while in Europe, specifically in Spain in Madrid and Pamplona . Hemingway made many trips to Spain over his lifetime and based his novels on his experiences abroad.
Fiesta: The Sun Also Rises (1926) came out after Hemingway had visited Pamplona and experienced the dazzling bullfighting atmosphere . The story revolves around a pair of American expatriates who battle jealousy and each other in order to find love. The pair roams from Paris to Madrid encountering sex, alcohol and violence.
During WWI Hemingway worked as a journalist and war correspondent for various outfits across the European theater. His travels and assignments brought him to Italy and France. He was kept out of the fighting because of poor vision. While in Italy, Hemingway was injured on the battlefield and among other adventures he used this experience to create the literary masterpiece A Farewell to Arms which was published in 1929.
Death in the Afternoon (1932) is a nonfiction work and introduction to modern bullfighting in Spain. Again we see the bullfighter as the focal point in a Hemingway work. His admiration for the sport and the type of person that becomes a torero continues to be celebrated to this day.
With the Spanish Civil War in full swing by 1937 Hemingway returned to Spain and, like many writers, he also took the side of the Republicans. In Madrid, in 1940, Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn, a writer and wartime journalist, she became his third wife. For Whom the Bell Tolls is about a group of antifascist guerrillas who are charged with blowing up a bridge somewhere in Spain. The “pine scented” forest where the tale is told over three days reflects themes of nature, war, and personal honor. A female character in the novel, Maria, is said to be modeled after Martha Gellhorn. This book was considered to be "The best book Hemingway has written" by the New York Times.
In 1954 Hemingway received the Nobel Prize for Literature. He did not attend the ceremony in Stockholm as he was recovering from a plane crash while hunting in Uganda, Africa.
After WWII Hemingway returned to Spain, around 1959, where he met a famous bullfighter, Luis Miguel Dominguín. At the time the two met, Dominguín was in the hospital recovering from an injury to the groin from a bull. “Why the hell do the good and brave have to die before everyone else?” Hemingway said. Dominguín in fact did not die from his injuries and he wrote a book, titled The Dangerous Summer, about the intense rivalry between Dominguín and his brother-in-law, Antonio Ordóñez during the summer of 1959.
His novels are still widely read today as themes of men who triumph in the face of political and social hardship is an eternally rewarding motif. Hemingway, a master of the written word, worked with an understated style, speaking to the reader without saying too much. After years of battling depression, alcohol, and the voices in his head; Hemingway took his life with his favorite shotgun, July 2nd, 1961.
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Britain France and who fought the battle of Trafalgar? | Battle of Trafalgar - Oct 21, 1805 - HISTORY.com
Battle of Trafalgar
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In one of the most decisive naval battles in history, a British fleet under Admiral Lord Nelson defeats a combined French and Spanish fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar, fought off the coast of Spain.
At sea, Lord Nelson and the Royal Navy consistently thwarted Napoleon Bonaparte, who led France to preeminence on the European mainland. Nelson’s last and greatest victory against the French was the Battle of Trafalgar, which began after Nelson caught sight of a Franco-Spanish force of 33 ships. Preparing to engage the enemy force on October 21, Nelson divided his 27 ships into two divisions and signaled a famous message from the flagship Victory: “England expects that every man will do his duty.”
In five hours of fighting, the British devastated the enemy fleet, destroying 19 enemy ships. No British ships were lost, but 1,500 British seamen were killed or wounded in the heavy fighting. The battle raged at its fiercest around the Victory, and a French sniper shot Nelson in the shoulder and chest. The admiral was taken below and died about 30 minutes before the end of the battle. Nelson’s last words, after being informed that victory was imminent, were “Now I am satisfied. Thank God I have done my duty.”
Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar ensured that Napoleon would never invade Britain. Nelson, hailed as the savior of his nation, was given a magnificent funeral in St. Paul’s Cathedral in London. A column was erected to his memory in the newly named Trafalgar Square, and numerous streets were renamed in his honor.
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Who's first book was Pebble in the Sky? | Battle of Trafalgar | Uncyclopedia | Fandom powered by Wikia
“England expects but Lady Hamilton delivers”
~ Nelson
“I may be a cripple but I can beat any other navy one handed”
~ Nelson
~ Duke of Wellington on Nelson
The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October 1805) was a naval battle in which combined French and Spanish fleets were smashed by the British Royal navy under the command of Admiral Nelson Piquet Junior (formerly Horatio Roger Nelson) . [1] The Americans joined after the fighting had finished and claimed it was their 'victory', spinning a story how the US Navy Seals had got hold of the Franco-Spanish sailing times and passed this information to Nelson. When the British denied this happened, the Americans took this as a 'typical ungrateful Limey attitude' and was one of the reasons why the USA declared war on Britain in 1812 as 'pay back.' [2]
The British Pub Singing fleet take on the French Chanson Navy and the Spanish Groove Armada. Also called the Battle of Cheap Lager.
[ show ]
Origins
In 1802 France and Great Britain had signed a peace treaty at Amiens after a decade of trying to kill each other. France had fought under the banner Liberté, égalité, fraternité whilst the English had spilt their blood for Roast Beef, Yorkshire Pudding and Gravy. Both sides admitted they were mutually knackered after ten years of constant war ever since French king Louis XVI and his Austrian apple strudel wife Marie Antoinette had been downsized by a guillotine . The French had beaten or chased away everyone else's army but had been unable to crush the British at sea. This didn't make France's leader Napoleon Bonaparte very happy. He was also looking to upgrade his job as First Ford Consul of the French Republic for something a bit grander like Vice Ford Focus or Emperor Ford Intercontinental. So in 1804 Napoleon had invited Pope Pius VII to Paris for a supposed surprise party and instead held an imperial rave in Notre Dame. Now as Emperor Napoleon I he pretended that as he had a new job, he had no recollection of signing a treaty with the English or anyone called King George III . It would be war again.
In England, poet-singer-guitarist Joseph Strummer summed up the national mood:
England calling to far away France
War is declared, get out of our bus
England calling to our warriors we love
Phoney Francophilia has bitten the dust
The British sent a messenger to their great naval hero, Viscount Horatio Roger Nelson who was living in Sin (a little English hamlet next to the village of Much Fucking) with the blowsy Emma Hamilton. Nelson had been out of favour since he trashed Legoland back in 1801 in a drunken, rum fuelled rage after the battle of Copenhagen . Though the British had won and torched the Danish fleet, Nelson's subsequent on-shore rampage saw the disgraced sea pitbull relegated to the naval reserve on half pay and diluted brandy.
When peace came in 1802, Nelson had retrained as a one-handed gardener to please (and pleasure) Emma. But Nelson missed the sea spray, the sound of seagulls and the company of salty sailors so when the British admiralty offered him the command of the fleet against the old enemy, Nelson grasped the opportunity with one hand. He dropped his hedge-clippers and curlers and reported for duty once more. In a touching scene, Nelson walked out on Emma, telling her he was just popping out to buy a newspaper. It took the raddled floozy a few days to realise her patched-up paramour had gone forever, as Nelson had 'done a runner'.
Chase Me Nelson, Chase me!!
Admiral Nelson Piquet Junior strips off to encourage his sailors. It worked.
French Admiral Villeneuve took extra precautions for the forthcoming battle.
On his arrival in Portsmouth, where the main British fleet were anchored, Nelson ran into one slight problem: No sailors. The British terms and conditions for being one of 'His Majesty's Seafaring Patriots' was flogging, sexual harassment, bad food, years at sea, flogging, piss-poor wages, flogging...in other words, not very attractive at all. In desperation and with a devious mind which comes as second nature to the English, [3] crews were found for the fleet under the false prospectus of 'The Cruise You Won't Forget' package holiday deal. It worked, and before the crews realised what they had really signed up to, Nelson in command of the optimistically named Victory and his fleet were all at sea and hunting down the French.
Over in Paris , Napoleon worked on his plan to beat up the Russians and Austrians , seduce the Spanish , bribe the Prussians and trample the rest. He also ordered his top admiral, French-Canadian Jacques Villeneuve to set sail to the Caribbean with the French fleet to lure the British fleet away. Villeneuve did this by toploading a few ships with the best looking French women he could find and told them to tease the English sailors by flashing their choice body parts. Whilst the English sailors fought each other over telescopes to look at the French lust bait, the French navy slipped out of port and headed off towards the Caribbean . Napoleon meantime ordered his army to hide in triple-axle wagons with secret smuggling compartments, ready for the signal to sneak over the English Channel and take London .
When Nelson heard the news, he flew into a rage and ordered his fleet to give 'the French teasers' chase across the Atlantic. The British sailors hoped this meant they would be able to get some shore leave in Jamaica where the rum was cheap and the women plentiful, but Nelson was determined to fire a broadside up the bottom of Villeneuve. But the French gave him the slip again and were then reported to be returning to Europe. News had been received that a bored Napoleon had disembarked his troops and had gone off to fight the Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz. The invasion of Britain was postponed.
Nelson was not to know this. Angry at being given the slip by Villeneuve, the British hero retired to his cabin and clean-plucked a cage of pigeons in anger. All this typical Gallic flirting had made his crew sick with sexual frustration and him wishing to be back with Emma. By the time Nelson got news the French were now somewhere near Spain . The British fleet were again undermanned and underhanded through desertion.
The Spanish Groove Armada Join In
The Spanish naval uniform was unusual even for those times.
Not wanting to be left out and thinking the British were going to get a Boney bashing, the Spanish declared war against the English under the weak excuse that Nelson had failed to pay his bar bills in Florida . Their admiral was the suspiciously clean-shaven Admiral Fred Carlos Gravina. He was a Sicilian in the service of Spain and so very good at conducting vendettas against enemies. Gravina had a particular hatred for Nelson as the latter had trashed his favourite family-owned Sicilian restaurant Omerta in Palermo. This was when Nelson first met Emma Hamilton at the residence of her husband Sir William Hamilton, then the British ambassador there and the new couple had celebrated by going out with their friends to celebrate with a monstrous drink, sex, and vandalism binge.
When the Spanish sighted Villeneuve's French teasers outside Cadiz, they were invited into the harbour to party like it was 1805. The allied Admirals tried to work out a plan but decided to stay in port in the hope that either Nelson and his fleet would be smashed by a hurricane or Emperor Napoleon had got across the English Channel without their help.
I Spy with My One Good Eye
Nelson's surprising 'surfing man' blond look at the time of Trafalgar.
The British arrived off the coast of Portugal in September 1805. Looking for new 'recruits' to join the fleet, Nelson learnt there were coach parties of Manchester United fans stranded there after a recent football game. Offering the men cheap booze and cheaper women (if they could find any), the British ships were soon fully tanked up with expectant sailors who were told the 'ripe stuff' were being hidden below decks on the French and Spanish ships. They fell for the bribe and happily put on their English football kit to get rid for the mammoth drinking/battle session promised on the 21st October.
In Cadiz, Gravina and Villeneuve realised if they stayed in the flesh pots of Cadiz any longer, they too were be trying to man ships without any crews so they upped anchor and headed out to look for somewhere else to sit out the rest of the war. But then the French and Spanish luck ran out. Just as they were slowly sailing up the coast of Spain near Cape Trafalgar, the English saw them and prepared for battle. This time there would be no time to reverse sail and head back to Cadiz. The winds were against them or perhaps it was strong flatulence blowing down from England. Either way, Nelson and his fleet were waiting.
The Fleets
The Spanish crew of Don Ricky Martin drying off one of the top sails before going into battle.
The Sanctimonious Fernando Alonso , Triple Decker Spanish Chicken Sandwich. Captured by the chirpy Lewis Pussycat Doll Hamilton in the battle but disappeared during a storm when it collided with a sunken shopping trolley.
Trafalgar has often been compared to a giant game of water chess as it took so long for anything to happen. These were the days of sailing ships, which moved very slowly across the sea, and even if you saw an enemy fleet, it still took hours to actually get within firing range. Before then, you could have written a novel, played a few games of Tour of Naval Duty:South China Seas or lost your virginity to the First Mate. Others would write to their loved ones or jump overboard and swim for it but most really would just break out their beers and acquire their infamous ' Dutch Courage' [4] to get ready for a really horrible and messy death.
The two fleets were roughly evenly matched. The British had 27 ships, separated for class reasons into 'First Rates', 'Second Rates', 'Business Rates', 'Economy Rates' and 'Tourist Rates'. The British ships included the mighty Terrible Weather for this Time of Year and the ever reliable Jeeves to provide rum, blood, and sawdust sandwiches when afternoon tea would be served. The French and Spanish had 33 vessels of various sizes and funnier names. They included the biggest ego ship then afloat, the Spanish flagged Sanctimonious Fernando Alonso and the best dressed vessel in any fleet, the Don Ricky Martin .
The French admiral Villeneuve flew his flag from the goose-shaped Foie Gras. The mopey French-Canadian wished, more than ever, that he could be back in Canada , whacking a black disc across an icy lake. Sailing close to his ship was Fromage Mangeant Se Rendre Singe, its monkey mascot tied to the wheel and with what seemed a surplus collection of white sheets. Just in front of them was the twin-hulled Marion Cotillard , bobbing up and down perkily to remind everyone that the French ships were really a lot hotter than the clapped-out cross-channel ferry style boats the English preferred to sail in.
Nelson called a ship-to-ship semaphore on-board conference with his other captains. Up until now, Nelson had not trusted his fellow officers for keeping secrets and had always expected them to spill everything out into the generous bosom of a spy. So it was only now that Nelson revealed his master plan of sailing his fleet in a direct collision course with the Franco-Spanish ships. All those present said it was 'bold, dangerous and suicidal' but Nelson insisted everyone to follow him in the Victory or his second-in-command Vice Admiral Cuthbert-Dibble Grubb Collingwood in the Our Barmy Royal Sovereign . Nelson said that the two columns of British ships would cut the enemy line in two places, cause confusion and end the battle in time for toasted muffins by 4.00pm.
Once the enemy fleet was sighted at midday on the 21st October, it was action stations onboard the Victory. Sailors spliced the mainbrace, whistled up a suitable medley of sea shanties and gave the figurehead one last grope. Nelson looked at the opposition fleet with a spyglass to his one good eye and a kaleidoscope to the other. He then ordered a set of flags to fly from the main mast to signal intent. They read: For those about to rock, we salute you. Hello Trafalgar, it's great to be here in lovely Spain. But as the cannon balls started to fly, the message was obscured and misread as England Expects Everyman To Do The Dirty. (Such is the fog of war.) Nelson then clambered on the prow of the Victory, his faithful friends Sir Stanley Laurel and Oliver Hardy holding him tight as the great naval hero held his arm aloft and pointed towards the Franco-Spanish fleet. Shouting above the noise of herring gulls he shrieked:
Come on you lusty lads! Can you not you smell the sweating socks of Villeneuve just a few leagues away? Remember why we're here. Take the fight to the enemy!!
Phase One:Blowing away the rigging!
The French ship L'escargot suffering from 'battle droop'.
As the Victory dawdled towards the ambling Spanish and French ships, more enemy shot came flying towards towards the leading British vessels. Because the French and Spanish didn't like getting anyone hurt, they deliberately aimed at the sails and rigging of the English ships. They were hoping to slow Nelson down or bring his fleet to a dead halt in the middle of the ocean, but the tactic failed. The Victory broke the line between the French ships Foie Gras and L'escargot. Nelson then ordered a broadside be fired straight into the Foie Gras, a cruel strike which blew out the French sailor's sleeping quarters and fatally damaged the kitchen. Upset by this, the Foie Gras spent the rest of the battle wallowing in self pity whilst Admiral Villeneuve retreated to another room and decided to sleep off the rest of the battle.
The Victory was then run into by the careless L'escargot and the two ships were entangled together like wrestlers in a ring. It was Nelson's bad luck this time, as it meant he was up against one the toughest units in the French fleet. It was crewed by French rugby players who stood up to the hail of beer cans and bottles thrown at them by the Victory's scratch crew. As the French bruisers were poised to jump onto the deck of Nelson flagship's and poke out his one good eye, the suspiciously French-named Temeraire [5] turned up and fired on L'escargot, killing many sailors and filling expensive coiffures with human remains. The embattled crew of the Victory cheered, dropped their bell-bottoms in a brown-eyed salute to their compatriots in the Temeraire, and resumed the battle.
Phase Two:Collingwood gets his act together and Nelson is shot
'Can I have your lottery ticket Nelson?'
Vice Admiral Collingwood's ships had now got into the action when his vessel Our Barmy Royal Sovereign bent the wing mirrors of the Spanish vessel Santa Ana Panda. It got into a heavy ruck as the French Vache Folle came nearby and raided Collingwood's hidden booze collection. The Spanish (sorry, Sicilian) Admiral Gravina on the Sangria ordered his on-board orchestra to play at maximum volume the Mutya Bueno , named after the real life bare breasted woman tied to the ship's prow. Other ships joined in the fight. The Spanish ships Julio Iglesias, his son Enrique Iglesias, and the French-flagged Thierry Henry floated alongside. However, the Thierry Henry then sank when the command All hands on deck was misunderstood to abandon ship.
On the Victory, Nelson and his deputy, Thomas Hardy (Oliver's brother), were on deck, talking about the weather and the shocking state of English cricket , when a musket ball, fired from the rigging of the French ship L'Escargot, hit the British admiral in the shoulder. Thinking he had been hit by a paint ball, Nelson didn't at first do anything but then saw the deck of the ship come rapidly up to his nose. MAN DOWN, MAN DOWN. CODE ONE, REPEAT, CODE ONE... Hardy fell on Nelson to hide him and as the British marines turned their attention back to the French, other sailors smuggled Nelson down below to check on his pockets for loose change. The news wasn't good. Nelson's wound was fatal but he asked to be kept alive until at least the final verse of Good Ship Venus . It would be a very bawdy send off.
Phase Three:French and Spanish ask for a replay and Nelson croaks
The casualties of the battle included these two women who were washed overboard. They were en-route to appear in a nude painting for Francisco Goya . A tragedy.
With Nelson going through the various of phases associated with death (initial pain, stoicism, boredom, dirty story telling, delirium), the French and Spanish ships looked in vain for the referees to stop the battle for half time so that they could go back to Cadiz for urgent repairs. But the British refused to stop and one by one, the allied vessels began to surrender. By the time Nelson died, only the stubborn French ship Sarkozy refused to surrender until it blew up and sank in the smoke of self-importance. One woman did escape and swam to the nearby British ship Rolling Stones. Her plaintive plea was, Meeek..meeek...I know you are big boy down there, save your old friend Carla and I won't talk about.... Captain Michael Jagger brought on her deck and sent Carla to his bed to get warmed up for a nostalgic romp later. [6]
In the confusion, and with many English sailors now blind drunk in celebration, some of the Spanish and French boats did slip away including Admiral Gravina's battered flagship Sangria. However, he had sat on a rusty spoon during the battle and would die a few months later when he refused all medical help to have it removed. Gravina died with the implement still in him, but was hailed in Spain as a great war hero (even though he was Sicilian!).
The French admiral Villeneuve was captured alive and shipped to England as a battle trophy. He complained so much about rain and English cooking that King George III swapped the moaning Frenchman for a new hat. Back in France, Villeneuve tried to explain that Trafalgar wasn't his fault and that at least Nelson was dead, which he counted as a result. Napoleon didn't laugh and told Villeneuve he was 'bad luck' and banished him from the imperial court. A few weeks later, Villeneuve was found dead, his sudden demise being blamed on the disgraced admiral's eccentric decision to re-cut his trousers, fatally stabbing himself six times in the process.
Battle Losses
The British claimed none of their ships were sunk and that all the French and Spanish boats had run up the white flag. As ever, the truth was somewhere between the devil and the deep blue computer. There were many losses and strange captures. The British claimed they hauled on board various famous people who had been running out the guns or barking orders. Amongst the French prisoners were Edith Piaf and Plastic Bertrand (he had floated and was a Belgian , but that was part of France then). Also captured were Johnny Halliday , Brigit Bardot and the cast of Les Miserables . Amongst the Spanish prisoners were Paris Hilton (I got caught up in all this....I thought I was on a fun trip), Rafael Nadal and El Cid . It was quite a bag. But the British also mourned their losses: David Beckham , Wayne Rooney , Rio Ferdinand ....Okay, not so bad then. Victoria Beckham survived but was shunned.
The Americans
Commodore Edward Preble with kitchen roll. He had run out of toilet paper.
Just as the battle was finishing, an American fleet appeared under the command of Commodore Edward Preble. He recently been involved in a War Against Naval Terrorism off the coast of North Africa. Also called the First Barbary-Bush War (it was started when the East African pirate leader Barack Al-Quaida had insulted George Dubya Bush 's mother), Preble's fleet said they were hunting for naval terrorists off the coast of Spain when they heard the noise of battle. The American commodore later inflated his importance in the battle with his book I Won Trafalgar for the Lousy Limeys. American resentment that their role had been ignored upset them so much that they decided to take it out on the Canadians for being so damn ' Lake Superior ' in the War of 1812 .
Aftermath & International Consequences
Following the battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon vowed to beat England by enforcing a trade blockade. He also stopped having baths and switched to regular showers. It was said by France's Foreign minister Charles 'Shit-Stockings' Tallyrand that Napoleon had driven himself nearly half mad by constantly re-fighting Trafalgar in his bath, with rubber ducks as stand-ins for the rival fleets.
Nelson's body was brought back to London inside a Watney's Red Barrel and buried in St. Paul's cathedral upright. A few years later, a new square in London was laid out to commemorate Nelson's victories. It was going to be called 'Up Yours Johnny Foreigner Square', but the name was changed to Trafalgar on the orders of Queen Victoria so as not to offend her German husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg- Goiter .
Trafalgar and Hollywood
A film titled Red in the Water was made some years after with Tom Hanks as Nelson and Hugh Grant as the French admiral Jacques Villeneuve. Penelope Cruz appeared in a rare cross gender role as the Spanish admiral Gravina (even though he wasn't Spanish). Taking most of the screen time was Will Smith , cast as the U.S. Navy Seal 'Flip Flipper' who stole the French and Spanish naval code books and passed them to the ungrateful British. When Flipper reminds them after the Battle of Trafalgar about what he has done, the bashful Brits abolish the Slave Trade but carry on slavery for another 25 years as part of a 'transition process'.
Grant's casting as the French admiral caused some upset in Britain, but the director Steven Spielberg said this was normal, as only the Brits could play sneering villains on screen. He also said Americans wouldn't have accepted a British actor in the role of Nelson, but Hanks' horrible attempt at sounding British placed his accent closer to Bondi Beach than the Norfolk Broads. [7] .
Some of the other ships involved
British sailors engage in some wrestling before the battle
Britain:
The French play bad losers and sink their own ships.
FNS Celine Dion
USS FoxNews
Footnotes
↑ Nelson had torn up his British passport in 1802 and had applied for Brazilian citizenship when he was apparently 'permanently drydocked' after an incident after the Battle of Copenhagen. So technically Nelson was 'stateless'. The British hushed this story up, but to this day, Brazilians claim Nelson as one of their own by adoption.
↑ Being ungrateful and imperially minded was later carried on by the Americans after 1945.
↑ In the spirit of Nelson, England and Britain are synonymous in this article. So if you're Irish , Scottish , or Welsh reading this - tough Paris Hilton titties.
↑ The English were convinced everyone else needed to get drunk to fight. They didn't need any excuse.
↑ It was a British spy ship, hence the name to confuse the enemy.
↑ He later dropped her off the side when she 'nagged' him.
↑ Nelson always said that, after the war, he would go back to Norfolk with his own broad, a comment he was careful not to repeat when Emma was about.
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Whose original back up group were The Blue Moon Boys? | Singers.com - List of Doo Wop Acappella Groups
4 Ever Young
Founded in 1997, all-male Doo Wop quartet 4 Ever Young, from the Dallas/Ft. Worth Metroplex, is the brainchild of Bruce Smith, who set out to assemble an a cappella Doo-Wop group to help keep alive the music he used to sing on the streets of Brooklyn, NY, and perform with the Deacons and the Montclairs in the 50s and 60s. 16 Doo-Wop standards, "Barbara Ann," "So Much In Love, "Sunday Kind of Love," Book of Love," "Blue Moon," "At My Front Door," "409," "In the Still of the Night," "Monster Mash," "Charlie Brown" ...you get the idea. There's also a pretty cool cover of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" as a Doo-Wop song. These guys are smooth as silk, professional, authentic and spot on key-one of the best Doo-Wop CDs we've heard this year!
Alley Cats
By bringing their own contemporary style to tunes from the 1950s and 60s, The Alley Cats appeal to fans of all ages, breathing new life into everyone's favorite doo-wop classics. The four members of The Alley Cats are a perfect blend both vocally and personally. More than a decade after they began, Royce Reynolds, whose solid bass vocals create the Cats' musical foundation, and Mando Fonseca, the second tenor always ready with a pun or quick quip, have the ease of familiarity which make their camaraderie and vocal play radiate from the stage. Baritone Sean Devine, whose smooth vocals melt hearts the world over, and newest member Juan Del Castillo, re-creator of all of those soaring 50s first tenor lines, bring their freshness and talent to an already solid foundation of a cappella tradition. Together they are truly the Cat's meow!
Arrogants
Formed in 1959 in Brooklyn, New York, The Arrogants performed on street corners and at show clubs and dances in New York City's vibrant Doo-wop scene of the early nineteen sixties. In 1962, after recording two demos in Brooklyn ("My Heart Stood Still" and "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me"), they ventured to California and recorded 2 songs for Lute Records: "Canadian Sunset" and "Mirror, Mirror". The producer of the Lute sessions was Marshall Lieb, who had a hit in 1960 as a singer with the Hollywood Argyles on the song "Alley Oop", and the Mar-Keys provided instrumental accompaniment.
Belmonts
Dion & The Belmonts (named for a neighborhood street - Belmont Avenue), one of the defining vocal groups of the late 1950's, members were Dion DiMucci - lead, Fred Milano and Angelo D'Aleo on tenor, and Carlo Mastroangelo on bass. At first Dion and The Belmonts were separate entities although they both recorded for the small independent Mohawk label - Dion with "The Chosen Few" and "Out In Colorado" and The Belmonts with "Teenage Clementine" and "Santa Margarita" none of which were hits. They then signed with Laurie Records and now together recorded "I Wonder Why" which became a big hit. They had several other hits such as "When You Wish Upon A Star" and "Where Or When" but in 19601 they parted ways with Dion DiMucci going on to successful solo career.
Brylcream
Brylcream got it1s start in 1992 with Tommy "Cool T" Welter, John "Wopp" Mina, Richard "Richie" Beattie, Gary "G Man" Groneman, and Roy "Wolfman" Conklin. Since thier beginnings, Brylcream has graced the stages across the Southeast with many ledgendary performers such as The Coasters, Joey D and The Startlighers, Davey Jones and The Monkees, Johnny Maestro and his Brooklyn Bridge, The Temptations, The Four Tops, and many more. Today, Cool T, Wopp, and Richie join Jason "Jay Bird" Sullivan and Billy "Billy D" Louth, to form one of Southwest Florida's most requested Doo Wop Groups.
Cat's Pajamas Vocal Band
The Cat's Pajamas are 5 men who creates all the sounds of a band using only their voices. The group was formed in 2005 by Brian Skinner and Nate Mendl who both share a passion and drive for performing and music production. The two had previously worked together in college groups at The University of Wisconsin such as the Wisconsin Singers and a cappella groups the MadHatters and Redefined. The first time The Cat's PJs ever performed together was for the 2005 Oreo Cookie Jingle competition. They then recorded a demo and searched everywhere for gigs until their first big break when they were offered a 6 month stint on Celebrity Cruise Lines as the in house a cappella group.
DC Finest aka Doo Wop Cops
The Doo Wop Cops - a cappella officers, who have gone from walking their beats to keeping the beat - have entertained presidents and have performed side-by-side with stars of the music world including Chuck Berry, the Dells and the Drifters. All members of D.C's Finest are Washingtonians who attended local schools and sang at some points in their lives with a doo wop group in the 50s and 60s. Those years are revisited each time the group takes to the stage with their a cappella nostalgic renditions of songs of the past as well as some of the current hits. They have appeared on FOX, ABC,CBS,NBC and have appeared in People Magazine, Washingtonian,Wall Street Journal, Southern Living and more. Their legacy doesn't stop there however, they are most known for their dedication to the kids in America. They have visited many schools throughout the United States with an anti-drug, anti handgun program that has proven to be very effective.
Encounters
The Encounters originated in the Bushwick section of Brooklyn, mid 1963. By the end of the year they had a recording contract with Swan Records and recorded an original, "Don't Stop", written by Joe Venneri (Tokens)& Billy Carlucci (Billy & the Essentials). From 1963 to 1979 the group entertained in the Laurel's Country Club,The NY Hilton and the Friars Club as well as hundreds of corporate and private affairs.
They have appeared with and have opened shows for Earl Lewis & the Channels, Speedo & The Cadillacs, Arlene Smith & the Chantels, Lenny Coco & The Chimes, The Duprees, Randy & The Rainbows, The Emotions, The Devotions, The Dubs, Larry Chance & The Earls, Freddie Scott, Johnny Maestro & The Brooklyn Bridge, Emil Stucchio & the Classics, The Jive Five, The Passions, The Fireflies, The Harptones, The Monotones, Vito Piccone & the Elegants, The Five Discs , the Quotations, Kenny Vance and the Planotones, The Legends of DooWop and The Temptations.
Five Discs
The Five Discs were one of several doo-wop groups (Carollons, Chips, etc.) to trace their origins to the Bedford-Stuyvesant district of Brooklyn, New York, USA. They were formed in 1954 by Joe Brocco (lead), Joe Barsalona (baritone), Paul Albano (first tenor) and Tony Basile (second tenor). Composed of Italian-descended young men and originally titled the Flames, they subsequently shuffled the pack by adding black singers Mario deAndrade and Andrew Jackson from the Love Notes. This produced a new line-up of deAndrade (lead), Jackson (bass), Albano (first tenor), Basile (second tenor) and Barsalona (baritone), though membership remained fluid over ensuing years. After recording demos at Bell Sound studios in New York the group started to offer these to interested parties. There were no takers until songwriter Billy Martin introduced them to the proprietors of the Emge Records label. They were still titled the Flames when they cut deAndrade's song "I Remember", but when it was released they had chosen a new name, the Five Discs.
Flamingos
Cousins Jacob Carey (Jake) and Ezikial Carey (Zeke) formed the group in Chicago, Illinois, after meeting Paul David Wilson and Johnny Carter at a black Jewish church. Earl Lewis soon joined, and after a series of name changes (The Swallows, El Flamingos, The Five Flamingos) wound up being known as The Flamingos. Sollie McElroy soon replaced Lewis (who joined The Five Echoes). Their first single (for Chance Records), "If I Can't Have You", was a moderate success, and the follow-ups "That's My Desire" and "Golden Teardrops" cemented their reputation. They left Chance Records sometime after their December 1953 session and signed with DJ Al Benson's Parrot Records. Sollie McElroy was on their first Parrot session, but left the group in December 1954, to be replaced by first tenor Nate Nelson (who was on their second Parrot session; he's lead on "I'm Yours," released in January 1955). In early 1955, the Flamingos transferred over to Chess Records, to record for their Checker subsidiary. They started to have national R&B hits in 1956 ("I'll Be Home," "A Kiss From Your Lips," "The Vow," "Would I Be Crying"), but both Zeke Carey and Johnny Carter were drafted (Johnny in September). They were also part of the 1956 Alan Freed movie Rock, Rock, Rock.
Gel Caps
Since 1989, when the original members -- Bill Beasley, Russell Horsch, and Mike Reed -- first appeared together at the Michigan Theater in Jackson, MI for a Christmas show, The GelCaps have drawn a following of fans at car shows, bars, parties and many other events throughout lower Michigan, performing a cappella doo-wop in the traditional streetcorner style. They have performed for actor Jeff Daniels at the Purple Rose Theater in Chelsea, MI and at private parties in his home. In the 1996 election year they wrote and performed a song for Pat Paulsen's Presidential campaign. They also made it onto Zack Butler's list of "Silly Band Names" for March 1, 1999. Their music seems to appeal to all ages -- some people are taken back to younger days and simpler times, while others just appreciate the pure sounds and vocal intricacies of tight a cappella harmonies.
Harbor Lights
With the amazing success of the musical hit "Jersey Boys" touring throughout the country, and the even more recent emergence of "Straight No Chaser" into the marketplace, the a cappella Doo Wop sound has never been more in the forefront. Audiences of all ages are thirsting for this fun, uplifting harmonic vocal style that simply makes you feel really good.
Five seasoned entertainers with individual histories of performances at The Whitehouse in DC, the 100th Olympiad in Atlanta, live international broadcasts on Voice of America, and tours in Europe to entertain US troops, George Carl, Dave Mitchell, Cheryl De rosier, Jimmy Calinski and Fernando Rodriguez came together 10 years ago to become Harbor Lights.
Jay, Ray and Gee
This group sings a cappella doo-wop on the streets of New Orleans, Louisiana in the French Quarter for hundreds of thousands of tourists per year. The group also appeared in the Paramount Motion Picture "Double Jeopardy" as the "Jackson Square Singers." The cameo comes up about mid-movie, when Ashley Judd's character reaches New Orleans by plane and "Amazing Grace" can be heard in the background. Then during the next scene, Ashley Judd takes a brief stroll in Jackson Square in search of her treacherous husband's whereabouts and passes in front of the group as they continue singing Amazing Grace for a few bars.
The members consist of Jerome Alexander, Arzia Harris, Barth Phillips, and Reginald Ringo. The group has been singing a cappella since the Summer of 1994. The group performs as a trio, quartet, and occasionally a quintet with alternate vocalists Joseph Maize and/or Avist Martin. The group traveled to London as ambassadors for Southern Comfort recently. They constantly perform for visiting corporate conventions and destination planners; doing everything from singing people off and on tour busses, to opening meetings and getting corporate executives out of their seats to the Motown sound or an Elvis tune.
Little Anthony and the Imperials
Little Anthony and the Imperials were one of the finest vocal groups to emerge from the talent-rich New York scene. Moreover, they enjoyed unusual longevity for an act of that type, having hits in both the doo-wop Fifties and the soul-music Sixties. They outlasted their peers by virtue of "Little Anthony" Gourdine's powerful, beseeching vocals and the consummate professionalism of the Imperials, who mastered a broad range of material and knew how to work a stage.v
It all started in Brooklyn, where Gourdine and friends grew up in the throes of the vocal-group craze. His first groups were called the Duponts (after the chemical company) and the Chesters. The latter group got signed to music-biz impresario George Gouldner's End Records. Wanting a name more regal than the Chesters, the label rechristened them the Imperials. It was Alan Freed, then an influential New York disc jockey and concert promoter, who christened Gourdine "Little Anthony," for the youthful quality in his voice. Both Freed and fellow deejay/promoter Murray Kaufman (a.k.a. "Murray the K") liked Little Anthony and the Imperials and helped launch their career with airplay and concert bookings.
Los Zafiros
Formed in 1962, Los Zafiros were a vocal quartet augmented by the guitarist and arranger Manuel Galban. Originally inspired by American vocal groups such as the Platters and the Coasters, they soon added their own Cuban flavour to create a unique and heady mix of doo-wop, ballads and boleros, soul and samba, tumbaos and twists. They were unique among vocal groups in that they had three lead singers amongst Ignacio Elejalde and his sweet, high tenor, Eduardo Elio Hernandez, Miguel Cancio and Leoncio 'Kike' Morua. But in many ways it was Galban who was the architect of the Los Zafiros sound, as instrumentalist, composer and, with Kike, arranger of the vocal parts. "I don't know why they chose me," he says. "To play the guitar with a vocal quartet was a novelty and therefore rather difficult. But pianos were starting to disappear from a lot of venues so a guitar was a good alternative. They also needed a musical director. They were a success from the moment they appeared and my job was to support them and perfect and develope the sound."
Marcels
The Marcels were a doo-wop group known for turning American classical pop songs into rock and roll. The group formed in 1959 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and signed to Colpix Records, with lead Cornelius Harp, bass Fred Johnson, Gene Bricker, Ron Mundy, and Richard Knauss. The group was named by Fred Johnson's younger sister Priscilla, after a popular hair style of the day, the marcel wave. In 1961 many were surprised to hear a new version of the ballad "Blue Moon" that began with the bass singer saying, "bomp-baba-bomp" and "dip-da-dip." The record sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. It is featured in The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll.
MC6
MC6 is an a cappella performing group founded in 2004 by six friends who love to sing and who share a passion for the power of the human voice. Reaching back through the years, MC6 will bring your doo-wop favorites from the 50's and 60's to the stage in a way you've never heard before. By combining smooth harmonies with moving rhythms and lively vocal percussion, MC6 showcases a unique sound and a rousing live performance.
Mighty Echoes
The Mighty Echoes were founded at the Olio Theater in Los Angeles in 1986 at the end of a long running musical by Harvey Shield 1284: The Pied Piper. Shortly thereafter they appeared on Who's the Boss as Tony Danza'a high school group the Dreamtones. This led to subsequent appearances on Murphy Brown, Family Matters, the MTV Superbowl Show and a featured role as the singing firemen in the Dennis Quaid, Debra Winger film Wilder Napalm.Over the years the Echoes have had the profound pleasure of performing with many greats from the pantheon of Rock and Roll, such as Ray Charles, Stevie Wonder, Chuck Berry, Richard "Louie Louie" Berry, The Shirelles, Little Anthony, The Coasters, The Penguins, Gene Chandler, The Dixie Cups, The DuPrees, The Crew Cuts, The Chordettes, The Diamonds, Miss Patty Page, The Four Seasons, Tony Orlando, The Moody Blues, Lou Reed and many more.
Moonglows
Among the most seminal R&B and doo wop groups of all time, the Moonglows' lineup featured some of the genre's greatest pure singers. The original lineup from Louisville included Bobby Lester, Harvey Fuqua, Alexander Graves, and Prentiss Barnes, with guitarist Billy Johnson. They were originally called the Crazy Sounds, but were renamed by disc jockey Alan Freed as the Moonglows. The group also cut some recordings as the Moonlighters. Their first major hit was the number one R&B gem "Sincerely" for Chess in 1954, which reached number 20 on the pop charts. They enjoyed five more Top Ten R&B hits on Chess from 1955 to 1958, among them "Most of All," "We Go Together," "See Saw," and "Please Send Me Someone to Love," as well as "Ten Commandments of Love." Fuqua, the nephew of Charlie Fuqua of the Ink Spots, left in 1958. He recorded "Ten Commandments of Love" as Harvey & the Moonglows with Marvin Gaye, Reese Palmner, James Knowland, and Chester Simmons before founding his own label, Tri-Phi. Fuqua created and produced the Spinners in 1961 and wrote and produced for Motown until the early '70s. The Moonglows disbanded in the '60s, then reunited in 1972 with Fuqua, Lester, Graves, Doc Williams, and Chuck Lewis. In 2000 The Moonglows were inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame.
Quiet Storm
Quiet Storm is a vocal harmony group specializing in Classic and Contemporary Rhythm and Blues and Soul. The group is able to sing and perform acapella as well as with music. Quiet Storm is a Philadelphia based group that began in the spring of 2007. Started by Kamau "Smitty" Akiba who has sang and recorded with The Informers on J-Rude and Blackjack labels in the sixties and again from 2005 to 2006, Quiet Storm's intention is to bring back music that speaks about love situations from the heart. They wants to sing about those messages of love that speak of loving a woman as a whole person instead of a collection of body parts. Initially, the group started rehearsing in members homes, on porches, subways, and shopping malls, until settling down at Columbia Rehearsal Studios. Over the first six to nine months, the membership fluctuated with personnel changes for a variety of reasons. However, in the winter of 2007 the perfect mix of members emerged! It is now a perfect blend of brothers who equally share the dedication, belief, spirit, drive and cooperation fundamental to making a group as "ONE".
Reunion
Reunion was formed in the spring of 1981, when members of two disbanded street-corner groups, (the Chime-Times and the Memo's) joined together to drink some beer and sing some songs. It all started when two old friends were reminiscing about their teen-age years, and singing in a street-corner group, in Brick, NJ. The two, Dennis Chervenak and Ron Meyer, wondered if there were others who still enjoyed singing the doowop songs they grew up with. They put a classified ad in a local paper, and waited to see if there was any response.
The first call they had was from a guy who said that he sang lead in a group when he was a teen-ager in Brick, and the group was called the Chime-Times. Ron said,"Is this Steve Schmidt", he answered yes, who's this! The next day another phone call brought us "Singin Eddie" Velasquez, and two fellow members of the Memo's, Lou Spinelli and Steve D'Onofrio.
So, we started out as six-man group, with Steve Schmidt, and Steve D'Onofrio doing most of the leads. We never intended to perform for anything other than friends and family, but soon found ourselves singing in a Talent Show. A friend of Lou and Ed's, got us our first paying job, singing in a bowling alley bar in Union, NJ. We were the opening act for the main groups, Mixed Company and The Emery's.
Royal Counts
Jersey based group from the 60's had a loyal following in the area but never enjoyed the national success they desereved. Combining elements of doo-wop and soul, the Royal Counts were produced by Relic Record's Stan Krause, as were his later discovery, the Persuasions, and the sound of the two groups is similar.
Sheps
The Sheps are without a doubt one of the most popular acappella groups in the N.Y.- N.J. circuit today. We have the credentials to prove it! The five part vocal group consists of original members, Tommie Shider and Richie Camacho, along with Charles Coleman and Johnnie Barlow. All residing in New Jersey. Tommy Lockhart, the fifth member lives in New York. All five members have "paid their dues" so to speak, as in gaining experience to form one of the most unique blends of harmony today! They are all committed to singing many songs that other groups won't even touch. It is for the fact that they do these obscure songs so well, that it is no wonder that a fan club was formed immediately after their very first performance! Upon receiving awards and plaques over the years, this has not changed the way the guys feel about 'really keeping the music alive!" Also these fellows have one of the highest reputations for being back-up forces for such greats as Pirkle Lee Moses, leader of the Eldorados, Otis Williams leader of the legendary Charms, Ray Wooten, leader of the Mellow Moods, Johnny Bragg, leader of the Prisonaires, Ray Pollard, leader of the Wanderers, the incredible Ruth McFadden, Bobby Mansfield, leader of the Wrens, Harvey Fuqua of the Moonglows, along with an impressive list of many more. With all this going for them, they still find the time to create their original songs in which they are constantly turning out.
Silk City
Silk City is one of Manhattan's finest acappella vocal groups specializing in the group harmony sound of the 50's and early 60's. This dynamic doo-wop group has performed throughout the metropolitan area at a variety of nightclubs, restaurants, oldies shows, and every type of private, public, and corporate function. Not only have the New York Times, New York Newsday, the Bergen Record, the Star-Ledger, and the Hartford Courant written about this exciting group, but Silk City has also been the subject of a television news segment on WABC-TV. Of special note, this group has had the distinct honor of being the first acappella doo-wop group to perform in the Grand Ballroom of the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. And back some twenty-plus years ago, when the group was first establishing itself in the group harmony scene, SILK CITY also had the honor of being presented with the Gus Gossert Memorial Award after being voted the best new vocal group by the members of the United in Group Harmony Association (U.G.H.A.), the largest organization of doo-wop music enthusiasts in the country.
Stormy Weather
Stormy Weather, a Damon Runyon-esque quintet of Hoosiers from the steel mill area of Gary/ Hammond, Indiana is the chief proponent of the nation's revitalized a cappella doo-wop sound. Growing up, they all idolized local residents, the Spaniels, of "Goodnight, Sweetheart, Goodnight" fame.
The group has recorded eight albums, including the highly touted seasonal record entitled "Street Carols," which itself has become a holiday classic. Also, a cameo-recording on Rhino Records' sports music perennial, "Baseball's Greatest Hits." Their children's series, "Doo-Wop & Lollipops," has won numerous awards, including the Parent's Choice Gold Award and the Parent's Guide to Children's Media Award.
Stormy Weather's latest release is "Looking for an Echo," their Silver Anthology containing 27 tracks marking the group's 25th Anniversary, which features the official song of the Millennium, entitled "Lady Millennium."
Swallows
Collectors have made the Swallows one of the most beloved of R&B groups. Their haunting ballads and risque up-tempo novelties are perennial favorites. The origin of The Swallows goes back to 1946, when a bunch of 13-year-olds from Baltimore formed a group called the "Oakaleers." The members were: Lawrence Coxson (lead tenor), Irving Turner (tenor and baritone), Earl Hurley (first and second tenor and bongos), Norris "Bunky" Mack (bass, piano, guitar, and drums), and another tenor named Gavin. They were thus a self-contained unit in terms of vocals and instrumental accompaniment.
The Oakaleers practiced on street corners for a couple of years. Then, around 1948, they ran into a couple of guys who also sang on the corner: Eddie Rich (first tenor) and Frederick "Money Guitar" Johnson (baritone and guitar). (Rich and Johnson were childhood friends and eventual brothers-in-law.) Interestingly, Johnson, a lefty, taught himself to play a right-handed guitar held upside down.
Tokens
The Tokens are well-known for one giant hit song that they put on the charts in late 1961, and the members of the group continued on in the music business in various capacities following the success of that hit.
The Lion Sleeps Tonight, also known as Wimoweh, is a Zulu song that had been sung by a tribe in South Africa. There are indications that the song originated with Solomon Linda, who wrote it as Mbube and had a hit with it on Gallotone Records in South Africa, in 1939. The Weavers recorded it as Wimoweh before the Tokens picked up on it and recorded their own spirited version of the song for RCA in 1961.
Following the success of The Lion Sleeps Tonight, the Tokens put nine more songs in the top 100 from 1962 to 1970, two of which made it to the top forty: I Hear Trumpets Blow on their own B. T. Puppy label and Portrait Of My Love on Warner. Portrait Of My Love had been a top ten hit for Steve Lawrence earlier in the decade.
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Britannia female embodiment of Britain who is the French? | Detroit Memories
Memories of metro Detroit in the
'50s, '60s, and '70s
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You remember that Jo-Jo Shutty, who made history as the first female helicopter news traffic and
reporter in the U.S and Canada for CKLW radio, was married to CK's legendary news broadcaster
Byron MacGregor.
You remember no music broadcasts on Sunday nights...except on WJLB the soul station. They
would play Aretha Franklin, Temps, Marvin Gaye, Jackie Wilson. Their main sponsor was the
Gold Room at the Twenty Grand Nightclub. "Come on down to the Golf Room at the Twenty Grand,
where one bean will put you on the scene, so be keen, like Ernie D."
You remember near Thanksgiving time, Ted Strasser and his program, Patterns in Music, on WJR,
and his lovely reading of the last two leaves entitled "Winter."
You listened each night to the smooth voice of Bud Guest on WJR as he read his dad's poems
and played soothing music.
You remember Les Martens and "Music 'Til Dawn" sponsored by American Airlines on WWJ-AM radio.
Going to the Hullabaloo to see local bands like The Unrelated Segments and The Rationals.
You shopped at Wrigley's where they had child-sized grocery carts.
You remember Mr. Belvedere's backup slogan, "You'll look at it, you'll love it, and you'll
take your time paying for it," and how CKLW's Bozo, Art Cervi, used to quote that line on
Bozo's Big Top to Mr. Calliope (pronounced Cal-e-opie)
You had your first hot bagels ever from the New York Bagel Factory on Linwood while working
as a jumper on a Detroit News truck.
Sylvia Allen's Craft Shop in the old fire station at Waterworks Park on Jefferson and Cadillac.
Buying your first two-wheel bike at Ned's on Woodward between Collingwood and Calvert.
You know "Brewster the Goebel Rooster" was the Detroit Tigers sponsor.
Went to the National Bank of Detroit (downtown) to try on a glass slipper to see if it fit --
to make you feel like Cinderella -- and get a candy bar if it didn't.
You listened to The Electrifying Mojo (Charles Johnson) on WJLB at night as he landed
the mothership, and funkified listeners as members of the Midnight Funk Association.
You loved the Plantation Cake at Stouffer's and remember that when the Southfield restaurant
closed, that was the only recipe they published in the newspaper.
You remember the German U-505 submarine visit to Detroit in the early '50s.
You can answer the question, "When was the last time you had a good slug of the Redpop?"
You saw Johnny Pfeiffer in lights on the side of the Pfeiffer beer blimp.
The Gratiot Auto Supply TV commercials with the well-endowed Miss Hurst Golden Shifter
(Linda Vaughn) and her tag line "Gratiot Auto's BIG warehouse tent sale."
You reported to Fort Wayne when you were drafted, and your draft card was signed by
Pearl Wiggle.
You ate at the Mayflower Coffee Shop on Woodward, a block north of Hudson's, and recall
this saying on their menu:
As you travel through this life, Brother
What ever be your goal
Keep your eye upon the doughnut
And not upon the hole.
You collected door-to-door for (Detroit-native) Danny Thomas's St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, and then going to the fabulous free concert for volunteers at Cobo Arena with
Motown's top stars.
You spent Friday nights at the Riveria Theater for the WKMH Rock and Roll Review.
You phoned WOodward 3-8800 and had The Detroit Times delivered.
You remember Lee Alan's Annual Christmas Tribute to soldiers near and far away,
"A Letter From Michael."
You remember playing your first hockey game outdoors at Wonderland on Schoolcraft.
You remember fish sandwiches and Vernor's floats from Biff's, and Blue Moon ice cream from
Stroh's — especially on hot summer evenings.
Rain or shine, you took the Concourse — not the street — between the New Center, Fisher
and GM buildings.
You had soup and a reuben sandwich for lunch at the GM Cafeteria in the basement of the
GM Building.
You remember seeing Harriet Berg and the Renaissance Dancers entertaining for the
Wassail Feast at the Detroit Art Institute.
You raced slot cars at Miller Feed Store in Redford.
You called Fenkell "Finkle."
You remember when Ernie Harwell invited Ty Tyson back to be a guest commentator for the
Detroit Tigers in 1965.
You remember Al Nagler calling the Red Wings games in the 50's on WJBK.
You ordered groceries from Parkstone Market in Detroit and had them delivered to your house.
You remember when WKMH held a disk jockey contest and the winner would replace vacationing
Robin Seymour. Ted LaFramboise from Lincoln Park High School was the winner.
You remember Carson Zeiter, the track announcer of the old Motor City Speedway at 8 Mile and Schoenherr, as "The Voice of the Speedway."
You spent many weekend nights on College Road near Henry Ford College in your GTO, Corvette, Mustang, Super Stock Dodge or Plymouth for a little heads-up street racing.
You remember the Marshall Wells Farm Report at 5:30 am on WJR.
You ice skated at Precious Blood field in the winter and swam at Butzel Pool in the summer.
You exercised with Ed Allen on Channel 4.
You listened to Bing Crosby sound-alike Jack Harris on WJR every morning.
You remember hearing Karl Haas on WJR say, "Good MORNING, everyone!"
You saw the Ice Capades at Olympia Stadium where the ushers wore red jackets and white and red police-style hats, and your feet would freeze if you sat too close to the ice.
Your parents took you to The Paradiso Café (Woodward & 6 Mile) where the controversial
Father Coughlin (pastor of the Shrine of the Little Flower) was a regular.
You remember the tiger teeth that came onto the tv screen whenever a Detroit Tiger would hit
a home-run during the 1972 season when Billy Martin was the manager.
You remember the toboggan run at Charles Dorais Park (Derby Hill) and the ice rink at
Farwell Field.
You remember newscaster Dick Westerkamp on WWJ-TV Channel 4, who began every broadcast by saying "Good evening, I'm Dick Westerkamp. The temperature in Detroit is ___."
You listened to jazz on WABX: "This is Rockwell, and these are records."
You remember going to the Boy's Club on Livernois off Michigan Ave.
You remember listening to "Joltin'' Joe Howard on WCHB.
You remember Butterball Jr. broadcasting live from White's Record Shop at 14th and Ferry Park on WCHB-AM and WCHD-FM who said "Wade Briggs is my Christian name; Butterball Jr. is my claim
to fame."
You went to Epps Army Surplus, Kay's Soda Shop, Curtis Market, S&C Restaurant and Varsity Lanes...all on Livernois.
You remember Sonny Eliot saying "Drizzling and breezy, or 'dreezy' weather today." Or you ate
at his restaurant, Sonny's Weather Station, at City Airport.
You heard the Gaylords (some of them Pershing HS grads) sing at famous places in Detroit.
You attended the 12-night celebration of the 250th anniversary (in 1951) of the founding of the Detroit
held in the old University of Detroit football stadium at Livernois and Six Mile Road.
You went to Bonnie Brook Clubhouse to hear Denny McLain play the Hammond organ.
You watched cowboy Justice Colt (played by JD Beemer, son of Lone Ranger radio actor
Brace Beemer) host movies on CKLW and WXYZ, sponsored by Party Sweet Candies.
You played pinball at the Time Zone Arcade on 7 Mile across from Osborn HS.
You listened to Rex the Singing Weatherman every morning on WDRQ 93.1 who made the weather reports interesting by singing out the town names, like "and it's 73 deeeeegreeees in Wyyyyyandotte."
You recall the Farmer Street exit from Hudson's where, if you managed to pass through the
Baked Goods department without several purchases, you were not human. And outside that door was stationed a tall, uniformed doorman who helped people in and out of their cars. A vision of strength and support, the personification of the J.L. Hudson building itself.
You remember JP McCarthy's Christmas sing-alongs in front of City Hall, later at Kennedy Square, complete with hot chocolate and donuts for all, and his charity golf outings. But mostly his voice over
the WJR airwaves, with a demeanor capable of softening the hardest of hearts.
You remember Jax Car Wash billboards that proclaimed, "A clean car rides better."
You know that Rouge Park's Spinoza Drive was also known as Lover's Lane.
On your rotary phone, you dialed WEATHER (WE 2-8437) or WE 2-1212 to hear the current weather
report, and GR 2-1212 (GR for Greenwich time) to get the current time.
You remember Penway, the local Polish radio and TV repair shop whose TV commercials advertised
their phone number as: Piec szesc siedm, osiem osiem zero zero.
You remember the great hydroplane races on the Detroit River broadcast live on WXYZ. Detroit teams fielded boats named "Gale", "Gale's Roostertail", "Smirnoff", "Miss U.S."
Sitting on the rocks at a park on the Detroit River and watching the boats sliding sideways
as they made the turn at almost 100 miles per hour during the hydroplane races.
You can still hear "W-K W-K WKMH, thirteen ten on your dial."
You know that WKMH broadcast from the Town House hotel in Detroit in 1956.
You can't hear Ray Charles' song What'd I Say without thinking that on Sunday you need to
"take Telegraph Road to Sibley and drive one mile east to Dix." Or to the voice of the
Detroit Dragway, Rube Weiss, who, among others, recorded their commercials.
You went to Uncle Russ' (Gibbs) Love-In.
You attended Annual Model Airplane Show on Belle Isle sponsored by Plymouth, with model planes
from all over the world: jet powered, motor driven, biplanes, dogfights, carrier landing aircraft,
large/small planes...and every size in between.
You hung out at the Dipsey Doodle Drive-in, corner of 9 Mile and Telegraph in Southfield ~
and loved their delicious DD burgers!
You ate at the Pickwick House restaurant with its neon sign and cozy wood interior.
You drove by WXYZ's Fred Wolf broadcasting his morning show from the "Wandering Wigloo" trailer parked on Jefferson Avenue.
You went to Dave's Hideout on Harper and Fleetwood.
You remember Uncle Sam's, Silver Dollar, and the other bars and clubs along Telegraph.
You watched 25 cent movies at the Eastown Theater on Harper and Van Dyke during the '60s
and then saw Joe Cocker play there in the '70s.
You remember the elderly European gentleman in front of Hudson's selling steamed chestnuts.
You picked up hot pizza and fresh canoli at Detroit Italian Baking Co. on Gratiot and Frazho.
You shopped at A.L. Damman Hardware on Kelly Road and Papes House of Gifts
on Houston-Whittier.
You remember Jo Mendie, the chimp at the Detroit Zoo that roller skated and rode a tricycle.
You remember the Detroit mounted police patrolling Woodward Ave.
You remember using your school bus card so you could ride for the DSR for a dime.
You called the Pipeline on Saturday afternoons and shouted out your phone number in hopes
that a teen (of the opposite sex, of course) would call you back.
You never called 6 Mile “McNichols.”
You remember Prophet Jones and Father Divine.
When S.S. Kresge opened their discount stores as K-Mart.
Redeeming pop bottles for a bag full of penny candy at Eddie's Barbershop and Candy Store.
You remember when the underground conveyor at the new Northland would take your grocery purchase
to the parking lot.
You could find anything you needed at Michigan & Schaefer: Federal's, S.S. Kresge, Revco,
Marianne's, Great Scott!, Sanders, "Monkey" Wards, Winkelman's, Frank's and Peach's Records.
You roller skated at the 9 Mile & Van Dyke Motor City Roller Rink.
You remember reading Edgar A. Guest poems in the Detroit Free Press.
You went to the big dances hosted by Tom Clay at the Light Guard Armory.
Or to Father Bryson's Friday night sock hops at Notre Dame HS hosted by Dave Prince
where you saw Stevie Wonder, Bob Seger and the Last Heard and the Rationals.
You listened to Tom Shannon ("The sun never sets on the Shannon Empire") and his nightly
show on CKLW radio called "Bear Skin Rug."
You danced at The Mummp at Northland Shopping Center.
When the Brown's or Wayne Creamery milkman delivered glass bottles of milk in his
horse-drawn wagon, and a small sign in your window let him know how many quarts you needed.
Or when the Ice Man, who wore a big leather apron and a leather cover on this shoulder, delivered big blocks of ice using a huge pair of tongs from a straw-filled wooden wagon.
You watched WKBD TV 50 and remember their song "In Detroit, The Kids' Choice Is TV 50."
You went to Cobo Hall as a little girl and stood in a very long line to try on a glass slipper to see if it fit. Prince Charming assisted. If it didn't fit, you got a beautiful
princess doll in a plastic case, shaped like a bell, with a handle.
You remember Knock Knock street.
You listened to music at Baker's Keyboard Lounge.
You know what Redpop really is.
You spent many Saturdays shopping at Five Points.
Three decade Detroit Free Press reporter Bob Talbert.
You remember the Seven Sisters smoke stacks on St. Jean off Jefferson.
You went to the rodeo at the Olympia to see Roy Rogers and Dale Evans.
In 1956, you went to the Fox Theater to see Elvis Presley.
You drank hot Vernor's when you were ill, on cold days after a walk
home from school, or at outdoor events in wintertime.
You saw Ricky Nelson and Elvis at the State Fair. Or the Rock & Roll Revival there in '71
when Johnny Winter and Edgar Winter and others turned the place upside down.
You rode the bus to Cobo Hall to attend the Auto Show using a discount coupon clipped from
the Detroit News, and you always bought the great smoked sausage they sold there.
You know the correct pronunciation of Sanders (not "Sahnders") and remember the kids’ silver
tray they'd hook to the top of the counter.
You remember calling Chandler Park’s small swimming pool 'Toenail Beach'
You walked the cobblestone streets in the basement of the Detroit Historical Museum.
You remember local bands like SRC, the Rationals, Red, White and Blues, Third Power,
Brownsville Station, Frigid Pink, MC5 and Savage Grace.
You cruised: 8 mile and ended up at Daly's drive-in on Groesbeck, or
Woodward from the Totem Pole to Ted's in Bloomfield,
or Hines Park in Dearborn, or Rip‘s or Jack’s Drive-In
Or you had a Detroit Egg Cream made with chocolate syrup, milk and Vernor's.
You bought Vernor's in a cardboard carton shaped like a megaphone with the little green gnome
printed on it.
JINGLES you can still recite from memory:
"When the values go up, up, up...
And the prices go down, down, down....
Robert Hall this season will show you the reason...
Low overhead...low overhead"
"School bells ring and children sing, it's back to Robert Hall again.
Mother knows for better clothes, it's back to Robert Hall again.
You'll save more on clothes for school.
Shop at Robert Hall."
"K-R-E-S-G-E, just the place for a shopping spree. Values high, prices low. Your
Kresge store is the place to go. Why go traipsing round the town when the best of
bargains can be found at K-R-E-S-G-E. Go to, go to, go to Kresge!"
"You can have worry-free home delivery…call Twin Pines!"
Daly's Drive-In radio jingle "It's round, it's ground, it's a quarter-pound, it's a
Daaaaaay-lee Burger!"
"WKNR AM & FM Dearborn. With offices in the Sheraton-Cadillac Hotel, Detroit”
"Speedway's going steady with Ethyl. The Ethyl emblem you'll always find, at the
sign of Speedway 79."
And you remember WKNR disc jockey Scott Regen.
You heard The Don Large Chorus singing on WJR's Make Way for Youth and all over town.
You remember news anchor Vic Caputo.
And Terry Murphy, the 'foxiest' news lady of the ‘70’s.
Newscaster Carl Cederberg
Channel 2's two-time lead anchor Joe Glover and Detroit's first African-American female news anchor, Bev Payne.
Or that Everett R. Phelps' weather forecasts were more accurate than today's technology.
Or when WXYZ 's Johnny Slagle, Larry McCann and Johnnie "Scat" Davis were all hosts of
local shows broadcast from the Macabbees Building on Woodward Ave. in downtown Detroit.
Or Fred Foy, the announcer for Lone Ranger radio show sponsored by Silvercup Bread.
"Kokaine Karma Show" with MC5's Dennis Frawley and Bob Rudnick on alternative radio
WABX, the station that glows in the dark.
WJLB-AM's Donnie Simpson, "The Luv Bug."
"Music Man" Jim DeLand performed live on Saturday afternoons on WWJ radio from a glass
booth at the new Eastland Shopping Center.
Bob Reynolds and Charlie Sanders broadcasting the Detroit Lions games.
Or how about Detroit Tigers TV broadcasters Ty Tyson, Harry Heilmann, Paul Williams,
Dizzy Trout, Mel Ott, George Kell, Ernie Harwell, Bob Scheffing, Larry Osterman,
Don Kremer, Al Kaline, Joe Pelligreno and Mike Barry.
Or Detroit sports greats Gordie Howe, Al Kaline, Willie Horton, Dave Bing, Bob Lanier, Rocky Colavito and Alex Delvecchio.
What about one-armed Budd Lynch broadcasting the Detroit Red Wings (managed by
Sid Abel) hockey games from Olympia Stadium. Later, during the lean 70's, listening and watching
Budd with Bruce Martyn.
You remember the Nike missile sites at Detroit City Airport/Kercheval and Ft. Wayne.
Also in Utica, Algonac/Marine City, Grosse Isle, Riverview/Wyandotte, Carleton/Newport,
Romulus/Dearborn, Rouge Park, Franklin/Bingham, Commerce/Union Lake, Auburn Hts,
Belle Isle, and at Selfridge AFB in Mt. Clemens.
You attended a Goodfellows game between the Catholic League and the Public School Champions.
You were a member of the Hudson’s Batboy Club.
You remember the North & South American boats that took passengers on an overnight
cruise to Mackinac Island.
You also recall the short-lived Aquarama , originally commissioned as the USS Marine Star,
that was revamped into a passenger cruise-ferry ship between Detroit and Cleveland (late '50s/
early '60s). You remember when it rammed the sea wall of (now) Windsor's Dieppe Gardens,
crashed into the Detroit News dock, bumped into a U.S. Navy cruiser near Cleveland, and threw
such a gigantic wake that swamped two small fishing boats and nearly drowned a two-year-old
girl at an Amherstburg beach.
You remember Miss DSR pictures on the side of the buses.
You remember Popsicle Pete, the man who came around the Parkside Projects with the best
homemade popsicles in his little cart.
Or you had Mr. Softee, the soft-serve ice cream truck that played a tune.
Or a fruit and vegetable truck and the man yelling, "Strawberries, three quarts for a dollar!"
Or a man who'd come around to sharpen your scissors and knives.
You filled up at the Sinclair gas station and got a dinosaur-shaped soap with a prize inside.
You remember Motor City Speedway on 8 Mile and Schoenherr, later replaced by Arlan's
and Al Long Ford.
You remember the 59ers as they departed from the Town Drive-In on their move to Alaska.
At a ball game in Tiger Stadium, you hear "Fat Bob" Taylor, the Singing Plumber,
belting out the National Anthem on Opening Day and other sporting events. He also sang the
Star Spangled Banner and Michigan Christmas.
You remember listening to the “Traveler’s Weather Forecast” every morning on WWJ-950, sponsored by Northwest Orient (sound of a Japanese gong) airlines.
You remember the monkeys in the glass enclosure on the lower level of Eastland Mall.
You were horrified to hear that Clyde Beattie from Barnum & Bailey Circus, while performing
in Detroit in the early '60s, got mauled by Caesar, a 250 lb. Siberian tiger.
And you remember that Brodhead Naval Armory had three different submarines near the
Belle Isle bridge: the USS Tambor (SS-198) 1947-1959, USS Cero (SS-225) 1960-1967,
USS Piper (SS-409) 1967-1970, as well as a surface ship, the patrol craft escort and rescue
USS Amherst (PCER-853) from 1960-1970.
On hot days you tried to “swim” in the giant wading pool at Stoepel Park.
You remember Reddy Kilowatt saying "Live Better Electrically."
You remember four bowling alleys within a mile of one another on Schaefer between Paul
and Tireman: Holiday Bowl, Dearborn Lanes, Mercury Lanes and Schaefer Lanes.
You remember the Mason's Root Beer sign near Vernor and Dix.
You remember Irving Nussbaum of New York Carpet World, "The Better Carpet People."
You know what a Boston Cooler is and that it's not named after the city back east.
You heard of Paint-By-Numbers inventor, Detroiter Dan Robbins.
You remember Mort Neff, the host of Michigan Outdoors.
You remember buying hamburgers 8 for $1.00 at Top Hat or White Castle (at 8 Mile Rd.
and Gratiot, they were kitty-corner from one another) or at White Tower.
You bought candy, pop, beer, potato chips and cigarettes, etc. at your local 'party store.'
You remember when Detroit had a Playboy Club.
You rode the wooden escalators at Crowley's downtown store.
You listened to 'Frantic' Ernie Durham, one of Michigan's top rhythm-and-blues DJs, was
truly "frantic,” rapping and rhyming his way through every break.You remember him saying,
"I'll be right back, Jack, with another stack of shellac for you and doll-face too!"
You remember the window signs: "This family will not be bussed."
You recall January 30, 1962 when the front man for The Flying Wallendas faltered on the wire during
the 7-Person Pyramid while performing at the State Fair Coliseum. Three men fell to the ground,
two of them didn't survive.
You ordered a Swamp Water (a mixture of Coke and Squirt) at the Raven Gallery.
You remember getting grossed out by all of the fish flies that would swarm the street lights
every June, especially if you live near the water, and how crunchy they sounded when you rode
your bike over them...never mind the smell!
You spent summers swimming at the Chandler Park pool.
You remember the Gratiot 'castle' of Mother Waddles Perpetual Mission.
You remember all of the ballrooms of the '50s: Graystone, Walled Lake Casino, Bob-Lo,
Edgewater Park, Jefferson Beach, Grande, Eastwood Gardens and Vanity.
You put off doing your chores on Saturday mornings to watch Sealtest Circus.
You always loved seeing the Detroit Mounted Police patrol downtown and the State Fair.
You went to the Minor Key to see the Ramsey Lewis Trio.
You bought your posters, black lights and incense at The Village Green.
You drove all the way out to Jack's Scott's Dance Ranch at 16 Mile and Rochester Rd.
You still know the words to the Detroit Institute of Arts TV campaign "You Gotta Have Art."
(You gotta have art, miles and miles and miles of art, when life gets you down, you ought come on
down and get a start, you gotta have art...)
"Saturday night at Detroit Dragway" ( audio ) (Sibley at Dix) you watched the legends of racing
like 'Big Daddy' Don Garlitz or 'Dyno' Don Nicholson or saw Packer Pontiac's big
421 Catalinas tearing up the strip...all for a buck.
You remember when the million dollar Batmobile raced at 'beautiful' Motor City Dragway
( audio ), three miles east of the Edsel Ford expressway on 26 Mile Rd.
You drove your souped-up street car with glass pack mufflers through the Detroit-Windsor
Tunnel in low gear to hear 'em 'back down.'
You watched The Friendly Giant Friendly Giantand Mr. Dress Up, or Austin Grant's
New Home Show on channel 9.
You remember the two tragic fires at Hazel Park Raceway in the late '60s.
You sang along with 70 local teens who were part of WJR's 'Make Way For Youth' chorus
directed by Don Large, and that one of the regulars on the program was Maureen Bailey,
J.L. Hudson's first Christmas Carol.
You listened to the Detroit Concert Band conducted by Leonard B. Smith play at Belle Isle
while the freighters drowned out the music with their horns, people paddled their canoes in the
canals near the bandstand and mounted police controlled the crowds.
You remember Lottie the Body who stripped at the Brass Rail on Grand Circus Park.
You remember when the Detroit Polo Club was at Nine Mile and Southfield.
You remember in 1964 that the Grand Marshall of the Hudson's Thanksgiving Day Parade
was Lassie.
You remember Grinnell's "world's largest mass piano concert" with up to 1,200 participants
at the State Fair Colosseum, Olympia Stadium and Cobo Hall. (The 30th concert in 1973
at Cobo Hall, was the last.)
You were around when WSU graduate student John Sinclair led a group of hippies called
Trans-Love Energies (which later evolved into the White Panther party) in their first major
Love-In on Belle Isle in 1967. It ended in a drunken brawl with 10 arrests.
You remember the miracles of Father Solanus Casey, a Capuchin friar who spent 23 years
at St. Bonaventure Monastery in Detroit.
You recall two lighted signs on either side of the Woodward as you crossed the bridge over
8 Mile Rd. that flashed giant C batteries and, later, Chesterfield cigarettes.
You still get chills when you think of Shock Theater every Friday night on WXYZ with its scary movies
(The Mummy, The Wolfman, The Invisible Man, Frankenstein, etc.) and its host, Mr. X (Tom Dougall,
a drama professor at the Detroit Institute of Technology), who opened the show with "Lock your doors...
dim your lights...and insulate yourself against SHOCK!"
You heard there were salt mines underneath Detroit and wondered if the stories were true.
You know where to find the Spirit of Detroit and who Marshall Fredericks is.
You spent many a Friday night at the Hideout.
You used a pillowcase to go begging on Halloween, and you yelled "Help the Poor!"
at every door. ("Help the poor, my pants are tore, I need some money to buy some more.")
You remember what Devil's Night used to be.
You remember the huge elm trees forming lush green tunnels over many Detroit streets in the summertime. Or when they'd come around to spray and tell you to stay in the house.
And the autumn smell of burning leaves when you'd rake huge piles to the curb for burning.
You remember honking your horn as you went through the 'tunnel' to Belle Isle (actually
a Jefferson Ave. underpass) at the end of East Grand Blvd -- even though the sign at the
entrance read "Don't Sound Horn."
You took a class trip or a moonlight cruise to Bob-Lo with Captain Bob-Lo.
You remember running home from school so you could have Lunch with Soupy .
You rode a bus to Edgewater Amusement Park to ride the wooden roller coaster
(again and again) or the Salt & Pepper Shaker.
You remember "A fantabulous day for the family, at fan-tabulous Edgewater Park.
P.O.P. means 'pay one price'..."
Your mom packed the station wagon with kids, swimsuits, towels and peanut butter and jelly
sandwiches to spend the day at Metropolitan Beach.
You played in the "Big Ditch" as I-94 was being built.
You played tennis on Belle Isle's courts, or golfed at their par 3 course, both lit after dark.
Or went ice-skating, or for a horseback or canoe ride, rode in a pony-drawn carriage,
hand-fed the animals at the zoo, visited the aquarium, remember the teepee, or attended an
event at the Casino.
You can still sing the Roy O'Brien jingle, " Stay on the right track to 9 Mile and Mack... "
Or rode the big white roller coaster or found your way out of the Fun House at
Jefferson Beach Amusement Park.
Took a day trip and drove way out to Walled Lake Amusement Park where they had lots of
rides, a roller coaster, and to Walled Lake Casino for dancing.
When ice-skating was outdoors and Palmer Park was the place to do it. You also remember
its tennis courts, wading pool, golf, ice-skating, and horse and buggy rides.
And Rouge Park's Brennan Pools.
Or how about the Detroit Firefighters working the crowds at the fireworks, selling tickets to
their Field Day, and giving out firecrackers to the kids.
You rode a streetcar that ran on tracks down the center of Gratiot, Woodward, Jefferson,
Grand River or Michigan Avenue. Or the electric buses on Warren and Grand River.
You remember how all of the lights from the auto dealerships lit up Gratiot and Livernois
-- and that they only sold American-made cars.
You remember when Eastland, Wonderland and Northland were open malls.
And when Wonderland had animals in circular cages
You know how to pronounce Gratiot, Goethe, Livernois, Lahser, Schoenherr and Cadieux.
If someone tells you it's on Outer Drive, you know to consult a map first.
You thought driving to Southfield was going "out to the country."
You checked out books for two weeks from the Bookmobile that came to your school
once a weeknight.
You vividly recall the mineral bath smell (rotten eggs) when you drove through Mt. Clemens.
You remember Zoo Keys and talking storybooks and when admittance was free at the
Detroit Zoo. Train rides cost 10 cents, they had more than two of each species on display,
and when the nature trails bat house was destroyed by severe weather in the '60s.
You bought candy and nuts from window-lined, walk-around counter and wooden floors at
S.S. Kresge or Woolworth's ("dime" stores).
You drank Faygo, Towne Club, Grilli's, Sweet 16, Oso or Atlas pop (NOT 'soda').
Your mom saved Top Value, Holden Red, S&H Green or Gold Bell stamps.
Cunningham Drug Stores soda fountain and their raspberry phosphate.
Your school took a bus trip to the cider mill (with donuts and cider after the tour), or to
Kellogg's in Battle Creek.
Silverstine's was the candy store of Army and Navy surplus stuff.
You had a subscription to the three Detroit newspapers, including The Detroit Times.
You remember Jac LeGoff who eventually worked at every TV station around Detroit.
You visited the Wonder Bread Bakery and got to take home a mini-loaf of bread
(but you weren't cool unless you ate Silvercup bread).
You had a Shaffer's or Awrey's breadman and a Brickley's milkman.
Or a Twin Pines milkman, a Jewel Coffee man, and a Fuller Brush man
(and they were always men).
You remember Pure, Benzoil, Speedway 79, Monkey, Dance, Purple Martin, Sinclair,
Danny's Dino, Clark, Kayo and Gulf gas stations, and when "gas wars" meant 17 cents a gallon.
You remember Primo's Pizza, Carbone's Pizza, Red Barn, Powers, Henry's,
Herc's Beef Buffet, Cupid's, Tom's Tavern, Ted's 5x5, Totem Pole, Red Devil
or Richard's drive-in.
You attended a wedding reception or a banquet at Roma Hall.
You attended "Wendy Ward's Charm School" at Montgomery Wards.
You remember when Ben's Hi-Chaperelle and Watt's Club Mozambique were the places
to go to catch Motown acts.
Every year when the Blue Angels came to Willow Run Airport.
Or always wished you could be one of the Hudson's Teen Panel girls whose pictures hung
on the wall in the Juniors department.
You had friends or relatives who could get you into Camp Dearborn for the canteen
dances in the summer.
Or the pond at Belle Isle near the Conservatory where the sign warned you not to touch
the water.
You had a reverb unit installed in your car at Mickey Shorr's or Crazy Jack's
(a.k.a. Michigan Mobile Radio (MMR)) on Livernois.
You remember where you were when the riots of 1967 broke out.
When the bleacher seats at Briggs Stadium were only $2.00 to watch the Detroit Lions play.
And when they won the National Football Championship (before there were Superbowls) in
1957 against the Cleveland Browns, 59-14.
Thanksgiving wasn't complete unless first you went to the Hudson's Parade, then to
watch the Detroit Lions play the Green Bay Packers (always the Packers back then)
at Brigg's (later Tiger) Stadium.
You know guys who put up big antennas so they could pull in the Lions home games on
channel 6 out of Lansing.
And when the Red Wings won all those Stanley Cups in the 1950s, and balcony seats
at Olympia Stadium were only $1.25!
You remember Detroit wrestlers Dick the Bruiser, Bobo Brazil, Killer Kowalski,
Leaping Larry Chene, Wild Bull Curry, Ernie "The Cat" Ladd, Lord Athol Layton,
Edward "The Sheik" Farhat, Fritz Von Erich, George "The Animal" Steele and
Johnny Valentine.
You remember bowling for a quarter a game at Chandler Park Lanes, Falcon Lanes
(next to Gino's Falcon Show Bar), Fantasy, Denby Ramona, Flamingo, Pampa,
Chene Recreation, Parkside, Woods, Ritter's or Ritz bowling alleys.
You banked at Detroit Bank & Trust, Manufacturers National Bank ("That's MY bank!"),
Bank of the Commonwealth, City National Bank, or National Bank of Detroit.
You "parked" at Belle Isle either to watch the color-changing fountain or the submarine
races -- depending on how old you were and whom you were with :-) .
You were in awe of the Big Stove on East Jefferson at the entrance to Belle Isle
(before it was moved to State Fairgrounds' entrance).
You remember your mom taking your burned-out light bulbs to Detroit Edison to exchange
for new ones.
You remember the J. L. Hudson Co. (known to us as just "Hudson's") building on Woodward Ave. occupied an entire city block.
And you remember the white-gloved elevator attendants operating the expandable gate
and lever-locked door, and just before letting you out, she would call out the names of the
various departments on that floor.
You ate a Maurice Salad at a J.L. Hudson's cafeteria.
You went shopping during "DDD" (Downtown Detroit Days) when every store sold merchandise for
50% off or more.
You remember when Women's Hospital before it became Hutzel Hospital.
You remember the world’s largest flag would be draped across the front of Hudson’s downtown
every June on Flag Day.
You would ride the bus downtown at Christmas and stand in line at Hudson's 12th floor amid a fabulous winding, animated Santaland just to see Santa.
Or you remember going to see Santa Claus at the Northland Mall igloos because it was
televised and you hoped your friends would see you.
You watched the 'old guys' play bocce ball at Buddy's Rendezvous Pizza or sang the Schnitzelbank
song at the Dakota Inn.
You remember when Mayor Cavanagh would give Santa and Christmas Carole (who always looked
like she should be freezing in her short red velvet outfit trimmed with white fur) the keys
to the city at the end of every parade.
You remember the Detroit Tiger's pitcher Mark "The Bird" Fidrych.
You remember watching the Detroit Pistons and the WHA Michigan Stags hockey games
at Cobo Arena.
How about Al Ackerman ringing Big Al's bell for the Sports Hero of the Day.
And watching Cadillacs being made on Clark Street.
Going to the Better Made potato chip factory and getting small bags of brown chips or shoe
strings before going to the Jewel movie theater.
Or the giant cow head located on the side of the Ira Wilson Dairy off the I-94 service drive.
(Now, it only says "ILSON;" much of the stack has been taken down.)
You remember hearing the air raid sirens on Saturday at 1 pm.
You remember the waterfall on the back of the movie screen at the Gratiot Drive-In.
You remember the RAF bomber flying from England in October 1958 that crashed on
Ashland Ave near the Detroit River. Wreckage scattered to nearby Grosse Pointe Park.
Your neighborhood had a man who came down the alley on his horse-drawn carriage, honking
his horn or yelling out, collecting the stuff no one wanted, like bicycle parts, wheel rims, etc.
You remember going to the drive-in and getting blasted by mosquito spray from the back
of a pick-up truck that drove up and down the lanes.
You ordered Cold Duck at the Ponchartrain Wine Cellars
(the restaurant/bar where it was invented) and enjoyed a frog leg dinner.
Trips to Western Market.
Arriving home from college at the Michigan Central Depot.
Playing at one of the big piano recitals at Olympia with 200-300 other kids.
You got a piece of buttercream or bumpy cake at the Sanders cafeteria downtown, right across
from Hudson's. Cream puffs and hot fudge toppings...yum!
You remember when Eastland's real gold mouse on the lion statue was filed off and stolen.
And what about climbing all over that big stone hippo...then they'd move it...
You remember the Christmas festivities at the Ford Rotunda before it burned down.
The Reddi Whip Can on Telegraph Rd., under the Michigan Ave. overpass.
Or the "Gas Is Best!" sign on the big gas tank near Detroit City Airport.
Or the big electronic sign at I-94 and I-75 that tracked new vehicle production.
You went to the lavish Michigan Theater downtown to see a movie, or to the
Ford Auditorium for a show.
You remember mayors like Albert E. Cobo, Louis Miriani, Jerome P. Cavanagh and
Roman S. Gribbs.
You saw a wide-screen movie at the United Artist Theater, like Around the World in
80 Days, or Seven Wonders of the World at Cinerama.
Or when the WXYZ television station was located on Woodward in the Macabbees Building
across from the Detroit Institute of Arts and a few blocks north of the old Vernors plant.
In 1959, they moved to a new home known as Broadcast House in Southfield (until 1984).
You "cruised" Big Boy's drive-in at 8 Mile & Dequindre (better known as Dixie's),
or the one at 9 Mile & Jefferson, or Grand River off Woodward.
Or through McDonald's in Madison Heights after a football game.
You played putt-putt golf or jumped on the tramps at Burkemo's near Olsen's Beach.
You were served a root beer float and a foot-long hot dog or a mama burger in your car at
A&W's (pronounced A-IN-DUBS).
You've ended up at a Time or Clock restaurant after the bars closed.
Ordered fries and a shake at Dunkenburger ("Dunks") at 8 Mile and Kelly.
Or the barbecued beef sandwiches or chicken pies (rated tops by Duncan Hines) at
Hedge's Wigwam on Woodward in Royal Oak.
You remember the Raven Gallery on Woodward, or the Chess Mate on Livernois.
Or the Ellwood, Purple Pickle, Moby Dick, Chalet Lounge or Colonial Lounge.
You went to Verne's Bierstube for burgers and beer, and The Snug near Wayne State
for ice cream (they didn't allow kids).
You know what it means if someone tells you to "hit 8 Mile."
You remember the "Club Polka" TV show with Stan "Stosh" Wisniach on the accordion.
Or "Madman Muntz" for Muntz TV.
You got your car repainted at Earl Scheib's "I'll paint any car, any color, $29.95!"
You remember Dick Purtan, now on WOMC-FM 104.3, on WKNR-AM (1965-67),
WXYZ-AM (1968-78) and CKLW-AM (1978-83).
You remember walking around Detroit Metro Airport when there were no guards or gates
and you could walk outside on the observation deck to watch planes arriving and departing.
Or how about Lee Alan, "On The Horn" whose opening song was Zing Went The Strings
Of My Heart. "Now I can't sing...but hear me swing! Whoooeee! We'll have something
old to play, something new in review and a couple of things to say. Between now and midnight
you're going to hear some of the most fantastical round ones in this big old town. We'll call it
'the cream of the crop until 12 o'clock!'"
And then there was Club 1270 with Joel Sebastian and Lee Alan.
You listened to the Kelly & Co. variety/talk show in the morning.
Motown studios -- when they were actually headquartered and recording in Detroit!
And to the Battle of the Bands with Ted Nugent.
You remember yard long beer and ballads at the Poison Apple.
You can point to the 1975 photo of Cobo Arena on the back of the Kiss Alive album and show people where you sat during the concert.
You went to Saturday concerts in Kennedy Square.
Or a "grasser" (concert) where you sat on a blanket on the lawn.
You shopped at the Broadway Market, an indoor produce, meat and deli market with lots
of sawdust on the floor and the best of every edible item you could think of.
You called WKNR (Keener) when they'd announce the last two digits of your phone number,
even when you didn't know the name of the song, just to get the Keener pin.
Or how about Joel Sebastian's Movin' Memories Sunday night show, his sock hops
or March of Dimes dances with the Motown stars of the future, Marvelettes, Eddie Holland
or Marvin Gaye, for $1.50 a show.
You thought driving to Troy was going "out to the country."
You remember the "Big Snow," the one that kept you out of school.
You heard the Good Humor man ringing his bells two streets away, usually
around dinnertime.
You remember Twin Pines or Sealtest delivered milk and juice to the chute on the side
of your house.
Or the (Free Press or News or Times) paperboy delivered your paper by bicycle using a
huge bag, then collected on the weekends with a change-maker hanging from his belt.
Your tour of the Stroh's Brewery ("From one beer lover to another, Stroh's beer") included
a sandwich, a beer and a souvenir glass.
Or maybe you preferred Pfeiffer, Schlitz, Goebel 22, Prost, or E & B beer.
Or the fancy drinks at the Chin Tiki, or...
You remember the Gold Cup and Silver Cup Races, and seeing the people line up
along the Detroit River near Belle Isle to watch the annual hydroplane races with
"Miss Budweiser," "Miss Pepsi," "Miss Supertest," "Gar Wood," "Slo-Mo-Shunand,"
"Such Crust," (sponsored by Shaefer's Bread) and "Miss Madison."
You remember that the Red Wings AND the Beatles played at Olympia Stadium
(The Old Red Barn).
Cruising Telegraph from Grand River to Michigan past Telway, Big Boys, Burger King,
Daly's and Blazo's.
Cruising north Gratiot drive-ins: Scotts, Jupiter, A&W, T&C, Starlite, Midgions and Wells
Dances at 182 Hall, Franklin LYI and The Pumkin.
You ordered a salad, steak and baked potato at the Flaming Embers at Woodward
and Grand Circus Park for only $1.99.
You saw Marvin Gaye or the Supremes sing at the Olympia Stadium, the Roostertail
or 20 Grand Lounge.
And all of the top bands at the Eastown Theater.
Or the Graystone or Vanity Ballroom, and that all the great ballrooms became
psychedelic rock barns in the 60s.
You danced to the live music of The Temptations at your high school sock hop and
Motown music was all over the radio.
You went on Detroit Bandstand hosted by Dale Young. You ordered the tickets by mail
and your mom would drive you and a friend to the studio on Second Blvd.
You danced under the mirror ball or saw The Who or Janis Joplin at the Grande Ballroom.
And you know that owner Russ Gibb brought all of the psychedelic and power rock bands there
in the late 60's/early 70's.
You remember a hip newspaper called The Fifth Estate.
You remember the Detroit Wheels football team.
You went to the Motown Revue at the Fox Theater and saw the Four Tops, the Temptations,
Gladys Knight and the Pips, the Supremes, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye and
Tammie Terrell, and Willie Tyler & Lester...all for $3.00!
You remember when Mitch Ryder & the Detroit Wheels were big.
And Martha Jean the Queen, a Motown DJ.
Or dancing to Rusty Day & the Midnighters at the Chatter Box , a teen nightclub at 13 Mile and
Mound Rds.
Or every Sunday afternoon, Johnny Walenda would host Teen Age Nightclub,
a party / talent show / dance at the Gay Haven in Dearborn.
Or having your prom at the Masonic Temple downtown.
You sometimes wonder what happened to Jimmy Hoffa.
You remember when there was no Lodge Freeway, no I-696, and I-75 only went
as far as Troy.
You knew someone who went to John Williams' Beauty School after high school
to become a beautician. Or to Virginia Farrell Acadamy and the Clairol Institute.
You remember your first strawberry, chocolate or vanilla Creamale in a frosted glass from
Vernor's at the foot of Woodward near the Bob-Lo Boats. A bearded troll on every bottle and
always a sneeze on the first sip.
You remember Crystal Pool at 8 Mile and Greenfield.
Or how about Kiddieland Amusement Park on 8 Mile between Schaefer and Greenfield.
You remember Plum Street when it was trying to imitate Haight Ashbury.
When there were signs on the lawns of homes in Highland Park during the block-busting
years that said "This home NOT for sale."
When the freighter Montrose sunk under the Ambassador Bridge in 1961 (a big attraction
while riding the Bob-Lo boat).
You remember Paw Paw Charlie (Charlie Maxwell), a Detroit Tiger who was known for hitting
home runs on Sundays.
You remember the Detroit Shopping News.
Derby Hill when there were soap box derby car races sponsored by Chevrolet.
The giant clown slide at Lasky Playfield they cemented up after someone got hurt.
When Eastern Market was the only place to get your flowers for spring planting.
And when Joe Muer's had a restaurant near there.
When Sam's department store was behind Hudson's downtown (and it had nothing to do
with Sam Walton).
Going to the Top Hat Supper Club to see Sonny & Cher. Or you remember your parents
going to the Metropole or Elmwood Supper Clubs, all in Windsor.
You remember when Sunday meant getting dressed up to go to church, family dinners,
quiet streets, and closed stores.
You pronounce Kmart as Kmarts, and Ford as Fords.
You had an Uncle (Joshua Doore) in the furniture business.
You remember Belvedere Construction's phone number TYler 8-7100 and their mottos:
"We Do Good Work" and "Have No Fear With Belvedere.”
You remember Mr. Belvedere (Maurice Lezell) sitting next to Conrad Patrick and saying
"I'm glad you asked me that, Conrad."
You thought the Big Tire on I-94 might roll away one day. Or you tried to image how big the
car was that it came from. Or how it picked up that nail (now removed).
You had breakfast with Santa at Crowley's downtown and got to take your hot chocolate
mug home with you.
You crawled all over the Golden Goose at Westland Mall and thought the golden egg
seemed so BIG!
You remember the moving E & B Beer sign on Third and Grand Boulevard.
Or the animated, fife-playing cartoon character “Johnny Pfeiffer” on the beer sign at the
corner of Tireman and West Grand Blvd.
Or going to the GM Building to see model cars made by kids as future designs.
When you could go to the top of the Fisher Building.
Or, watching the billboard that blew smoke rings at Grand Boulevard and Gratiot while
waiting at the bus stop.
You played at the Ridgemont Golf Course in East Detroit (before it became Eastpointe).
The TV2 Swimmobile held thousands of gallons of water in a portable swimming pool
hauled by a semi truck that would come to your neighborhood in the summertime.
You remember Black Bart, and the Faygo pop song:
"Which way did he go, which way did he go? He went for Faygo Old Fashioned Root Beer"
and their slogan "I'm too pooped to participate."
Or Uptown, the pop with the little guy (Herkimer) who grew tired blowing up bottles, and told
his boss "I'm too pooped to participate." His boss advises, "Then live it up up with Uptown!"
You remember going to lunch downtown at Greenfield's (for the cloverleaf rolls)
or to Quickee's.
You told your mom, husband, boyfriend, sister, friend, whoever...to meet you under the
Kern's Clock.
You went to the Big Cow at Mack and Dickerson for ice cream.
You had the pleasure of being "served" at Victor Lim's in Grand Circus Park.
You knew someone who was born at Memorial, Receiving or Crittendon Hospital.
You had a car with a "Sock it to 'em Tigers" bumper sticker, and you remember
Terry Cashman's "Tiger Baseball" song.
You can still hear 'The Voice of the Tigers' Harry Heilmann's broadcasts. When the Tigers
were out of town, he'd read the play-by-play from a teletype.
You were proud...then embarrassed...of Tigers pitcher Denny McLain.
You heard "Rollie Pollie Mickey Lolich, Tigers Won the Series" playing on Keener.
You remember trying to decide which downtown side-by-side restaurant to eat at,
Lafayette or American Coney Island.
You remember when going to The Top of The Flame in the gas building downtown was
THE place to go after the prom.
Velvet Peanut Butter with the three little imps named Fresh, Pure and Delicious.
Farrell's, where you loved to go for your birthday. The sound of a siren and a banging
drum meant you'd ordered the The Zoo, a HUGE bowl of assorted ice creams and toppings
that arrived on a stretcher (and you got to sign the Pig's Trough with much embarrassment).
If you ate it all, it was free!
You know that WJR as "The Greatest Radio Station in the World" and broadcasted from the
"Golden Tower of the Fisher Building.”
You watched Rita Bell's "Prize Movie."
"Dialing for Dollars" with Larry Adderley, or
Bob Allison of "Ask Your Neighbor," "House Detective" and "Bowling for Dollars," or
Fred Wolf hosting "Championship Bowling" on Sunday mornings, or
Don Kremer and Chuck Walby as co-hosts of "Beat the Champ," or
Crafts with Carol Duvall (now on HGTV).
You remember weatherman Sonny Eliot using a chalkboard map to fill in temperatures and forecasts
for rain or snow, along with removable Keweenaw peninsula. And his weekly TV program "At The Zoo."
And opinionated newscasting by Bill Bonds
You watched the Lou Gordon Show with Lou's wife Jackie as co-host, tellin' it like it was.
The Lady of Charm, Edythe Fern Melrose.
Or George Pierrot's "World Adventure Series," one of the first local color programs
offered in Detroit. (Who can forget George occasionally dozing off on the set.)
You remember Van Patrick and Mel Ott broadcasting the Detroit Tigers games from
Tiger Stadium on radio station WKMH ("At 1310 on your dial").
You remember Ernie Harwell and George Kell.
And Byron MacGregor on CKLW 20-20 News.
And Mary Morgan and the Million Dollar Movies she hosted with her dog Liebshein
on CKLW channel 9 on Sunday afternoons, after Bill Kennedy "At the Movies."
And Dave Diles, and J.P. McCarthy.
And Detroit's first husband and wife news team, John Kelly and Marilyn Turner.
You listened at night to WJBK's Ed McKenzie as Jack the Bellboy, then Tom Clay
who started the "Beatles Booster Club" and whose theme song was "That's All."
And "The Bird," Robin Seymour, DJ and host of "Swingin' Time" on CKLW. Or even further
back, "Bobbin with Robin" on WKMH.
Or you were a fan of Bud Davies' Top Ten Dance Party.
You listened to Pie Plant Pete, Bashful Joe, and Bud Guest (son of Edgar Guest) on WJR in
the mornings, and their advertiser was Detroit-based Pet-Ritz pies, "Like momma used to make!"
Or maybe your favorite DJ was Johnny Slagle and Pat Tobin ("Pat 'n' Johnny Show")
whose theme song was Cherokee by Charlie Barnett, and sign-off message was
"So long, kids. Love y'all!"
And Jay Roberts, host of "Night Flight 760" on WJR where we went around the world.
Or Morgus the Magnificent, the mad scientist who did the weather on Ch 2 at 5:55 pm
weekdays, then host a scary movie (usually a Japanese sci-fi) Saturday nights at 11:30.
You called Channel 7's Jerry Stanecki "The Newshawk" for help when you got ripped off.
You remember Sir Graves Ghastly, the host who dressed as a vampire and showed
horror movies on Saturday afternoon.
And The Ghoul.
Watching Armchair Theater and hearing "Ready projection." "Ready, Mr. Dale."
"Lights out, please. Roll 'em."
Or how about Tom Ryan who hosted WKBD Channel 50's The Captain Detroit Show,
where he played Sgt. Sacto from 1967-1970. (In 1982, he was the wacky vampire
Count Scary on WDIV Channel 4 which is still seen every Halloween around Detroit).
Or Sagebrush Shorty (Ted Lloyd) and his puppet pals Skinny Duggan and
Broncho Billy Buttons.
How about The Green Hornet?
You remember when the only TV channels were:
2 ~ WJBK (CBS)
7 ~ WXYZ (ABC)
9 ~ CKLW (CBC)
On a good day, you could tune in 11 and 13 out of Toledo. In later years, UHF 50 & 56.
YOU REMEMBER:
Let’s See Willy Dooit starring Willy Dooit, Gee-Whizzer, Applesauce the Dragon, Professor Smart. and Molly Cuddles
Milky the Clown (Clare Cummings), "Milky's Movie Party"
Soupy Sales (Milton Supman, also known as Milton Hines) and his Bird Bath Club, along with (Clyde Adler as) White Fang ("the meanest dog in all of Dee-troit"), Black Tooth ("the sweetest
dog in all of Dee-troit"), Hippy the Hippo, and Pookie the Lion. Who can forget Willie the Worm, Marilyn Monwolf, and The Man at the Door?
Jingles (Jerry Booth) in "Boofland," and Herkimer Dragon, Cecil B. Rabbit, the King of Boofland and Mr. Binki the Postman, all voiced by Larry Sands.
Jerry Booth's Fun House with a purple moose head mounted on the wall named Clyde, who always said "Uh-huh."
Johnny Ginger (Galen Grindle), "Curtain Time Theater" and "The Johnny Ginger Show"
Bozo the Clown (played by both Art Cervi and Bob McNea)
Captain Jolly (Toby David) and Poopdeck Paul (Allan Schultz) brought us Popeye cartoons on Channel 9 (CKLW) and an appreciation of spinach.
Ricky the Clown (Irv Romig) whose sponsor was Tip Top bread.
Wixie the Pixie (Marv Welch), host of Wixie’s Wonderland, whose sponsor was Bosco
chocolate syrup.
WWJ’s kiddie show Playschool with Mary Melody, hosted by Marv's ex-wife Eleanor.
Harry Jarkey, the host of Our Friend Harry, a morning variety show on WXYZ. Then on
Saturday mornings in 1959, Fun House, a game show for kids.
Romper Room with Miss Ardis (Kenealy) and Miss Flora (Asseltine)
The Lone Ranger and Sergeant Preston of the Yukon played by Brace Beemer.
Oopsy the Clown (Bob McNea)
Auntie Dee's (Parker) and Uncle Jimmie (Stevenson)
N O W . . .
| i don't know |
Who wrote the line East is East and West is West? | EAST IS EAST AND WEST IS WEST... DID KIPLING GET IT RIGHT?
EAST IS EAST AND WEST IS WEST...
DID KIPLING GET IT RIGHT?
Over a century ago, long before anyone became aware of the term multicultural, Rudyard Kipling wrote a poem called "The Ballad of East & West" whose initial line reads: "East is East and West is West and never the twain shall meet." Kipling seemed to be saying that all of us are, to some extent at least, unable to adapt to the ways of others. Joseph Rudyard Kipling ought to have known, he was born in Bombay, India, where his father, John Lockwood Kipling, was a teacher at the local Jeejeebhoy School of Art. Kipling himself was essentially part of both cultures, having been born to expatriates and partly raised and working in a foreign environment before returning to the place of his birth.
The British in their colonisation process tended, or at least attempted, to adapt foreign conditions to themselves rather than adapting themselves to foreign conditions. One has only to look around their former colonies to see abundant evidence of this. The names of places or towns show clearly their origins: New York, New Jersey, New England, Nova Scotia (New Scotland that is), New South Wales, Christchurch, etc. The British always believed in making the mountain come to Mohamed and they almost always got away with it because of their military power.
So the question that might be asked is, if Westerners find it hard to make the transition to the East, why would Easterners find it any easier to make the transition to the West? Especially why in the main, they do not seem to do so, although many of them emigrate to western countries?
Perhaps the answer to this question lies more in the specific environment from which emigrants come. Immigrants from the Caribbean or West African countries seem to adapt much more easily to western cultures and concepts than do those from eastern lands, although there are some exceptions. People from India, while tending � as do most immigrants anywhere � to form, live and marry within their own communities, at least in the initial generations, very often integrate into the societies in which they find themselves. Indeed Canada has quite a number of such immigrants, or their offspring, serving as MPs in Ottawa. This is not quite so true though of many people coming from other countries in the Middle East or from places like Pakistan who happen to be followers of the Islamic faith. Islam, unlike other formal religious faiths, is an integral way of life. The Muslim (�One who submits�) can allow no separation between his life and his religion, his politics and his faith.
In Canada, now presumably the fourth best country in the world, where freedom of speech at a Quebec radio station is menaced, the ones doing the menacing, our unelected friends at the CRTC (Canadian Radio Television Commission) awarded a licence to al-Jazeera. One wonders if it too will lose its licence if those videos of the beheading of westerners, which al-Jazeera seems pleased to show once in a while, do not have the required Canadian victim content!
One of al-Jazeera�s popular presenters is the controversial Egyptian imam, Dr Al Qaradawi, of whom the UK�s BBC cooed approvingly that he has �star� status among the world�s Muslims. He is the one at whose feet the obsequious Mayor of London grovelled recently, and is a staunch promoter of human rights such as executing homosexuals, the right of men to beat their wives, and the murder of innocent Jews. During the ensuing uproar it went unnoticed that he also wants to conquer Europe. Those who have difficulty believing all this should listen to his popular TV show Sharia and Life, presumably coming to you soon on al-Jazeera. Again, according to MEMRI which translates the imam�s broadcasts, he prophesied in 1999 that, �Islam will return to Europe. The conquest need not necessarily be by the sword. Perhaps we will conquer these lands without armies. We want an army of preachers and teachers who will present Islam in all languages and in all dialects.� This man is not some bizarre fringe performer but someone whose programmes are extremely popular and are being watched by millions throughout the Middle East and Europe.
Another preacher, the Saudi Sheikh Said al Qahtani, said on a recent TV broadcast that �We did not occupy the US, with eight million Muslims, using bombings. Had we been patient and let time take its course, instead of the eight million there could have been 80 million [Muslims], and 50 years later perhaps the US would have become Muslim.� This appears to be an implied criticism of Al-Qa�eda for waking a slumbering West, and is hard to dismiss as a simple aberration. Indeed, the quite moderate former director of the Islamic Cultural Centre in London, Dr Zaki Badawi, has admitted that, �Islam endeavours to expand in Britain. Islam is a universal religion. It aims to bring its message to all.�
�Recently an item in the press mentioned that Canadian judges could be enforcing Islamic law, or Sharia, soon in disputes between Muslims. Could this be the precursor of an Islamic penal law which will institute sentences such as the flogging or the stoning of adulterous women?�
Perhaps Bernard Lewis put it as succinctly as possible in his recent best-selling book The Crisis of Islam when he wrote �The presumption is that the duty of jihad will continue, interrupted only by truces, until all the world either adopts the Muslim faith or submits to Muslim rule.� The Muslim tradition divides the world into two parts, Dar al Islam, where Muslims rule, and Dar al Harb, the �field of war� where the infidels live, something we might do well to remember.
The West is constantly castigated for having imposed its decadent values, culture and language on Third World countries, but one rarely reads that Islam colonised lands containing advanced and ancient civilizations. How long did it take the Spanish to retrieve their country in the lengthy �Reconquista�? Something like 700 years if memory serves. Elsewhere, a central Asian people, the Turks, converted to Islam and conquered the ancient Christian land of Anatolia (now Turkey).
In 1453 they captured Constantinople, then the centre of the Eastern Orthodox Church. They turned the sublime Hagia Sophia, which had been one of the most important churches in Christendom for almost 1,000 years after it was built in 537A.D, into a mosque, adding minarets. For four hundred years the Turks occupied Greece and much of the Balkans, turning the Parthenon into a mosque and besieging Vienna, before retreating as their endurance declined. Talk to a Greek Cypriot or a Greek about Islam and the Turks, but be careful to put some cotton wool in your ears first! The imam of the mosque of the Saudi government�s King Fahd Defence Academy, Sheikh Muhammad bin Abd al Rahman al �Arifi, wrote recently, �We will control the land of the Vatican; we will control Rome and introduce Islam in it.� They already have a mosque there.
Of course, before anyone writes to tell me, I am aware that Christianity has been just as much a conquering religion in its time. The Spanish destroyed the ancient civilisations of Central and South America quite ruthlessly as they spread their message of Christian love. It was Christians too who colonised the Americas and Australia, annihilating the natives as they went. All the while, Christian missionaries were at work busy converting much of Africa. Now they have stopped their conquering and converting; indeed in much of the Christian world, in places like Quebec and France to name but two, they seem to have stopped believing in Christianity as well.
If there are doubters still about things like freedom of religious belief then consider that the Saudi Arabian government bans all churches, while the west is building, if not paying for, so-called Islamic Cultural centres. Some of the funding for the UK�s East London mosque came from such bodies as the European Development Fund, the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, Surestart (the UK Government's programme to deliver the best start in life for every child by bringing together: early education, childcare, health and family support), and the London Development Agency.
In some Islamic countries even the preaching of Christianity is banned, contrasting starkly with the West where the right to practice religion is enshrined in our laws and constitutions. Those 50,000 French converts to Islam, mentioned earlier, have all done so freely without reproach; any who convert to Christianity from Islam can expect death threats at the very least. Ask any of the Christian Pakistani refugees that Canada has sent back to their own country, if they are still alive that is. While the Crusades were, by and large, attempts to retrieve lands which were formerly Christian, the leader of the Roman Catholic Church, Pope John Paul II, apologises for them almost constantly. Rather as an old lady might apologise to a mugger for trying to retrieve her purse, was the way the Archbishop of Canterbury described it.
Contrast this with the statements of his opposite numbers which call loudly for the overthrow of Christendom. This is not to claim either that all conversion to Islam has been by the sword. Indonesia was peaceably converted by Muslim traders and is now the most populous of all the Islamic nations. But the conquests haven�t stopped; Islam has continued spreading in sub-Saharan Africa most noticeably in Nigeria and Sudan. Heard from Darfur recently?
Even the most vociferous critics of the Afghanistan and Iraq invasions by President Bush are unlikely to believe that he did so in order to spread the word of Jesus. The supreme irony in this is that by deposing the hated Saddam Hussein, who ran the most secular of Arab regimes, the USA, publicly in favour of creating an Iraqi democracy, is actually transferring power to the imams. We read too of Christian churches in Iraq being attacked. Over the centuries, religions have changed because they needed to do so in order to survive. The Roman Catholic Church split into two when the Eastern Church broke away. Additional fragmentation occurred at the Reformation as numerous other sects came into being and today who knows how many Protestant sects there are?
Even Judaism, the basis of both Christianity and Islam, has changed over the almost four thousand years of its existence and did so by making changes which allowed its devotees to live and survive in various cultures and countries. This does not seem to be true of Islam, where there appears to be no room for adaptation to the conditions of the 21st century, nor seemingly any incentive to do so. The laws of the 7th century were essentially designed for a nomadic people and have remained virtually unchanged ever since. This is in part why modern concepts of freedom, human and women�s rights, equality and tolerance have not advanced in the Muslim world. Indeed there is conflict in many countries which have large Muslim populations and one only has to think about the Philippines and India to realise this.
India, where Islamic invaders burned their way through the country periodically from the 8th century onwards, has endured sectarian violence for centuries, culminating in the creation of Pakistan. Mohammed�s injunction to �Kill those who join other gods with God wherever you may find them� was enthusiastically followed in India, where not only Hindus but Buddhists � a religion which has never fought a religious war � were slaughtered and their women and children taken into slavery. The Hindus were fair game, not being �of the book� as are Christians and Jews, although too numerous to eliminate completely.
A Sharia regime grants the status of Dhimmitude to the Dhimmis (a protected people) allowing them to practice their religion. They do so, but under a series of humiliating regulations designed to enforce the command of the Koran that non-Muslims shall �feel themselves subdued.� This denial of equality of rights and dignity is part of the Sharia which the global Islamists would like to impose everywhere they go, ultimately the entire world. Recently an item in the press mentioned that Canadian judges could be enforcing Islamic law, or Sharia, soon in disputes between Muslims. Could this be the precursor of an Islamic penal law which will institute sentences such as the flogging or the stoning of adulterous women? What about other Muslim cultural features such as arranged marriages, divorce at will (by the husband of course), revenge killings, and female circumcision? Islam does not take kindly to music and dancing, gambling is forbidden and while not absolutely prohibited, drinking alcohol is discouraged. Will Canada become like the Malaysian state, controlled by an Islamist party, which says that any Muslim who converts to another faith has three days in which to repent, failing which he faces having his property forfeited and being sentenced to death?
As one Dutch imam pointed out �The Sharia does not have to adapt to the modern world because these are divine laws. People have to bend to the Sharia.� What many of today�s politically correct �liberals� and social engineers will think of as expressions of �tolerance� and �diversity�, are perceived by Islamist radicals as simply more examples of decadent Western weakness. Judging from what is known of the internal structure of many Islamic communities living in Western countries, the notion that consent would always be genuine is quite implausible. Those Islamic radicals pushing for the introduction of Shariah into Western countries do not want to �live in peace� with us, they seek the destruction of all that we understand and accept as Western values. Should they fail to convert us, as their writings show clearly, they would be prepared to accept our actual physical destruction.
The aforementioned Dr Al Qaradawi is also the spiritual guide of the hard-line Muslim Brotherhood, which is growing across Europe, and whose leader Muhammad Mahdi Othman �Akef declared recently, �I have complete faith that Islam will invade Europe and America, because Islam has logic and a mission.� Can we be confident that he was not including Canada in his prediction? Can we be certain that our politicians understand that Islam is not simply a religion, but a way of life? Given the extremely short term views of Western politicians, whose concern for their country�s future rarely extends beyond the next election, the answer is likely to be more restrictions on the freedom of their own populations. We can expect also the continuing politically correct condemnation, using �hate speech� laws, of those who try to raise awareness of the problems likely to arise when intolerance is invited into a society in the name of tolerance and multiculturalism. Maybe Kipling was on to something after all.
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| Rudyard Kipling |
Which American city used to be called Yerba Buena? | 'Never the twain shall meet' - the meaning and origin of this phrase
Famous Last Words
Browse phrases beginning with:
Never the twain shall meet
Meaning
Two things which are so different as to have no opportunity to unite.
Origin
Twain derives from the Old English twegen, meaning two. The phrase never the twain shall meet was used by Rudyard Kipling, in his Barrack-room ballads, 1892:
"Oh, East is East, and West is West, and never the twain shall meet."
There, Kipling is lamenting the gulf of understanding between the British and the inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent. It may well be that he coined the phrase - at least, I can't find an earlier citation of it in print.
| i don't know |
What's capital of The Peoples Democratic Republic of Yemen? | Yemen: Maps, History, Geography, Government, Culture, Facts, Guide & Travel/Holidays/Cities
The Islamic State Claims Responsibility for Mosque Attacks as Violence Escalates in Yemen
Geography
Formerly divided into two nations, the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen and the Yemen Arab Republic, the Republic of Yemen occupies the southwest tip of the Arabian Peninsula on the Red Sea opposite Ethiopia and extends along the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula on the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. Saudi Arabia is to the north and Oman is to the east. The country is about the size of France. A 700-mile (1,130-km) narrow coastal plain in the south gives way to a mountainous region and then a plateau area.
History
The history of Yemen dates back to the Minaean (1200–650 B.C. ) and Sabaean (750–115 B.C. ) kingdoms. Ancient Yemen (centered around the port of Aden) engaged in the lucrative myrrh and frankincense trade. It was invaded by the Romans (1st century A.D. ) as well as the Ethiopians and Persians (6th century A.D. ). In A.D. 628 it converted to Islam and in the 10th century came under the control of the Rassite dynasty of the Zaidi sect, which remained involved in North Yemeni politics until 1962. The Ottoman Turks nominally occupied the area from 1538 to the decline of their empire in 1918.
The northern portion of Yemen was ruled by imams until a pro-Egyptian military coup took place in 1962. The junta proclaimed the Yemen Arab Republic, and after a civil war in which Egypt's Nasser and the USSR supported the revolutionaries and King Saud of Saudi Arabia and King Hussein of Jordan supported the royalists, the royalists were finally defeated in mid-1969.
The southern port of Aden, strategically located at the opening of the Red Sea, was colonized by Britain in 1839, and by 1937, with an expansion of its territory, it was known as the Aden Protectorate. In the 1960s the Nationalist Liberation Front (NLF) fought against British rule, which led to the establishment of the People's Republic of Southern Yemen on Nov. 30, 1967. In 1979, under strong Soviet influence, the country became the only Marxist state in the Arab world.
The Republic of Yemen was established on May 22, 1990, when pro-Western Yemen and the Marxist Yemen Arab Republic merged after 300 years of separation to form the new nation. The poverty and decline in Soviet economic support in the south was an important incentive for the merger. The new president, Ali Abdullah Saleh, was elected by the parliaments of both countries.
| Aden |
The Old Aztecs played ollamalitzi what game does it resemble? | History of Yemen - Key Figures in Yemen’s history
History of Yemen
The Old Walled City of Shibam
The "Manhattan of the desert" has the tallest mud buildings in the world, with some of them over 30 meters. Its distinct architecture is one of the oldest and best examples of urban planning based on the principle of vertical construction. Shibam is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Medieval History
Yemen, no matter how it is defined or what its current political structure, has always controlled the southwestern tip of the Arabian Peninsula—the Babel Mandeb, choke point to and from the Red Sea. It is the closest point to sub-Saharan Africa (especially Djibouti and Ethiopia —with which it has had a long historic association. It also has been a major caravan route for land trade from the Indian Ocean to the Arabian Peninsula and on to the Mediterranean Sea. The recent discovery of the ancient trading city of Ubar [in today Oman , near the city of Salalah] was accomplished using remote sensing and satellite images. In biblical times, Yemen was the home of the queen of Sheba (related to the Sabaean Empire). In Roman and medieval times, it was the center for the lucrative spice trade, especially frankincense and myrrh. [ 1 ]
In pre-Islamic times, the area that encompasses the present-day Republic of Yemen was called Arabia Felix—happy or prosperous Arabia—and was ruled by a number of indigenous dynasties in several different kingdoms. The most important cultural, social, and political event in Yemen’s history was the coming of Islam around A.D. 630. Following the conversion of the Persian governor, many of the sheikhs and their tribes converted to Islam, and Yemen was ruled as part of Arab caliphates. The former North Yemen came under the control of imams of various dynasties, the most important of which were the Zaydis [a Shi'a muslim dynasty], whose dynasty lasted well into the twentieth century.
Former North Yemen:
Imam Yahya bin Al-Mansur Bi'llah Ahmad ud-din Muhammad Hamid ud-in, Imam and Commander of the Faithful, and King of the Yemen (1869—1948)
Yahya Muhammad Hamidaddin (or Imam Yahya) became Imam of the Zaydis in 1904 and Imam of Yemen in 1918.
By the sixteenth century and again in the nineteenth century, northern Yemen was controlled in the cities by the Ottoman Empire and in tribal areas by the Zaydi imam’s suzerainty. The Ottoman Empire was dissolved in 1918, and Imam Yahya, leader of the Zaydi community, took power in the area that later became the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR), or North Yemen.
Underground opposition to Yahya began in the late 1930s, and by the mid-1940s major elements of the population opposed his rule. In 1948 Yahya was assassinated in a palace coup, and forces opposed to his feudal rule seized power. His son Ahmad [Ahmad bin Yahya Hamidaddin] succeeded him and ruled until his own death in September 1962. Imam Ahmad’s reign was marked by growing repression, renewed friction with the British over their presence in the south, and increasing pressure to support the Arab nationalist objectives of Egyptian President Gamal Abdul Nasser.
Imam Ahmad bin Yahya
(1891 – 18 September 1962)
Ahmad bin Yahya, son of Yahya Muhammad, was the penultimate king of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen from 1948 to 1962. He was considered to be a despot, and his main focus was on modernising the military.
From 1958 to 1961, North Yemen was federated with Egypt and Syria in the United Arab States . Imam Ahmad’s son Badr assumed power after Ahmad’s death but was deposed one week later by army officers, led by Colonel Abdallah al Sallal, who took control of Sanaa and created the YAR. Immediately upon taking power, the officers created the ruling eight-member Revolutionary Command Council headed by Sallal. Civil war ensued between the royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia and Jordan in opposition to the newly formed republic, and republicans, supported by Egyptian troops. In 1967 Egyptian troops were withdrawn, and by 1968, following a royalist siege of Sanaa, most of the opposing leaders had reconciled. In 1970 Saudi Arabia recognized the YAR.
Former South Yemen:
British influence increased in the southern and eastern portion of Yemen after the British captured the port of Aden in 1839. It was ruled as part of British India until 1937, when Aden became a crown colony, and the remaining territory was designated a protectorate (administered as the Eastern Protectorate and Western Protectorate). By 1965 most of the tribal states within the protectorate and the Aden colony itself had joined to form the British-sponsored Federation of South Arabia. Over the next two years, two rival factions—the Marxist National Liberation Front (NLF) and the Front for the Liberation of Occupied South Yemen (FLOSY)—fought for power. By August 1967, the NLF was in control of most areas, and at the end of the summer the federation formally collapsed. The last British troops were removed on November 29. On November 30, 1967, the People’s Republic of Yemen, comprising Aden and South Arabia, was proclaimed. In June 1969, a radical wing of the NLF gained power. The country’s name changed to the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) on December 1, 1970.
Road to Unification:
Ali Abdullah Saleh
(born 21 March 1942)
Ali Abdullah Saleh Al-Ahmar is the first - and so far, only - President of unified Yemen. He was previously President of the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) from 1978 until 1990.
By 1972 the two Yemens were in open conflict. The YAR received aid from Saudi Arabia, and the PDRY received arms from the Soviet Union . Although the Arab League brokered a cease-fire and both sides agreed to forge a united Yemen within 18 months, the two Yemens remained apart. The following years saw continued unrest and conflict, culminating in the assassination of the president of the YAR in June 1978. A month later, the Constituent People’s Assembly elected Lieutenant Colonel Ali Abdallah Salih as president of the YAR. Renewed fighting broke out in early 1979, but in March the heads of state of the two Yemens signed an agreement in Kuwait pledging unification.
In April 1980, Abdul Fattah Ismail, who had been appointed head of state of the PDRY in December 1978, resigned and went into exile. He was replaced by Ali Nasir Muhammad, a former prime minister. In January 1986, Ismail returned from exile and resumed a senior position in the Yemen Socialist Party (YSP). More than a month of violence between Muhammad and Ismail’s supporters resulted in Muhammad’s ouster and Ismail’s death. In February 1986, former prime minister Haydar Abu Bakr al Attas was named president of a newly formed PDRY government. In October a general election took place in the PDRY for the national legislature. In the YAR’s first general election, held in July 1988, President Salih won a third five-year term.
In May 1988, the governments of the YAR and PDRY agreed to withdraw troops from their mutual border, create a demilitarized zone, and allow easier border crossings for citizens of both states. In May 1990, they agreed on a draft unity constitution, which was ultimately approved by referendum in May 1991. The Republic of Yemen was officially declared on May 22, 1990. President Salih of the YAR became president of the new republic; Ali Salim al Baydh, secretary general of the Central Committee of the YSP was named vice president; and PDRY President al Attas was named prime minister. Al Attas led a transitional coalition Council of Ministers whose membership was divided between the General People’s Congress (GPC; the party supporting President Salih) and the YSP (the party supporting Vice President al Baydh).
George H. W. Bush and Ali Abdullah Saleh (1990)
Saleh openly supported Saddam Hussein’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait and confrontation with the United States and its allies. This move was widely supported by the Yemeni public not so much because it was enamored of Saddam, but because it strongly supported Saleh’s anti-American and anti-Saudi stance. In retrospect, of course, this move was a mistake. Saudi Arabia reacted by expelling up to one million Yemenis who had been working in the Kingdom, causing both an abrupt end to the remittances workers had been sending home and an unwelcome addition to the ranks of the unemployed in Yemen. The United States also sharply cut back aid to Yemen. The George H.W. Bush Administration had taken pains to improve ties with Yemen before the war in Kuwait, and was especially bitter over what it regarded as the Saleh regime’s betrayal.
Professor of Government and Politics at George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, USA
Unrest and Civil War:
In late 1991 through early 1992, deteriorating economic conditions led to significant domestic unrest, including several riots. Legislative elections were nonetheless held in early 1993, and in May the two former ruling parties, the GPC and the YSP, merged to create a single political party with an overall majority in the new House of Representatives. In August Vice President al Baydh exiled himself voluntarily to Aden, and the country’s general security situation deteriorated as political rivals settled scores and tribal elements took advantage of the widespread unrest. In January 1994, representatives of the main political parties signed a document of pledge and accord in Amman, Jordan, that was designed to resolve the ongoing crisis. But by May 1994, the country was in civil war, and international efforts to broker a cease-fire were unsuccessful.
On May 21, 1994, al Baydh and other leaders of the former South Yemen declared secession and the establishment of a new Democratic Republic of Yemen centered in Aden, but the new republic failed to achieve any international recognition. On July 7, 1994, President Salih’s troops captured Aden, thus ending the civil war. In August 1994, in an attempt to undermine the strength of southern military units loyal to the YSP, President Salih prohibited party membership within the armed forces; he also introduced amendments to the constitution abolishing the Presidential Council and establishing universal suffrage. In October he was reelected president and named GPC members to key cabinet posts; several ministerial posts were given to members of the Yemeni Islah Party (YIP), which had been loyal to Salih during the civil war.
Yemen's President Ali Saleh and U.S. President George W. Bush in the Oval Office
(in November 2001)
The highly anticipated visit was greatly welcomed by the US administration. Furthermore, it was a sign of increased cooperation between the two countries. During the visit, President Saleh met with President Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of State Colin Powell, and other senior officials.
[The deal--Yemen supports the U.S. in war on terror, the U.S. supports Yemen with U.S. $$ called U.S. aid.]
1994 to Present:
Following the civil war, Yemen’s currency, the riyal, was devalued; the cost of fuel doubled, water and electricity were in short supply, and food costs rose. Public demonstrations ensued, and the YIP was at odds with the GPC over economic reforms recommended by the World Bank. In the April 1997 parliamentary elections, the GPC garnered 187 seats and the YIP only 53 seats. A new Council of Ministers composed primarily of GPC members was named in May. The country continued to experience unrest due to economic hardship, coupled with increasing lawlessness, particularly against tourists.
In September 1999, the first direct presidential election was held, reelecting the incumbent, President Salih, to a five-year term by an overwhelming margin. Constitutional amendments adopted in 2000 extended the president’s term by two years. President Salih was reelected in September 2006. In October 2007, he announced comprehensive political reforms, some of which will not take effect until he is no longer in power, calling into question the prospects for implementation. The September 2006 elections for local and governorate council seats, as well as the May 2008 elections for governorate governors have left power largely in the hands of the ruling GPC. [2]
The 2011 Yemeni protests
The 2011 Yemeni protests followed the initial stages of the Tunisian Revolution and occurred simultaneously with the Egyptian Revolution and other mass protests in the Arab world in early 2011. The protests were initially against unemployment, economic conditions and corruption, as well as against the government's proposals to modify the constitution of Yemen. The protestors' demands then escalated to calls for President Ali Abdullah Saleh to resign.[3]
Sources:
[1] Encyclopedia of WORLD GEOGRAPHY (R.W. MCCOLL, PH.D.)
[2] Library of Congress
[3] History of Yemen (Wikipedia)
[notes by the editor in brackets]
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In literature who lived at 7 Savile Row? | Literature.org - The Online Literature Library
Jules Verne
Chapter 1 - In Which Phileas Fogg and Passepartout Accept Each Other, the One as Master, the Other As Man
Mr. Phileas Fogg lived, in 1872, at No. 7, Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, the house in which Sheridan died in 1814. He was one of the most noticeable members of the Reform Club, though he seemed always to avoid attracting attention; an enigmatical personage, about whom little was known, except that he was a polished man of the world. People said that he resembled Byron--at least that his head was Byronic; but he was a bearded, tranquil Byron, who might live on a thousand years without growing old.
Certainly an Englishman, it was more doubtful whether Phileas Fogg was a Londoner. He was never seen on 'Change, nor at the Bank, nor in the counting-rooms of the "City"; no ships ever came into London docks of which he was the owner; he had no public employment; he had never been entered at any of the Inns of Court, either at the Temple, or Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn; nor had his voice ever resounded in the Court of Chancery, or in the Exchequer, or the Queen's Bench, or the Ecclesiastical Courts. He certainly was not a manufacturer; nor was he a merchant or a gentleman farmer. His name was strange to the scientific and learned societies, and he never was known to take part in the sage deliberations of the Royal Institution or the London Institution, the Artisan's Association, or the Institution of Arts and Sciences. He belonged, in fact, to none of the numerous societies which swarm in the English capital, from the Harmonic to that of the Entomologists, founded mainly for the purpose of abolishing pernicious insects.
Phileas Fogg was a member of the Reform, and that was all.
The way in which he got admission to this exclusive club was simple enough.
He was recommended by the Barings, with whom he had an open credit. His cheques were regularly paid at sight from his account current, which was always flush.
Was Phileas Fogg rich? Undoubtedly. But those who knew him best could not imagine how he had made his fortune, and Mr. Fogg was the last person to whom to apply for the information. He was not lavish, nor, on the contrary, avaricious; for, whenever he knew that money was needed for a noble, useful, or benevolent purpose, he supplied it quietly and sometimes anonymously. He was, in short, the least communicative of men. He talked very little, and seemed all the more mysterious for his taciturn manner. His daily habits were quite open to observation; but whatever he did was so exactly the same thing that he had always done before, that the wits of the curious were fairly puzzled.
Had he travelled? It was likely, for no one seemed to know the world more familiarly; there was no spot so secluded that he did not appear to have an intimate acquaintance with it. He often corrected, with a few clear words, the thousand conjectures advanced by members of the club as to lost and unheard-of travellers, pointing out the true probabilities, and seeming as if gifted with a sort of second sight, so often did events justify his predictions. He must have travelled everywhere, at least in the spirit.
It was at least certain that Phileas Fogg had not absented himself from London for many years. Those who were honoured by a better acquaintance with him than the rest, declared that nobody could pretend to have ever seen him anywhere else. His sole pastimes were reading the papers and playing whist. He often won at this game, which, as a silent one, harmonised with his nature; but his winnings never went into his purse, being reserved as a fund for his charities. Mr. Fogg played, not to win, but for the sake of playing. The game was in his eyes a contest, a struggle with a difficulty, yet a motionless, unwearying struggle, congenial to his tastes.
Phileas Fogg was not known to have either wife or children, which may happen to the most honest people; either relatives or near friends, which is certainly more unusual. He lived alone in his house in Saville Row, whither none penetrated. A single domestic sufficed to serve him. He breakfasted and dined at the club, at hours mathematically fixed, in the same room, at the same table, never taking his meals with other members, much less bringing a guest with him; and went home at exactly midnight, only to retire at once to bed. He never used the cosy chambers which the Reform provides for its favoured members. He passed ten hours out of the twenty-four in Saville Row, either in sleeping or making his toilet. When he chose to take a walk it was with a regular step in the entrance hall with its mosaic flooring, or in the circular gallery with its dome supported by twenty red porphyry Ionic columns, and illumined by blue painted windows. When he breakfasted or dined all the resources of the club--its kitchens and pantries, its buttery and dairy--aided to crowd his table with their most succulent stores; he was served by the gravest waiters, in dress coats, and shoes with swan-skin soles, who proffered the viands in special porcelain, and on the finest linen; club decanters, of a lost mould, contained his sherry, his port, and his cinnamon-spiced claret; while his beverages were refreshingly cooled with ice, brought at great cost from the American lakes.
If to live in this style is to be eccentric, it must be confessed that there is something good in eccentricity.
The mansion in Saville Row, though not sumptuous, was exceedingly comfortable. The habits of its occupant were such as to demand but little from the sole domestic, but Phileas Fogg required him to be almost superhumanly prompt and regular. On this very 2nd of October he had dismissed James Forster, because that luckless youth had brought him shaving-water at eighty-four degrees Fahrenheit instead of eighty-six; and he was awaiting his successor, who was due at the house between eleven and half-past.
Phileas Fogg was seated squarely in his armchair, his feet close together like those of a grenadier on parade, his hands resting on his knees, his body straight, his head erect; he was steadily watching a complicated clock which indicated the hours, the minutes, the seconds, the days, the months, and the years. At exactly half-past eleven Mr. Fogg would, according to his daily habit, quit Saville Row, and repair to the Reform.
A rap at this moment sounded on the door of the cosy apartment where Phileas Fogg was seated, and James Forster, the dismissed servant, appeared.
"The new servant," said he.
A young man of thirty advanced and bowed.
"You are a Frenchman, I believe," asked Phileas Fogg, "and your name is John?"
"Jean, if monsieur pleases," replied the newcomer, "Jean Passepartout, a surname which has clung to me because I have a natural aptness for going out of one business into another. I believe I'm honest, monsieur, but, to be outspoken, I've had several trades. I've been an itinerant singer, a circus-rider, when I used to vault like Leotard, and dance on a rope like Blondin. Then I got to be a professor of gymnastics, so as to make better use of my talents; and then I was a sergeant fireman at Paris, and assisted at many a big fire. But I quitted France five years ago, and, wishing to taste the sweets of domestic life, took service as a valet here in England. Finding myself out of place, and hearing that Monsieur Phileas Fogg was the most exact and settled gentleman in the United Kingdom, I have come to monsieur in the hope of living with him a tranquil life, and forgetting even the name of Passepartout."
"Passepartout suits me," responded Mr. Fogg. "You are well recommended to me; I hear a good report of you. You know my conditions?"
"Yes, monsieur."
"Good! What time is it?"
"Twenty-two minutes after eleven," returned Passepartout, drawing an enormous silver watch from the depths of his pocket.
"You are too slow," said Mr. Fogg.
"Pardon me, monsieur, it is impossible--"
"You are four minutes too slow. No matter; it's enough to mention the error. Now from this moment, twenty-nine minutes after eleven, a.m., this Wednesday, 2nd October, you are in my service."
Phileas Fogg got up, took his hat in his left hand, put it on his head with an automatic motion, and went off without a word.
Passepartout heard the street door shut once; it was his new master going out. He heard it shut again; it was his predecessor, James Forster, departing in his turn. Passepartout remained alone in the house in Saville Row.
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| Phileas Fogg |
What is the only Shakespeare play that mentions America? | We Be Reading: "Mr. Phileas Fogg lived, in 1872, at No. 7 Savile Row ..."
Monday, February 25, 2013
"Mr. Phileas Fogg lived, in 1872, at No. 7 Savile Row ..."
In preparation for a non-fiction read (that I'll be featuring tomorrow), I finally picked up Jules Verne's classic Around the World in Eighty Days. It was much shorter that I expected and much less boring than my last Verne read . Good news all around (bad pun intended)!
The title of this book pretty much explains the plot -- Phileas Fogg, a remarkably stable gentleman of unknown means, overhears a discussion about global circumnavigation and the conversation ends in a wager that Phileas cannot complete the trip in eighty days. He, however, is absolutely certain he will be successful. In fact, he prepares to set out that same day with his new manservant, Passepartout. Heading east, he sets out on a race against time and the suspicion that he is actually a bank robber on the run.
While there are obviously going to be uncomfortable racial characterizations in any Victorian stories that involve world cultures, I found those in Eighty Days to be relatively mild, not enough to distract from a fun story. I can see why this tale captured the imaginations of so many, even inspiring an around the world race (which I will tell you about tomorrow). This has even made me excited to read more Verne, something I haven't felt in a long time. Don't be surprised if you see Journey to the Center of the Earth here within the next few months.
Feeling an itching in my soles,
K
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Jan Lodvik Hock changed his name to what? | Robert Maxwell - Biography - IMDb
Robert Maxwell
Jump to: Overview (4) | Mini Bio (1) | Spouse (1) | Trivia (2)
Overview (4)
6' 4" (1.93 m)
Mini Bio (1)
Robert Maxwell was born on June 10, 1923 in Slatinské Doly, Carpathian Ruthenia, Czechoslovakia as Ján Ludvík Hoch. He was a producer, known for Now and Then (1967), 7 sur 7 (1981) and This Is Your Life (1969). He was married to Elisabeth Meynard. He died on November 5, 1991.
Spouse (1)
(1945 - 5 November 1991) (his death) (9 children)
Trivia (2)
UK-based book and newspaper publisher. He bought companies including Pergamon Press (in 1951) and Mirror Group Newspapers (in 1984).
Robert Maxwell with his wife Elisabeth Maxwell had 9 children: Michael (1946, died 1967 aged 15), Philip (1948), Ann (1949), Christine (1951), Karine (1954, died 1957), Ian (1956), Kevin (1959) and Ghislaine (1961). Karine died of leukemia aged 3, whilst Michael, his eldest son, died after nearly 7 years in a coma following a car accident in 1961 when he was severely injured, thereafter never regaining consciousness.
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| Robert Maxwell |
If something is caseous what is it like? | World War 2 Awards.com - HOCH, J�n Ludvik Hyman Binyamin
Hoch, J�n Ludvik Hyman Binyamin
Date of birth:
June 10th, 1923 (Solotvyno/Carpathia, Czechoslovakia)
Date of death:
November 5th, 1991 (Drowned off the Canaries coast)
Nationality:
Czechoslovakian
BIOGRAPHY:
Robert Maxwell - born J�n Ludvik Hoch in Solotvino then part of Czechoslovakia now Ukrain - was raised into a poor Yiddish-speaking Jewish family of in total nine children. In 1939 the area was reclaimed by Hungary. Most of his family were killed after Hungary was occupied by Germany in 1944 but he escaped before that event and arrived in England via France in 1940 as a refugee. In 1941 he joined the Pioneer Corps, transferring to the North Staffordshire Regiment in 1943. He fought across Europe from the Normandy landings to the capture of Berlin. His intelligence and gift for languages earned him a commission in the last year of the war with the Queen�s Royal Regiment. During this period he adopted the name �Robert Maxwell� which was offiicially changed in July 1948 (LG 38352/4046).
After the war he worked as a newspaper censor for the British Military Command in Berlin during the Allied Occupation. Later he used various
contacts to make a start in the publishing business, becoming by the 1960s immensely wealthy, whilst still publicly supporting the Socialist principles of his youth.
In 1964 he was elected Labour MP for Buckingham, holding the seat until his defeat in 1970. In July 1984, he acquired Mirror Group Newspapers. The acquisition gave him control of a huge publishing and media empire.
By 1991 his business interests were heavily in debt. On 5 November 1991 he disappeared and was presumed to have fallen overboard accidentally from his luxury yacht, the Lady Ghislaine, which was cruising off the Canary Islands; his body was subsequently recovered from the Atlantic Ocean.
On 10 November his funeral took place on the Mount of Olives, Jerusalem.
During his life he also received the following medals and/or awards:
- Bulgaria, Order of Stara Planina, First Class neck badge, in silver
- Finland, Order of the White Rose, Second Class hallmarked 1987
- Poland, Order of Merit of the People�s Republic, Second Class
- Swedish Order of the Polar Star
- State of Israel 25th Anniversary Gold Medal, 1973
- State of Israel 40th Anniversary �Gold� Medal, 1988
- 700th Anniversary of the Sedmset Let Staronove Synagogue, - Czechoslovakia, 1990, bronze medal
- International Men and Women for Peace Movement, in gold and enamels
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William Herschel astronomer was a musician what instrument? | William Herschel Biography
William Herschel Biography
By Nola Taylor Redd, Space.com Contributor |
September 4, 2012 01:51pm ET
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Scouring the heavens with his sister, Caroline, Sir William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus and several moons around other gas giants. In the course of his studies of the night sky, he also compiled a catalog of 2,500 celestial objects that is still in use today. But it wasn't until his mid-30s that he began to turn his eyes to the expanse above; he started his professional life as a musician.
Astronomer William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus.
Credit: Smithsonian Institution
A musical beginning
Born in Germany as Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel, the astronomer was the son of Anna Ilse Moritzen and Issak Herschel. His father was a military musician, and young William played in the same band in his early years. In 1759, Herschel left Germany for England, where he taught music before becoming an organist.
In 1772, William's sister, Caroline, moved to England to live with her brother and train as a singer. During this time, Herschel's interest in astronomy grew significantly. He rented a small telescope, and his desire to own a larger instrument led him to the process of grinding and polishing his own mirrors.
Caroline never married, but served as his assistant until Herschel's death. She was the first woman to discover a comet, ultimately finding eight. She also discovered several deep-sky objects and was the first woman to be given a paid scientific position and to receive an honorary membership into the Royal Society.
In 1788, at the age of 50, Herschel married the widow Mary Pitt. Their son, John, was born in 1792, and followed in his father's astronomical footsteps.
Searching the skies
On March 13, 1781, Herschel noticed a small object that, over the course of several nights, was slowly moving across the sky. At first he thought he had found a comet , but further observation revealed that the object was a planet. Herschel lobbied to name the new body 'Georgium Sidus', after King George III, but it was eventually named Uranus after the Greek god of the sky. As a result of his discovery, the monarch knighted Herschel and appointed him to the position of court astronomer. The attached pension allowed him to conclude his musical career and focus his full attention on the skies.
When Herschel was subsequently elected a member of the prestigious Royal Society, he received a copy of Charles Messier's "Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters," a list of diverse nebulae in the night sky. The catalog piqued his interest, and he began to examine the fuzzy objects.
On Oct. 23, 1783, he began a sky survey of his own, standing on a ladder while peering through his telescope and describing the objects he saw to his sister, Caroline. By pointing the stationary telescope at a single strip of the sky, he was able to observe east-west bands over the course of the night. The next night, he would adjust his telescope to a higher or lower point and observe another parallel strip. Eventually, he examined the entire swatch of sky that could be seen over Great Britain.
Over 20 years, he observed 2,500 new nebulae and star clusters and recorded them in "The General Catalogue of Nebulae." The catalog was eventually enlarged and renamed the "New General Catalogue," and many non-stellar objects are identified by their NGC numbers. Of the 7,840 nebulae and clusters in the catalog today, 4,630 were discovered by Herschel and his son.
In 1789, Herschel finished construction on 40-foot-long (12 meters) telescope, the largest of the day. But the unwieldy instrument came with a number of problems, and Herschel tended to use the smaller, 20-foot (6-meter) telescope.
Appearing like a cyclops gazing off into space, Saturn's moon Mimas and its large Herschel Crater are profiled in this view from NASA's Cassini spacecraft taken on Feb. 13, 2010.
Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute
Herschel discovered several moons around the gas giants. In 1787, he discovered two moons around Uranus: Titania and Oberon. In 1789, using his larger telescope, he found Saturn' s sixth and seventh moons , Enceladus and Mimas. [ Meet Mimas: Saturn's Death Star Moon ]
In 1800, Herschel performed a simple experiment determining the temperature of the different colors of sunlight passed through a prism. He noticed the region just beyond the red color was even higher than light in the visible spectrum, and used his measurements to deduce the presence of what is now known to be infrared radiation. The European Space Agency's infrared space observatory was subsequently named for him.
Herschel proposed the name " asteroids " for the large bodies discovered in 1801. He was elected vice president of the newly formed Royal Astronomical Society in 1820 and president the following year. His last published paper cataloged 145 double stars .
Herschel died in England on Aug. 25, 1822, at the age of 84. Craters on the moon, Mars, and Mimas are named for the astronomer. The asteroid 2000 Herschel bears his name, and the symbol for the planet Uranus features the capital letter H in his honor.
— Nola Taylor Redd
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Whose only novel was The Cardinals Mistress? | William Herschel
William Herschel
Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England
Cause of death: unspecified
Remains: Buried, St. Laurence Churchyard, Upton, Berkshire, England
Gender: Male
Nationality: England
Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus
Frederick William Herschel, generally known as Sir William Herschel, English astronomer, was born at Hanover on the 15th of November 1738. His father was a musician employed as hautboy player in the Hanoverian guard. The family had left Moravia for Saxony in the early part of the 17th century on account of religious troubles, they themselves being Protestants. Herschel's earlier education was necessarily of a very limited character, chiefly owing to the warlike commotions of his country; but being at all times an indomitable student, he, by his own exertions, more than repaired this deficiency. He became a very skilful musician, both theoretical and practical; while his attainments as a self-taught mathematician were fully adequate to the prosecution of those branches of astronomy which he so eminently advanced and adorned. Whatever he did he did methodically and thoroughly; and in this methodical thoroughness lay the secret of what Fran�ois Arago very properly termed his astonishing scientific success.
In 1752, at the age of fourteen, he joined the band of the Hanoverian guard, and with his detachment visited England in 1755, accompanied by his father and eldest brother; in the following year he returned to his native country; but the hardships of campaigning during the Seven Years' War imperilling his health, his parents privately removed him from the regiment, and on the 26th of July 1757 despatched him to England. There, as might have been expected, the earlier part of his career was attended with formidable difficulties and much privation. We find him engaged in several towns in the north of England as organist and teacher of music, which were not lucrative occupations. But the tide of his fortunes began to flow when he obtained in 1766 the appointment of organist to the Octagon chapel in Bath, at that time the resort of the wealth and fashion of the city.
During the next five or six years he became the leading musical authority, and the director of all the chief public musical entertainments at Bath. His circumstances having thus become easier, he revisited Hanover for the purpose of bringing back with him his sister Caroline Herschel , whose services he much needed in his multifarious undertakings. She arrived in Bath in August 1772, being at that time in her twenty-third year. She thus describes her brother's life soon after her arrival: "He used to retire to bed with a bason of milk or a glass of water, with Smith's Harmonics and Ferguson's Astronomy, etc., and so went to sleep buried under his favorite authors; and his first thoughts on waking were how to obtain instruments for viewing those objects himself of which he had been reading." It is not without significance that we find him thus reading Smith's Harmonics; to that study loyalty to his profession would impel him; as a reward for his thoroughness this led him to Smith's Optics; and this, by a natural sequence, again led him to astronomy, for the purposes of which the chief optical instruments were devised. It was in this way that he was introduced to the writings of Ferguson and Keill, and subsequently to those of Lalande, whereby he educated himself to become an astronomer of undying fame. In those days telescopes were very rare, very expensive and not very efficient, for the Dollonds had not as yet perfected even their beautiful little achromatics of 2 3/4 inches aperture. So Herschel was obliged to content himself with hiring a small Gregorian reflector of about 2 inch aperture, which he had seen exposed for loan in a tradesman's shop. Not satisfied with this implement, he procured a small lens of about 18 feet focal length, and set his sister to work on a pasteboard tube to match it, so as to make him a telescope. This unsatisfactory material was soon replaced by tin, and thus a sorry sort of vision was obtained of Jupiter, Saturn and the moon. He then sought in London for a reflector of much larger dimensions; but no such instrument was on sale; and the terms demanded for the construction of a reflecting telescope of 5 or 6 feet focal length he regarded as too exorbitant even for the gratification of such desires as his own. So he was driven to the only alternative that remained; he must himself build a large telescope. His first step in this direction was to purchase the debris of an amateur's implements for grinding and polishing small mirrors; and thus, by slow degrees, and by indomitable perseverance, he in 1774 had, as he says, the satisfaction of viewing the heavens with a Newtonian telescope of 6 feet focal length made by his own bands. But he was not contented to be a mere star-gazer; on the contrary he had from the very first conceived the gigantic project of surveying the entire heavens, and, if possible, of ascertaining the plan of their general structure by a settled mode of procedure if only he could provide himself with adequate instrumental means. For this purpose he, his brother and his sister toiled for many years at the grinding and polishing of hundreds of specula, always retaining the best and recasting the others, until the most perfect of the earlier products had been surpassed This was the work of the daylight in those seasons of the year when the fashionable visitors of Bath had quitted the place, and had thus freed the family from professional duties. After 1774 every available hour of the night was devoted to the long-hoped for scrutiny of the skies. In those days no machinery had been invented for the construction of telescopic mirrors; the man who had the hardihood to undertake polishing them doomed himself to walk leisurely and uniformly round an upright post for many hours, without removing his hands from the mirror, until his work was done. On these occasions Herschel received his food from the hands of his faithful sister. But his reward was nigh.
In May 1780 his first two papers containing some results of his observations on the variable star "Mira" and the mountains of the moon were communicated to the Royal Society through the influential introduction of Dr. William Watson. Herschel had made his acquaintance in a characteristic manner. In order to obtain a sight of the moon the astronomer had taken his telescope into the street opposite his house; the celebrated physician happening to pass at the time, and seeing his eye removed for a moment from the instrument, requested permission to take his place. The mutual courtesies and intelligent conversation which ensued soon ripened this casual acquaintance into a solid and enduring regard.
The phenomena of variable stars were examined by Herschel as a guide to what might be occurring in our own sun. The sun, he knew, rotated on its axis, and he knew that dark spots often exist on its photosphere; the questions that he put to himself were -- Are there dark spots also on variable stars? Do the stars also rotate on their axes? Or are they sometimes partially eclipsed by the intervention of opaque bodies? And he went on to enquire, What are these singular spots upon the sun? And have they any practical relation to the inhabitants of this planet? To these questions he applied his telescopes and his thoughts; and he communicated the results to the Royal Society in no less than six memoirs, occupying very many pages in the Philosophical Transactions, and extending in date from 1780 to 1801. It was in the latter year that these remarkable papers culminated in the inquiry whether any relation could be traced in the recurrence of sun-spots, regarded as evidences of solar activity, and the varying seasons of our planet, as exhibited by the varying price of corn. Herschel's reply was inconclusive; nor has a final solution of the related problems yet been obtained.
In 1781 he communicated to the Royal Society the first of a series of papers on the rotation of the planets and of their several satellites. The object which he had in view was not so much to ascertain the times of their rotation as to discover whether those rotations are strictly uniform. From the result he expected to gather, by analogy, the probability of an alteration in the length of our own day. These inquiries occupy the greater part of seven memoirs extending from 1781 to 1797. While engaged on them he noticed the curious appearance of a white spot near te each of the poles of the planet Mars. On investigating the inclination of its axis to the plane of its orbit, and finding that it differed little from that of the earth, he concluded that its changes of climate also would resemble our own, and that these white patches were probably polar snow. He also discovered that, as far as his observations extended, the times of the rotations of the various satellites round their axes conform to the analogy of our moon by equaling the times of their revolution around their primaries. Here again we perceive that his discoveries arose out of the systematic and comprehensive nature of his investigation. Nothing with such a man is accidental.
In the same year (1781) Herschel made a discovery which completely altered the character of his professional life. In the course of a methodical review of the heavens he lighted on an object which at first he supposed to be a comet, but which, by its subsequent motions and appearance, averred itself to be new planet, moving outside the orbit of Saturn. The name of Georgium Sidus was by him assigned to it, but has by general consent been laid aside in favor of Uranus. The object was detected with a 7 foot reflector having an aperture of 6-1/2 inches; subsequently, when he had provided himself with a much more powerful telescope, of 20 foot focal length, he discovered, as he believed, no less than six Uranian satellites. Modern observations, while abolishing four of these supposed attendants, have added two others apparently not observed by Herschel. Seven memoirs on the subject were communicated by him to the Royal Society, extending from the date of the discovery in 1781 to 1815. A noteworthy peculiarity in Herschel's mode of observation led to the discovery of this planet. He had observed that the spurious diameters of stars are not much affected by increasing the magnifying powers, but that the case is different with other celestial objects; hence if anything in his telescopic field struck him as unusual in aspect, be immediately varied the magnifying power in order to decide its nature. Thus Uranus was discovered; and had a similar method been applied to Neptune, that planet would have been found at Cambridge some months before it was recognized at Berlin.
We now come to the beginning of Herschel's most important series of observations, culminating in what ought probably to be regarded as his capital discovery. A material part of the task which he had set himself embraced the determination of the relative distances of the stars from our sun and from each other. Now, in the course of his scrutiny of the heavens, he had observed many stars in apparently very close contiguity, but often differing greatly in relative brightness. He concluded that, on the average, the brighter star would be the nearer to us, the smaller enormously more distant; and considering that an astronomer on the earth, in consequence of its immense orbital displacement of some 180 millions of miles every six months, would see such a pair of stars under different perspective aspects, he perceived that the measurement of these changes should lead to an approximate determination of the stars' relative distances. He therefore mapped down the places and aspects of all the double stars that he met with, and communicated in 1782 and 1785 very extensive catalogues of the results. Indeed, his very last scientific memoir, sent to the Royal Astronomical Society in the year 1822, when he was its first president and already in the eighty-fourth year of his age, related to these investigations. In the memoir of 1782 he threw out the hint that these apparently contiguous stars might be genuine pairs in mutual revolution; but he significantly added that the time had not yet arrived for settling the question. Eleven years afterwards (1793), he remeasured the relative positions of many such couples, and we may conceive what his feelings must have been at finding his prediction verified. For he ascertained that some of these stars circulated around each other, after the manner required by the laws of gravitation, and thus demonstrated the action among the distant members of the starry firmament of the same mechanical laws which bind together the harmonious motions of our solar system. This sublime discovery, announced in 1802, would of itself suffice to immortalize his memory. If only he had lived long enough to learn the approximate distances of some of these binary combinations, he would at once have been able to calculate their masses relative to that of our own sun; and the quantities being, as we now know, strictly comparable, he would have found another of his analogical conjectures realized.
In the year 1782 Herschel was invited to Windsor by King George III , and accepted the king's offer to become his private astronomer, and henceforth devote himself wholly to a scientific career. His salary was fixed at �200 per annum, to which an addition of �50 per annum was subsequently made for the astronomical assistance of his sister. Dr. Watson, to whom alone the amount was mentioned, made the natural remark, "Never before was honor purchased by a monarch at so cheap a rate." In this way the great astronomer removed from Bath, first to Datchet and soon afterwards permanently to Slough, within easy access of his royal patron at Windsor.
The old pursuits at Bath were soon resumed at Slough, but with renewed vigor and without the former professional interruptions. The greater part, in fact, of the papers already referred to are dated from Datchet and Slough; for the magnificent astronomical speculations in which he was engaged, though for the most part conceived in the earlier portion of his philosophical career, required years of patient observation before they could be fully examined and realized.
It was at Slough in 1783 that he wrote his first memorable paper on the "Motion of the Solar System in Space", a sublime speculation, yet through his genius realized by considerations of the utmost simplicity. He returned to the same subject with fuller details in 1805. It was also after his removal to Slough that he published his first memoir on the construction of the heavens, which from the first had been the inspiring idea of his varied toils. In a long series of remarkable papers, addressed as usual to the Royal Society, and extending from the year 1784 to 1818, when he was eighty years of age, he demonstrated the fact that our sun is a star situated not far from the bifurcation of the Milky Way, and that all the stars visible to us lie more or less in clusters scattered throughout a comparatively thin, but immensely extended stratum. At one time he imagined that his powerful instruments had pierced through this stellar stratum, and that he had approximately determined the form of some of its boundaries. In the last of his memoirs, having convinced himself of his error, he admitted that to his telescopes the Milky Way was "fathomless." On either side of this assemblage of stars, presumably in ceaseless motion round their common center of gravity, Herschel discovered a canopy of discrete nebulous masses, such as those from the condensation of which he supposed the whole stellar universe to have been formed -- a magnificent conception, pursued with a force of genius and put to the practical test of observation. with an industry almost incredible.
Hitherto we have said nothing about the great reflecting telescope, of 40 foot focal length and 4 foot aperture, the construction of which is often, though mistakenly, regarded as his chief performance. The full description of this celebrated instrument will be found in the 85th volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society. On the day that it was finished (August 28, 1789) Herschel saw at the first view, in a grandeur not witnessed before, the Saturnian system with six satellites, five of which had been discovered long before by Christiaan Huygens and Giovanni Domenico Cassini , while the sixth, subsequently named Enceladus, he had, two years before, sighted by glimpses in his exquisite little telescope of 6-1/2 inch aperture, but now saw in unmistakable brightness with the towering giant he had just completed. On the 17th of September he discovered a seventh, which proved to be the nearest to the globe of Saturn. It has since received the name of Mimas. It is somewhat remarkable that, notwithstanding his long and repeated scrutinies of this planet, the eighth satellite, Hyperion, and the crape ring should have escaped him.
Herschel married, on the 8th of May 1788, the widow of Mr. John Pitt, a wealthy London merchant, by whom he had an only son, John Herschel . The prince regent conferred a Hanoverian knighthood upon him in 1816. But a far more valued and less tardy distinction was the Copley medal assigned to him by his associates in the Royal Society in 1781.
He died at Slough on the 25th of August 1822, in the eighty-fourth year of his age, and was buried under the tower of St. Laurences Church, Upton, within a few hundred yards of the old site of the 40 foot telescope. A mural tablet on the wall of the church bears a Latin inscription from the pen of the late Dr. Goodall, provost of Eton College.
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Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947 who was opponent? | Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947. Who was his opponent?
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Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947. Who was his opponent?
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Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947. Who was his opponent?
estherwriter40 posted a question · May 21, 2016 at 12:19am
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josewriter23 answered the question · May 21, 2016 at 12:19am
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"Doyle" made his debut as a professional boxer in 1941 and in 1947 lost to Sugar Ray Robinson by 9th round TKO. After the bout, Doyle went to the hospital, suffering from a severe head injury. Although Doyle was leading, Referee Jackie Davis stopped the bout after Doyle went down for the third time in the 9th round. In 1947, Doyle challenged Sugar Ray Robinson for the World Welterweight Title. Robinson had the advantage in every round except the sixth, when he was staggered twice and hurt. A single left hook from Robinson ended the fight. "That punch knocked Jimmy rigid.... With heels resting against the canvas as if hinged, Doyle's body went down. It struck the floor with a thud, like a rigid mass falling. His head crashed against the padded canvas, and as the referee started the count. Doyle raised his head and rested on his elbows.... The referee counted to ten. Doyle was out." Doyle was taken to St. Vincent's Charity Hospital immediately after the bout, and failed to regain consciousness and died a few hours later. Jimmy Doyle was fighting in Cleveland, since after suffering some heavy knockouts in California that state's boxing commission would not sanction him to fight again.[5] After his death, criminal charges were threatened against Robinson in Cleveland, up to and including manslaughter, though none actually materialized. Robinson's biographer Wil Haygood stated during a September 25, 2010 book festival appearance that Doyle was pushing himself to fight to "buy his mother a house" and after Doyle's death in 1947, Robinson gave the earnings of his next four fights to Doyle's mother, so she could buy that house. Instead of actually buying it, Doyle's mother, a heroin addict, spent the majority of the money on drugs and legal teams to continuously try to sue Robinson for more money."
yrakesh
May 21, 2016 at 12:21am
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Dr Deidrich Knickerbocker invented which famous character? | Boxing ..:: Death In The Ring ::.. | Bleacher Report
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From the beginning of the sports long history it has never been able to rid itself from tragedy and serious injury, many other sports have this connection as well but in their cases it is usually the result of the war between man and machine. Boxing is different two men in the ring with the ultimate goal to knock the other down, boxing is a violent sport and the need for safety is paramount, only the ignorant and incurably naive among us can argue it leaves fighters unscathed. When a fighter receives a blow to the head pressure is put on the small vessels which supply blood to the brain, on occasion causing a degree of irreversible brain damage, the truth of the matter is hands are not genetically designed for hitting, neither is a human head for being hit. Blows to the body play their part as well as they make breathing difficult, which creates pressure within the brain. Some fighters hang up their gloves and retire unharmed, but most are affected to some extent.
The first recorded fatalities in the spot were Walter Croot who died in 1897 after being knocked out by Chicago’s Jimmy Barry in a Bantamweight title fight. Less than a year later Tom Turner (1898) followed by Mike Riley (1900). The first to lose his life this centaury in a title fight was Jimmy Doyle who never regained conscious after being knocked out in round eight by Sugar Ray Robinson in Cleveland, Ohio in 1947. When Benny Paret died in 1962 it was as if the entire country went into mourning, Paret died during his title defence against Emile Griffith in New York, this was the third time the men had fought each other in a Welterweight title bout. In the twelfth round Paret was unable to free himself from the ropes where he found himself tangled up, and was defenceless as Griffith unloaded on him, this was the tragedy that led to the introduction of the four roped ring. Davey Moore was the next fatality in a title fight, less than a year later and during the seventh defence of his title against Cuban Sugar Ramos in Los Angeles. The fighting pride of Wales, Bantamweight Johnny Owen died 46 days after being fatally injured challenging Lupe Pintor in Los Angeles for the WBC title in 1980, in the same ring three years later Mexican Kiko Bejines died of a blood clot in the brain , three days after losing to Albert Davila.
In 2004 after winning a three round amateur bout in the Philippians, Ryan Panrones complained of dizziness, he passed away the following day. Martin Sanchez a 26 year old Super featherweight died in 2005. Two months later another sad chapter was to unfolded, this time in front of a PPV audience, when 35 year old IBF Champion Levander Johnson was rushed to hospital following his first title defence against Mexican Jesus Chavez. Johnson underwent two futile operations to remove blood clots from his brain, five days later Johnson lost his fight for life. Chavez was reported as saying “If I knew I would be going through this, I would have thought twice before lacing up the gloves”. Chavez would go on to fight again and donated his purse to Johnson’s family. Many men lose their taste for the game once their punches have caused the loss of life. Gabe Ruelas career crumbled after his bout with Jimmy Garcia; during one bout he claimed to see the ghost of Garcia in the ring. As long as men compete in the ring the casualty list will grow, this is the real price of boxings transient glory, as the articulate and former Irish Featherweight Champion Said “This is the price we pay and we budget for it”. If every brave man who lost his life had it another way and lived a long life, part of which was boxing, Im sure they would say, boxing was the best part.
Mark Leroy
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In the siege of Mafeking who led the defenders? | The Siege of Mafeking: The Second Boer War - WorldAtlas.com
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The Siege of Mafeking: The Second Boer War
This battle made many British and local citizens into "heroes" to their allies in their conflict with the Boer settlers.
Boer soldiers fighting from the trenches during the battle in Mafeking.
5. Background
The Siege of Mafeking was an engagement of the Second Boer War fought around the town of Mafeking, close to the border between then British South Africa and the then Boer Republic of Transvaal. The siege started on October 13, 1899, and lasted until May 17, 1900, when the town was relieved by British reinforcements. The objective of the Boers’ assault was to capture the important border town of Mafeking, which was a major railway hub between the cities of Kimberley and Bulawayo. By doing so, they hoped to upset prospective British attacks into the Transvaal Republic, while at the same time better positioning themselves to threaten the British Cape Colony itself.
4. Makeup
Commanding the British forces was Colonel Robert Baden-Powell, whose forces were made up of 500 men from the Protectorate Regiment, 300 men from the Bechuanaland Rifles and Cape Police, and 300 of Mafeking's citizens who could bear arms. Unusual for the time, he also armed 300 African men and organized them into a 'Black Watch'. Boys aged between 12 and 15 served as messengers and orderlies in the Cadet Corps to help release additional men to fight, which brought the total force of the garrison close to 2,000 men. The besiegers were led by General Piet Cronje, and counted more than 8,000 men organized in the traditional Boer commando fashion, with men from the same town grouped into a single unit. Both sides were armed with the most modern bolt-action rifles, like the 1898 Mauser for the Boers and the Lee-Enfield on the British side. The British made the most out of their technological superiority by deploying several Maxim machine guns through their trenches that inflicted considerable casualties on the Boer attackers. Both sides employed heavy artillery to shell the opponents' lines, and the British resourcefulness led them to adapt a railroad car as an armored personal carrier with which they successfully attacked the Boer camp.
3. Description
The mostly flat terrain around Mafeking offered the defenders a clear line of fire and lacked the higher ground nearby that would have boosted a Boer attack. General Powel chose to fortify the town by building several lines of trenches and setting up forts at regular intervals. With such a heavy concentration of defenses, General Piet Cronje decided to starve out the town instead of taking it by assault. Engagements through the siege were mostly limited to the occasional sniper killing a careless sentry, or an artillery bombardment intended to break the morale of the enemy.
2. Outcome
With the British relief force, commanded by Colonel Bryan Mahon, amassing in Kimberley, the Boers decided to launch an all-out attack on May 12th that was beaten back after heavy fighting. Five days later Mahon arrived at Mafeking and lifted the siege. The British lost 212 dead, and over 600 wounded. The Boers paid a heavier price with more than 2,000 men killed, wounded, or missing.
1. Significance
The siege of Mafeking was celebrated through the whole British Empire and the news of its relief brought hopes that the war could end soon. To the British, Mafeking demonstrated the power of the Empire even in the most remote corners of Africa, and its staunch resistance became a symbol of British courage and determination through the war and beyond. With Mafeking secured, and the Boer army besieging it scattered, the door was opened for the British invasion of the Transvaal that would result in the defeat and annexation of the Boer Republic into the British Empire. Though the war would last for two more years, Mafeking's resistance deprived the Boers from gaining a footstep from where to threaten Cape Colony, and so hastened the Boer defeat. The relief would be celebrated for years to come, both throughout the colony and back in Mother England. Baden-Powell would be treated as a hero much of the rest of his life, and go on to start the international “Scout” movement. Numerous other officers were bestowed with high honors by the British Empire as well for their service. The Mafeking Obelisk was erected a few years later to honor those who fought and died defending the town.
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Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
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Socrates (469—399 B.C.E.)
Socrates is one of the few individuals whom one could say has so-shaped the cultural and intellectual development of the world that, without him, history would be profoundly different. He is best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer, his claim that he was ignorant (or aware of his own absence of knowledge), and his claim that the unexamined life is not worth living, for human beings. He was the inspiration for Plato, the thinker widely held to be the founder of the Western philosophical tradition. Plato in turn served as the teacher of Aristotle, thus establishing the famous triad of ancient philosophers: Socrates, Plato , and Aristotle . Unlike other philosophers of his time and ours, Socrates never wrote anything down but was committed to living simply and to interrogating the everyday views and popular opinions of those in his home city of Athens. At the age of 70, he was put to death at the hands of his fellow citizens on charges of impiety and corruption of the youth. His trial, along with the social and political context in which occurred, has warranted as much treatment from historians and classicists as his arguments and methods have from philosophers.
This article gives an overview of Socrates: who he was, what he thought, and his purported method. It is both historical and philosophical. At the same time, it contains reflections on the difficult nature of knowing anything about a person who never committed any of his ideas to the written word. Much of what is known about Socrates comes to us from Plato, although Socrates appears in the works of other ancient writers as well as those who follow Plato in the history of philosophy. This article recognizes that finding the original Socrates may be impossible, but it attempts to achieve a close approximation.
Table of Contents
1. Biography: Who was Socrates?
a. The Historical Socrates
i. Birth and Early Life
Socrates was born in Athens in the year 469 B.C.E. to Sophroniscus, a stonemason, and Phaenarete, a midwife. His family was not extremely poor, but they were by no means wealthy, and Socrates could not claim that he was of noble birth like Plato. He grew up in the political deme or district of Alopece, and when he turned 18, began to perform the typical political duties required of Athenian males. These included compulsory military service and membership in the Assembly, the governing body responsible for determining military strategy and legislation.
In a culture that worshipped male beauty, Socrates had the misfortune of being born incredibly ugly. Many of our ancient sources attest to his rather awkward physical appearance, and Plato more than once makes reference to it (Theaetetus 143e, Symposium, 215a-c; also Xenophon Symposium 4.19, 5.5-7 and Aristophanes Clouds 362). Socrates was exophthalmic, meaning that his eyes bulged out of his head and were not straight but focused sideways. He had a snub nose, which made him resemble a pig, and many sources depict him with a potbelly. Socrates did little to help his odd appearance, frequently wearing the same cloak and sandals throughout both the day and the evening. Plato’s Symposium (174a) offers us one of the few accounts of his caring for his appearance.
As a young man Socrates was given an education appropriate for a person of his station. By the middle of the 5th century B.C.E., all Athenian males were taught to read and write. Sophroniscus, however, also took pains to give his son an advanced cultural education in poetry, music, and athletics. In both Plato and Xenophon, we find a Socrates that is well versed in poetry, talented at music, and quite at-home in the gymnasium. In accordance with Athenian custom, his father also taught him a trade, though Socrates did not labor at it on a daily basis. Rather, he spent his days in the agora (the Athenian marketplace), asking questions of those who would speak with him. While he was poor, he quickly acquired a following of rich young aristocrats—one of whom was Plato—who particularly enjoyed hearing him interrogate those that were purported to be the wisest and most influential men in the city.
Socrates was married to Xanthippe, and according to some sources, had a second wife. Most suggest that he first married Xanthippe, and that she gave birth to his first son, Lamprocles. He is alleged to have married his second wife, Myrto, without dowry, and she gave birth to his other two sons, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. Various accounts attribute Sophroniscus to Xanthippe, while others even suggest that Socrates was married to both women simultaneously because of a shortage of males in Athens at the time. In accordance with Athenian custom, Socrates was open about his physical attraction to young men, though he always subordinated his physical desire for them to his desire that they improve the condition of their souls.
Socrates fought valiantly during his time in the Athenian military. Just before the Peloponnesian War with Sparta began in 431 B.C.E, he helped the Athenians win the battle of Potidaea (432 B.C.E.), after which he saved the life of Alcibiades, the famous Athenian general. He also fought as one of 7,000 hoplites aside 20,000 troops at the battle of Delium (424 B.C.E.) and once more at the battle of Amphipolis (422 B.C.E.). Both battles were defeats for Athens.
Despite his continued service to his city, many members of Athenian society perceived Socrates to be a threat to their democracy, and it is this suspicion that largely contributed to his conviction in court. It is therefore imperative to understand the historical context in which his trial was set.
ii. Later Life and Trial
1. The Peloponnesian War and the Threat to Democracy
Between 431—404 B.C.E. Athens fought one of its bloodiest and most protracted conflicts with neighboring Sparta, the war that we now know as the Peloponnesian War. Aside from the fact that Socrates fought in the conflict, it is important for an account of his life and trial because many of those with whom Socrates spent his time became either sympathetic to the Spartan cause at the very least or traitors to Athens at worst. This is particularly the case with those from the more aristocratic Athenian families, who tended to favor the rigid and restricted hierarchy of power in Sparta instead of the more widespread democratic distribution of power and free speech to all citizens that obtained in Athens. Plato more than once places in the mouth of his character Socrates praise for Sparta (Protagoras 342b, Crito 53a; cf. Republic 544c in which most people think the Spartan constitution is the best). The political regime of the Republic is marked by a small group of ruling elites that preside over the citizens of the ideal city.
There are a number of important historical moments throughout the war leading up to Socrates’ trial that figure in the perception of him as a traitor. Seven years after the battle of Amphipolis, the Athenian navy was set to invade the island of Sicily, when a number of statues in the city called “herms”, dedicated to the god Hermes, protector of travelers, were destroyed. Dubbed the ‘Mutilation of the Herms’ (415 B.C.E.), this event engendered not only a fear of those who might seek to undermine the democracy, but those who did not respect the gods. In conjunction with these crimes, Athens witnessed the profanation of the Eleusinian mysteries, religious rituals that were to be conducted only in the presence of priests but that were in this case performed in private homes without official sanction or recognition of any kind. Amongst those accused and persecuted on suspicion of involvement in the crimes were a number of Socrates’ associates, including Alcibiades, who was recalled from his position leading the expedition in Sicily. Rather than face prosecution for the crime, Alcibiades escaped and sought asylum in Sparta.
Though Alcibiades was not the only of Socrates’ associates implicated in the sacrilegious crimes (Charmides and Critias were suspected as well), he is arguably the most important. Socrates had by many counts been in love with Alcibiades and Plato depicts him pursuing or speaking of his love for him in many dialogues (Symposium 213c-d, Protagoras 309a, Gorgias 481d, Alcibiades I 103a-104c, 131e-132a). Alcibiades is typically portrayed as a wandering soul (Alcibiades I 117c-d), not committed to any one consistent way of life or definition of justice. Instead, he was a kind of cameleon-like flatterer that could change and mold himself in order to please crowds and win political favor (Gorgias 482a). In 411 B.C.E., a group of citizens opposed to the Athenian democracy led a coup against the government in hopes of establishing an oligarchy. Though the democrats put down the coup later that year and recalled Alcibiades to lead the Athenian fleet in the Hellespont, he aided the oligarchs by securing for them an alliance with the Persian satraps. Alcibiades therefore did not just aid the Spartan cause but allied himself with Persian interests as well. His association with the two principal enemies of Athens reflected poorly on Socrates, and Xenophon tells us that Socrates’ repeated association with and love for Alcibiades was instrumental in the suspicion that he was a Spartan apologist.
Sparta finally defeated Athens in 404 B.C.E., just five years before Socrates’ trial and execution. Instead of a democracy, they installed as rulers a small group of Athenians who were loyal to Spartan interests. Known as “The Thirty” or sometimes as the “Thirty Tyrants”, they were led by Critias, a known associate of Socrates and a member of his circle. Critias’ nephew Charmides, about whom we have a Platonic dialogue of the same name, was also a member. Though Critias put forth a law prohibiting Socrates from conducting discussions with young men under the age of 30, Socrates’ earlier association with him—as well as his willingness to remain in Athens and endure the rule of the Thirty rather than flee—further contributed to the growing suspicion that Socrates was opposed to the democratic ideals of his city.
The Thirty ruled tyrannically—executing a number of wealthy Athenians as well as confiscating their property, arbitrarily arresting those with democratic sympathies, and exiling many others—until they were overthrown in 403 B.C.E. by a group of democratic exiles returning to the city. Both Critias and Charmides were killed and, after a Spartan-sponsored peace accord, the democracy was restored. The democrats proclaimed a general amnesty in the city and thereby prevented politically motivated legal prosecutions aimed at redressing the terrible losses incurred during the reign of the Thirty. Their hope was to maintain unity during the reestablishment of their democracy.
One of Socrates’ main accusers, Anytus, was one of the democratic exiles that returned to the city to assist in the overthrow of the Thirty. Plato’s Meno, set in the year 402 B.C.E., imagines a conversation between Socrates and Anytus in which the latter argues that any citizen of Athens can teach virtue, an especially democratic view insofar as it assumes knowledge of how to live well is not the restricted domain of the esoteric elite or privileged few. In the discussion, Socrates argues that if one wants to know about virtue, one should consult an expert on virtue (Meno 91b-94e). The political turmoil of the city, rebuilding itself as a democracy after nearly thirty years of destruction and bloodshed, constituted a context in which many citizens were especially fearful of threats to their democracy that came not from the outside, but from within their own city.
While many of his fellow citizens found considerable evidence against Socrates, there was also historical evidence in addition to his military service for the case that he was not just a passive but an active supporter of the democracy. For one thing, just as he had associates that were known oligarchs, he also had associates that were supporters of the democracy, including the metic family of Cephalus and Socrates’ friend Chaerephon, the man who reported that the oracle at Delphi had proclaimed that no man was wiser than Socrates. Additionally, when he was ordered by the Thirty to help retrieve the democratic general Leon from the island of Salamis for execution, he refused to do so. His refusal could be understood not as the defiance of a legitimately established government but rather his allegiance to the ideals of due process that were in effect under the previously instituted democracy. Indeed, in Plato’s Crito, Socrates refuses to escape from prison on the grounds that he lived his whole life with an implied agreement with the laws of the democracy (Crito 50a-54d). Notwithstanding these facts, there was profound suspicion that Socrates was a threat to the democracy in the years after the end of the Peloponnesian War. But because of the amnesty, Anytus and his fellow accusers Meletus and Lycon were prevented from bringing suit against Socrates on political grounds. They opted instead for religious grounds.
2. Greek Religion and Socrates’ Impiety
Because of the amnesty the charges made against Socrates were framed in religious terms. As recounted by Diogenes Laertius (1.5.40), the charges were stated as follows: “Socrates does criminal wrong by not recognizing the gods that the city recognizes, and furthermore by introducing new divinities; and he also does criminal wrong by corrupting the youth” (other accounts: Xenophon Memorabilia I.I.1 and Apology 11-12, Plato, Apology 24b and Euthyphro 2c-3b). Many people understood the charge about corrupting the youth to signify that Socrates taught his subversive views to others, a claim that he adamantly denies in his defense speech by claiming that he has no wisdom to teach (Plato, Apology 20c) and that he cannot be held responsible for the actions of those that heard him speak (Plato, Apology 33a-c).
It is now customary to refer to the principal written accusation on the deposition submitted to the Athenian court as an accusation of impiety, or unholiness. Rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices that were officially sanctioned by the city and its officials marked ancient Greek religion. The sacred was woven into the everyday experience of citizens who demonstrated their piety by correctly observing their ancestral traditions. Interpretation of the gods at their temples was the exclusive domain of priests appointed and recognized by the city. The boundary and separation between the religious and the secular that we find in many countries today therefore did not obtain in Athens. A religious crime was consequently an offense not just against the gods, but also against the city itself.
Socrates and his contemporaries lived in a polytheistic society, a society in which the gods did not create the world but were themselves created. Socrates would have been brought up with the stories of the gods recounted in Hesiod and Homer, in which the gods were not omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, but rather power-hungry super-creatures that regularly intervened in the affairs of human beings. One thinks for example of Aphrodite saving Paris from death at the hands of Menelaus (Homer, Iliad 3.369-382) or Zeus sending Apollo to rescue the corpse of Sarpedon after his death in battle (Homer, Iliad 16.667-684). Human beings were to fear the gods, sacrifice to them, and honor them with festivals and prayers.
Socrates instead seemed to have a conception of the divine as always benevolent, truthful, authoritative, and wise. For him, divinity always operated in accordance with the standards of rationality. This conception of divinity, however, dispenses with the traditional conception of prayer and sacrifice as motivated by hopes for material payoff. Socrates’ theory of the divine seemed to make the most important rituals and sacrifices in the city entirely useless, for if the gods are all good, they will benefit human beings regardless of whether or not human beings make offerings to them. Jurors at his trial might have thought that, without the expectation of material reward or protection from the gods, Socrates was disconnecting religion from its practical roots and its connection with the civic identity of the city.
While Socrates was critical of blind acceptance of the gods and the myths we find in Hesiod and Homer, this in itself was not unheard of in Athens at the time. Solon, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Euripides had all spoken against the capriciousness and excesses of the gods without incurring penalty. It is possible to make the case that Socrates’ jurors might not have indicted him solely on questioning the gods or even of interrogating the true meaning of piety. Indeed, there was no legal definition of piety in Athens at the time, and jurors were therefore in a similar situation to the one in which we find Socrates in Plato’s Euthyphro, that is, in need of an inquiry into what the nature of piety truly is. What seems to have concerned the jurors was not only Socrates’ challenge to the traditional interpretation of the gods of the city, but his seeming allegiance to an entirely novel divine being, unfamiliar to anyone in the city.
This new divine being is what is known as Socrates’ daimon. Though it has become customary to think of a daimon as a spirit or quasi-divinity (for example, Symposium 202e-203a), in ancient Greek religion it was not solely a specific class of divine being but rather a mode of activity, a force that drives a person when no particular divine agent can be named (Burkett, 180). Socrates claimed to have heard a sign or voice from his days as a child that accompanied him and forbid him to pursue certain courses of action (Plato, Apology 31c-d, 40a-b, Euthydemus 272e-273a, Euthyphro 3b, Phaedrus 242b, Theages 128-131a, Theaetetus 150c-151b, Rep 496c; Xenophon, Apology 12, Memorabilia 1.1.3-5). Xenophon adds that the sign also issued positive commands (Memorablia 1.1.4, 4.3.12, 4.8.1, Apology 12). This sign was accessible only to Socrates, private and internal to his own mind. Whether Socrates received moral knowledge of any sort from the sign is a matter of scholarly debate, but beyond doubt is the strangeness of Socrates’ insistence that he took private instructions from a deity that was unlicensed by the city. For all the jurors knew, the deity could have been hostile to Athenian interests. Socrates’ daimon was therefore extremely influential in his indictment on the charge of worshipping new gods unknown to the city (Plato, Euthyphro 3b, Xenophon, Memorabilia I.1.2).
Whereas in Plato’s Apology Socrates makes no attempt to reconcile his divine sign with traditional views of piety, Xenophon’s Socrates argues that just as there are those who rely on birdcalls and receive guidance from voices, so he too is influenced by his daimon. However, Socrates had no officially sanctioned religious role in the city. As such, his attempt to assimilate himself to a seer or necromancer appointed by the city to interpret divine signs actually may have undermined his innocence, rather than help to establish it. His insistence that he had direct, personal access to the divine made him appear guilty to enough jurors that he was sentenced to death.
b. The Socratic Problem: the Philosophical Socrates
The Socratic problem is the problem faced by historians of philosophy when attempting to reconstruct the ideas of the original Socrates as distinct from his literary representations. While we know many of the historical details of Socrates’ life and the circumstances surrounding his trial, Socrates’ identity as a philosopher is much more difficult to establish. Because he wrote nothing, what we know of his ideas and methods comes to us mainly from his contemporaries and disciples.
There were a number of Socrates’ followers who wrote conversations in which he appears. These works are what are known as the logoi sokratikoi, or Socratic accounts. Aside from Plato and Xenophon, most of these dialogues have not survived. What we know of them comes to us from other sources. For example, very little survives from the dialogues of Antisthenes, whom Xenophon reports as one of Socrates’ leading disciples. Indeed, from polemics written by the rhetor Isocrates, some scholars have concluded that he was the most prominent Socratic in Athens for the first decade following Socrates’ death. Diogenes Laertius (6.10-13) attributes to Antisthenes a number of views that we recognize as Socratic, including that virtue is sufficient for happiness, the wise man is self-sufficient, only the virtuous are noble, the virtuous are friends, and good things are morally fine and bad things are base.
Aeschines of Sphettus wrote seven dialogues, all of which have been lost. It is possible for us to reconstruct the plots of two of them: the Alcibiades—in which Socrates shames Alcibiades into admitting he needs Socrates’ help to be virtuous—and the Aspasia—in which Socrates recommends the famous wife of Pericles as a teacher for the son of Callias. Aeschines’ dialogues focus on Socrates’ ability to help his interlocutor acquire self-knowledge and better himself.
Phaedo of Elis wrote two dialogues. His central use of Socrates is to show that philosophy can improve anyone regardless of his social class or natural talents. Euclides of Megara wrote six dialogues, about which we know only their titles. Diogenes Laertius reports that he held that the good is one, that insight and prudence are different names for the good, and that what is opposed to the good does not exist. All three are Socratic themes. Lastly, Aristippus of Cyrene wrote no Socratic dialogues but is alleged to have written a work entitled To Socrates.
The two Socratics on whom most of our philosophical understanding of Socrates depends are Plato and Xenophon. Scholars also rely on the works of the comic playwright Aristophanes and Plato’s most famous student, Aristotle.
i. Origin of the Socratic Problem
The Socratic problem first became pronounced in the early 19th century with the influential work of Friedrich Schleiermacher. Until this point, scholars had largely turned to Xenophon to identify what the historical Socrates thought. Schleiermacher argued that Xenophon was not a philosopher but rather a simple citizen-soldier, and that his Socrates was so dull and philosophically uninteresting that, reading Xenophon alone, it would be difficult to understand the reputation accorded Socrates by so many of his contemporaries and nearly all the schools of philosophy that followed him. The better portrait of Socrates, Schleiermacher claimed, comes to us from Plato.
Though many scholars have since jettisoned Xenophon as a legitimate source for representing the philosophical views of the historical Socrates, they remain divided over the reliability of the other three sources. For one thing, Aristophanes was a comic playwright, and therefore took considerable poetic license when scripting his characters. Aristotle, born 15 years after Socrates’ death, hears about Socrates primarily from Plato. Plato himself wrote dialogues or philosophical dramas, and thus cannot be understood to be presenting his readers with exact replicas or transcriptions of conversations that Socrates actually had. Furthermore, many scholars think that Plato’s so-called middle and late dialogues do not present the views of the historical Socrates.
We therefore see the difficult nature of the Socratic problem: because we don’t seem to have any consistently reliable sources, finding the true Socrates or the original Socrates proves to be an impossible task. What we are left with, instead, is a composite picture assembled from various literary and philosophical components that give us what we might think of as Socratic themes or motifs.
ii. Aristophanes
Born in 450 B.C.E., Aristophanes wrote a number of comic plays intended to satirize and caricature many of his fellow Athenians. His Clouds (423 B.C.E.) was so instrumental in parodying Socrates and painting him as a dangerous intellectual capable of corrupting the entire city that Socrates felt compelled in his trial defense to allude to the bad reputation he acquired as a result of the play (Plato, Apology 18a-b, 19c). Aristophanes was much closer in age to Socrates than Plato and Xenophon, and as such is the only one of our sources exposed to Socrates in his younger years.
In the play, Socrates is the head of a phrontistêrion, a school of learning where students are taught the nature of the heavens and how to win court cases. Socrates appears in a swing high above the stage, purportedly to better study the heavens. His patron deities, the clouds, represent his interest in meteorology and may also symbolize the lofty nature of reasoning that may take either side of an argument. The main plot of the play centers on an indebted man called Strepsiades, whose son Phidippides ends up in the school to learn how to help his father avoid paying off his debts. By the end of the play, Phidippides has beaten his father, arguing that it is perfectly reasonable to do so on the grounds that, just as it is acceptable for a father to spank his son for his own good, so it is acceptable for a son to hit a father for his own good. In addition to the theme that Socrates corrupts the youth, we therefore also find in the Clouds the origin of the rumor that Socrates makes the stronger argument the weaker and the weaker argument the stronger. Indeed, the play features a personification of the Stronger Argument—which represents traditional education and values—attacked by the Weaker Argument—which advocates a life of pleasure.
While the Clouds is Aristophanes’ most famous and comprehensive attack on Socrates, Socrates appears in other of his comedies as well. In the Birds (414 B.C.E.), Aristophanes coins a Greek verb based on Socrates’ name to insinuate that Socrates was truly a Spartan sympathizer (1280-83). Young men who were found “Socratizing” were expressing their admiration of Sparta and its customs. And in the Frogs (405), the Chorus claims that it is not refined to keep company with Socrates, who ignores the poets and wastes time with ‘frivolous words’ and ‘pompous word-scraping’ (1491-1499).
Aristophanes’ Socrates is a kind of variegated caricature of trends and new ideas emerging in Athens that he believed were threatening to the city. We find a number of such themes prevalent in Presocratic philosophy and the teachings of the Sophists, including those about natural science, mathematics, social science, ethics, political philosophy, and the art of words. Amongst other things, Aristophanes was troubled by the displacement of the divine through scientific explanations of the world and the undermining of traditional morality and custom by explanations of cultural life that appealed to nature instead of the gods. Additionally, he was reticent about teaching skill in disputation, for fear that a clever speaker could just as easily argue for the truth as argue against it. These issues constitute what is sometimes called the “new learning” developing in 5th century B.C.E. Athens, for which the Aristophanic Socrates is the iconic symbol.
iii. Xenophon
Born in the same decade as Plato (425 B.C.E.), Xenophon lived in the political deme of Erchia. Though he knew Socrates he would not have had as much contact with him as Plato did. He was not present in the courtroom on the day of Socrates’ trial, but rather heard an account of it later on from Hermogenes, a member of Socrates’ circle. His depiction of Socrates is found principally in four works: Apology—in which Socrates gives a defense of his life before his jurors—Memorabilia—in which Xenophon himself explicates the charges against Socrates and tries to defend him—Symposium—a conversation between Socrates and his friends at a drinking party—and Oeconomicus—a Socratic discourse on estate management. Socrates also appears in Xenophon’s Hellenica and Anabasis.
Xenophon’s reputation as a source on the life and ideas of Socrates is one on which scholars do not always agree. Largely thought to be a significant source of information about Socrates before the 19th century, for most of the 20th century Xenophon’s ability to depict Socrates as a philosopher was largely called into question. Following Schleiermacher, many argued that Xenophon himself was either a bad philosopher who did not understand Socrates, or not a philosopher at all, more concerned with practical, everyday matters like economics. However, recent scholarship has sought to challenge this interpretation, arguing that it assumes an understanding of philosophy as an exclusively speculative and critical endeavor that does not attend to the ancient conception of philosophy as a comprehensive way of life.
While Plato will likely always remain the principal source on Socrates and Socratic themes, Xenophon’s Socrates is distinct in philosophically interesting ways. He emphasizes the values of self-mastery (enkrateia), endurance of physical pain (karteria), and self-sufficiency (autarkeia). For Xenophon’s Socrates, self-mastery or moderation is the foundation of virtue (Memorabilia, 1.5.4). Whereas in Plato’s Apology the oracle tells Chaerephon that no one is wiser than Socrates, in Xenophon’s Apology Socrates claims that the oracle told Chaerephon that “no man was more free than I, more just, and more moderate” (Xenophon, Apology, 14).
Part of Socrates’ freedom consists in his freedom from want, precisely because he has mastered himself. As opposed to Plato’s Socrates, Xenophon’s Socrates is not poor, not because he has much, but because he needs little. Oeconomicus 11.3 for instance shows Socrates displeased with those who think him poor. One can be rich even with very little on the condition that one has limited his needs, for wealth is just the excess of what one has over what one requires. Socrates is rich because what he has is sufficient for what he needs (Memorabilia 1.2.1, 1.3.5, 4.2.38-9).
We also find Xenophon attributing to Socrates a proof of the existence of God. The argument holds that human beings are the product of an intelligent design, and we therefore should conclude that there is a God who is the maker (dēmiourgos) or designer of all things (Memorabilia 1.4.2-7). God creates a systematically ordered universe and governs it in the way our minds govern our bodies (Memorabilia 1.4.1-19, 4.3.1-18). While Plato’s Timaeus tells the story of a dēmiourgos creating the world, it is Timaeus, not Socrates, who tells the story. Indeed, Socrates speaks only sparingly at the beginning of the dialogue, and most scholars do not count as Socratic the cosmological arguments therein.
iv. Plato
Plato was Socrates’ most famous disciple, and the majority of what most people know about Socrates is known about Plato’s Socrates. Plato was born to one of the wealthiest and politically influential families in Athens in 427 B.C.E., the son of Ariston and Perictione. His brothers were Glaucon and Adeimantus, who are Socrates’ principal interlocutors for the majority of the Republic. Though Socrates is not present in every Platonic dialogue, he is in the majority of them, often acting as the main interlocutor who drives the conversation.
The attempt to extract Socratic views from Plato’s texts is itself a notoriously difficult problem, bound up with questions about the order in which Plato composed his dialogues, one’s methodological approach to reading them, and whether or not Socrates, or anyone else for that matter, speaks for Plato. Readers interested in the details of this debate should consult “ Plato .” Generally speaking, the predominant view of Plato’s Socrates in the English-speaking world from the middle to the end of the 20th century was simply that he was Plato’s mouthpiece. In other words, anything Socrates says in the dialogues is what Plato thought at the time he wrote the dialogue. This view, put forth by the famous Plato scholar Gregory Vlastos, has been challenged in recent years, with some scholars arguing that Plato has no mouthpiece in the dialogues (see Cooper xxi-xxiii). While we can attribute to Plato certain doctrines that are consistent throughout his corpus, there is no reason to think that Socrates, or any other speaker, always and consistently espouses these doctrines.
The main interpretive obstacle for those seeking the views of Socrates from Plato is the question of the order of the dialogues. Thrasyllus, the 1st century (C.E.) Platonist who was the first to arrange the dialogues according to a specific paradigm, organized the dialogues into nine tetralogies, or groups of four, on the basis of the order in which he believed they should be read. Another approach, customary for most scholars by the late 20th century, groups the dialogues into three categories on the basis of the order in which Plato composed them. Plato begins his career, so the narrative goes, representing his teacher Socrates in typically short conversations about ethics, virtue, and the best human life. These are “early” dialogues. Only subsequently does Plato develop his own philosophical views—the most famous of which is the doctrine of the Forms or Ideas—that Socrates defends. These “middle” dialogues put forth positive doctrines that are generally thought to be Platonic and not Socratic. Finally, towards the end of his life, Plato composes dialogues in which Socrates typically either hardly features at all or is altogether absent. These are the “late” dialogues.
There are a number of complications with this interpretive thesis, and many of them focus on the portrayal of Socrates. Though the Gorgias is an early dialogue, Socrates concludes the dialogue with a myth that some scholars attribute to a Pythagorean influence on Plato that he would not have had during Socrates’ lifetime. Though the Parmenides is a middle dialogue, the younger Socrates speaks only at the beginning before Parmenides alone speaks for the remainder of the dialogue. While the Philebus is a late dialogue, Socrates is the main speaker. Some scholars identify the Meno as an early dialogue because Socrates refutes Meno’s attempts to articulate the nature of virtue. Others, focusing on Socrates’ use of the theory of recollection and the method of hypothesis, argue that it is a middle dialogue. Finally, while Plato’s most famous work the Republic is a middle dialogue, some scholars make a distinction within the Republic itself. The first book, they argue, is Socratic, because in it we find Socrates refuting Thrasymachus’ definition of justice while maintaining that he knows nothing about justice. The rest of the dialogue they claim, with its emphasis on the division of the soul and the metaphysics of the Forms, is Platonic.
To discern a consistent Socrates in Plato is therefore a difficult task. Instead of speaking about chronology of composition, contemporary scholars searching for views that are likely to have been associated with the historical Socrates generally focus on a group of dialogues that are united by topical similarity. These “Socratic dialogues” feature Socrates as the principal speaker, challenging his interlocutor to elaborate on and critically examine his own views while typically not putting forth substantive claims of his own. These dialogues—including those that some scholars think are not written by Plato and those that most scholars agree are not written by Plato but that Thrasyllus included in his collection—are as follows: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Alcibiades I, Alcibiades II, Hipparchus, Rival Lovers, Theages, Charmides, Laches, Lysis, Euthydemus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno, Greater Hippias, Lesser Hippias, Ion, Menexenus, Clitophon, Minos. Some of the more famous positions Socrates defends in these dialogues are covered in the content section.
v. Aristotle
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C.E., 15 years after the death of Socrates. At the age of eighteen, he went to study at Plato’s Academy, and remained there for twenty years. Afterwards, he traveled throughout Asia and was invited by Phillip II of Macedon to tutor his son Alexander, known to history as Alexander the Great. While Aristotle would never have had the chance to meet Socrates, we have in his writings an account of both Socrates’ method and the topics about which he had conversations. Given the likelihood that Aristotle heard about Socrates from Plato and those at his Academy, it is not surprising that most of what he says about Socrates follows the depiction of him in the Platonic dialogues.
Aristotle related four concrete points about Socrates. The first is that Socrates asked questions without supplying an answer of his own, because he claimed to know nothing (De Elenchis Sophisticus 1836b6-8). The picture of Socrates here is consistent with that of Plato’s Apology. Second, Aristotle claims that Socrates never asked questions about nature, but concerned himself only with ethical questions. Aristotle thus attributes to the historical Socrates both the method and topics we find in Plato’s Socratic dialogues.
Third, Aristotle claims that Socrates is the first to have employed epagōgē, a word typically rendered in English as “induction.” This translation, however, is misleading, lest we impute to Socrates a preference for inductive reasoning as opposed to deductive reasoning. The term better indicates that Socrates was fond or arguing via the use of analogy. For instance, just as a doctor does not practice medicine for himself but for the best interest of his patient, so the ruler in the city takes no account of his own personal profit, but is rather interested in caring for his citizens (Republic 342d-e).
The fourth and final claim Aristotle makes about Socrates itself has two parts. First, Socrates was the first to ask the question, ti esti: what is it? For example, if someone were to suggest to Socrates that our children should grow up to be courageous, he would ask, what is courage? That is, what is the universal definition or nature that holds for all examples of courage? Second, as distinguished from Plato, Socrates did not separate universals from their particular instantiations. For Plato, the noetic object, the knowable thing, is the separate universal, not the particular. Socrates simply asked the “what is it” question (on this and the previous two points, see Metaphysics I.6.987a29-b14; cf. b22-24, b27-33, and see XIII.4.1078b12-34).
2. Content: What does Socrates Think?
Given the nature of these sources, the task of recounting what Socrates thought is not an easy one. Nonetheless, reading Plato’s Apology, it is possible to articulate a number of what scholars today typically associate with Socrates. Plato the author has his Socrates claim that Plato was present in the courtroom for Socrates’ defense (Apology 34a), and while this cannot mean that Plato records the defense as a word for word transcription, it is the closest thing we have to an account of what Socrates actually said at a concrete point in his life.
a. Presocratic Philosophy and the Sophists
Socrates opens his defense speech by defending himself against his older accusers (Apology 18a), claiming they have poisoned the minds of his jurors since they were all young men. Amongst these accusers was Aristophanes. In addition to the claim that Socrates makes the worse argument into the stronger, there is a rumor that Socrates idles the day away talking about things in the sky and below the earth. His reply is that he never discusses such topics (Apology 18a-c). Socrates is distinguishing himself here not just from the sophists and their alleged ability to invert the strength of arguments, but from those we have now come to call the Presocratic philosophers.
The Presocratics were not just those who came before Socrates, for there are some Presocratic philosophers who were his contemporaries. The term is sometimes used to suggest that, while Socrates cared about ethics, the Presocratic philosophers did not. This is misleading, for we have evidence that a number of Presocratics explored ethical issues. The term is best used to refer to the group of thinkers whom Socrates did not influence and whose fundamental uniting characteristic was that they sought to explain the world in terms of its own inherent principles. The 6th cn. Milesian Thales, for instance, believed that the fundamental principle of all things was water. Anaximander believed the principle was the indefinite (apeiron), and for Anaxamines it was air. Later in Plato’s Apology (26d-e), Socrates rhetorically asks whether Meletus thinks he is prosecuting Anaxagoras, the 5th cn. thinker who argued that the universe was originally a mixture of elements that have since been set in motion by Nous, or Mind. Socrates suggests that he does not engage in the same sort of cosmological inquiries that were the main focus of many Presocratics.
The other group against which Socrates compares himself is the Sophists, learned men who travelled from city to city offering to teach the youth for a fee. While he claims he thinks it an admirable thing to teach as Gorgias, Prodicus, or Hippias claim they can (Apology 20a), he argues that he himself does not have knowledge of human excellence or virtue (Apology 20b-c). Though Socrates inquires after the nature of virtue, he does not claim to know it, and certainly does not ask to be paid for his conversations.
b. Socratic Themes in Plato’s Apology
i. Socratic Ignorance
Plato’s Socrates moves next to explain the reason he has acquired the reputation he has and why so many citizens dislike him. The oracle at Delphi told Socrates’ friend Chaerephon, “no one is wiser than Socrates” (Apology 21a). Socrates explains that he was not aware of any wisdom he had, and so set out to find someone who had wisdom in order to demonstrate that the oracle was mistaken. He first went to the politicians but found them lacking wisdom. He next visited the poets and found that, though they spoke in beautiful verses, they did so through divine inspiration, not because they had wisdom of any kind. Finally, Socrates found that the craftsmen had knowledge of their own craft, but that they subsequently believed themselves to know much more than they actually did. Socrates concluded that he was better off than his fellow citizens because, while they thought they knew something and did not, he was aware of his own ignorance. The god who speaks through the oracle, he says, is truly wise, whereas human wisdom is worth little or nothing (Apology 23a).
This awareness of one’s own absence of knowledge is what is known as Socratic ignorance, and it is arguably the thing for which Socrates is most famous. Socratic ignorance is sometimes called simple ignorance, to be distinguished from the double ignorance of the citizens with whom Socrates spoke. Simple ignorance is being aware of one’s own ignorance, whereas double ignorance is not being aware of one’s ignorance while thinking that one knows. In showing many influential figures in Athens that they did not know what they thought they did, Socrates came to be despised in many circles.
It is worth nothing that Socrates does not claim here that he knows nothing. He claims that he is aware of his ignorance and that whatever it is that he does know is worthless. Socrates has a number of strong convictions about what makes for an ethical life, though he cannot articulate precisely why these convictions are true. He believes for instance that it is never just to harm anyone, whether friend or enemy, but he does not, at least in Book I of the Republic, offer a systematic account of the nature of justice that could demonstrate why this is true. Because of his insistence on repeated inquiry, Socrates has refined his convictions such that he can both hold particular views about justice while maintaining that he does not know the complete nature of justice.
We can see this contrast quite clearly in Socrates’ cross-examination of his accuser Meletus. Because he is charged with corrupting the youth, Socrates inquires after who it is that helps the youth (Apology, 24d-25a). In the same way that we take a horse to a horse trainer to improve it, Socrates wants to know the person to whom we take a young person to educate him and improve him. Meletus’ silence condemns him: he has never bothered to reflect on such matters, and therefore is unaware of his ignorance about matters that are the foundation of his own accusation (Apology 25b-c). Whether or not Socrates—or Plato for that matter—actually thinks it is possible to achieve expertise in virtue is a subject on which scholars disagree.
ii. Priority of the Care of the Soul
Throughout his defense speech (Apology 20a-b, 24c-25c, 31b, 32d, 36c, 39d) Socrates repeatedly stresses that a human being must care for his soul more than anything else (see also Crito 46c-47d, Euthyphro 13b-c, Gorgias 520a4ff). Socrates found that his fellow citizens cared more for wealth, reputation, and their bodies while neglecting their souls (Apology 29d-30b). He believed that his mission from the god was to examine his fellow citizens and persuade them that the most important good for a human being was the health of the soul. Wealth, he insisted, does not bring about human excellence or virtue, but virtue makes wealth and everything else good for human beings (Apology 30b).
Socrates believes that his mission of caring for souls extends to the entirety of the city of Athens. He argues that the god gave him to the city as a gift and that his mission is to help improve the city. He thus attempts to show that he is not guilty of impiety precisely because everything he does is in response to the oracle and at the service of the god. Socrates characterizes himself as a gadfly and the city as a sluggish horse in need of stirring up (Apology 30e). Without philosophical inquiry, the democracy becomes stagnant and complacent, in danger of harming itself and others. Just as the gadfly is an irritant to the horse but rouses it to action, so Socrates supposes that his purpose is to agitate those around him so that they begin to examine themselves. One might compare this claim with Socrates’ assertion in the Gorgias that, while his contemporaries aim at gratification, he practices the true political craft because he aims at what is best (521d-e). Such comments, in addition to the historical evidence that we have, are Socrates’ strongest defense that he is not only not a burden to the democracy but a great asset to it.
iii. The Unexamined Life
After the jury has convicted Socrates and sentenced him to death, he makes one of the most famous proclamations in the history of philosophy. He tells the jury that he could never keep silent, because “the unexamined life is not worth living for human beings” (Apology 38a). We find here Socrates’ insistence that we are all called to reflect upon what we believe, account for what we know and do not known, and generally speaking to seek out, live in accordance with, and defend those views that make for a well lived and meaningful life.
Some scholars call attention to Socrates’ emphasis on human nature here, and argue that the call to live examined lives follows from our nature as human beings. We are naturally directed by pleasure and pain. We are drawn to power, wealth and reputation, the sorts of values to which Athenians were drawn as well. Socrates’ call to live examined lives is not necessarily an insistence to reject all such motivations and inclinations but rather an injunction to appraise their true worth for the human soul. The purpose of the examined life is to reflect upon our everyday motivations and values and to subsequently inquire into what real worth, if any, they have. If they have no value or indeed are even harmful, it is upon us to pursue those things that are truly valuable.
One can see in reading the Apology that Socrates examines the lives of his jurors during his own trial. By asserting the primacy of the examined life after he has been convicted and sentenced to death, Socrates, the prosecuted, becomes the prosecutor, surreptitiously accusing those who convicted him of not living a life that respects their own humanity. He tells them that by killing him they will not escape examining their lives. To escape giving an account of one’s life is neither possible nor good, Socrates claims, but it is best to prepare oneself to be as good as possible (Apology 39d-e).
We find here a conception of a well-lived life that differs from one that would likely be supported by many contemporary philosophers. Today, most philosophers would argue that we must live ethical lives (though what this means is of course a matter of debate) but that it is not necessary for everyone to engage in the sort of discussions Socrates had everyday, nor must one do so in order to be considered a good person. A good person, we might say, lives a good life insofar as he does what is just, but he does not necessarily need to be consistently engaged in debates about the nature of justice or the purpose of the state. No doubt Socrates would disagree, not just because the law might be unjust or the state might do too much or too little, but because, insofar as we are human beings, self-examination is always beneficial to us.
c. Other Socratic Positions and Arguments
In addition to the themes one finds in the Apology, the following are a number of other positions in the Platonic corpus that are typically considered Socratic.
i. Unity of Virtue; All Virtue is Knowledge
In the Protagoras (329b-333b) Socrates argues for the view that all of the virtues—justice, wisdom, courage, piety, and so forth—are one. He provides a number of arguments for this thesis. For example, while it is typical to think that one can be wise without being temperate, Socrates rejects this possibility on the grounds that wisdom and temperance both have the same opposite: folly. Were they truly distinct, they would each have their own opposites. As it stands, the identity of their opposites indicates that one cannot possess wisdom without temperance and vice versa.
This thesis is sometimes paired with another Socratic, view, that is, that virtue is a form of knowledge (Meno 87e-89a; cf. Euthydemus 278d-282a). Things like beauty, strength, and health benefit human beings, but can also harm them if they are not accompanied by knowledge or wisdom. If virtue is to be beneficial it must be knowledge, since all the qualities of the soul are in themselves neither beneficial not harmful, but are only beneficial when accompanied by wisdom and harmful when accompanied by folly.
ii. No One Errs Knowingly/No One Errs Willingly
Socrates famously declares that no one errs or makes mistakes knowingly (Protagoras 352c, 358b-b). Here we find an example of Socrates’ intellectualism. When a person does what is wrong, their failure to do what is right is an intellectual error, or due to their own ignorance about what is right. If the person knew what was right, he would have done it. Hence, it is not possible for someone simultaneously know what is right and do what is wrong. If someone does what is wrong, they do so because they do not know what is right, and if they claim the have known what was right at the time when they committed the wrong, they are mistaken, for had they truly known what was right, they would have done it.
Socrates therefore denies the possibility of akrasia, or weakness of the will. No one errs willingly (Protagoras 345c4-e6). While it might seem that Socrates is equivocating between knowingly and willingly, a look at Gorgias 466a-468e helps clarify his thesis. Tyrants and orators, Socrates tells Polus, have the least power of any member of the city because they do not do what they want. What they do is not good or beneficial even though human beings only want what is good or beneficial. The tyrant’s will, corrupted by ignorance, is in such a state that what follows from it will necessarily harm him. Conversely, the will that is purified by knowledge is in such a state that what follows from it will necessarily be beneficial.
iii. All Desire is for the Good
One of the premises of the argument just mentioned is that human beings only desire the good. When a person does something for the sake of something else, it is always the thing for the sake of which he is acting that he wants. All bad things or intermediate things are done not for themselves but for the sake of something else that is good. When a tyrant puts someone to death, for instance, he does this because he thinks it is beneficial in some way. Hence his action is directed towards the good because this is what he truly wants (Gorgias 467c-468b).
A similar version of this argument is in the Meno, 77b-78b. Those that desire bad things do not know that they are truly bad; otherwise, they would not desire them. They do not naturally desire what is bad but rather desire those things that they believe to be good but that are in fact bad. They desire good things even though they lack knowledge of what is actually good.
iv. It is Better to Suffer an Injustice Than to Commit One
Socrates infuriates Polus with the argument that it is better to suffer an injustice than commit one (Gorgias 475a-d). Polus agrees that it is more shameful to commit an injustice, but maintains it is not worse. The worst thing, in his view, is to suffer injustice. Socrates argues that, if something is more shameful, it surpasses in either badness or pain or both. Since committing an injustice is not more painful than suffering one, committing an injustice cannot surpass in pain or both pain and badness. Committing an injustice surpasses suffering an injustice in badness; differently stated, committing an injustice is worse than suffering one. Therefore, given the choice between the two, we should choose to suffer rather than commit an injustice.
This argument must be understood in terms of the Socratic emphasis on the care of the soul. Committing an injustice corrupts one’s soul, and therefore committing injustice is the worst thing a person can do to himself (cf. Crito 47d-48a, Republic I 353d-354a). If one commits injustice, Socrates goes so far as to claim that it is better to seek punishment than avoid it on the grounds that the punishment will purge or purify the soul of its corruption (Gorgias 476d-478e).
v. Eudaimonism
The Greek word for happiness is eudaimonia, which signifies not merely feeling a certain way but being a certain way. A different way of translating eudaimonia is well-being. Many scholars believe that Socrates holds two related but not equivalent principles regarding eudaimonia: first, that it is rationally required that a person make his own happiness the foundational consideration for his actions, and second, that each person does in fact pursue happiness as the foundational consideration for his actions. In relation to Socrates’ emphasis on virtue, it is not entirely clear what that means. Virtue could be identical to happiness—in which case there is no difference between the two and if I am virtuous I am by definition happy—virtue could be a part of happiness—in which case if I am virtuous I will be happy although I could be made happier by the addition of other goods—or virtue could be instrumental for happiness—in which case if I am virtuous I might be happy (and I couldn’t be happy without virtue), but there is no guarantee that I will be happy.
There are a number of passages in the Apology that seem to indicate that the greatest good for a human being is having philosophical conversation (36b-d, 37e-38a, 40e-41c). Meno 87c-89a suggests that knowledge of the good guides the soul toward happiness (cf. Euthydemus 278e-282a). And at Gorgias 507a-c Socrates suggests that the virtuous person, acting in accordance with wisdom, attains happiness (cf. Gorgias 478c-e: the happiest person has no badness in his soul).
vi. Ruling is An Expertise
Socrates is committed to the theme that ruling is a kind of craft or art (technē). As such, it requires knowledge. Just as a doctor brings about a desired result for his patient—health, for instance—so the ruler should bring about some desired result in his subject (Republic 341c-d, 342c). Medicine, insofar as it has the best interest of its patient in mind, never seeks to benefit the practitioner. Similarly, the ruler’s job is to act not for his own benefit but for the benefit of the citizens of the political community. This is not to say that there might not be some contingent benefit that accrues to the practitioner; the doctor, for instance, might earn a fine salary. But this benefit is not intrinsic to the expertise of medicine as such. One could easily conceive of a doctor that makes very little money. One cannot, however, conceive of a doctor that does not act on behalf of his patient. Analogously, ruling is always for the sake of the ruled citizen, and justice, contra the famous claim from Thrasymachus, is not whatever is in the interest of the ruling power (Republic 338c-339a).
d. Socrates the Ironist
The suspicion that Socrates is an ironist can mean a number of things: on the one hand, it can indicate that Socrates is saying something with the intent to convey the opposite meaning. Some readers for instance, including a number in the ancient world, understood Socrates’ avowal of ignorance in precisely this way. Many have interpreted Socrates’ praise of Euthyphro, in which he claims that he can learn from him and will become his pupil, as an example of this sort of irony (Euthyphro 5a-b). On the other hand, the Greek word eirōneia was understood to carry with it a sense of subterfuge, rendering the sense of the word something like masking with the intent to deceive.
Additionally, there are a number of related questions about Socrates’ irony. Is the interlocutor supposed to be aware of the irony, or is he ignorant of it? Is it the job of the reader to discern the irony? Is the purpose of irony rhetorical, intended to maintain Socrates’ position as the director of the conversation, or pedagogical, meant to encourage the interlocutor to learn something? Could it be both?
Scholars disagree on the sense in which we ought to call Socrates ironic. When Socrates asks Callicles to tell him what he means by the stronger and to go easy on him so that he might learn better, Callicles claims he is being ironic (Gorgias 489e). Thrasymachus accuses Socrates of being ironic insofar as he pretends he does not have an account of justice, when he is actually hiding what he truly thinks (Republic 337a). And though the Symposium is generally not thought to be a “Socratic” dialogue, we there find Alcibiades accusing Socrates of being ironic insofar as he acts like he is interested in him but then deny his advances (Symposium 216e, 218d). It is not clear which kind of irony is at work with these examples.
Aristotle defines irony as an attempt at self-deprecation (Nicomachean Ethics 4.7, 1127b23-26). He argues that self-deprecation is the opposite of boastfulness, and people that engage in this sort of irony do so to avoid pompousness and make their characters more attractive. Above all, such people disclaim things that bring reputation. On this reading, Socrates was prone to understatement.
There are some thinkers for whom Socratic irony is not just restricted to what Socrates says. The 19th century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard held the view that Socrates himself, his character, is ironic. The 20th century philosopher Leo Strauss defined irony as the noble dissimulation of one’s worth. On this reading, Socrates’ irony consisted in his refusal to display his superiority in front of his inferiors so that his message would be understood only by the privileged few. As such, Socratic irony is intended to conceal Socrates’ true message.
3. Method: How Did Socrates Do Philosophy?
As famous as the Socratic themes are, the Socratic method is equally famous. Socrates conducted his philosophical activity by means of question an answer, and we typically associate with him a method called the elenchus. At the same time, Plato’s Socrates calls himself a midwife—who has no ideas of his own but helps give birth to the ideas of others—and proceeds dialectically—defined either as asking questions, embracing the practice of collection and division, or proceeding from hypotheses to first principles.
a. The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter
A typical Socratic elenchus is a cross-examination of a particular position, proposition, or definition, in which Socrates tests what his interlocutor says and refutes it. There is, however, great debate amongst scholars regarding not only what is being refuted but also whether or not the elenchus can prove anything. There are questions, in other words, about the topic of the elenchus and its purpose or goal.
i. Topic
Socrates typically begins his elenchus with the question, “what is it”? What is piety, he asks Euthyphro. Euthyphro appears to give five separate definitions of piety: piety is proceeding against whomever does injustice (5d-6e), piety is what is loved by the gods (6e-7a), piety is what is loved by all the gods (9e), the godly and the pious is the part of the just that is concerned with the care of the gods (12e), and piety is the knowledge of sacrificing and praying (13d-14a). For some commentators, what Socrates is searching for here is a definition. Other commentators argue that Socrates is searching for more than just the definition of piety but seeks a comprehensive account of the nature of piety. Whatever the case, Socrates refutes the answer given to him in response to the ‘what is it’ question.
Another reading of the Socratic elenchus is that Socrates is not just concerned with the reply of the interlocutor but is concerned with the interlocutor himself. According to this view, Socrates is as much concerned with the truth or falsity of propositions as he is with the refinement of the interlocutor’s way of life. Socrates is concerned with both epistemological and moral advances for the interlocutor and himself. It is not propositions or replies alone that are refuted, for Socrates does not conceive of them dwelling in isolation from those that hold them. Thus conceived, the elenchus refutes the person holding a particular view, not just the view. For instance, Socrates shames Thrasymachus when he shows him that he cannot maintain his view that justice is ignorance and injustice is wisdom (Republic I 350d). The elenchus demonstrates that Thrasymachus cannot consistently maintain all his claims about the nature of justice. This view is consistent with a view we find in Plato’s late dialogue called the Sophist, in which the Visitor from Elea, not Socrates, claims that the soul will not get any advantage from learning that it is offered to it until someone shames it by refuting it (230b-d).
ii. Purpose
In terms of goal, there are two common interpretations of the elenchus. Both have been developed by scholars in response to what Gregory Vlastos called the problem of the Socratic elenchus. The problem is how Socrates can claim that position W is false, when the only thing he has established is its inconsistency with other premises whose truth he has not tried to establish in the elenchus.
The first response is what is called the constructivist position. A constructivist argues that the elenchus establishes the truth or falsity of individual answers. The elenchus on this interpretation can and does have positive results. Vlastos himself argued that Socrates not only established the inconsistency of the interlocutor’s beliefs by showing their inconsistency, but that Socrates’ own moral beliefs were always consistent, able to withstand the test of the elenchus. Socrates could therefore pick out a faulty premise in his elenctic exchange with an interlocutor, and sought to replace the interlocutor’s false beliefs with his own.
The second response is called the non-constructivist position. This position claims that Socrates does not think the elenchus can establish the truth or falsity of individual answers. The non-constructivist argues that all the elenchus can show is the inconsistency of W with the premises X, Y, and Z. It cannot establish that ~W is the case, or for that matter replace any of the premises with another, for this would require a separate argument. The elenchus establishes the falsity of the conjunction of W, X, Y, and Z, but not the truth or falsity of any of those premises individually. The purpose of the elenchus on this interpretation is to show the interlocutor that he is confused, and, according to some scholars, to use that confusion as a stepping stone on the way to establishing a more consistent, well-formed set of beliefs.
b. Maieutic: Socrates the Midwife
In Plato’s Theaetetus Socrates identifies himself as a midwife (150b-151b). While the dialogue is not generally considered Socratic, it is elenctic insofar as it tests and refutes Theaetetus’ definitions of knowledge. It also ends without a conclusive answer to its question, a characteristic it shares with a number of Socratic dialogues.
Socrates tells Theaetetus that his mother Phaenarete was a midwife (149a) and that he himself is an intellectual midwife. Whereas the craft of midwifery (150b-151d) brings on labor pains or relieves them in order to help a woman deliver a child, Socrates does not watch over the body but over the soul, and helps his interlocutor give birth to an idea. He then applies the elenchus to test whether or not the intellectual offspring is a phantom or a fertile truth. Socrates stresses that both he and actual midwives are barren, and cannot give birth to their own offspring. In spite of his own emptiness of ideas, Socrates claims to be skilled at bringing forth the ideas of others and examining them.
c. Dialectic: Socrates the Constructer
The method of dialectic is thought to be more Platonic than Socratic, though one can understand why many have associated it with Socrates himself. For one thing, the Greek dialegesthai ordinarily means simply “to converse” or “to discuss.” Hence when Socrates is distinguishing this sort of discussion from rhetorical exposition in the Gorgias, the contrast seems to indicate his preference for short questions and answers as opposed to longer speeches (447b-c, 448d-449c).
There are two other definitions of dialectic in the Platonic corpus. First, in the Republic, Socrates distinguishes between dianoetic thinking, which makes use of the senses and assumes hypotheses, and dialectical thinking, which does not use the senses and goes beyond hypotheses to first principles (Republic VII 510c-511c, 531d-535a). Second, in the Phaedrus, Sophist, Statesman, and Philebus, dialectic is defined as a method of collection and division. One collects things that are scattered into one kind and also divides each kind according to its species (Phaedrus 265d-266c).
Some scholars view the elenchus and dialectic as fundamentally different methods with different goals, while others view them as consistent and reconcilable. Some even view them as two parts of one argument procedure, in which the elenchus refutes and dialectic constructs.
4. Legacy: How Have Other Philosophers Understood Socrates?
Nearly every school of philosophy in antiquity had something positive to say about Socrates, and most of them drew their inspiration from him. Socrates also appears in the works of many famous modern philosophers. Immanuel Kant, the 18th century German philosopher best known for the categorical imperative, hailed Socrates, amongst other ancient philosophers, as someone who didn’t just speculate but who lived philosophically. One of the more famous quotes about Socrates is from John Stuart Mill, the 19th century utilitarian philosopher who claimed that it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. The following is but a brief survey of Socrates as he is treated in philosophical thinking that emerges after the death of Aristotle in 322 B.C.E.
a. Hellenistic Philosophy
i. The Cynics
The Cynics greatly admired Socrates, and traced their philosophical lineage back to him. One of the first representatives of the Socratic legacy was the Cynic Diogenes of Sinope. No genuine writings of Diogenes have survived and most of our evidence about him is anecdotal. Nevertheless, scholars attribute a number of doctrines to him. He sought to undermine convention as a foundation for ethical values and replace it with nature. He understood the essence of human being to be rational, and defined happiness as freedom and self-mastery, an objective readily accessible to those who trained the body and mind.
ii. The Stoics
There is a biographical story according to which Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school and not the Zeno of Zeno's Paradoxes, became interested in philosophy by reading and inquiring about Socrates. The Stoics took themselves to be authentically Socratic, especially in defending the unqualified restriction of ethical goodness to ethical excellence, the conception of ethical excellence as a kind of knowledge, a life not requiring any bodily or external advantage nor ruined by any bodily disadvantage, and the necessity and sufficiency of ethical excellence for complete happiness.
Zeno is known for his characterization of the human good as a smooth flow of life. Stoics were therefore attracted to the Socratic elenchus because it could expose inconsistencies—both social and psychological—that disrupted one’s life. In the absence of justification for a specific action or belief, one would not be in harmony with oneself, and therefore would not live well. On the other hand, if one held a position that survived cross-examination, such a position would be consistent and coherent. The Socratic elenchus was thus not just an important social and psychological test, but also an epistemological one. The Stoics held that knowledge was a coherent set of psychological attitudes, and therefore a person holding attitudes that could withstand the elenchus could be said to have knowledge. Those with inconsistent or incoherent psychological commitments were thought to be ignorant.
Socrates also figures in Roman Stoicism, particularly in the works of Seneca and Epictetus. Both men admired Socrates’ strength of character. Seneca praises Socrates for his ability to remain consistent unto himself in the face of the threat posed by the Thirty Tyrants, and also highlights the Socratic focus on caring for oneself instead of fleeing oneself and seeking fulfillment by external means. Epictetus, when offering advice about holding to one’s own moral laws as inviolable maxims, claims, “though you are not yet a Socrates, you ought, however, to live as one desirous of becoming a Socrates” (Enchiridion 50).
One aspect of Socrates to which Epictetus was particularly attracted was the elenchus. Though his understanding of the process is in some ways different from Socrates’, throughout his Discourses Epictetus repeatedly stresses the importance of recognition of one’s ignorance (2.17.1) and awareness of one’s own impotence regarding essentials (2.11.1). He characterizes Socrates as divinely appointed to hold the elenctic position (3.21.19) and associates this role with Socrates’ protreptic expertise (2.26.4-7). Epictetus encouraged his followers to practice the elenchus on themselves, and claims that Socrates did precisely this on account of his concern with self-examination (2.1.32-3).
iii. The Skeptics
Broadly speaking, skepticism is the view that we ought to be either suspicious of claims to epistemological truth or at least withhold judgment from affirming absolute claims to knowledge. Amongst Pyrrhonian skeptics, Socrates appears at times like a dogmatist and at other times like a skeptic or inquirer. On the one hand, Sextus Empiricus lists Socrates as a thinker who accepts the existence of god (Against the Physicists, I.9.64) and then recounts the cosmological argument that Xenophon attributes to Socrates (Against the Physicists, I.9.92-4). On the other hand, in arguing that human being is impossible to conceive, Sextus Empiricus cites Socrates as unsure whether or not he is a human being or something else (Outlines of Pyrrhonism 2.22). Socrates is also said to have remained in doubt about this question (Against the Professors 7.264).
Academic skeptics grounded their position that nothing can be known in Socrates’ admission of ignorance in the Apology (Cicero, On the Orator 3.67, Academics 1.44). Arcesilaus, the first head of the Academy to take it toward a skeptical turn, picked up from Socrates the procedure of arguing, first asking others to give their positions and then refuting them (Cicero, On Ends 2.2, On the Orator 3.67, On the Nature of the Gods 1.11). While the Academy would eventually move away from skepticism, Cicero, speaking on behalf of the Academy of Philo, makes the claim that Socrates should be understood as endorsing the claim that nothing, other than one’s own ignorance, could be known (Academics 2.74).
iv. The Epicurean
The Epicureans were one of the few schools that criticized Socrates, though many scholars think that this was in part because of their animus toward their Stoic counterparts, who admired him. In general, Socrates is depicted in Epicurean writings as a sophist, rhetorician, and skeptic who ignored natural science for the sake of ethical inquiries that concluded without answers. Colotes criticizes Socrates’ statement in the Phaedrus (230a) that he does not know himself (Plutarch, Against Colotes 21 1119b), and Philodemus attacks Socrates’ argument in the Protagoras (319d) that virtue cannot be taught (Rhetoric I 261, 8ff).
The Epicureans wrote a number of books against several of Plato’s Socratic dialogues, including the Lysis, Euthydemus, and Gorgias. In the Gorgias we find Socrates suspicious of the view that pleasure is intrinsically worthy and his insistence that pleasure is not the equivalent of the good (Gorgias 495b-499b). In defining pleasure as freedom from disturbance (ataraxia) and defining this sort of pleasure as the sole good for human beings, the Epicureans shared little with the unbridled hedonism Socrates criticizes Callicles for embracing. Indeed, in the Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus explicitly argues against pursuing this sort of pleasure (131-132). Nonetheless, the Epicureans did equate pleasure with the good, and the view that pleasure is not the equivalent of the good could not have endeared Socrates to their sentiment.
Another reason for the Epicurean refusal to praise Socrates or make him a cornerstone of their tradition was his perceived irony. According to Cicero, Epicurus was opposed to Socrates’ representing himself as ignorant while simultaneously praising others like Protagoras, Hippias, Prodicus, and Gorgias (Rhetoric, Vol. II, Brutus 292). This irony for the Epicureans was pedagogically pointless: if Socrates had something to say, he should have said it instead of hiding it.
v. The Peripatetics
Aristotle’s followers, the Peripatetics , either said little about Socrates or were pointedly vicious in their attacks. Amongst other things, the Peripatetics accused Socrates of being a bigamist, a charge that appears to have gained so much traction that the Stoic Panaetius wrote a refutation of it (Plutarch, Aristides 335c-d). The general peripatetic criticism of Socrates, similar in one way to the Epicureans, was that he concentrated solely on ethics, and that this was an unacceptable ideal for the philosophical life.
b. Modern Philosophy
i. Hegel
In Socrates, Hegel found what he called the great historic turning point (Philosophy of History, 448). With Socrates, Hegel claims, two opposed rights came into collision: the individual consciousness and the universal law of the state. Prior to Socrates, morality for the ancients was present but it was not present Socratically. That is, the good was present as a universal, without its having had the form of the conviction of the individual in his consciousness (407). Morality was present as an immediate absolute, directing the lives of citizens without their having reflected upon it and deliberated about it for themselves. The law of the state, Hegel claims, had authority as the law of the gods, and thus had a universal validity that was recognized by all (408).
In Hegel’s view the coming of Socrates signals a shift in the relationship between the individual and morality. The immediate now had to justify itself to the individual consciousness. Hegel thus not only ascribes to Socrates the habit of asking questions about what one should do but also about the actions that the state has prescribed. With Socrates, consciousness is turned back within itself and demands that the law should establish itself before consciousness, internal to it, not merely outside it (408-410). Hegel attributes to Socrates a reflective questioning that is skeptical, which moves the individual away from unreflective obedience and into reflective inquiry about the ethical standards of one’s community.
Generally, Hegel finds in Socrates a skepticism that renders ordinary or immediate knowledge confused and insecure, in need of reflective certainty which only consciousness can bring (370). Though he attributes to the sophists the same general skeptical comportment, in Socrates Hegel locates human subjectivity at a higher level. With Socrates and onward we have the world raising itself to the level of conscious thought and becoming object for thought. The question as to what Nature is gives way to the question about what Truth is, and the question about the relationship of self-conscious thought to real essence becomes the predominant philosophical issue (450-1).
ii. Kierkegaard
Kierkegaard ’s most well recognized views on Socrates are from his dissertation, The Concept of Irony With Continual Reference to Socrates. There, he argues that Socrates is not the ethical figure that the history of philosophy has thought him to be, but rather an ironist in all that he does. Socrates does not just speak ironically but is ironic. Indeed, while most people have found Aristophanes’ portrayal of Socrates an obvious exaggeration and caricature, Kierkegaard goes so far as to claim that he came very close to the truth in his depiction of Socrates. He rejects Hegel’s picture of Socrates ushering in a new era of philosophical reflection and instead argues that the limits of Socratic irony testified to the need for religious faith. As opposed to the Hegelian view that Socratic irony was an instrument in the service of the development of self-consciousness, Kierkegaard claims that irony was Socrates’ position or comportment, and that he did not have any more than this to give.
Later in his writing career Kierkegaard comes to think that he has neglected Socrates’ significance as an ethical and religious figure. In his final essay entitled My Task, Kierkegaard claims that his mission is a Socratic one; that is, in his task to reinvigorate a Christianity that remained the cultural norm but had, in Kierkegaard’s eyes, nearly ceased altogether to be practiced authentically, Kierkegaard conceives of himself as a kind of Christian Socrates, rousing Christians from their complacency to a conception of Christian faith as the highest, most passionate expression of individual subjectivity. Kierkegaard therefore sees himself as a sort of Christian gadfly. The Socratic call to become aware of one’s own ignorance finds its parallel in the Kierkegaardian call to recognize one’s own failing to truly live as a Christian. The Socratic claim to ignorance—while Socrates is closer to knowledge than his contemporaries—is replaced by the Kierkegaard’s claim that he is not a Christian—though certainly more so than his own contemporaries.
iii. Nietzsche
Nietzsche ’s most famous account of Socrates is his scathing portrayal in The Birth of Tragedy, in which Socrates and rational thinking lead to the emergence of an age of decadence in Athens. The delicate balance in Greek culture between the Apollonian—order, calmness, self-control, restraint—and the Dionysian—chaos, revelry, self-forgetfulness, indulgence— initially represented on stage in the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, gave way to the rationalism of Euripides. Euripides, Nietzsche argues, was only a mask for the newborn demon called Socrates (section 12). Tragedy—and Greek culture more generally—was corrupted by “aesthetic Socratism”, whose supreme law, Nietzsche argues, was that ‘to be beautiful everything must be intelligible’. Whereas the former sort of tragedy absorbed the spectator in the activities and sufferings of its chief characters, the emergence of Socrates heralded the onset of a new kind of tragedy in which this identification is obstructed by the spectators having to figure out the meaning and presuppositions of the characters’ suffering.
Nietzsche continues his attack on Socrates later in his career in Twilight of the Idols. Socrates here represents the lowest class of people (section 3), and his irony consists in his being an exaggeration at the same time as he conceals himself (4). He is the inventor of dialectic (5) which he wields mercilessly because, being an ugly plebeian, he had no other means of expressing himself (6) and therefore employed question and answer to render his opponent powerless (7). Socrates turned dialectic into a new kind of contest (8), and because his instincts had turned against each other and were in anarchy (9), he established the rule of reason as a counter-tyrant in order not to perish (10). Socrates’ decadence here consists in his having to fight his instincts (11). He was thus profoundly anti-life, so much so that he wanted to die (12).
Nonetheless, while Nietzsche accuses Socrates of decadence, he nevertheless recognizes him as a powerful individual, which perhaps accounts for why we at times find in Nietzsche a hesitant admiration of Socrates. He calls Socrates one of the very greatest instinctive forces (The Birth of Tragedy, section 13), labels him as a “free spirit” (Human, All Too Human I, 433) praises him as the first “philosopher of life” in his 17th lecture on the Preplatonics, and anoints him a ‘virtuoso of life’ in his notebooks from 1875. Additionally, contra Twilight of the Idols, in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche speaks of a death in which one’s virtue still shines, and some commentators have seen in this a celebration of the way in which Socrates died.
iv. Heidegger
Heidegger finds in Socrates a kinship with his own view that the truth of philosophy lies in a certain way of seeing things, and thus is identical with a particular kind of method. He attributes to Socrates the view that the truth of some subject matter shows itself not in some definition that is the object or end of a process of inquiry, but in the very process of inquiry itself. Heidegger characterizes the Socratic method as a kind of productive negation: by refuting that which stands in front of it—in Socrates’ case, an interlocutor’s definition—it discloses the positive in the very process of questioning. Socrates is not interested in articulating propositions about piety but rather concerned with persisting in a questioning relation to it that preserves its irreducible sameness. Behind multiple examples of pious action is Piety, and yet Piety is not something that can be spoken of. It is that which discloses itself through the process of silent interrogation.
It is precisely in his emphasis on silence that Heidegger diverges from Socrates. Where Socrates insisted on the give and take of question and answer, Heideggerian questioning is not necessarily an inquiry into the views of others but rather an openness to the truth that one maintains without the need to speak. To remain in dialogue with a given phenomenon is not the same thing as conversing about it, and true dialogue is always silent.
v. Gadamer
As Heidegger’s student, Gadamer shares his fundamental view that truth and method cannot be divorced in philosophy. At the same time, his hermeneutics leads him to argue for the importance of dialectic as conversation. Gadamer claims that whereas philosophical dialectic presents the whole truth by superceding all its partial propositions, hermeneutics too has the task of revealing a totality of meaning in all its relations. The distinguishing characteristic of Gadamer’s hermeneutical dialectic is that it recognizes radical finitude: we are always already in an open-ended dialogical situation. Conversation with the interlocutor is thus not a distraction that leads us away from seeing the truth but rather is the site of truth. It is for this reason that Gadamer claims Plato communicated his philosophy only in dialogues: it was more than just an homage to Socrates, but was a reflection of his view that the word find its confirmation in another and in the agreement of another.
Gadamer also sees in the Socratic method an ethical way of being. That is, he does not just think that Socrates converses about ethics but that repeated Socratic conversation is itself indicative of an ethical comportment. On this account, Socrates knows the good not because he can give some final definition of it but rather because of his readiness to give an account of it. The problem of not living an examined life is not that we might live without knowing what is ethical, but because without asking questions as Socrates does, we will not be ethical.
5. References and Further Reading
Ahbel-Rappe, Sara, and Rachana Kamtekar (eds.), A Companion to Socrates (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006).
Arrowsmith, William, Lattimore, Richmond, and Parker, Douglass (trans.), Four Plays by Aristophanes: The Clouds, The Birds, Lysistrata, The Frogs (New York: Meridian, 1994).
Barnes, Jonathan, Complete Works of Aristotle vols. 1 & 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
Benson, Hugh H. (ed.), Essays on the Philosophy of Socrates (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
Brickhouse, Thomas C. & Smith, Nicholas D., Plato’s Socrates (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985).
Cooper, John M., Plato: Collected Works (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
Guthrie, W.K.C., Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971).
Kahn, Charles H., Plato and the Socratic Dialogue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Kraut, Richard (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
Morrison, Donald R., The Cambridge Companion to Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
Rudebusch, George, Socrates (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).
Santas, Gerasimos, Socrates: Philosophy in Plato’s Early Dialogues (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
Taylor, C.C.W, 1998, Socrates (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Vlastos, Gregory, Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
Xenophon: Memorabilia. Oeconomicus. Symposium. Apologia. (Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1923).
| Camel |
Which annual world championship is held at Coxheath Kent? | Socrates | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Z
Socrates (469—399 B.C.E.)
Socrates is one of the few individuals whom one could say has so-shaped the cultural and intellectual development of the world that, without him, history would be profoundly different. He is best known for his association with the Socratic method of question and answer, his claim that he was ignorant (or aware of his own absence of knowledge), and his claim that the unexamined life is not worth living, for human beings. He was the inspiration for Plato, the thinker widely held to be the founder of the Western philosophical tradition. Plato in turn served as the teacher of Aristotle, thus establishing the famous triad of ancient philosophers: Socrates, Plato , and Aristotle . Unlike other philosophers of his time and ours, Socrates never wrote anything down but was committed to living simply and to interrogating the everyday views and popular opinions of those in his home city of Athens. At the age of 70, he was put to death at the hands of his fellow citizens on charges of impiety and corruption of the youth. His trial, along with the social and political context in which occurred, has warranted as much treatment from historians and classicists as his arguments and methods have from philosophers.
This article gives an overview of Socrates: who he was, what he thought, and his purported method. It is both historical and philosophical. At the same time, it contains reflections on the difficult nature of knowing anything about a person who never committed any of his ideas to the written word. Much of what is known about Socrates comes to us from Plato, although Socrates appears in the works of other ancient writers as well as those who follow Plato in the history of philosophy. This article recognizes that finding the original Socrates may be impossible, but it attempts to achieve a close approximation.
Table of Contents
1. Biography: Who was Socrates?
a. The Historical Socrates
i. Birth and Early Life
Socrates was born in Athens in the year 469 B.C.E. to Sophroniscus, a stonemason, and Phaenarete, a midwife. His family was not extremely poor, but they were by no means wealthy, and Socrates could not claim that he was of noble birth like Plato. He grew up in the political deme or district of Alopece, and when he turned 18, began to perform the typical political duties required of Athenian males. These included compulsory military service and membership in the Assembly, the governing body responsible for determining military strategy and legislation.
In a culture that worshipped male beauty, Socrates had the misfortune of being born incredibly ugly. Many of our ancient sources attest to his rather awkward physical appearance, and Plato more than once makes reference to it (Theaetetus 143e, Symposium, 215a-c; also Xenophon Symposium 4.19, 5.5-7 and Aristophanes Clouds 362). Socrates was exophthalmic, meaning that his eyes bulged out of his head and were not straight but focused sideways. He had a snub nose, which made him resemble a pig, and many sources depict him with a potbelly. Socrates did little to help his odd appearance, frequently wearing the same cloak and sandals throughout both the day and the evening. Plato’s Symposium (174a) offers us one of the few accounts of his caring for his appearance.
As a young man Socrates was given an education appropriate for a person of his station. By the middle of the 5th century B.C.E., all Athenian males were taught to read and write. Sophroniscus, however, also took pains to give his son an advanced cultural education in poetry, music, and athletics. In both Plato and Xenophon, we find a Socrates that is well versed in poetry, talented at music, and quite at-home in the gymnasium. In accordance with Athenian custom, his father also taught him a trade, though Socrates did not labor at it on a daily basis. Rather, he spent his days in the agora (the Athenian marketplace), asking questions of those who would speak with him. While he was poor, he quickly acquired a following of rich young aristocrats—one of whom was Plato—who particularly enjoyed hearing him interrogate those that were purported to be the wisest and most influential men in the city.
Socrates was married to Xanthippe, and according to some sources, had a second wife. Most suggest that he first married Xanthippe, and that she gave birth to his first son, Lamprocles. He is alleged to have married his second wife, Myrto, without dowry, and she gave birth to his other two sons, Sophroniscus and Menexenus. Various accounts attribute Sophroniscus to Xanthippe, while others even suggest that Socrates was married to both women simultaneously because of a shortage of males in Athens at the time. In accordance with Athenian custom, Socrates was open about his physical attraction to young men, though he always subordinated his physical desire for them to his desire that they improve the condition of their souls.
Socrates fought valiantly during his time in the Athenian military. Just before the Peloponnesian War with Sparta began in 431 B.C.E, he helped the Athenians win the battle of Potidaea (432 B.C.E.), after which he saved the life of Alcibiades, the famous Athenian general. He also fought as one of 7,000 hoplites aside 20,000 troops at the battle of Delium (424 B.C.E.) and once more at the battle of Amphipolis (422 B.C.E.). Both battles were defeats for Athens.
Despite his continued service to his city, many members of Athenian society perceived Socrates to be a threat to their democracy, and it is this suspicion that largely contributed to his conviction in court. It is therefore imperative to understand the historical context in which his trial was set.
ii. Later Life and Trial
1. The Peloponnesian War and the Threat to Democracy
Between 431—404 B.C.E. Athens fought one of its bloodiest and most protracted conflicts with neighboring Sparta, the war that we now know as the Peloponnesian War. Aside from the fact that Socrates fought in the conflict, it is important for an account of his life and trial because many of those with whom Socrates spent his time became either sympathetic to the Spartan cause at the very least or traitors to Athens at worst. This is particularly the case with those from the more aristocratic Athenian families, who tended to favor the rigid and restricted hierarchy of power in Sparta instead of the more widespread democratic distribution of power and free speech to all citizens that obtained in Athens. Plato more than once places in the mouth of his character Socrates praise for Sparta (Protagoras 342b, Crito 53a; cf. Republic 544c in which most people think the Spartan constitution is the best). The political regime of the Republic is marked by a small group of ruling elites that preside over the citizens of the ideal city.
There are a number of important historical moments throughout the war leading up to Socrates’ trial that figure in the perception of him as a traitor. Seven years after the battle of Amphipolis, the Athenian navy was set to invade the island of Sicily, when a number of statues in the city called “herms”, dedicated to the god Hermes, protector of travelers, were destroyed. Dubbed the ‘Mutilation of the Herms’ (415 B.C.E.), this event engendered not only a fear of those who might seek to undermine the democracy, but those who did not respect the gods. In conjunction with these crimes, Athens witnessed the profanation of the Eleusinian mysteries, religious rituals that were to be conducted only in the presence of priests but that were in this case performed in private homes without official sanction or recognition of any kind. Amongst those accused and persecuted on suspicion of involvement in the crimes were a number of Socrates’ associates, including Alcibiades, who was recalled from his position leading the expedition in Sicily. Rather than face prosecution for the crime, Alcibiades escaped and sought asylum in Sparta.
Though Alcibiades was not the only of Socrates’ associates implicated in the sacrilegious crimes (Charmides and Critias were suspected as well), he is arguably the most important. Socrates had by many counts been in love with Alcibiades and Plato depicts him pursuing or speaking of his love for him in many dialogues (Symposium 213c-d, Protagoras 309a, Gorgias 481d, Alcibiades I 103a-104c, 131e-132a). Alcibiades is typically portrayed as a wandering soul (Alcibiades I 117c-d), not committed to any one consistent way of life or definition of justice. Instead, he was a kind of cameleon-like flatterer that could change and mold himself in order to please crowds and win political favor (Gorgias 482a). In 411 B.C.E., a group of citizens opposed to the Athenian democracy led a coup against the government in hopes of establishing an oligarchy. Though the democrats put down the coup later that year and recalled Alcibiades to lead the Athenian fleet in the Hellespont, he aided the oligarchs by securing for them an alliance with the Persian satraps. Alcibiades therefore did not just aid the Spartan cause but allied himself with Persian interests as well. His association with the two principal enemies of Athens reflected poorly on Socrates, and Xenophon tells us that Socrates’ repeated association with and love for Alcibiades was instrumental in the suspicion that he was a Spartan apologist.
Sparta finally defeated Athens in 404 B.C.E., just five years before Socrates’ trial and execution. Instead of a democracy, they installed as rulers a small group of Athenians who were loyal to Spartan interests. Known as “The Thirty” or sometimes as the “Thirty Tyrants”, they were led by Critias, a known associate of Socrates and a member of his circle. Critias’ nephew Charmides, about whom we have a Platonic dialogue of the same name, was also a member. Though Critias put forth a law prohibiting Socrates from conducting discussions with young men under the age of 30, Socrates’ earlier association with him—as well as his willingness to remain in Athens and endure the rule of the Thirty rather than flee—further contributed to the growing suspicion that Socrates was opposed to the democratic ideals of his city.
The Thirty ruled tyrannically—executing a number of wealthy Athenians as well as confiscating their property, arbitrarily arresting those with democratic sympathies, and exiling many others—until they were overthrown in 403 B.C.E. by a group of democratic exiles returning to the city. Both Critias and Charmides were killed and, after a Spartan-sponsored peace accord, the democracy was restored. The democrats proclaimed a general amnesty in the city and thereby prevented politically motivated legal prosecutions aimed at redressing the terrible losses incurred during the reign of the Thirty. Their hope was to maintain unity during the reestablishment of their democracy.
One of Socrates’ main accusers, Anytus, was one of the democratic exiles that returned to the city to assist in the overthrow of the Thirty. Plato’s Meno, set in the year 402 B.C.E., imagines a conversation between Socrates and Anytus in which the latter argues that any citizen of Athens can teach virtue, an especially democratic view insofar as it assumes knowledge of how to live well is not the restricted domain of the esoteric elite or privileged few. In the discussion, Socrates argues that if one wants to know about virtue, one should consult an expert on virtue (Meno 91b-94e). The political turmoil of the city, rebuilding itself as a democracy after nearly thirty years of destruction and bloodshed, constituted a context in which many citizens were especially fearful of threats to their democracy that came not from the outside, but from within their own city.
While many of his fellow citizens found considerable evidence against Socrates, there was also historical evidence in addition to his military service for the case that he was not just a passive but an active supporter of the democracy. For one thing, just as he had associates that were known oligarchs, he also had associates that were supporters of the democracy, including the metic family of Cephalus and Socrates’ friend Chaerephon, the man who reported that the oracle at Delphi had proclaimed that no man was wiser than Socrates. Additionally, when he was ordered by the Thirty to help retrieve the democratic general Leon from the island of Salamis for execution, he refused to do so. His refusal could be understood not as the defiance of a legitimately established government but rather his allegiance to the ideals of due process that were in effect under the previously instituted democracy. Indeed, in Plato’s Crito, Socrates refuses to escape from prison on the grounds that he lived his whole life with an implied agreement with the laws of the democracy (Crito 50a-54d). Notwithstanding these facts, there was profound suspicion that Socrates was a threat to the democracy in the years after the end of the Peloponnesian War. But because of the amnesty, Anytus and his fellow accusers Meletus and Lycon were prevented from bringing suit against Socrates on political grounds. They opted instead for religious grounds.
2. Greek Religion and Socrates’ Impiety
Because of the amnesty the charges made against Socrates were framed in religious terms. As recounted by Diogenes Laertius (1.5.40), the charges were stated as follows: “Socrates does criminal wrong by not recognizing the gods that the city recognizes, and furthermore by introducing new divinities; and he also does criminal wrong by corrupting the youth” (other accounts: Xenophon Memorabilia I.I.1 and Apology 11-12, Plato, Apology 24b and Euthyphro 2c-3b). Many people understood the charge about corrupting the youth to signify that Socrates taught his subversive views to others, a claim that he adamantly denies in his defense speech by claiming that he has no wisdom to teach (Plato, Apology 20c) and that he cannot be held responsible for the actions of those that heard him speak (Plato, Apology 33a-c).
It is now customary to refer to the principal written accusation on the deposition submitted to the Athenian court as an accusation of impiety, or unholiness. Rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices that were officially sanctioned by the city and its officials marked ancient Greek religion. The sacred was woven into the everyday experience of citizens who demonstrated their piety by correctly observing their ancestral traditions. Interpretation of the gods at their temples was the exclusive domain of priests appointed and recognized by the city. The boundary and separation between the religious and the secular that we find in many countries today therefore did not obtain in Athens. A religious crime was consequently an offense not just against the gods, but also against the city itself.
Socrates and his contemporaries lived in a polytheistic society, a society in which the gods did not create the world but were themselves created. Socrates would have been brought up with the stories of the gods recounted in Hesiod and Homer, in which the gods were not omniscient, omnibenevolent, or eternal, but rather power-hungry super-creatures that regularly intervened in the affairs of human beings. One thinks for example of Aphrodite saving Paris from death at the hands of Menelaus (Homer, Iliad 3.369-382) or Zeus sending Apollo to rescue the corpse of Sarpedon after his death in battle (Homer, Iliad 16.667-684). Human beings were to fear the gods, sacrifice to them, and honor them with festivals and prayers.
Socrates instead seemed to have a conception of the divine as always benevolent, truthful, authoritative, and wise. For him, divinity always operated in accordance with the standards of rationality. This conception of divinity, however, dispenses with the traditional conception of prayer and sacrifice as motivated by hopes for material payoff. Socrates’ theory of the divine seemed to make the most important rituals and sacrifices in the city entirely useless, for if the gods are all good, they will benefit human beings regardless of whether or not human beings make offerings to them. Jurors at his trial might have thought that, without the expectation of material reward or protection from the gods, Socrates was disconnecting religion from its practical roots and its connection with the civic identity of the city.
While Socrates was critical of blind acceptance of the gods and the myths we find in Hesiod and Homer, this in itself was not unheard of in Athens at the time. Solon, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Euripides had all spoken against the capriciousness and excesses of the gods without incurring penalty. It is possible to make the case that Socrates’ jurors might not have indicted him solely on questioning the gods or even of interrogating the true meaning of piety. Indeed, there was no legal definition of piety in Athens at the time, and jurors were therefore in a similar situation to the one in which we find Socrates in Plato’s Euthyphro, that is, in need of an inquiry into what the nature of piety truly is. What seems to have concerned the jurors was not only Socrates’ challenge to the traditional interpretation of the gods of the city, but his seeming allegiance to an entirely novel divine being, unfamiliar to anyone in the city.
This new divine being is what is known as Socrates’ daimon. Though it has become customary to think of a daimon as a spirit or quasi-divinity (for example, Symposium 202e-203a), in ancient Greek religion it was not solely a specific class of divine being but rather a mode of activity, a force that drives a person when no particular divine agent can be named (Burkett, 180). Socrates claimed to have heard a sign or voice from his days as a child that accompanied him and forbid him to pursue certain courses of action (Plato, Apology 31c-d, 40a-b, Euthydemus 272e-273a, Euthyphro 3b, Phaedrus 242b, Theages 128-131a, Theaetetus 150c-151b, Rep 496c; Xenophon, Apology 12, Memorabilia 1.1.3-5). Xenophon adds that the sign also issued positive commands (Memorablia 1.1.4, 4.3.12, 4.8.1, Apology 12). This sign was accessible only to Socrates, private and internal to his own mind. Whether Socrates received moral knowledge of any sort from the sign is a matter of scholarly debate, but beyond doubt is the strangeness of Socrates’ insistence that he took private instructions from a deity that was unlicensed by the city. For all the jurors knew, the deity could have been hostile to Athenian interests. Socrates’ daimon was therefore extremely influential in his indictment on the charge of worshipping new gods unknown to the city (Plato, Euthyphro 3b, Xenophon, Memorabilia I.1.2).
Whereas in Plato’s Apology Socrates makes no attempt to reconcile his divine sign with traditional views of piety, Xenophon’s Socrates argues that just as there are those who rely on birdcalls and receive guidance from voices, so he too is influenced by his daimon. However, Socrates had no officially sanctioned religious role in the city. As such, his attempt to assimilate himself to a seer or necromancer appointed by the city to interpret divine signs actually may have undermined his innocence, rather than help to establish it. His insistence that he had direct, personal access to the divine made him appear guilty to enough jurors that he was sentenced to death.
b. The Socratic Problem: the Philosophical Socrates
The Socratic problem is the problem faced by historians of philosophy when attempting to reconstruct the ideas of the original Socrates as distinct from his literary representations. While we know many of the historical details of Socrates’ life and the circumstances surrounding his trial, Socrates’ identity as a philosopher is much more difficult to establish. Because he wrote nothing, what we know of his ideas and methods comes to us mainly from his contemporaries and disciples.
There were a number of Socrates’ followers who wrote conversations in which he appears. These works are what are known as the logoi sokratikoi, or Socratic accounts. Aside from Plato and Xenophon, most of these dialogues have not survived. What we know of them comes to us from other sources. For example, very little survives from the dialogues of Antisthenes, whom Xenophon reports as one of Socrates’ leading disciples. Indeed, from polemics written by the rhetor Isocrates, some scholars have concluded that he was the most prominent Socratic in Athens for the first decade following Socrates’ death. Diogenes Laertius (6.10-13) attributes to Antisthenes a number of views that we recognize as Socratic, including that virtue is sufficient for happiness, the wise man is self-sufficient, only the virtuous are noble, the virtuous are friends, and good things are morally fine and bad things are base.
Aeschines of Sphettus wrote seven dialogues, all of which have been lost. It is possible for us to reconstruct the plots of two of them: the Alcibiades—in which Socrates shames Alcibiades into admitting he needs Socrates’ help to be virtuous—and the Aspasia—in which Socrates recommends the famous wife of Pericles as a teacher for the son of Callias. Aeschines’ dialogues focus on Socrates’ ability to help his interlocutor acquire self-knowledge and better himself.
Phaedo of Elis wrote two dialogues. His central use of Socrates is to show that philosophy can improve anyone regardless of his social class or natural talents. Euclides of Megara wrote six dialogues, about which we know only their titles. Diogenes Laertius reports that he held that the good is one, that insight and prudence are different names for the good, and that what is opposed to the good does not exist. All three are Socratic themes. Lastly, Aristippus of Cyrene wrote no Socratic dialogues but is alleged to have written a work entitled To Socrates.
The two Socratics on whom most of our philosophical understanding of Socrates depends are Plato and Xenophon. Scholars also rely on the works of the comic playwright Aristophanes and Plato’s most famous student, Aristotle.
i. Origin of the Socratic Problem
The Socratic problem first became pronounced in the early 19th century with the influential work of Friedrich Schleiermacher. Until this point, scholars had largely turned to Xenophon to identify what the historical Socrates thought. Schleiermacher argued that Xenophon was not a philosopher but rather a simple citizen-soldier, and that his Socrates was so dull and philosophically uninteresting that, reading Xenophon alone, it would be difficult to understand the reputation accorded Socrates by so many of his contemporaries and nearly all the schools of philosophy that followed him. The better portrait of Socrates, Schleiermacher claimed, comes to us from Plato.
Though many scholars have since jettisoned Xenophon as a legitimate source for representing the philosophical views of the historical Socrates, they remain divided over the reliability of the other three sources. For one thing, Aristophanes was a comic playwright, and therefore took considerable poetic license when scripting his characters. Aristotle, born 15 years after Socrates’ death, hears about Socrates primarily from Plato. Plato himself wrote dialogues or philosophical dramas, and thus cannot be understood to be presenting his readers with exact replicas or transcriptions of conversations that Socrates actually had. Furthermore, many scholars think that Plato’s so-called middle and late dialogues do not present the views of the historical Socrates.
We therefore see the difficult nature of the Socratic problem: because we don’t seem to have any consistently reliable sources, finding the true Socrates or the original Socrates proves to be an impossible task. What we are left with, instead, is a composite picture assembled from various literary and philosophical components that give us what we might think of as Socratic themes or motifs.
ii. Aristophanes
Born in 450 B.C.E., Aristophanes wrote a number of comic plays intended to satirize and caricature many of his fellow Athenians. His Clouds (423 B.C.E.) was so instrumental in parodying Socrates and painting him as a dangerous intellectual capable of corrupting the entire city that Socrates felt compelled in his trial defense to allude to the bad reputation he acquired as a result of the play (Plato, Apology 18a-b, 19c). Aristophanes was much closer in age to Socrates than Plato and Xenophon, and as such is the only one of our sources exposed to Socrates in his younger years.
In the play, Socrates is the head of a phrontistêrion, a school of learning where students are taught the nature of the heavens and how to win court cases. Socrates appears in a swing high above the stage, purportedly to better study the heavens. His patron deities, the clouds, represent his interest in meteorology and may also symbolize the lofty nature of reasoning that may take either side of an argument. The main plot of the play centers on an indebted man called Strepsiades, whose son Phidippides ends up in the school to learn how to help his father avoid paying off his debts. By the end of the play, Phidippides has beaten his father, arguing that it is perfectly reasonable to do so on the grounds that, just as it is acceptable for a father to spank his son for his own good, so it is acceptable for a son to hit a father for his own good. In addition to the theme that Socrates corrupts the youth, we therefore also find in the Clouds the origin of the rumor that Socrates makes the stronger argument the weaker and the weaker argument the stronger. Indeed, the play features a personification of the Stronger Argument—which represents traditional education and values—attacked by the Weaker Argument—which advocates a life of pleasure.
While the Clouds is Aristophanes’ most famous and comprehensive attack on Socrates, Socrates appears in other of his comedies as well. In the Birds (414 B.C.E.), Aristophanes coins a Greek verb based on Socrates’ name to insinuate that Socrates was truly a Spartan sympathizer (1280-83). Young men who were found “Socratizing” were expressing their admiration of Sparta and its customs. And in the Frogs (405), the Chorus claims that it is not refined to keep company with Socrates, who ignores the poets and wastes time with ‘frivolous words’ and ‘pompous word-scraping’ (1491-1499).
Aristophanes’ Socrates is a kind of variegated caricature of trends and new ideas emerging in Athens that he believed were threatening to the city. We find a number of such themes prevalent in Presocratic philosophy and the teachings of the Sophists, including those about natural science, mathematics, social science, ethics, political philosophy, and the art of words. Amongst other things, Aristophanes was troubled by the displacement of the divine through scientific explanations of the world and the undermining of traditional morality and custom by explanations of cultural life that appealed to nature instead of the gods. Additionally, he was reticent about teaching skill in disputation, for fear that a clever speaker could just as easily argue for the truth as argue against it. These issues constitute what is sometimes called the “new learning” developing in 5th century B.C.E. Athens, for which the Aristophanic Socrates is the iconic symbol.
iii. Xenophon
Born in the same decade as Plato (425 B.C.E.), Xenophon lived in the political deme of Erchia. Though he knew Socrates he would not have had as much contact with him as Plato did. He was not present in the courtroom on the day of Socrates’ trial, but rather heard an account of it later on from Hermogenes, a member of Socrates’ circle. His depiction of Socrates is found principally in four works: Apology—in which Socrates gives a defense of his life before his jurors—Memorabilia—in which Xenophon himself explicates the charges against Socrates and tries to defend him—Symposium—a conversation between Socrates and his friends at a drinking party—and Oeconomicus—a Socratic discourse on estate management. Socrates also appears in Xenophon’s Hellenica and Anabasis.
Xenophon’s reputation as a source on the life and ideas of Socrates is one on which scholars do not always agree. Largely thought to be a significant source of information about Socrates before the 19th century, for most of the 20th century Xenophon’s ability to depict Socrates as a philosopher was largely called into question. Following Schleiermacher, many argued that Xenophon himself was either a bad philosopher who did not understand Socrates, or not a philosopher at all, more concerned with practical, everyday matters like economics. However, recent scholarship has sought to challenge this interpretation, arguing that it assumes an understanding of philosophy as an exclusively speculative and critical endeavor that does not attend to the ancient conception of philosophy as a comprehensive way of life.
While Plato will likely always remain the principal source on Socrates and Socratic themes, Xenophon’s Socrates is distinct in philosophically interesting ways. He emphasizes the values of self-mastery (enkrateia), endurance of physical pain (karteria), and self-sufficiency (autarkeia). For Xenophon’s Socrates, self-mastery or moderation is the foundation of virtue (Memorabilia, 1.5.4). Whereas in Plato’s Apology the oracle tells Chaerephon that no one is wiser than Socrates, in Xenophon’s Apology Socrates claims that the oracle told Chaerephon that “no man was more free than I, more just, and more moderate” (Xenophon, Apology, 14).
Part of Socrates’ freedom consists in his freedom from want, precisely because he has mastered himself. As opposed to Plato’s Socrates, Xenophon’s Socrates is not poor, not because he has much, but because he needs little. Oeconomicus 11.3 for instance shows Socrates displeased with those who think him poor. One can be rich even with very little on the condition that one has limited his needs, for wealth is just the excess of what one has over what one requires. Socrates is rich because what he has is sufficient for what he needs (Memorabilia 1.2.1, 1.3.5, 4.2.38-9).
We also find Xenophon attributing to Socrates a proof of the existence of God. The argument holds that human beings are the product of an intelligent design, and we therefore should conclude that there is a God who is the maker (dēmiourgos) or designer of all things (Memorabilia 1.4.2-7). God creates a systematically ordered universe and governs it in the way our minds govern our bodies (Memorabilia 1.4.1-19, 4.3.1-18). While Plato’s Timaeus tells the story of a dēmiourgos creating the world, it is Timaeus, not Socrates, who tells the story. Indeed, Socrates speaks only sparingly at the beginning of the dialogue, and most scholars do not count as Socratic the cosmological arguments therein.
iv. Plato
Plato was Socrates’ most famous disciple, and the majority of what most people know about Socrates is known about Plato’s Socrates. Plato was born to one of the wealthiest and politically influential families in Athens in 427 B.C.E., the son of Ariston and Perictione. His brothers were Glaucon and Adeimantus, who are Socrates’ principal interlocutors for the majority of the Republic. Though Socrates is not present in every Platonic dialogue, he is in the majority of them, often acting as the main interlocutor who drives the conversation.
The attempt to extract Socratic views from Plato’s texts is itself a notoriously difficult problem, bound up with questions about the order in which Plato composed his dialogues, one’s methodological approach to reading them, and whether or not Socrates, or anyone else for that matter, speaks for Plato. Readers interested in the details of this debate should consult “ Plato .” Generally speaking, the predominant view of Plato’s Socrates in the English-speaking world from the middle to the end of the 20th century was simply that he was Plato’s mouthpiece. In other words, anything Socrates says in the dialogues is what Plato thought at the time he wrote the dialogue. This view, put forth by the famous Plato scholar Gregory Vlastos, has been challenged in recent years, with some scholars arguing that Plato has no mouthpiece in the dialogues (see Cooper xxi-xxiii). While we can attribute to Plato certain doctrines that are consistent throughout his corpus, there is no reason to think that Socrates, or any other speaker, always and consistently espouses these doctrines.
The main interpretive obstacle for those seeking the views of Socrates from Plato is the question of the order of the dialogues. Thrasyllus, the 1st century (C.E.) Platonist who was the first to arrange the dialogues according to a specific paradigm, organized the dialogues into nine tetralogies, or groups of four, on the basis of the order in which he believed they should be read. Another approach, customary for most scholars by the late 20th century, groups the dialogues into three categories on the basis of the order in which Plato composed them. Plato begins his career, so the narrative goes, representing his teacher Socrates in typically short conversations about ethics, virtue, and the best human life. These are “early” dialogues. Only subsequently does Plato develop his own philosophical views—the most famous of which is the doctrine of the Forms or Ideas—that Socrates defends. These “middle” dialogues put forth positive doctrines that are generally thought to be Platonic and not Socratic. Finally, towards the end of his life, Plato composes dialogues in which Socrates typically either hardly features at all or is altogether absent. These are the “late” dialogues.
There are a number of complications with this interpretive thesis, and many of them focus on the portrayal of Socrates. Though the Gorgias is an early dialogue, Socrates concludes the dialogue with a myth that some scholars attribute to a Pythagorean influence on Plato that he would not have had during Socrates’ lifetime. Though the Parmenides is a middle dialogue, the younger Socrates speaks only at the beginning before Parmenides alone speaks for the remainder of the dialogue. While the Philebus is a late dialogue, Socrates is the main speaker. Some scholars identify the Meno as an early dialogue because Socrates refutes Meno’s attempts to articulate the nature of virtue. Others, focusing on Socrates’ use of the theory of recollection and the method of hypothesis, argue that it is a middle dialogue. Finally, while Plato’s most famous work the Republic is a middle dialogue, some scholars make a distinction within the Republic itself. The first book, they argue, is Socratic, because in it we find Socrates refuting Thrasymachus’ definition of justice while maintaining that he knows nothing about justice. The rest of the dialogue they claim, with its emphasis on the division of the soul and the metaphysics of the Forms, is Platonic.
To discern a consistent Socrates in Plato is therefore a difficult task. Instead of speaking about chronology of composition, contemporary scholars searching for views that are likely to have been associated with the historical Socrates generally focus on a group of dialogues that are united by topical similarity. These “Socratic dialogues” feature Socrates as the principal speaker, challenging his interlocutor to elaborate on and critically examine his own views while typically not putting forth substantive claims of his own. These dialogues—including those that some scholars think are not written by Plato and those that most scholars agree are not written by Plato but that Thrasyllus included in his collection—are as follows: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Alcibiades I, Alcibiades II, Hipparchus, Rival Lovers, Theages, Charmides, Laches, Lysis, Euthydemus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno, Greater Hippias, Lesser Hippias, Ion, Menexenus, Clitophon, Minos. Some of the more famous positions Socrates defends in these dialogues are covered in the content section.
v. Aristotle
Aristotle was born in 384 B.C.E., 15 years after the death of Socrates. At the age of eighteen, he went to study at Plato’s Academy, and remained there for twenty years. Afterwards, he traveled throughout Asia and was invited by Phillip II of Macedon to tutor his son Alexander, known to history as Alexander the Great. While Aristotle would never have had the chance to meet Socrates, we have in his writings an account of both Socrates’ method and the topics about which he had conversations. Given the likelihood that Aristotle heard about Socrates from Plato and those at his Academy, it is not surprising that most of what he says about Socrates follows the depiction of him in the Platonic dialogues.
Aristotle related four concrete points about Socrates. The first is that Socrates asked questions without supplying an answer of his own, because he claimed to know nothing (De Elenchis Sophisticus 1836b6-8). The picture of Socrates here is consistent with that of Plato’s Apology. Second, Aristotle claims that Socrates never asked questions about nature, but concerned himself only with ethical questions. Aristotle thus attributes to the historical Socrates both the method and topics we find in Plato’s Socratic dialogues.
Third, Aristotle claims that Socrates is the first to have employed epagōgē, a word typically rendered in English as “induction.” This translation, however, is misleading, lest we impute to Socrates a preference for inductive reasoning as opposed to deductive reasoning. The term better indicates that Socrates was fond or arguing via the use of analogy. For instance, just as a doctor does not practice medicine for himself but for the best interest of his patient, so the ruler in the city takes no account of his own personal profit, but is rather interested in caring for his citizens (Republic 342d-e).
The fourth and final claim Aristotle makes about Socrates itself has two parts. First, Socrates was the first to ask the question, ti esti: what is it? For example, if someone were to suggest to Socrates that our children should grow up to be courageous, he would ask, what is courage? That is, what is the universal definition or nature that holds for all examples of courage? Second, as distinguished from Plato, Socrates did not separate universals from their particular instantiations. For Plato, the noetic object, the knowable thing, is the separate universal, not the particular. Socrates simply asked the “what is it” question (on this and the previous two points, see Metaphysics I.6.987a29-b14; cf. b22-24, b27-33, and see XIII.4.1078b12-34).
2. Content: What does Socrates Think?
Given the nature of these sources, the task of recounting what Socrates thought is not an easy one. Nonetheless, reading Plato’s Apology, it is possible to articulate a number of what scholars today typically associate with Socrates. Plato the author has his Socrates claim that Plato was present in the courtroom for Socrates’ defense (Apology 34a), and while this cannot mean that Plato records the defense as a word for word transcription, it is the closest thing we have to an account of what Socrates actually said at a concrete point in his life.
a. Presocratic Philosophy and the Sophists
Socrates opens his defense speech by defending himself against his older accusers (Apology 18a), claiming they have poisoned the minds of his jurors since they were all young men. Amongst these accusers was Aristophanes. In addition to the claim that Socrates makes the worse argument into the stronger, there is a rumor that Socrates idles the day away talking about things in the sky and below the earth. His reply is that he never discusses such topics (Apology 18a-c). Socrates is distinguishing himself here not just from the sophists and their alleged ability to invert the strength of arguments, but from those we have now come to call the Presocratic philosophers.
The Presocratics were not just those who came before Socrates, for there are some Presocratic philosophers who were his contemporaries. The term is sometimes used to suggest that, while Socrates cared about ethics, the Presocratic philosophers did not. This is misleading, for we have evidence that a number of Presocratics explored ethical issues. The term is best used to refer to the group of thinkers whom Socrates did not influence and whose fundamental uniting characteristic was that they sought to explain the world in terms of its own inherent principles. The 6th cn. Milesian Thales, for instance, believed that the fundamental principle of all things was water. Anaximander believed the principle was the indefinite (apeiron), and for Anaxamines it was air. Later in Plato’s Apology (26d-e), Socrates rhetorically asks whether Meletus thinks he is prosecuting Anaxagoras, the 5th cn. thinker who argued that the universe was originally a mixture of elements that have since been set in motion by Nous, or Mind. Socrates suggests that he does not engage in the same sort of cosmological inquiries that were the main focus of many Presocratics.
The other group against which Socrates compares himself is the Sophists, learned men who travelled from city to city offering to teach the youth for a fee. While he claims he thinks it an admirable thing to teach as Gorgias, Prodicus, or Hippias claim they can (Apology 20a), he argues that he himself does not have knowledge of human excellence or virtue (Apology 20b-c). Though Socrates inquires after the nature of virtue, he does not claim to know it, and certainly does not ask to be paid for his conversations.
b. Socratic Themes in Plato’s Apology
i. Socratic Ignorance
Plato’s Socrates moves next to explain the reason he has acquired the reputation he has and why so many citizens dislike him. The oracle at Delphi told Socrates’ friend Chaerephon, “no one is wiser than Socrates” (Apology 21a). Socrates explains that he was not aware of any wisdom he had, and so set out to find someone who had wisdom in order to demonstrate that the oracle was mistaken. He first went to the politicians but found them lacking wisdom. He next visited the poets and found that, though they spoke in beautiful verses, they did so through divine inspiration, not because they had wisdom of any kind. Finally, Socrates found that the craftsmen had knowledge of their own craft, but that they subsequently believed themselves to know much more than they actually did. Socrates concluded that he was better off than his fellow citizens because, while they thought they knew something and did not, he was aware of his own ignorance. The god who speaks through the oracle, he says, is truly wise, whereas human wisdom is worth little or nothing (Apology 23a).
This awareness of one’s own absence of knowledge is what is known as Socratic ignorance, and it is arguably the thing for which Socrates is most famous. Socratic ignorance is sometimes called simple ignorance, to be distinguished from the double ignorance of the citizens with whom Socrates spoke. Simple ignorance is being aware of one’s own ignorance, whereas double ignorance is not being aware of one’s ignorance while thinking that one knows. In showing many influential figures in Athens that they did not know what they thought they did, Socrates came to be despised in many circles.
It is worth nothing that Socrates does not claim here that he knows nothing. He claims that he is aware of his ignorance and that whatever it is that he does know is worthless. Socrates has a number of strong convictions about what makes for an ethical life, though he cannot articulate precisely why these convictions are true. He believes for instance that it is never just to harm anyone, whether friend or enemy, but he does not, at least in Book I of the Republic, offer a systematic account of the nature of justice that could demonstrate why this is true. Because of his insistence on repeated inquiry, Socrates has refined his convictions such that he can both hold particular views about justice while maintaining that he does not know the complete nature of justice.
We can see this contrast quite clearly in Socrates’ cross-examination of his accuser Meletus. Because he is charged with corrupting the youth, Socrates inquires after who it is that helps the youth (Apology, 24d-25a). In the same way that we take a horse to a horse trainer to improve it, Socrates wants to know the person to whom we take a young person to educate him and improve him. Meletus’ silence condemns him: he has never bothered to reflect on such matters, and therefore is unaware of his ignorance about matters that are the foundation of his own accusation (Apology 25b-c). Whether or not Socrates—or Plato for that matter—actually thinks it is possible to achieve expertise in virtue is a subject on which scholars disagree.
ii. Priority of the Care of the Soul
Throughout his defense speech (Apology 20a-b, 24c-25c, 31b, 32d, 36c, 39d) Socrates repeatedly stresses that a human being must care for his soul more than anything else (see also Crito 46c-47d, Euthyphro 13b-c, Gorgias 520a4ff). Socrates found that his fellow citizens cared more for wealth, reputation, and their bodies while neglecting their souls (Apology 29d-30b). He believed that his mission from the god was to examine his fellow citizens and persuade them that the most important good for a human being was the health of the soul. Wealth, he insisted, does not bring about human excellence or virtue, but virtue makes wealth and everything else good for human beings (Apology 30b).
Socrates believes that his mission of caring for souls extends to the entirety of the city of Athens. He argues that the god gave him to the city as a gift and that his mission is to help improve the city. He thus attempts to show that he is not guilty of impiety precisely because everything he does is in response to the oracle and at the service of the god. Socrates characterizes himself as a gadfly and the city as a sluggish horse in need of stirring up (Apology 30e). Without philosophical inquiry, the democracy becomes stagnant and complacent, in danger of harming itself and others. Just as the gadfly is an irritant to the horse but rouses it to action, so Socrates supposes that his purpose is to agitate those around him so that they begin to examine themselves. One might compare this claim with Socrates’ assertion in the Gorgias that, while his contemporaries aim at gratification, he practices the true political craft because he aims at what is best (521d-e). Such comments, in addition to the historical evidence that we have, are Socrates’ strongest defense that he is not only not a burden to the democracy but a great asset to it.
iii. The Unexamined Life
After the jury has convicted Socrates and sentenced him to death, he makes one of the most famous proclamations in the history of philosophy. He tells the jury that he could never keep silent, because “the unexamined life is not worth living for human beings” (Apology 38a). We find here Socrates’ insistence that we are all called to reflect upon what we believe, account for what we know and do not known, and generally speaking to seek out, live in accordance with, and defend those views that make for a well lived and meaningful life.
Some scholars call attention to Socrates’ emphasis on human nature here, and argue that the call to live examined lives follows from our nature as human beings. We are naturally directed by pleasure and pain. We are drawn to power, wealth and reputation, the sorts of values to which Athenians were drawn as well. Socrates’ call to live examined lives is not necessarily an insistence to reject all such motivations and inclinations but rather an injunction to appraise their true worth for the human soul. The purpose of the examined life is to reflect upon our everyday motivations and values and to subsequently inquire into what real worth, if any, they have. If they have no value or indeed are even harmful, it is upon us to pursue those things that are truly valuable.
One can see in reading the Apology that Socrates examines the lives of his jurors during his own trial. By asserting the primacy of the examined life after he has been convicted and sentenced to death, Socrates, the prosecuted, becomes the prosecutor, surreptitiously accusing those who convicted him of not living a life that respects their own humanity. He tells them that by killing him they will not escape examining their lives. To escape giving an account of one’s life is neither possible nor good, Socrates claims, but it is best to prepare oneself to be as good as possible (Apology 39d-e).
We find here a conception of a well-lived life that differs from one that would likely be supported by many contemporary philosophers. Today, most philosophers would argue that we must live ethical lives (though what this means is of course a matter of debate) but that it is not necessary for everyone to engage in the sort of discussions Socrates had everyday, nor must one do so in order to be considered a good person. A good person, we might say, lives a good life insofar as he does what is just, but he does not necessarily need to be consistently engaged in debates about the nature of justice or the purpose of the state. No doubt Socrates would disagree, not just because the law might be unjust or the state might do too much or too little, but because, insofar as we are human beings, self-examination is always beneficial to us.
c. Other Socratic Positions and Arguments
In addition to the themes one finds in the Apology, the following are a number of other positions in the Platonic corpus that are typically considered Socratic.
i. Unity of Virtue; All Virtue is Knowledge
In the Protagoras (329b-333b) Socrates argues for the view that all of the virtues—justice, wisdom, courage, piety, and so forth—are one. He provides a number of arguments for this thesis. For example, while it is typical to think that one can be wise without being temperate, Socrates rejects this possibility on the grounds that wisdom and temperance both have the same opposite: folly. Were they truly distinct, they would each have their own opposites. As it stands, the identity of their opposites indicates that one cannot possess wisdom without temperance and vice versa.
This thesis is sometimes paired with another Socratic, view, that is, that virtue is a form of knowledge (Meno 87e-89a; cf. Euthydemus 278d-282a). Things like beauty, strength, and health benefit human beings, but can also harm them if they are not accompanied by knowledge or wisdom. If virtue is to be beneficial it must be knowledge, since all the qualities of the soul are in themselves neither beneficial not harmful, but are only beneficial when accompanied by wisdom and harmful when accompanied by folly.
ii. No One Errs Knowingly/No One Errs Willingly
Socrates famously declares that no one errs or makes mistakes knowingly (Protagoras 352c, 358b-b). Here we find an example of Socrates’ intellectualism. When a person does what is wrong, their failure to do what is right is an intellectual error, or due to their own ignorance about what is right. If the person knew what was right, he would have done it. Hence, it is not possible for someone simultaneously know what is right and do what is wrong. If someone does what is wrong, they do so because they do not know what is right, and if they claim the have known what was right at the time when they committed the wrong, they are mistaken, for had they truly known what was right, they would have done it.
Socrates therefore denies the possibility of akrasia, or weakness of the will. No one errs willingly (Protagoras 345c4-e6). While it might seem that Socrates is equivocating between knowingly and willingly, a look at Gorgias 466a-468e helps clarify his thesis. Tyrants and orators, Socrates tells Polus, have the least power of any member of the city because they do not do what they want. What they do is not good or beneficial even though human beings only want what is good or beneficial. The tyrant’s will, corrupted by ignorance, is in such a state that what follows from it will necessarily harm him. Conversely, the will that is purified by knowledge is in such a state that what follows from it will necessarily be beneficial.
iii. All Desire is for the Good
One of the premises of the argument just mentioned is that human beings only desire the good. When a person does something for the sake of something else, it is always the thing for the sake of which he is acting that he wants. All bad things or intermediate things are done not for themselves but for the sake of something else that is good. When a tyrant puts someone to death, for instance, he does this because he thinks it is beneficial in some way. Hence his action is directed towards the good because this is what he truly wants (Gorgias 467c-468b).
A similar version of this argument is in the Meno, 77b-78b. Those that desire bad things do not know that they are truly bad; otherwise, they would not desire them. They do not naturally desire what is bad but rather desire those things that they believe to be good but that are in fact bad. They desire good things even though they lack knowledge of what is actually good.
iv. It is Better to Suffer an Injustice Than to Commit One
Socrates infuriates Polus with the argument that it is better to suffer an injustice than commit one (Gorgias 475a-d). Polus agrees that it is more shameful to commit an injustice, but maintains it is not worse. The worst thing, in his view, is to suffer injustice. Socrates argues that, if something is more shameful, it surpasses in either badness or pain or both. Since committing an injustice is not more painful than suffering one, committing an injustice cannot surpass in pain or both pain and badness. Committing an injustice surpasses suffering an injustice in badness; differently stated, committing an injustice is worse than suffering one. Therefore, given the choice between the two, we should choose to suffer rather than commit an injustice.
This argument must be understood in terms of the Socratic emphasis on the care of the soul. Committing an injustice corrupts one’s soul, and therefore committing injustice is the worst thing a person can do to himself (cf. Crito 47d-48a, Republic I 353d-354a). If one commits injustice, Socrates goes so far as to claim that it is better to seek punishment than avoid it on the grounds that the punishment will purge or purify the soul of its corruption (Gorgias 476d-478e).
v. Eudaimonism
The Greek word for happiness is eudaimonia, which signifies not merely feeling a certain way but being a certain way. A different way of translating eudaimonia is well-being. Many scholars believe that Socrates holds two related but not equivalent principles regarding eudaimonia: first, that it is rationally required that a person make his own happiness the foundational consideration for his actions, and second, that each person does in fact pursue happiness as the foundational consideration for his actions. In relation to Socrates’ emphasis on virtue, it is not entirely clear what that means. Virtue could be identical to happiness—in which case there is no difference between the two and if I am virtuous I am by definition happy—virtue could be a part of happiness—in which case if I am virtuous I will be happy although I could be made happier by the addition of other goods—or virtue could be instrumental for happiness—in which case if I am virtuous I might be happy (and I couldn’t be happy without virtue), but there is no guarantee that I will be happy.
There are a number of passages in the Apology that seem to indicate that the greatest good for a human being is having philosophical conversation (36b-d, 37e-38a, 40e-41c). Meno 87c-89a suggests that knowledge of the good guides the soul toward happiness (cf. Euthydemus 278e-282a). And at Gorgias 507a-c Socrates suggests that the virtuous person, acting in accordance with wisdom, attains happiness (cf. Gorgias 478c-e: the happiest person has no badness in his soul).
vi. Ruling is An Expertise
Socrates is committed to the theme that ruling is a kind of craft or art (technē). As such, it requires knowledge. Just as a doctor brings about a desired result for his patient—health, for instance—so the ruler should bring about some desired result in his subject (Republic 341c-d, 342c). Medicine, insofar as it has the best interest of its patient in mind, never seeks to benefit the practitioner. Similarly, the ruler’s job is to act not for his own benefit but for the benefit of the citizens of the political community. This is not to say that there might not be some contingent benefit that accrues to the practitioner; the doctor, for instance, might earn a fine salary. But this benefit is not intrinsic to the expertise of medicine as such. One could easily conceive of a doctor that makes very little money. One cannot, however, conceive of a doctor that does not act on behalf of his patient. Analogously, ruling is always for the sake of the ruled citizen, and justice, contra the famous claim from Thrasymachus, is not whatever is in the interest of the ruling power (Republic 338c-339a).
d. Socrates the Ironist
The suspicion that Socrates is an ironist can mean a number of things: on the one hand, it can indicate that Socrates is saying something with the intent to convey the opposite meaning. Some readers for instance, including a number in the ancient world, understood Socrates’ avowal of ignorance in precisely this way. Many have interpreted Socrates’ praise of Euthyphro, in which he claims that he can learn from him and will become his pupil, as an example of this sort of irony (Euthyphro 5a-b). On the other hand, the Greek word eirōneia was understood to carry with it a sense of subterfuge, rendering the sense of the word something like masking with the intent to deceive.
Additionally, there are a number of related questions about Socrates’ irony. Is the interlocutor supposed to be aware of the irony, or is he ignorant of it? Is it the job of the reader to discern the irony? Is the purpose of irony rhetorical, intended to maintain Socrates’ position as the director of the conversation, or pedagogical, meant to encourage the interlocutor to learn something? Could it be both?
Scholars disagree on the sense in which we ought to call Socrates ironic. When Socrates asks Callicles to tell him what he means by the stronger and to go easy on him so that he might learn better, Callicles claims he is being ironic (Gorgias 489e). Thrasymachus accuses Socrates of being ironic insofar as he pretends he does not have an account of justice, when he is actually hiding what he truly thinks (Republic 337a). And though the Symposium is generally not thought to be a “Socratic” dialogue, we there find Alcibiades accusing Socrates of being ironic insofar as he acts like he is interested in him but then deny his advances (Symposium 216e, 218d). It is not clear which kind of irony is at work with these examples.
Aristotle defines irony as an attempt at self-deprecation (Nicomachean Ethics 4.7, 1127b23-26). He argues that self-deprecation is the opposite of boastfulness, and people that engage in this sort of irony do so to avoid pompousness and make their characters more attractive. Above all, such people disclaim things that bring reputation. On this reading, Socrates was prone to understatement.
There are some thinkers for whom Socratic irony is not just restricted to what Socrates says. The 19th century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard held the view that Socrates himself, his character, is ironic. The 20th century philosopher Leo Strauss defined irony as the noble dissimulation of one’s worth. On this reading, Socrates’ irony consisted in his refusal to display his superiority in front of his inferiors so that his message would be understood only by the privileged few. As such, Socratic irony is intended to conceal Socrates’ true message.
3. Method: How Did Socrates Do Philosophy?
As famous as the Socratic themes are, the Socratic method is equally famous. Socrates conducted his philosophical activity by means of question an answer, and we typically associate with him a method called the elenchus. At the same time, Plato’s Socrates calls himself a midwife—who has no ideas of his own but helps give birth to the ideas of others—and proceeds dialectically—defined either as asking questions, embracing the practice of collection and division, or proceeding from hypotheses to first principles.
a. The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter
A typical Socratic elenchus is a cross-examination of a particular position, proposition, or definition, in which Socrates tests what his interlocutor says and refutes it. There is, however, great debate amongst scholars regarding not only what is being refuted but also whether or not the elenchus can prove anything. There are questions, in other words, about the topic of the elenchus and its purpose or goal.
i. Topic
Socrates typically begins his elenchus with the question, “what is it”? What is piety, he asks Euthyphro. Euthyphro appears to give five separate definitions of piety: piety is proceeding against whomever does injustice (5d-6e), piety is what is loved by the gods (6e-7a), piety is what is loved by all the gods (9e), the godly and the pious is the part of the just that is concerned with the care of the gods (12e), and piety is the knowledge of sacrificing and praying (13d-14a). For some commentators, what Socrates is searching for here is a definition. Other commentators argue that Socrates is searching for more than just the definition of piety but seeks a comprehensive account of the nature of piety. Whatever the case, Socrates refutes the answer given to him in response to the ‘what is it’ question.
Another reading of the Socratic elenchus is that Socrates is not just concerned with the reply of the interlocutor but is concerned with the interlocutor himself. According to this view, Socrates is as much concerned with the truth or falsity of propositions as he is with the refinement of the interlocutor’s way of life. Socrates is concerned with both epistemological and moral advances for the interlocutor and himself. It is not propositions or replies alone that are refuted, for Socrates does not conceive of them dwelling in isolation from those that hold them. Thus conceived, the elenchus refutes the person holding a particular view, not just the view. For instance, Socrates shames Thrasymachus when he shows him that he cannot maintain his view that justice is ignorance and injustice is wisdom (Republic I 350d). The elenchus demonstrates that Thrasymachus cannot consistently maintain all his claims about the nature of justice. This view is consistent with a view we find in Plato’s late dialogue called the Sophist, in which the Visitor from Elea, not Socrates, claims that the soul will not get any advantage from learning that it is offered to it until someone shames it by refuting it (230b-d).
ii. Purpose
In terms of goal, there are two common interpretations of the elenchus. Both have been developed by scholars in response to what Gregory Vlastos called the problem of the Socratic elenchus. The problem is how Socrates can claim that position W is false, when the only thing he has established is its inconsistency with other premises whose truth he has not tried to establish in the elenchus.
The first response is what is called the constructivist position. A constructivist argues that the elenchus establishes the truth or falsity of individual answers. The elenchus on this interpretation can and does have positive results. Vlastos himself argued that Socrates not only established the inconsistency of the interlocutor’s beliefs by showing their inconsistency, but that Socrates’ own moral beliefs were always consistent, able to withstand the test of the elenchus. Socrates could therefore pick out a faulty premise in his elenctic exchange with an interlocutor, and sought to replace the interlocutor’s false beliefs with his own.
The second response is called the non-constructivist position. This position claims that Socrates does not think the elenchus can establish the truth or falsity of individual answers. The non-constructivist argues that all the elenchus can show is the inconsistency of W with the premises X, Y, and Z. It cannot establish that ~W is the case, or for that matter replace any of the premises with another, for this would require a separate argument. The elenchus establishes the falsity of the conjunction of W, X, Y, and Z, but not the truth or falsity of any of those premises individually. The purpose of the elenchus on this interpretation is to show the interlocutor that he is confused, and, according to some scholars, to use that confusion as a stepping stone on the way to establishing a more consistent, well-formed set of beliefs.
b. Maieutic: Socrates the Midwife
In Plato’s Theaetetus Socrates identifies himself as a midwife (150b-151b). While the dialogue is not generally considered Socratic, it is elenctic insofar as it tests and refutes Theaetetus’ definitions of knowledge. It also ends without a conclusive answer to its question, a characteristic it shares with a number of Socratic dialogues.
Socrates tells Theaetetus that his mother Phaenarete was a midwife (149a) and that he himself is an intellectual midwife. Whereas the craft of midwifery (150b-151d) brings on labor pains or relieves them in order to help a woman deliver a child, Socrates does not watch over the body but over the soul, and helps his interlocutor give birth to an idea. He then applies the elenchus to test whether or not the intellectual offspring is a phantom or a fertile truth. Socrates stresses that both he and actual midwives are barren, and cannot give birth to their own offspring. In spite of his own emptiness of ideas, Socrates claims to be skilled at bringing forth the ideas of others and examining them.
c. Dialectic: Socrates the Constructer
The method of dialectic is thought to be more Platonic than Socratic, though one can understand why many have associated it with Socrates himself. For one thing, the Greek dialegesthai ordinarily means simply “to converse” or “to discuss.” Hence when Socrates is distinguishing this sort of discussion from rhetorical exposition in the Gorgias, the contrast seems to indicate his preference for short questions and answers as opposed to longer speeches (447b-c, 448d-449c).
There are two other definitions of dialectic in the Platonic corpus. First, in the Republic, Socrates distinguishes between dianoetic thinking, which makes use of the senses and assumes hypotheses, and dialectical thinking, which does not use the senses and goes beyond hypotheses to first principles (Republic VII 510c-511c, 531d-535a). Second, in the Phaedrus, Sophist, Statesman, and Philebus, dialectic is defined as a method of collection and division. One collects things that are scattered into one kind and also divides each kind according to its species (Phaedrus 265d-266c).
Some scholars view the elenchus and dialectic as fundamentally different methods with different goals, while others view them as consistent and reconcilable. Some even view them as two parts of one argument procedure, in which the elenchus refutes and dialectic constructs.
4. Legacy: How Have Other Philosophers Understood Socrates?
Nearly every school of philosophy in antiquity had something positive to say about Socrates, and most of them drew their inspiration from him. Socrates also appears in the works of many famous modern philosophers. Immanuel Kant, the 18th century German philosopher best known for the categorical imperative, hailed Socrates, amongst other ancient philosophers, as someone who didn’t just speculate but who lived philosophically. One of the more famous quotes about Socrates is from John Stuart Mill, the 19th century utilitarian philosopher who claimed that it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. The following is but a brief survey of Socrates as he is treated in philosophical thinking that emerges after the death of Aristotle in 322 B.C.E.
a. Hellenistic Philosophy
i. The Cynics
The Cynics greatly admired Socrates, and traced their philosophical lineage back to him. One of the first representatives of the Socratic legacy was the Cynic Diogenes of Sinope. No genuine writings of Diogenes have survived and most of our evidence about him is anecdotal. Nevertheless, scholars attribute a number of doctrines to him. He sought to undermine convention as a foundation for ethical values and replace it with nature. He understood the essence of human being to be rational, and defined happiness as freedom and self-mastery, an objective readily accessible to those who trained the body and mind.
ii. The Stoics
There is a biographical story according to which Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school and not the Zeno of Zeno's Paradoxes, became interested in philosophy by reading and inquiring about Socrates. The Stoics took themselves to be authentically Socratic, especially in defending the unqualified restriction of ethical goodness to ethical excellence, the conception of ethical excellence as a kind of knowledge, a life not requiring any bodily or external advantage nor ruined by any bodily disadvantage, and the necessity and sufficiency of ethical excellence for complete happiness.
Zeno is known for his characterization of the human good as a smooth flow of life. Stoics were therefore attracted to the Socratic elenchus because it could expose inconsistencies—both social and psychological—that disrupted one’s life. In the absence of justification for a specific action or belief, one would not be in harmony with oneself, and therefore would not live well. On the other hand, if one held a position that survived cross-examination, such a position would be consistent and coherent. The Socratic elenchus was thus not just an important social and psychological test, but also an epistemological one. The Stoics held that knowledge was a coherent set of psychological attitudes, and therefore a person holding attitudes that could withstand the elenchus could be said to have knowledge. Those with inconsistent or incoherent psychological commitments were thought to be ignorant.
Socrates also figures in Roman Stoicism, particularly in the works of Seneca and Epictetus. Both men admired Socrates’ strength of character. Seneca praises Socrates for his ability to remain consistent unto himself in the face of the threat posed by the Thirty Tyrants, and also highlights the Socratic focus on caring for oneself instead of fleeing oneself and seeking fulfillment by external means. Epictetus, when offering advice about holding to one’s own moral laws as inviolable maxims, claims, “though you are not yet a Socrates, you ought, however, to live as one desirous of becoming a Socrates” (Enchiridion 50).
One aspect of Socrates to which Epictetus was particularly attracted was the elenchus. Though his understanding of the process is in some ways different from Socrates’, throughout his Discourses Epictetus repeatedly stresses the importance of recognition of one’s ignorance (2.17.1) and awareness of one’s own impotence regarding essentials (2.11.1). He characterizes Socrates as divinely appointed to hold the elenctic position (3.21.19) and associates this role with Socrates’ protreptic expertise (2.26.4-7). Epictetus encouraged his followers to practice the elenchus on themselves, and claims that Socrates did precisely this on account of his concern with self-examination (2.1.32-3).
iii. The Skeptics
Broadly speaking, skepticism is the view that we ought to be either suspicious of claims to epistemological truth or at least withhold judgment from affirming absolute claims to knowledge. Amongst Pyrrhonian skeptics, Socrates appears at times like a dogmatist and at other times like a skeptic or inquirer. On the one hand, Sextus Empiricus lists Socrates as a thinker who accepts the existence of god (Against the Physicists, I.9.64) and then recounts the cosmological argument that Xenophon attributes to Socrates (Against the Physicists, I.9.92-4). On the other hand, in arguing that human being is impossible to conceive, Sextus Empiricus cites Socrates as unsure whether or not he is a human being or something else (Outlines of Pyrrhonism 2.22). Socrates is also said to have remained in doubt about this question (Against the Professors 7.264).
Academic skeptics grounded their position that nothing can be known in Socrates’ admission of ignorance in the Apology (Cicero, On the Orator 3.67, Academics 1.44). Arcesilaus, the first head of the Academy to take it toward a skeptical turn, picked up from Socrates the procedure of arguing, first asking others to give their positions and then refuting them (Cicero, On Ends 2.2, On the Orator 3.67, On the Nature of the Gods 1.11). While the Academy would eventually move away from skepticism, Cicero, speaking on behalf of the Academy of Philo, makes the claim that Socrates should be understood as endorsing the claim that nothing, other than one’s own ignorance, could be known (Academics 2.74).
iv. The Epicurean
The Epicureans were one of the few schools that criticized Socrates, though many scholars think that this was in part because of their animus toward their Stoic counterparts, who admired him. In general, Socrates is depicted in Epicurean writings as a sophist, rhetorician, and skeptic who ignored natural science for the sake of ethical inquiries that concluded without answers. Colotes criticizes Socrates’ statement in the Phaedrus (230a) that he does not know himself (Plutarch, Against Colotes 21 1119b), and Philodemus attacks Socrates’ argument in the Protagoras (319d) that virtue cannot be taught (Rhetoric I 261, 8ff).
The Epicureans wrote a number of books against several of Plato’s Socratic dialogues, including the Lysis, Euthydemus, and Gorgias. In the Gorgias we find Socrates suspicious of the view that pleasure is intrinsically worthy and his insistence that pleasure is not the equivalent of the good (Gorgias 495b-499b). In defining pleasure as freedom from disturbance (ataraxia) and defining this sort of pleasure as the sole good for human beings, the Epicureans shared little with the unbridled hedonism Socrates criticizes Callicles for embracing. Indeed, in the Letter to Menoeceus, Epicurus explicitly argues against pursuing this sort of pleasure (131-132). Nonetheless, the Epicureans did equate pleasure with the good, and the view that pleasure is not the equivalent of the good could not have endeared Socrates to their sentiment.
Another reason for the Epicurean refusal to praise Socrates or make him a cornerstone of their tradition was his perceived irony. According to Cicero, Epicurus was opposed to Socrates’ representing himself as ignorant while simultaneously praising others like Protagoras, Hippias, Prodicus, and Gorgias (Rhetoric, Vol. II, Brutus 292). This irony for the Epicureans was pedagogically pointless: if Socrates had something to say, he should have said it instead of hiding it.
v. The Peripatetics
Aristotle’s followers, the Peripatetics , either said little about Socrates or were pointedly vicious in their attacks. Amongst other things, the Peripatetics accused Socrates of being a bigamist, a charge that appears to have gained so much traction that the Stoic Panaetius wrote a refutation of it (Plutarch, Aristides 335c-d). The general peripatetic criticism of Socrates, similar in one way to the Epicureans, was that he concentrated solely on ethics, and that this was an unacceptable ideal for the philosophical life.
b. Modern Philosophy
i. Hegel
In Socrates, Hegel found what he called the great historic turning point (Philosophy of History, 448). With Socrates, Hegel claims, two opposed rights came into collision: the individual consciousness and the universal law of the state. Prior to Socrates, morality for the ancients was present but it was not present Socratically. That is, the good was present as a universal, without its having had the form of the conviction of the individual in his consciousness (407). Morality was present as an immediate absolute, directing the lives of citizens without their having reflected upon it and deliberated about it for themselves. The law of the state, Hegel claims, had authority as the law of the gods, and thus had a universal validity that was recognized by all (408).
In Hegel’s view the coming of Socrates signals a shift in the relationship between the individual and morality. The immediate now had to justify itself to the individual consciousness. Hegel thus not only ascribes to Socrates the habit of asking questions about what one should do but also about the actions that the state has prescribed. With Socrates, consciousness is turned back within itself and demands that the law should establish itself before consciousness, internal to it, not merely outside it (408-410). Hegel attributes to Socrates a reflective questioning that is skeptical, which moves the individual away from unreflective obedience and into reflective inquiry about the ethical standards of one’s community.
Generally, Hegel finds in Socrates a skepticism that renders ordinary or immediate knowledge confused and insecure, in need of reflective certainty which only consciousness can bring (370). Though he attributes to the sophists the same general skeptical comportment, in Socrates Hegel locates human subjectivity at a higher level. With Socrates and onward we have the world raising itself to the level of conscious thought and becoming object for thought. The question as to what Nature is gives way to the question about what Truth is, and the question about the relationship of self-conscious thought to real essence becomes the predominant philosophical issue (450-1).
ii. Kierkegaard
Kierkegaard ’s most well recognized views on Socrates are from his dissertation, The Concept of Irony With Continual Reference to Socrates. There, he argues that Socrates is not the ethical figure that the history of philosophy has thought him to be, but rather an ironist in all that he does. Socrates does not just speak ironically but is ironic. Indeed, while most people have found Aristophanes’ portrayal of Socrates an obvious exaggeration and caricature, Kierkegaard goes so far as to claim that he came very close to the truth in his depiction of Socrates. He rejects Hegel’s picture of Socrates ushering in a new era of philosophical reflection and instead argues that the limits of Socratic irony testified to the need for religious faith. As opposed to the Hegelian view that Socratic irony was an instrument in the service of the development of self-consciousness, Kierkegaard claims that irony was Socrates’ position or comportment, and that he did not have any more than this to give.
Later in his writing career Kierkegaard comes to think that he has neglected Socrates’ significance as an ethical and religious figure. In his final essay entitled My Task, Kierkegaard claims that his mission is a Socratic one; that is, in his task to reinvigorate a Christianity that remained the cultural norm but had, in Kierkegaard’s eyes, nearly ceased altogether to be practiced authentically, Kierkegaard conceives of himself as a kind of Christian Socrates, rousing Christians from their complacency to a conception of Christian faith as the highest, most passionate expression of individual subjectivity. Kierkegaard therefore sees himself as a sort of Christian gadfly. The Socratic call to become aware of one’s own ignorance finds its parallel in the Kierkegaardian call to recognize one’s own failing to truly live as a Christian. The Socratic claim to ignorance—while Socrates is closer to knowledge than his contemporaries—is replaced by the Kierkegaard’s claim that he is not a Christian—though certainly more so than his own contemporaries.
iii. Nietzsche
Nietzsche ’s most famous account of Socrates is his scathing portrayal in The Birth of Tragedy, in which Socrates and rational thinking lead to the emergence of an age of decadence in Athens. The delicate balance in Greek culture between the Apollonian—order, calmness, self-control, restraint—and the Dionysian—chaos, revelry, self-forgetfulness, indulgence— initially represented on stage in the tragedies of Aeschylus and Sophocles, gave way to the rationalism of Euripides. Euripides, Nietzsche argues, was only a mask for the newborn demon called Socrates (section 12). Tragedy—and Greek culture more generally—was corrupted by “aesthetic Socratism”, whose supreme law, Nietzsche argues, was that ‘to be beautiful everything must be intelligible’. Whereas the former sort of tragedy absorbed the spectator in the activities and sufferings of its chief characters, the emergence of Socrates heralded the onset of a new kind of tragedy in which this identification is obstructed by the spectators having to figure out the meaning and presuppositions of the characters’ suffering.
Nietzsche continues his attack on Socrates later in his career in Twilight of the Idols. Socrates here represents the lowest class of people (section 3), and his irony consists in his being an exaggeration at the same time as he conceals himself (4). He is the inventor of dialectic (5) which he wields mercilessly because, being an ugly plebeian, he had no other means of expressing himself (6) and therefore employed question and answer to render his opponent powerless (7). Socrates turned dialectic into a new kind of contest (8), and because his instincts had turned against each other and were in anarchy (9), he established the rule of reason as a counter-tyrant in order not to perish (10). Socrates’ decadence here consists in his having to fight his instincts (11). He was thus profoundly anti-life, so much so that he wanted to die (12).
Nonetheless, while Nietzsche accuses Socrates of decadence, he nevertheless recognizes him as a powerful individual, which perhaps accounts for why we at times find in Nietzsche a hesitant admiration of Socrates. He calls Socrates one of the very greatest instinctive forces (The Birth of Tragedy, section 13), labels him as a “free spirit” (Human, All Too Human I, 433) praises him as the first “philosopher of life” in his 17th lecture on the Preplatonics, and anoints him a ‘virtuoso of life’ in his notebooks from 1875. Additionally, contra Twilight of the Idols, in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Nietzsche speaks of a death in which one’s virtue still shines, and some commentators have seen in this a celebration of the way in which Socrates died.
iv. Heidegger
Heidegger finds in Socrates a kinship with his own view that the truth of philosophy lies in a certain way of seeing things, and thus is identical with a particular kind of method. He attributes to Socrates the view that the truth of some subject matter shows itself not in some definition that is the object or end of a process of inquiry, but in the very process of inquiry itself. Heidegger characterizes the Socratic method as a kind of productive negation: by refuting that which stands in front of it—in Socrates’ case, an interlocutor’s definition—it discloses the positive in the very process of questioning. Socrates is not interested in articulating propositions about piety but rather concerned with persisting in a questioning relation to it that preserves its irreducible sameness. Behind multiple examples of pious action is Piety, and yet Piety is not something that can be spoken of. It is that which discloses itself through the process of silent interrogation.
It is precisely in his emphasis on silence that Heidegger diverges from Socrates. Where Socrates insisted on the give and take of question and answer, Heideggerian questioning is not necessarily an inquiry into the views of others but rather an openness to the truth that one maintains without the need to speak. To remain in dialogue with a given phenomenon is not the same thing as conversing about it, and true dialogue is always silent.
v. Gadamer
As Heidegger’s student, Gadamer shares his fundamental view that truth and method cannot be divorced in philosophy. At the same time, his hermeneutics leads him to argue for the importance of dialectic as conversation. Gadamer claims that whereas philosophical dialectic presents the whole truth by superceding all its partial propositions, hermeneutics too has the task of revealing a totality of meaning in all its relations. The distinguishing characteristic of Gadamer’s hermeneutical dialectic is that it recognizes radical finitude: we are always already in an open-ended dialogical situation. Conversation with the interlocutor is thus not a distraction that leads us away from seeing the truth but rather is the site of truth. It is for this reason that Gadamer claims Plato communicated his philosophy only in dialogues: it was more than just an homage to Socrates, but was a reflection of his view that the word find its confirmation in another and in the agreement of another.
Gadamer also sees in the Socratic method an ethical way of being. That is, he does not just think that Socrates converses about ethics but that repeated Socratic conversation is itself indicative of an ethical comportment. On this account, Socrates knows the good not because he can give some final definition of it but rather because of his readiness to give an account of it. The problem of not living an examined life is not that we might live without knowing what is ethical, but because without asking questions as Socrates does, we will not be ethical.
5. References and Further Reading
Ahbel-Rappe, Sara, and Rachana Kamtekar (eds.), A Companion to Socrates (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006).
Arrowsmith, William, Lattimore, Richmond, and Parker, Douglass (trans.), Four Plays by Aristophanes: The Clouds, The Birds, Lysistrata, The Frogs (New York: Meridian, 1994).
Barnes, Jonathan, Complete Works of Aristotle vols. 1 & 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984).
Benson, Hugh H. (ed.), Essays on the Philosophy of Socrates (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
Brickhouse, Thomas C. & Smith, Nicholas D., Plato’s Socrates (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).
Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985).
Cooper, John M., Plato: Collected Works (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
Guthrie, W.K.C., Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971).
Kahn, Charles H., Plato and the Socratic Dialogue (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
Kraut, Richard (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Plato (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
Morrison, Donald R., The Cambridge Companion to Socrates (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
Rudebusch, George, Socrates (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).
Santas, Gerasimos, Socrates: Philosophy in Plato’s Early Dialogues (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
Taylor, C.C.W, 1998, Socrates (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
Vlastos, Gregory, Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
Xenophon: Memorabilia. Oeconomicus. Symposium. Apologia. (Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1923).
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- De jubileumshow (2015) ... (performer: "Living Doll" - uncredited)
- Diep in mijn hart (2015) ... (performer: "The Next Time" - uncredited)
2014 Northern Soul (performer: "The Young Ones")
2012 Pop Charts Britannia: 60 Years of the Top 10 (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "The Young Ones")
2012 The Hour (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Episode #2.1 (2012) ... (performer: "Move It" - uncredited)
2012 Love Me Do: The Beatles '62 (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "The Young Ones")
2012 The Diamond Jubilee Concert (TV Special) (performer: "Dynamite", "The Young Ones", "Devil Woman", "We Don't Talk (Anymore)", "Wired For Sound", "The Millennium Prayer", "Congratulations")
- Televisió i publicitat (2012) ... (performer: "Congratulations")
2011 Britain's Favourite Christmas Songs (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Little Town", "Saviour's Day", "Mistletoe and Wine", "The Millennium Prayer")
2010 Grown Ups (performer: "Devil Woman")
1985-2010 EastEnders (TV Series) (performer - 5 episodes)
- Episode dated 25 December 1996 (1996) ... (performer: "Saviour's Day" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.68 (1985) ... (performer: "She's So Beautiful" - uncredited)
- Episode #1.44 (1985) ... (performer: "Devil Woman" - uncredited)
2009 50 años de (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Eurovisión (2009) ... (performer: "Congratulations")
2009 Electric Dreams (TV Mini-Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- The 1980s (2009) ... (performer: "Wired For Sound")
2009 Doctor Who (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Planet of the Dead (2009) ... (performer: "Summer Holiday " - uncredited)
2008 Banda sonora (TV Series) (performer - 3 episodes)
- Episode #4.6 (2008) ... (performer: "The Young Ones")
- Episode #3.10 (2008) ... (performer: "Congratulations")
2008 New Tricks (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- A Face for Radio (2008) ... (performer: "Wired for Sound" - uncredited)
2006 Losing Gemma (TV Series) (performer: "Living Doll")
2002 Party at the Palace: The Queen's Concerts, Buckingham Palace (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Living Doll", "Move It", "Good Vibrations")
2001 Stars 2001 - Die Aids-Gala (TV Special documentary) (performer: "Over the Rainbow", "Wonderful World")
2001 Lindenstraße (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Glück im Unglück (2001) ... (performer: "Sag 'No' zu ihm" - uncredited)
1998 A Song for Eurotrash (TV Movie documentary) (performer: "Congratulations")
Tohuwabohu (TV Series) (performer - 6 episodes, 1993 - 1998) (writer - 2 episodes, 1995 - 1997)
- Episode #8.33 (1980) ... (performer: "Suddenly")
1980 Olivia Newton-John: Hollywood Nights (TV Special) (performer: "Oh Boy!", "Suddenly", "Heartache Tonight")
1978 Nunzio (performer: "Don't Turn The Light Out")
1974 It's Cliff Richard (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
- Episode #4.6 (1974) ... (performer: "I'm Leaving It All Up To You", "Pigeon", "All I Have To Do Is Dream", "Proud Mary")
1973 Take Me High (performer: "It's Only Money", "Midnight Blue", "Winning", "The Anti-Brotherhood Of Man", "Why?", "Life", "The Game", "Brumburger Duet", "Driving", "Take Me High", "Join the Band", "The Word is Love", "Brumburger (Finale)")
1969 Pop Go the Sixties! (TV Movie) (performer: "Bachelor Boy", "Congratulations") / (writer: "Bachelor Boy")
1968-1969 Cilla (TV Series) (performer - 2 episodes)
- Episode #2.9 (1969) ... (performer: "The Look of Love/Walk On By")
- Episode #1.6 (1968) ... (performer: "Wonderful World", "Do You Remember?", "High'n'Dry", "The Sound of the Candyman's Trumpet", "Congratulations", "Little Rag Doll")
1968 One Life to Live (TV Series) (performer: "I Still Believe in You")
1968 The Eurovision Song Contest (TV Special) (performer: "Congratulations")
1967 Two a Penny (lyrics: "Two a Penny", "Love You Forever Today", "Questions") / (music: "Two a Penny", "Love You Forever Today", "Questions") / (performer: "Two a Penny", "Love You Forever Today", "Questions")
1966 Thunderbirds Are GO (performer: "Shooting Star")
1964 Swingers' Paradise (performer: "Wonderful Life", "A Girl in Every Port", "Home", "A Little Imagination", "On The Beach", "In The Stars", "We Love a Movie", "What've I Gotta Do", "Do You Remember", "All Kinds of People", "A Matter of Moments", "Youth and Experience", "If I Had A Talking Picture of You")
1964 Cliff! (TV Series) (performer - 1 episode)
| Serious Charge |
Musical terms - what does De Capo mean on a score? | At The Movies 1959 - 1974 - Microsoft Store
At The Movies 1959 - 1974
1996 • 57 songs • Rock • Modern Rock / Pop Rock / Mainstream Rock • EMI UK
Though he never dredged the same depths as Elvis, there is little doubt that Cliff Richard made some really horrible movies. There were three of them -- Finders Keepers, Two a Penny, and the truly execrable Take Me High -- and one could search the earth for the rest of one's life and still never find anyone who would admit to enjoying them. So it's absolutely astonishing to discover that not only do the accompanying soundtracks stand proud alongside some of Richard 's regular albums, they don't look too shoddy up there with his best ones, either. And the fact that category includes two other soundtracks just goes to prove your old granny was right all along. You really can't judge a movie score by the movie. At the time of his breakthrough, in 1958, Richard was (in the parlance of the day), "the boy who rocked the world." Little Richard was passe, Elvis was past it, Jerry Lee was, well, we've all seen Great Balls of Fire, so let's just leave it at that. So far as the British entertainment industry was concerned, America had already had its rock & rolling day; now it was their turn, and Cliff Richard was still coming down from his first hit single, the magnificent moodiness of "Move It," when he was co-opted for his first film, Serious Charge. The gritty realism of the movie's theme summed up Cliff 's box office appeal. He was rough, he was tough, and the songs he performed on the soundtrack, "No Turning Back" and "Mad About You" (both making their CD debuts here), adhered perfectly to that image. So did a third number, the rollicking "Living Doll," but Richard soon changed that. Although the singer loved the song, he disliked its up-tempo rock arrangement, and by the time it became his first number one, "Living Doll" had been transformed into his first major ballad, and the template around which much of his subsequent career would be designed. Certainly it's no surprise that many of Richard 's biggest hits over the next five years should also be ballads, or that the musical highlights of his next three movies would supply many of the most memorable examples. "A Voice in yhe Wilderness" and the magnificently maudlin "The Shrine on the Second Floor" (from Expresso Bongo, 1959); "When the Girl in Your Arms" (The Young Ones, 1961); and "Bachelor Boy" and "The Next Time" (Summer Holiday, 1962) are no strangers to a thousand best-of collections, and the only injustice is that their radiance often blinded listeners to some equally deserving material. Spread over two discs, and amply annotated in the accompanying booklet, At the Movies goes a long way toward remedying this travesty. Trimming the fat from the original soundtrack albums, it bolsters what's left with a handful of unissued alternate takes, and several more CD debutantes. And though the collectors' interest does wane as the second disc progresses toward Take Me High, still, At the Movies ends on a high note, with the original, and radically different, movie mixes of "The Young Ones," "Lessons in Love," and "Bachelor Boy," plus a sensational bazouki-powered "Summer Holiday." ~ Dave Thompson
| i don't know |
Of what did the poet John Milton die? | John Milton | Poetry Foundation
Poetry Foundation
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton
John Milton’s career as a writer of prose and poetry spans three distinct eras: Stuart England; the Civil War (1642-1648) and Interregnum, including the Commonwealth (1649-1653) and Protectorate (1654-1660); and the Restoration. When Elizabeth I, the so-called Virgin Queen and the last of the Tudors, died, James VI, King of Scots, was enthroned as Britain’s king. Titled James I, he inaugurated the House of Stuart. His son and successor, Charles I, continued as monarch until he lost the Civil War to the Parliamentarians, was tried on charges of high treason, and was beheaded on 30 January 1649. For eleven years thereafter England was governed by the military commander and later Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, who was succeeded by his son, Richard. By 1660 the people, no longer supportive of the Protectorate, welcomed the Restoration, the return of the House of Stuart in the person of Charles II, son of the late king.
Milton’s chief polemical prose was written in the decades of the 1640s and 1650s, during the strife between the Church of England and various reformist groups such as the Puritans and between the monarch and Parliament. Designated the antiepiscopal or antiprelatical tracts and the antimonarchical or political tracts, these works advocate a freedom of conscience and a high degree of civil liberty for humankind against the various forms of tyranny and oppression, both ecclesiastical and governmental. In line with his libertarian outlook, Milton wrote Areopagitica (1644), often cited as one of the most compelling arguments on the freedom of the press. In March 1649 Milton was appointed secretary for foreign tongues to the Council of State. In that capacity his service to the government, chiefly in the field of foreign policy, is documented by official correspondence, the Letters of State, first published in 1694. In that capacity, moreover, he was a vigorous defender of Cromwell’s government. One of his assignments was to counteract the erosion of public support of the Commonwealth, a situation caused by the publication of the Eikon Basilike (1649) or King’s Book, which had widespread distribution after Charles I’s execution. Believed to have been written by the king himself—though composed chiefly by an episcopal divine, Dr. John Gauden, who later became a bishop—the work sought to win public sympathy by creating the image of the monarch as a martyred saint. Eikonoklastes (1649), or Imagebreaker, is Milton’s refutation, a personal attack on Charles I which likened him to William Shakespeare ‘s duke of Gloucester (afterward Richard III), a consummate hypocrite. As a result Milton entered into controversy with Claude de Saumaise, a French scholar residing in Holland and the polemicist who wrote on behalf of Charles I’s son in exile in France.
The symptoms of failing eyesight did not deter Milton , who from an early age read by candlelight until midnight or later, even while experiencing severe headaches. By 1652 he was totally blind. The exact cause is unknown. Up to the Restoration he continued to write in defense of the Protectorate. After Charles II was crowned Milton was dismissed from governmental service, apprehended, and imprisoned. Payment of fines and the intercession of friends and family, including Andrew Marvell , Sir William Davenant, and perhaps Christopher Milton, his younger brother and a Royalist lawyer, brought about Milton’s release. In the troubled period at and after the Restoration he was forced to depart his home which he had occupied for eight years in Petty-France, Westminster. He took up residence elsewhere, including the house of a friend in Bartholomew Close; eventually, he settled in a home at Artillery Walk toward Bunhill Fields. On or about 8 November 1674, when he was almost sixty-six years old, Milton died of complications from gout.
While Milton’s impact as a prose writer was profound, of equal or greater importance is his poetry. He referred to his prose works as the achievements of his “left hand.” In 1645 he published his first volume of poetry, Poems of Mr. John Milton , Both English and Latin, much of which was written before he was twenty years old. The volume manifests a rising poet, one who has planned his emergence and projected his development in numerous ways: mastery of ancient and modern languages—Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Italian; awareness of various traditions in literature; and avowed inclination toward the vocation of poet. The poems in the 1645 edition run the gamut of various genres: psalm paraphrase, sonnet, canzone, masque, pastoral elegy, verse letter, English ode, epigram, obituary poem, companion poem, and occasional verse. Ranging from religious to political in subject matter, serious to mock-serious in tone, and traditional to innovative in the use of verse forms, the poems in this volume disclose a self-conscious author whose maturation is undertaken with certain models in mind, notably Virgil from classical antiquity and Edmund Spenser in the English Renaissance.
Like the illustrious literary forebears with whom he invites comparison, Milton used his poetry to address issues of religion and politics, the central concerns also of his prose. Placing himself in a line of poets whose art was an outlet for their public voice and using, like them, the pastoral poem to present an outlook on politics, Milton aimed to promote an enlightened commonwealth, not unlike the polis of Greek antiquity or the cultured city-states in Renaissance Italy. When one considers that the 1645 volume was published when Milton was approximately thirty-seven years old, though some of the poems were written as early as his fifteenth year, it is evident that he sought to draw attention to his unfolding poetic career despite its interruption by governmental service. Perhaps he also sought to highlight the relationship of his poetry to his prose and to call attention to his aspiration, evident in several works in the 1645 volume, to become an epic poet. Thus, the poems in the volume were composed in Stuart England but published after the onset of the English Civil War. Furthermore, Milton may have begun to compose one or more of his mature works—Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes—in the 1640s, but they were completed and revised much later and not published until after the Restoration.
This literary genius whose fame and influence are second to none, and on whose life and works more commentary is written than on any author except Shakespeare, was born at 6:30 in the morning on 9 December 1608. His parents were John Milton , Sr., and Sara Jeffrey Milton , and the place of birth was the family home, marked with the sign of the spread eagle, on Bread Street, London. Three days later, at the parish church of All Hallows, also on Bread Street, he was baptized into the Protestant faith of the Church of England. Other children of John and Sara who survived infancy included Anne, their oldest child, and Christopher, seven years younger than John. At least three others died shortly after birth, in infancy or in early childhood. Edward Phillips, Anne’s son by her first husband, was tutored by Milton and later wrote a biography of his renowned uncle, which was published in Milton’s Letters of State (1694). Christopher, in contrast to his older brother on all counts, became a Roman Catholic, a Royalist, and a lawyer.
Milton’s father was born in 1562 in Oxfordshire; his father, Richard, was a Catholic who decried the Reformation. When John Milton, Sr., expressed sympathy for what his father viewed as Protestant heresy, their disagreements resulted in the son’s disinheritance. He left home and traveled to London, where he became a scrivener and a professional composer responsible for more than twenty musical pieces. As a scrivener he performed services comparable to a present-day attorney’s assistant, law stationer, and notary. Among the documents that a scrivener executed were wills, leases, deeds, and marriage agreements. Through such endeavors and by his practice of money lending, the elder Milton accumulated a handsome estate, which enabled him to provide a splendid formal education for his son John and to maintain him during several years of private study. In “Ad Patrem” (To His Father), a Latin poem composed probably in 1637-1638, Milton celebrated his “revered father.” He compares his father’s talent at musical composition, harmonizing sounds to numbers and modulating the voices of singers, to his own dedication to the muses and to his developing artistry as a poet. The father’s “generosities” and “kindnesses” enabled the young man to study Greek, Latin, Hebrew, French, and Italian.”
Little is known of Sara Jeffrey, but in Pro Propulo Anglicano Defensio Secunda (The Second Defense of the People of England, 1654) Milton refers to the “esteem” in which his mother was held and to her reputation for almsgiving in their neighborhood. John Aubrey, in biographical notes made in 1681-1682, recorded that she had weak eyesight, which may have contributed to her son’s similar problems. She died on 3 April 1637, not long before her son John departed for his European journey. Her husband died on 14 March 1647.”
In the years 1618-1620 Milton was tutored in the family home. One of his tutors was Thomas Young, who became chaplain to the English merchants in Hamburg during the 1620s. Though he departed England when Milton was approximately eleven years old, Young’s impression on the young pupil was long standing. Two of Milton’s familiar letters, as well as “Elegia quarta” (Elegy IV), are addressed to Young. (The term elegy in the titles of seven of Milton’s Latin poems designates the classical prosody in which they were written, couplets consisting of a verse of dactylic hexameter followed by a verse of pentameter; elegy, when used to describe poems of sorrow or lamentation, refers to Milton’s meditations on the deaths of particular persons.) Also dedicated to Young is Of Reformation (1641), a prose tract; and the “TY” of the acronym SMECTYMNUUS in the title of Milton’s antiprelatical tract of 1641 identifies Young as one of the five ministers whose stand against church government by bishops was admired by Milton.”
From 1620 until 1625 Milton attended St. Paul’s School, within close walking distance of his home and within view of the cathedral, where almost certainly he heard the sermons of Dr. John Donne , who served as dean from 1621 until 1631. The school had been founded in the preceding century by John Colet, and the chief master when Milton attended was Alexander Gill the Elder. His son, also named Alexander and an instructor at the school, did not teach Milton . Some of Milton’s familiar letters are addressed to the elder and the younger Gills, with whom he maintained contact, chiefly to express gratitude for their commitment to learning and to communicate to them his unfolding plans and aspirations. During his years at St. Paul’s, Milton befriended Charles Diodati, who became his closest companion in boyhood and to whom he wrote “Elegia prima” (Elegy I) and “Elegia sexta” (Elegy VI). They maintained their friendship even though Diodati attended Oxford while Milton was at Cambridge.”
On 9 April 1625 Milton , then sixteen years of age, matriculated at Christ’s College, Cambridge, evidently in preparation for the ministry. For seven years he studied assiduously to receive the bachelor of arts degree (1629) and the master of arts degree (1632). With his first tutor at Cambridge, the logician William Chappell, Milton had some sort of disagreement, after which he may have been whipped. Thereafter, in the Lent term of 1626, Milton was rusticated or suspended, a circumstance to which he refers in “Elegia prima.” After his return to Cambridge later that year and for the remainder of his years there he was tutored by Nathaniel Tovey. At Cambridge Milton was known as “The Lady of Christ’s,” to which he refers in his sixth prolusion, an oratorical performance and academic exercise that he presented in 1628. While the reasons for the sobriquet are uncertain, one suspects that Milton’s appearance seemed feminine to some onlookers. In fact, this theory is supported by a portrait of Milton commissioned by his father when the future poet was ten years old. The delicate features, pink-and-white complexion, and auburn hair, not to mention the black doublet with gold braid and the collar with lace frills, project a somewhat feminine image. Another portrait, painted while he was a student at Cambridge, shows a handsome youth, appearing somewhat younger than his twenty-one years. His long hair falls to the white ruff collar that he wears over a black doublet. His dark brown hair has a reddish cast to it, and his complexion is fair. Apart from his appearance, Milton may have been called “The Lady of Christ’s” because his commitment to study caused him to withdraw from the more typical male activities of athletics and socializing.”
By 1632 Milton had completed a sizable body of poetry. At St. Paul’s he had translated and paraphrased Psalms 114 and 136 from Greek into English. Throughout his Cambridge years he composed many of the poems in the 1645 volume: the seven Latin elegies (three verse letters, two funeral tributes, a celebration of spring, and an acknowledgment of the power of Cupid), other Latin verse, seven prolusions, six or seven sonnets (some in Italian), and numerous poems in English. The works in English include “On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity,” “The Passion,” “On Shakespeare,” the Hobson poems, “ L’Allegro ,” and “ Il Penseroso .”
The circumstances of composition of Milton’s Nativity poem, classified as an ode, are recounted in “Elegia sexta,” a verse letter written to Diodati in early 1630. To his close friend Milton confided that the poem was composed at dawn on Christmas day in December 1629. In “Elegia sexta” Milton summarizes the poem, which, he says, sings of the “heaven-descended King, the bringer of peace, and the blessed times promised in the sacred books.” Likewise, the Christ child “and his stabling under a mean roof” are contrasted with the “gods that were suddenly destroyed in their own shrines” (translation by Merritt Y. Hughes). “On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity” is divided into two sections, the induction and the hymn. The induction is composed of four stanzas in rime royal, a seven-line stanza of iambic pentameter; the hymn consists of twenty-seven stanzas, each eight lines long, combining features of rime royal and the Spenserian stanza. The poem develops thematic opposition between the pagan gods—associated with darkness, dissonance, and bestiality—and Christ—associated with light, harmony, and the union of divine and human natures.”
In addition to the contrasting themes, the poem addresses two of the major paradoxes or mysteries of Christianity: the Virgin Birth and the two natures of Christ. By using oxymoron or succinct paradox—”wedded Maid, and Virgin Mother”—to describe Mary, the poet suggests the mystery of the Virgin Birth, whereby Mary retains her purity and chastity despite impregnation by the godhead. To describe the combination of two natures in Christ, the poet resorts to biblical allusion, particularly Paul’s letter to the Philippians (2:6-11), which recounts how the Son emptied himself of his godhead in order to take on humanity. Paul states that the Son having assumed the form of a servant or slave was obedient unto death on the cross. In the Nativity poem Milton indicates that the Son, while customarily enthroned “in Trinal Unity,” has “laid aside” his majesty to undergo suffering. By such biblical allusion Milton interrelates the Incarnation and Redemption. Paradoxically, Milton affirms that the heroism of the Son is attributable to his voluntary humiliation, so that, in effect, his triumph over the pagan gods is anticlimactic. Significantly, in a poem about the birth of the Savior, Milton foreshadows the death of Jesus, the consummate gesture of voluntary humiliation. The manger is described as a place of self-sacrifice, where the light from the star overhead and the metaphoric reference to the fires of immolation converge: “secret altar touched with hallowed fire.”
Not to be overlooked is Milton’s use of mythological allusions to dramatize the effect of Christ’s coming. Thus, the Christ child is characterized as triumphant over his pagan adversaries, one of whom, Typhon, is “huge ending in snaky twine.” Typhon, the hundred-headed serpent and a leader of the Titans, rebelled against Zeus, who cast a thunderbolt against him. After his downfall he was incarcerated under Mount Aetna and tormented by the active volcano. Such myths were typically related to the Hebraic-Christian tradition in numerous ways: in illustrated Renaissance dictionaries and encyclopedias, editions of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and other lexicons known to Milton . Indeed, early biographers report that Milton himself was planning a similar compilation and interpretation of myths, though this work was never completed. Traditionally, Typhon, his revolt against Zeus, and his subsequent punishment are analogues of Satan’s rivalry of the godhead, of his downfall thereafter, and of his everlasting torment in the fires of Hell. Thus, the triumph in the Nativity poem looks backward to the War in Heaven while anticipating the final conquest over Satan foretold in the Apocalypse. The appearance of Typhon as a multiheaded serpent is further correlated by Renaissance commentators with the biblical figure of Leviathan, the dragonlike monster associated with Satan in interpretations of the Hebraic and Christian scriptures. At the same time, the Christ child is likened to the infant Hercules, who overcame the serpent that attacked him in his cradle. The foregoing examples typify how Milton’s erudition and literary imagination enabled him to pursue and synthesize a wide range of mythological and biblical allusions.”
Illustrated Renaissance lexicons, along with manuals of painting, which guided artists and authors in the use and significance of visual details, may be employed to interpret other allegorical figures in the Nativity poem. Thus, at the birth of the Savior, the poem recounts how “meek-eyed Peace” descends, “crowned with Olive green,” moved by “Turtle wing,” and “waving wide her myrtle wand.” Such visual details suggest the peace and harmony between the godhead and humankind when the dove returned with the olive branch after the Deluge and when the Holy Spirit, figured as a dove, descended at the baptism of the Lord.”
A dominant feature of the Nativity poem is the frequent reference to pagan gods, many of whom are included in the epic catalogue in book 1 of Paradise Lost (1667). One such figure is Osiris, whose shrine in the Nativity poem is described: “with Timbrel’d Anthems dark / the sable-stoled Sorcerers bear his worshipt Ark.” This description suggests a funeral procession, thereby dramatizing the causal relationship between the birth of Christ and the death of the pagan gods. Additionally, the phrase “worshipt Ark” calls attention to the ark of the Covenant, associated with the tablets of law from the Old Dispensation. Christ, however, rewrites the law in the hearts of humankind, a process to which Milton’s poem alludes. The Chosen People of the Old Dispensation thus anticipate the faithful Christian community centered on Jesus. The poem presents the first such community when the holy family, shepherds, angels, and narrator unite in their adoration of the Christ child. The narrator endeavors to join his voice to the chorus of angels so that his sacred song and devotional lyrics are harmonized with theirs. He also informs us of the imminent arrival of the Magi, who will enlarge the community of worshipers and chorus of praise. Characteristically, the poem highlights unity and harmony between humankind and the godhead, earth and Heaven, the Old and New Dispensations.”
What also emerges from the Nativity poem is an overriding awareness of Christian history, which is both linear and cyclical. As time unfolded, Old Testament events were fulfilled in Christ’s temporal ministry. Thereafter, the faithful community looks toward the Second Coming. Along this linear disposition of time there are recurrent foreshadowings and cyclical enactments of triumphs over God’s adversaries. Like the Apocalypse, the Nativity poem foresees that the ultimate defeat of Satan, having been prefigured in numerous ways, will be one of the climactic events of Christian or providential history.”
Despite its early date of composition, the Nativity poem foreshadows many features of Milton’s major works: the allusions to mythology and their assimilation to the Hebraic-Christian tradition, the conflict between the godhead and numerous adversaries, the emphasis on voluntary humiliation as a form of Christian heroism, the paramount importance of the redemptive ministry of the Son, and the Christian view of history.”
Probably intended as a companion piece to the Nativity poem, “The Passion” was written at Easter in 1630. Only eight stanzas in rime royal were composed, presumably as the induction. Appended to the unfinished work is a note indicating that the author found the subject “to be above the years he had, when he wrote it, and nothing satisfied with what was begun, left it unfinished.” The eight stanzas clarify Milton’s unfulfilled intent: to dramatize more fully the humiliation of the Son, “sovereign Priest” who “Poor fleshly Tabernacle entered.”
“On Shakespeare,” Milton’s first published poem, was composed in 1630 and printed in the Second Folio (1632) of Shakespeare’s plays, where it was included with other eulogies and commendatory verses. Milton’s poem, a sixteen-line epigram in heroic couplets, was included perhaps because of the intercession of his friend and eventual collaborator Henry Lawes, a musician and composer, who wrote the music for Milton’s Comus (1637) and probably for the songs of “Arcades” in Milton’s 1645 Poems. Milton celebrates his friend’s musical talent in Sonnet XIII. Milton’s poem echoes a prevalent opinion evident in other commendatory verses—that Shakespeare, the untutored genius with only a grammar-school education, was a natural poet whose “easy numbers flow” in contrast to “slow-endeavoring art.” Perhaps the implied contrast is between the spontaneity of Shakespeare and the more deliberate and learned composition of Ben Jonson . The foregoing contrast is explicit in “ L’Allegro ,” where Shakespeare’s plays, the products of “fancy’s child” who composes his “native Wood-notes wild,” are contrasted with Jonson’s “learned Sock.” The reference to Jonson calls attention to the sock or low shoe worn by actors during comedy, as well as to the learned imitation of classical dramaturgy practiced by Jonson, who had a university education. Ironically, Jonson’s commendatory poem on Shakespeare, included in the First Folio (1623) and republished in the folios thereafter, is the most renowned of the lot. It cites the excellence and popularity of Shakespeare as a dramatist despite his “small Latin, and less Greek,” an allusion, no doubt, to his lack of education beyond grammar school. More to the point, Jonson used the metonymy of the sock to appraise Shakespearean comedy as nonpareil: “when thy socks were on / Leave thee alone.” Therefore, Milton may have appropriated but adapted the allusion in order to contrast the learned and spontaneous playwrights, respectively Jonson and Shakespeare.”
Central to the poem is Milton’s recognition that an erected monument, possibly even the Stratford burial site with its bust of Shakespeare, is unsuitable to memorialize the playwright’s unique genius. Ultimately, Milton argues that Shakespeare alone can and does create a “livelong Monument”: his readers transfixed by wonder and awe. So long as his works are read, his readers will be immobilized when confronting his transcendent genius. To be sure, the inadequacy of stone or marble monuments to perpetuate one’s memory is one major theme in Shakespeare’s sonnets; a complementary theme is the permanence of literary art despite the mutability and upheaval in the human condition. Milton integrates both themes from Shakespeare’s sonnets into his poem, perhaps to emphasize that the unique achievement of Shakespeare must be memorialized by the words and ideas of none other than the master poet and dramatist himself. Despite his admiration for Shakespeare, Milton in his prose and poetry explicitly referred to the playwright only three times: in Shakespeare “ L’Allegro ,” and Eikonoklastes. Despite the paucity of explicit reference, commentators have, nonetheless, sought to identify verbal parallels between the works of Shakespeare and Milton . Though such parallels or apparent echoes abound, they are inadequate to establish source or influence. Virtually identical similarities may be adduced between the works of Milton and the writings of other Elizabethans. It seems unlikely that Milton , having prepared himself to be an author of religious and biblical poetry, relied heavily on Shakespeare, whose dramatic works are vastly different in conception and subject matter.”
Two of the most amusing poems of the Cambridge years were written about Thomas Hobson, the coachman who drove the circuit between London and Cambridge from 1564 until shortly before his death on 1 January 1631. Several of Milton’s fellow students also wrote witty verses. In Milton’s first poem, “On the University Carrier,” Death is personified; his attempts to claim Hobson have been thwarted in various ways. Hobson, for instance, is described as a “shifter,” one who has dodged Death. In effect, his perpetual motion made him an evasive adversary until he was forced to discontinue his trips because of the plague; then Death “got him down.” The allusion is to a wrestling match, Hobson having been overthrown. Death is personified, in turn, as a chamberlain, who perceives Hobson as having completed a day’s journey. He escorts the coachman to a sleeping room, then takes away the light. The second poem, “Another on the Same,” is more witty as it elaborates a series of paradoxes. Thus, “an engine moved with wheel and weight” refers at once to Hobson’s coach—the means of his livelihood—and to a timepiece. The circuit of the coachman is likened to movement around the face of a timepiece, motion being equated with time. The assertion that “too much breathing put him out of breath” refers to the interruption of his travel caused by the plague. While idle, in other words, he himself took ill and died. Furthermore, the poem likens his former travel to the waxing and waning of the moon, a reciprocal course of coming and going. These playful poems that treat the topic of death may be contrasted with Milton’s lamentations, such as his funeral tributes, “Elegia secunda” (Elegy II) and “Elegia tertia” (Elegy III), and the later renowned pastoral elegies: “ Lycidas ,” which memorializes Edward King, and “Epitaphium Damonis” (Damon’s Epitaph), which mourns the loss of Charles Diodati.”
Probably in 1631, toward the end of his stay at Cambridge, Milton composed “ L’Allegro “ and “ Il Penseroso ,” companion poems. They may have been intended as poetic versions or parodies of the prolusions, the academic exercises at Cambridge that sometimes involved oppositional thinking. Clearcut examples include Milton’s Prolusion I (“Whether Day or Night Is the More Excellent”) and Prolusion VII (“Learning Makes Men Happier than Does Ignorance”). The correspondences and contrasts between “L’Allegro” and “Il Penseroso”—in themes, images, structures, and even sounds—are innumerable. Essentially, Milton compares and contrasts two impulses in human nature: the active and contemplative, the social and solitary, the mirthful and melancholic, the cheerful and meditative, the erotic and Platonic. Some commentators have identified Milton with the personality type of “Il Penseroso” and Diodati with that of “L’Allegro.” Though the poems anatomize each personality type and corresponding life-style apart from the other, the overall effect may be to foster the outlook that a binary unit, which achieves a wholesome interaction of opposites, is to be preferred. While it is difficult to assess the autobiographical significance of the companion poems or to develop a serious outlook when Milton himself may have composed them playfully, “L’Allegro” and “Il Penseroso” graphically demonstrate the dialectic that distinguishes much of Milton’s poetry, particularly the dialogues and debates between different characters in various works, including the Lady and Comus in Comus, the younger and elder brothers in the same work, Satan and Abdiel in Paradise Lost, Adam and Eve, Samson and his visitors, and the Christ and the tempter in the wilderness of Paradise Regained (1671).”
Having spent seven years at Cambridge, Milton entered into studious leisure at his parents’ home in Hammersmith (1632-1635) and then at Horton (1635-1638). Perhaps he was caring for his parents in their old age because his sister and brother were unable to do so. Anne had become a widow in 1631 and had two young children. Probably in 1632 she married Thomas Agar, a widower who had one young child. Milton’s younger brother, Christopher, was a student at Christ’s College. The situation with his parents may explain why Milton , after Cambridge, did not accept or seek a preferment in the church. Although he may still have intended to become a minister, it seems likely that the prevailing influence of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, who established and enforced ecclesiastical and religious regulations, deeply affected Milton’s outlook. The most concise but cryptic explanation for his eventual rejection of the ministry as a career is provided by Milton himself, who in one of his prose treatises, The Reason of Church-governement (1642), comments that he was “church-outed.” An undated letter to an unidentified friend, a document surviving in manuscript in the Trinity College Library at Cambridge, sheds further light on Milton’s view of the ministry as a career. Some commentators speculate that Thomas Young is the addressee. Another influential factor in Milton’s decision may have been his long-standing inclination to become a poet, evident in poems written in his Cambridge years and published in the 1645 edition. One of the most self-conscious, though ambiguous, statements concerning Milton’s sense of vocation is Sonnet VII (“How soon hath time”). Unfortunately, it cannot be accurately dated, though 1631-1632 seems likely. In the poem he refers to the rapid passing of time toward his “three and twentieth year.” His “hastening days fly on with full career,” though the direction of movement, toward the ministry or poetry, goes unidentified. In any case, he contends that his process of development toward “inward ripeness” continues under the all-seeing eye of Providence.”
Milton’s course of study in his leisure is outlined in Prolusion VII, which was influenced by Francis Bacon’s Advancement of Learning (1605). History, poetry, and philosophy (which included natural science) are celebrated as important to individual growth and to civic service. Milton’s Of Education (1644), an eight-page pamphlet written in the early 1640s, elaborates on many of the ideas in Prolusion VII and cites specific authors to be read. Autobiographical statements in various forms emerge from Milton’s period of private study, which enabled him to supplement extensively his education at Cambridge and to read numerous authors of different eras and various cultures. In a 23 November 1637 letter to Charles Diodati, Milton indicated the progress of his study, particularly in the field of classical and medieval history, involving the Greeks, Italians, Franks, and Germans. At this time, moreover, Milton kept two important records of his reading and writing. The “Trinity Manuscript” or “Cambridge Manuscript,” so called because it is kept in the Library of Trinity College, Cambridge, includes works such as “Arcades,” Comus, the English odes, “ Lycidas ,” “At a Solemn Music,” and other later, but short, poems. Also in the manuscript are sketchy plans and brief outlines of dramas, some of which were eventually transformed and assimilated to Paradise Lost. For some of the poems, the “Trinity Manuscript” includes various drafts and states of revision. The second record kept during this period is the commonplace book (now in the British Library), which lists topics under the threefold Aristotelian framework of ethics, economics, and political life, topics that aroused Milton’s interest and that were later incorporated into his prose works. The entries include direct quotations or summaries, with sources cited, so that one learns not simply what books Milton read but also what editions he used.”
Two important works that Milton wrote during the years of studious leisure include A Maske Presented at Ludlow Castle and “Lycidas.” The masque was first performed on 29 September 1634, as a formal entertainment to celebrate the installation of John Egerton, Earl of Bridgewater, as lord president of Wales. The performance was held in the Great Hall of Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, close to the border of Wales. The composer of the music was Lawes, also the music tutor of the Egerton children. The three children—Alice (fifteen), John (eleven), and Thomas (nine)—enacted the parts of the Lady, the elder brother, and the younger brother. Lawes himself was the Attendant Spirit, named Thyrsis. Other characters include Comus, a tempter, by whose name the masque has been more commonly known, at least since the eighteenth century, and Sabrina, a nymph of the Severn River. Because the earl of Bridgewater had taken up his viceregal position without his family having accompanied him, a reunion was planned. To honor the earl of Bridgewater and to use the occasion of family reunion so that his children could act, sing, and dance under his approving eye are other purposes of the masque.”
While Comus may be examined in relation to masques of the same era, most notably the collaborations of Jonson and Inigo Jones, the remoteness of Ludlow prevented Milton and Lawes from mounting the sort of spectacle with elaborate scenery, complicated machinery, and astounding special effects that Jones and Jonson produced. Nor were trained dancers and singers transported from London. Nevertheless, Comus does have scenery, chiefly for its allegorical significance; singing, especially by individuals, such as the Lady, Sabrina, and Thyrsis; and dancing, both the riotous antimasque of Comus and his revelers and the concluding song and dance of triumph featuring the three children and others referred to as “Country-Dancers,” all under the direction of Lawes in his role as the Attendant Spirit. The three major settings of the masque are the “wild Wood” at the outset, actually a location indoors decorated with some foliage (more imaginatively depicted by vivid language); the palace of Comus, in which the tables are “spread with all dainties”; and the outdoors, near the lord president’s castle and within view of the town of Ludlow. These elements of spectacle are incorporated into a plot severely limited by the circumstances of the celebration and by the fact that only six notable players, three of them children of the earl of Bridgewater, participated.”
Within these limitations Milton wrote a masque—actually, it is more a dramatic entertainment—that develops the theme of temperance and its manifestation in chastity. The theme evolves against the three major settings and by reference to the character of the Lady. From the outset of the masque, the Lady is separated from her two brothers in the “wild Wood,” which suggests the mazes and snares that confuse and entrap unwary humankind. Allegorically, the topography signifies the vulnerability of humankind to misdirection, the result of having pursued intemperate appetites rather than the dictates of right reason, or the consequence of having been deceived by an evil character who professes “friendly ends,” the phrase used by Comus in his plans to entrap the Lady. Misled by Comus, who appears to be a “gentle Shepherd” and innocent villager, the Lady travels to his “stately Palace set out with all manner of deliciousness,” where she, while “set in an enchanted chair,” resists the offer to drink from the tempter’s cup. Thereafter, she sits “in stony fetters fixed and motionless” though continuing to denounce the tempter and his blandishments. Despite her immobility, she affirms the “freedom of my mind.” Her brothers “rush in with Swords drawn,” so that Comus is put to flight; and Sabrina, “a Virgin pure” and “Goddess” of the Severn River, sprinkles drops of water on the breast of the Lady to undo the spell of the enchanter. When liberated, the Lady and her brothers “triumph in victorious dance / Over sensual folly and Intemperance.”
The suspense, adventure, and dramatic rescue enhance the conflict between the tempter and his prospective victim. Typically, Milton uses classical analogues to cast light on the situation. The Lady is likened to the goddess of chastity, Diana, who frowned at suggestions of lasciviousness and whose role as huntress made her a formidable adversary, one whose virtue was militant, not passive. The Lady is also likened to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, on whose shield is pictured one of the Gorgons, whose look would turn one to stone. By analogy, the Lady’s disapproving glance casts dread into lustful men. The classical analogues of the enchanter are best explained by his parentage, Bacchus and Circe. His father is the god of wine and revelry; his mother is the sorceress who turned Ulysses’ mariners into swine when they imbibed the drink that she proffered. In fact, the journey of Ulysses and the temptations encountered by him and his men provide a context in which to understand the travel of the Lady through adversity, her endeavor to withstand temptation, and the reunion that she anticipates.”
These classical analogues and others like them call attention to a moral philosophy that contrasts the lower and higher natures of humankind. Degradation or sublimation, respective inclinations toward vice or virtue, are the opposite impulses adumbrated in the masque. Accordingly, Comus’s followers, having yielded to the vice of intemperance, are degraded so that they appear “headed like sundry sorts of wild Beasts.” They were imbruted when, “through fond intemperate thirst,” they drank from Comus’s cup. Their “foul disfigurement” is a defacement of the “express resemblance of the gods” in the human countenance. With his charming rod in the one hand and the glass containing the drink in the other, Comus is indeed akin to his mother, Circe. Like her, he has attracted a rout of followers, whose antimasque revelry, both in song and dance, suggests a Bacchanal, the sensualistic frenzy associated with his father. Before, during, and after her encounter with Comus, the Lady has a “virtuous mind,” and she is accompanied by “a strong siding champion Conscience,” enabling her to see “pure-eyed Faith,” “white-handed Hope,” and the “unblemished form of Chastity.” In this series of three virtues chastity is substituted for charity, which typically appears along with faith and hope. Milton therefore suggests that chastity and charity are interrelated. Chastity is a form of self-love, not vanity but a wholesome sense of self-worth that enables one to value the spirit over the flesh and to affirm the primacy of one’s higher nature. When viewed from this perspective, chastity is the necessary prerequisite to one’s love of God, not to mention one’s neighbor.”
The moral philosophy of Comus reflects the imprint of Neoplatonism. In the Renaissance, particularly between 1450 and 1600, the works of Plato were reinterpreted and the central ideas emphasized. Beginning in Italy at the Platonic Academy of Florence, Renaissance Neoplatonism eventually spread throughout the Continent and entered the intellectual climate of England. The Renaissance version of Platonism synthesized the ideas of Plato and Plotinus with elements of ancient mysticism, all of which were assimilated, in turn, to Christianity. The fundamental tenet of Renaissance Neoplatonism asserted by Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499), one of the foremost intellectuals of the Florentine Academy, is that “the soul is always miserable in its mortal body.” The soul, having descended from the realm of light, strives to return homeward. While on earth, the soul is immersed in the darkness of the human condition and imprisoned in the human body. In effect, the soul and the body are in a state of tension, the one thriving at the other’s expense. When the appetites are denied virtue prevails, and the soul is enriched. When, on the other hand, the appetites of the flesh are indulged, vice predominates, and the soul suffers. The term psychomachia, which means “soul struggle,” designates the inner conflict that one experiences as virtue and vice contend for dominance. The foregoing paradigm is typical of certain Renaissance paintings of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Several works of Perugino and Andrea Mantegna, having been influenced by Neoplatonic philosophy, depict the contention between ratio and libido, or reason and desire. These paintings show classical gods and goddesses whose allegorical significance was established. Venus and Cupid embody desire and its attendant vices; Diana and Minerva, to whom the Lady of Comus is likened, signify reason and its accompanying virtues.”
Another tradition that may have contributed to Comus is the morality drama of the late Middle Ages, which uses allegorical characters to present the conflict between the virtues and vices. Furthermore, Edmund Spenser’s allegorical treatment of temperance and chastity in The Faerie Queene (1590, 1596) is pertinent to an understanding of Milton’s work. After all, Milton in Areopagitica refers to the “sage and serious poet Spenser,” whom he calls “a better teacher than Scotus and Aquinas, describing true temperance under the person of Guyon.” Much as Sir Guyon’s temperance in book 2 of Spenser’s epic anticipates the Lady’s virtue in Comus, so too Britomart, the female knight in book 3, by her chastity foreshadows the Lady’s heroism. While the depiction of the natural setting in Comus, such as the maze of woods in which the Lady is lost, resembles at times the topography in The Faerie Queene, both English and Continental pastoral dramas of the Renaissance also provide analogues, including John Fletcher ‘s Faithful Shepherdess (1610) and Torquato Tasso’s Aminta (1573).”
Within the dynamic conflict between virtues and vices, the role of reason, particularly in maintaining one’s inner liberty, is crucial. If right reason, or recta ratio, enables one to see the light of virtue, then the Lady has a rational and imaginative vision of the Platonic ideals of faith, hope, and chastity, for which she is the earthly embodiment. But when reason is misled by the appetites, it is no longer effective. Upstart appetites gain control of a person in whom the legitimate predominance of reason has been subverted. Such a person in whom right reason no longer functions is enslaved by vice. Inward servitude having been permitted, enslavement by an external captor becomes a sign of one’s loss of self-government. The congruence of inner and outer thralldom is emphasized by Milton in various works, ranging from The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates (1649), an antimonarchical tract in which he argues that “bad men” are “all naturally servile,” to Paradise Lost, where in book 12 the archangel Michael explains to Adam that Nimrod has tyrannized others under the sufferance of God, who permits “outward freedom” to be enthralled as a sign and consequence that one is enslaved by “inordinate desires” and “upstart Passions,” which create a condition of effeminacy. Thus, Neoplatonism may be combined with moral philosophy and Christian theology in order to contrast the rational or virtuous freedom of the Lady in Comus with the enslaved state of the enchanter’s followers. Renaissance faculty psychology is also involved because it highlights the interaction of sensory perception, the appetites or passions, reason, and the will.”
Milton himself may be used as a commentator on the contest between virtue and vice in Comus. His private exposition of Christian theology, De Doctrina Christiana (The Christian Doctrine), which was discovered in the nineteenth century and published in 1825, includes a section in which he defines and classifies virtues and vices, then cites scriptural passages, called proof-texts, to substantiate his views. Temperance is “the virtue which prescribes bounds to the desire of bodily gratification.” Under it are “comprehended sobriety and chastity, modesty and decency.” Chastity “consists in temperance as regards the unlawful lusts of the flesh.” Opposed to chastity is effeminacy, which licenses the appetites and promotes sensual indulgence. De Doctrina Christiana may also be used to distinguish the two kinds of temptation at work in Comus: evil and good. In De Doctrina Christiana Milton explains that a temptation is evil “in respect of him who is tempted.” Having yielded to temptation, one suffers the evil effects, enslavement to upstart passions and at times external thralldom, precisely what befall the enchanter’s victims in Comus. A good temptation, on the other hand, is directed at the righteous “for the purpose of exercising or manifesting their faith or patience,” a definition that aptly pertains to the Lady in Comus. Biblical examples, particularly Abraham and Job, are cited in De Doctrina Christiana. The results of good temptation are described as “happy issue,” an assertion supported by a biblical proof-text, James 1:12: “Blessed is the man that endureth temptation; for when he is tried, he shall receive the crown of life.” In Comus, phrases such as “happy trial” and “crown of deathless praise” are succinct references to the good temptation undergone by the Lady and the heavenly reward for her Christian heroism.”
When the rich and diverse contexts surrounding Comus are thus recognized, Milton’s composition becomes more meaningful. Seemingly minor details, including references to birds, fit into the overall design. Snares are mentioned, such as “lime-twigs,” which result from the application of a glutinous substance that prevents a bird from flying away. A bird thus trapped signifies a foolish person enslaved to his or her passions. The virtuous Lady, on the other hand, is described by her elder brother in another way: “She plumes her feathers, and lets grow her wings.” Her freedom to elude Comus’s temptations is signified by her readiness to fly. Flight also connotes her sublimated and rarefied ascent from the human condition. Other verbal images are auditory but at times may involve actual music. Comus and his followers when performing the antimasque revelry create “barbarous dissonance,” whereas verbal imagery suggests that the Lady’s “Saintly chastity” causes “Angels” to communicate with her: “in clear dream and solemn vision” she learns “of things that no gross ear can hear.”
The characterization of the Lady as an exemplar of temperance and chastity and the definition of her Christian heroism acquire focus in two debates, one between the two brothers, the other between the Lady and Comus. The younger brother stresses the pathos of his sister’s situation: she is helplessly and hopelessly lost in the woods and vulnerable to threats from beasts and mankind alike. The elder brother counters his younger brother’s anxieties, arguing that their “sister is not defenceless left” but armed with “a hidden strength,” chastity. In his unfolding exposition of the strength afforded by chastity, the elder brother alludes to Neoplatonism, moral philosophy, Christian theology, faculty psychology, and the other contexts in which the Lady’s defense against the wiles of Comus is more clearly understood.”
In the Lady’s debate with the enchanter the theoretical exposition of the elder brother is translated into action. The debate, reminiscent of Milton’s prolusions at Cambridge, pits the sophistry of Comus against the Lady’s enlightened reasoning, which is informed by her commitment to virtue, specifically temperance and chastity. Comus’s palace, with “all manner of deliciousness” and “Tables spread with all dainties,” is intended to arouse the Lady’s appetites. The intricacies of the debate are manifold, but the essence of Comus’s argument is simply stated: that appetites are naturally licit and innocent when gratified. Having exhibited “all the pleasures” in his palace, Comus alleges that such plenitude or bounty was provided by Nature for the use and consumption of humankind—in particular, to “sate the curious taste.” The Lady, on the other hand, perceives that overindulgence or even exquisite indulgence is unnatural. To pursue one’s appetites without rational self-control is to degrade human nature. Such rebuttal is accompanied by the Lady’s external rejection of the “treasonous offer” of the cup, which signifies licensed passions that would overthrow the predominance of reason. As the debate intensifies, Comus resorts to a form of sophistry in which he reasons by analogy, likening the Lady’s beauty to a coin or comparing her to a “neglected rose.” Much as coins are to be used, so also the Lady’s beauty should be put into circulation. A rose is to be admired, and the Lady likewise is to be appreciated. A corollary of Comus’s argument is that the Lady’s beauty, comparable to a rose, is ephemeral, an allusion to a prevalent theme—”carpe diem,” or seize the day—in seventeenth-century poetry. Comus strives to engender a sense of urgency in the Lady so that she will respond affirmatively and immediately to his overture.”
While Comus’s sophistical arguments and the Lady’s compelling counterarguments are more subtle than the foregoing account suggests, the upshot is that the Lady’s virtue, right reason, and wariness enable her to affirm her “well-governed and wise appetite” while she refutes and debunks the “false rules pranked in reason’s garb” and “dear Wit and gay Rhetoric” of her would-be seducer. The Lady’s “freedom” of mind is manifested while she is physically restrained in the enchanted seat, where she remains immobilized even after her brothers enter with drawn swords to disperse Comus and his followers. When Sabrina, the nymph who is invoked by the Attendant Spirit, emerges from the Severn River and sprinkles drops on the breast of the Lady, the Attendant Spirit’s comment—”Heaven lends us grace”—interprets Sabrina’s presence and gesture as divine assistance, which may be explained theologically. In De Doctrina Christiana Milton comments that natural virtue is elevated to supernatural status only with an infusion of grace from above. Such, indeed, may be the case with the Lady, whose heroism is rewarded by divine approval and whose joyous reunion with her father at the end of the masque anticipates the relationship of the sanctified soul and the Lord in the heavenly hereafter.”
In Areopagitica Milton comments that he “cannot praise a fugitive and cloistered virtue, unexercised and unbreathed, that never sallies out and sees her adversary.” Rather, he extols virtue that has undergone “trial ... by what is contrary,” then triumphed. In line with this view, Comus, a theatrical presentation in the Marches or border region between England and Wales, may advance the Lady as an exemplar of the virtue and moral rectitude, not to mention civility, that the lord president seeks to establish in his jurisdiction. As the seat of both the council and the court of the Marches, Ludlow Castle was the central location from which administrative and judicial policy and decisions were issued. Accordingly, the corruptions among the people in the border region—drunkenness, gambling, sexual immorality, witchcraft, and occultism—may suggest the sociopolitical context in which Milton’s masque was composed and the relation of the work to the local populace.”
Despite the early date of composition, Comus is a sophisticated foreshadowing of Milton’s later poetry. The contention between virtue and vice is reenacted in “Lycidas,” Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, and Paradise Regained. Though each poem presents the archetypal conflict somewhat differently, long expositions and debates, or certainly meditations, are crucial in all the works, especially the later ones.”
The second important work written during Milton’s studious leisure is “ Lycidas ,” a pastoral elegy commemorating Edward King, a fellow student of Milton’s at Christ’s College, Cambridge, who died on 10 August 1637 when a vessel on which he was traveling capsized in the Irish Sea. King, like Milton , was a poet who intended to enter the ministry. Milton’s poem was included in a collection of thirty-five obsequies, Justa Edouardo King (1638), mostly in Latin but some in Greek and English. Justa refers to justments or the due ceremonies and rites for the dead. By writing a pastoral elegy that is heavily allegorical, Milton taps into an inveterate tradition of lament, one that dates back at least to the third century B.C., when poets in Greek Sicily, like Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus, presumably initiated the genre. From the pre-Christian era through the Renaissance in Italy, France, and England, pastoral elegies were written by notable authors, including Virgil, Petrarch, Mantuan, Baldassare Castiglione, Pierre de Ronsard, and Spenser. Of the works by these poets, the fifth and tenth eclogues of Virgil’s Bucolics and Spenser’s Shepheardes Calender (1579) were exceptionally influential. As the literary tradition of the pastoral elegy unfolded, certain conventions were established, creating a sense of artificiality that amuses or antagonizes, rather than edifies, some readers, including Samuel Johnson in the eighteenth century. Some of the major conventions include the lament by a shepherd for the death of a fellow shepherd, the invocation of the muse, a procession of mourners, flower symbolism, satire against certain abuses or corruptions in society and its institutions, a statement of belief in immortality, and the attribution of human emotions to Nature, which, in effect, also mourns the loss of the shepherd.”
Through the use of such conventions Milton recounts his association with Edward King at Cambridge, likening himself and his friend to fellow shepherds together from early morning, through the afternoon, and into nightfall. Because of their friendship Milton , through the narrator, expresses an urgency, if not compulsion, to memorialize his friend. As a simple shepherd, he will fashion a garland of foliage and flowers to be placed at the site of burial. Allegorically, the garland signifies the flowers of rhetoric woven together into a pastoral elegy. The narrator also expresses modesty and humility concerning his talent to memorialize his friend: “with forced fingers rude” he may “shatter” the leaves of the foliage that he strives to fashion into a garland. The allegorical significance relates to the daunting challenge of crafting a pastoral elegy. The three kinds of foliage cited by the narrator—laurels, myrtles, and ivy—are evergreens, which symbolically affirm life after death. At the same time they are associated with different mythological divinities. The laurel crown of poetry was awarded by Apollo; the love of Venus was reflected in the myrtle; and Bacchus wore a garland of ivy. Signified thereby is the poetry written at Cambridge by King and Milton in imitation of classical Greek and Latin literature. Later in “Lycidas,” when the narrator mentions the “oaten flute” and its “glad sound,” to which “rough satyrs danced” while accompanied by “fauns with cloven heel,” he is alluding to the erotic and festive poetry, perhaps Ovidian, that King and Milton composed as students under the supervision of a tutor at Cambridge.”
Despite the conventions that Milton assimilates to his poem and the artificiality of his pose as a naive shepherd, “Lycidas” is still an outlet for earnest sentiment. The poem is Milton’s endeavor to write a pastoral elegy in order to test his talent, to manifest his proficiency in a genre associated with the most reputable poets, and to signal his readiness to progress to other challenges. But King, who died before he fulfilled his potential as a poet and priest, no doubt reminds Milton of his own mortality. By implication in “Lycidas” and explicitly in other poems, Milton registered concern that his unfolding career as a poet might be interrupted not only by early death but by the failure to progress in his development as a poet or because of failed inspiration. Milton , in short, may be alluding to himself when he complains that Lycidas, who equipped himself “to scorn delights, and live laborious days,” died without having achieved the fame as a poet to which he aspired. While the allusions recount King’s abstemiousness and strict regimen of study, they glance, as well, at Milton’s similar habits. But lament turns to bitterness, so that the narrator in the allegorical framework of the poem impugns God’s justice: “the blind Fury with th’aborred shears” cuts “the thin spun life.” Some critics suggest that Milton erred in his reference to the Furies, whose keen sight—they are by no means “blind”—enables them to serve as agents of divine vengeance. From this vantage point, Milton should have alluded to the Fates—Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos—who spin the thread of life. In particular, Atropos, whose name means “inflexible,” is equipped with shears to cut the thread. The more likely explanation is that Milton conflates the Furies and Fates into one allusion in order to heighten the narrator’s bitterness, which emerges from his misperception that vengeance was misdirected and, therefore, that justice is blind. The narrator’s bitterness is also aroused because he associates the death of Lycidas with that of Orpheus, who was dismembered by the Thracian women. The mythological figure’s remains scattered on the Hebrus River and in the Aegean Sea suggest the route of King’s travel from the River Deva to the Irish Sea.”
Appropriately, Apollo, the classical patron of poetry who intervenes to rectify the shortsightedness of the narrator, distinguishes “broad rumor” from “fame.” Although Lycidas did not achieve earthly renown through “broad rumor,” he was elevated much earlier into the hereafter, where an eternal reward, “fame,” will be conferred on him under the eyes of the godhead. Apollo’s speech, which some critics perceive as a digression, is integral to the poem because it affirms that the godhead is both clear-sighted and just.”
Balancing Apollo’s commentary on the role and reward of the poet is Saint Peter’s perspective on the priesthood. For Milton, King was the ideal clergyman, whose pastoral ministry would have been exemplary. King’s premature death at first appears to be another example of injustice, for the corrupt clergymen and bishops of the Church of England continue to prosper. Against the clergy and most notably the bishops, Milton issues a virtual diatribe, a poetic counterpart of his enraged denunciation of them in the antiprelatical or antiepiscopal tracts. The speaker of the diatribe is “the pilot of the Galilean lake,” Saint Peter. As the principal Apostle, Saint Peter is perceived, in effect, as the first bishop. As the one who wields the keys—”The golden opes, the iron shuts amain,” images that signify, respectively, access to Heaven and incarceration in Hell—Saint Peter functions as the sharp-sighted judge. Inveighing against the bishops as “Blind Mouths!,” Saint Peter thus likens them to tapeworms that infest the sheep. Later they are equated with infectious diseases tainting the flock. Saint Peter’s stern tone anticipates his eventual use of the “two-handed engine at the door,” an instrument of divine justice that he wields in judgment against reprobates. His message, in sum, is that corrupt clergy and bishops may thrive in the present life, but justice will be exacted in the hereafter. In his prose treatises Milton uses the odious term “hireling,” derived from the Gospel of John, to describe a venal clergyman. In John’s Gospel the “hireling” is contrasted with the Good Shepherd, whose faithful service would have been reembodied in King.”
Across the panorama of the poem, the narrator undergoes a change in outlook. At first sorrowful and depressed, he projects his mood onto the landscape. The flowers that he enumerates in a virtual catalogue manifest the human emotion of grief, as well as the ritualistic appearance and gestures of mourning—”Cowslips ... hang the pensive head”; “every flower ... sad embroidery wears”; and “Daffadillies fill their cups with tears.” Later in the poem, when the narrator comes to recognize that Lycidas has been elevated into the heavenly hereafter, his outlook and tone change noticeably. Whereas Lycidas’s “drooping head” has sunk into the waves, the narrator likens this downfall to the sunset, followed by sunrise. Lycidas, like the sun, “tricks his beams” and “flames in the forehead of the morning sky,” enhanced by the sheen of the water. Both fire and water bring about baptismal cleansing so that Lycidas enters Heaven, where he “hears the unexpressive nuptial song,” the intimate union of the sanctified soul and the Lord celebrated in the Book of Revelation. Like the resurrected Christ, Lycidas is finally triumphant and glorified. At the end of the poem most of the biblical allusions that celebrate joy after sorrow are from Revelation.”
Despite its brevity (only 193 lines), “ Lycidas “ anticipates a recurrent theme in Milton’s major poems: the justification of God’s ways to humankind. In Paradise Lost, for example, the downfall of Adam and Eve and the introduction of sin and death into the human condition are interpreted from a providential perspective. From this vantage point, the deity is not vengeful but merciful, not misguided or blind but instrumental in humankind’s ultimate triumph. In Samson Agonistes (1671), the downfall of the protagonist results in bitterness toward God. Samson, having been chosen by God to liberate the Israelites from the tyranny of the Philistines, is himself enslaved. By the end of the dramatic poem Samson and others who have impugned God’s justice come to recognize that the “unsearchable dispose” or providential intent is very different from what they had alleged.”
As a capstone to his education at Cambridge and to the years of private study, the twenty-nine-year-old Milton, with an attendant, traveled abroad for fifteen months in 1638-1639, to France but chiefly through Italy. The principal source of information about the grand tour is Milton’s Defensio Secunda. Despite his vocal opposition to Roman Catholicism, while he was abroad Milton fraternized with numerous Catholics, including Lucas Holstenius, the Vatican librarian; presumably Cardinal Francesco Barberini; and Giovanni Battista Manso, the patron of both Giambattista Marini and Tasso. In his poem “Mansus,” Milton , who recognizes the importance of patrons such as Manso, yearns for such friendship and support in order to write a poem about King Arthur. Milton did not compose an Arthuriad, probably because his concept of heroism was very different by the time that he wrote Paradise Lost. In Italy, moreover, Milton viewed numerous works of art that depicted biblical episodes central to his later works—Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, and Paradise Regained. The relationship of the works of art to the visual imagery in the major poems is the subject of much critical commentary. During his stay in Florence, Milton visited the aged and blind Galileo. Having suffered through the Inquisition, Galileo was under virtual house arrest in his later years. In Paradise Lost Milton refers to Galileo’s telescope and to the view of the heavens that it provided. As a victim of persecution, Galileo became for Milton a symbol of the adversity that a spokesperson of the truth underwent. Also in Florence, Milton read his Italian poetry at the academies, where he elicited the plaudits of the humanists for his command of their language. Milton corresponded with his Florentine friends, such as Carlo Dati, after his return to England. Years later, Milton continued to remember his friends at the Florentine academies with intense affection. Before his departure from Italy he shipped home numerous books, including musical compositions by Claudio Monteverdi. From Venice, Milton headed to Geneva. In Italy or in Switzerland, he learned of the deaths of his sister, Anne, and of Charles Diodati. To memorialize Diodati, Milton wrote a pastoral elegy, “Epitaphium Damonis,” in Latin.
After his return to England, Milton assisted in the education and upbringing of Anne’s children, John and Edward Phillips. He also became embroiled in the controversies against the Church of England and the growing absolutism of Charles I. The freedom of conscience and civil liberty that he advocated in his prose tracts were pursued at a personal level in the divorce tracts. Milton married three times; none of the relationships ended in divorce. His first wife, Mary Powell, left Milton shortly after their marriage in summer 1642 in order to return to her parents. This separation evidently motivated the composition of The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643). By 1645 they were reunited. Mary died in 1652. His second wife, Katherine Woodcock, whom he married on 12 November 1656, died in 1658. Milton’s third wife, Elizabeth Minshull, whom he married on 24 February 1663, survived him. In addition to his marital woes Milton faced the deaths of his infant son, John, in 1651 and of an infant daughter in 1658. In the same period Milton’s relationship with his three daughters by Mary Powell—Anne, Mary, and Deborah, all of whom survived their father—was troublesome, especially because they did not inherit their father’s interest in and aptitude for learning. Further adversity resulted from his failing eyesight and total blindness by 1652. These adversities, along with Milton’s involvement in politics, may have delayed the composition of the major poetry, and Paradise Lost, Samson Agonistes, and Paradise Regained surely bear the imprint of Milton’s personal experience and public service.
Milton’s major work, Paradise Lost , was first published in ten books in 1667, then slightly revised and restructured as twelve books for the second edition in 1674, which also includes prose arguments or summaries at the outset of each book. Paradise Lost, almost eleven thousand lines long, was initially conceived as a drama to have been titled “Adam Unparadised,” but after further deliberation Milton wrote a biblical epic that strives to “assert Eternal Providence, / And justify the ways of God to men.” To vindicate Providence, Milton attempts to make its workings understandable to humankind. In accordance with epic conventions, he begins his work in medias res. An overview of major characters and their involvement in the action are the prerequisites to further critical analysis. In the first two books the aftermath of the War in Heaven is viewed, with Satan and his defeated legions of angels having been cast down into Hell, a place of incarceration where they are tormented by a tumultuous lake of liquid fire. By the end of the first book they have been revived by Satan, under whose leadership they regroup in order to pursue their war against God either by force or guile. Most of the second book depicts the convocation of the fallen angels in Hell. Rather than continue their warfare directly against God and his loyal angels, they choose to reconnoiter on the earth, the dwelling place of God’s newly created human beings, whose lesser nature would make them more vulnerable to onslaught or subversion. Satan, who volunteers to scout the earth and its inhabitants, departs through the gates of Hell, which are guarded by two figures, Sin and Death. He travels through Chaos, alights on the convex exterior of the universe, then descends through an opening therein to travel to earth. While Satan is traveling, God the Father and the Son, enthroned in Heaven at the outset of book 3, oversee the progress of their adversary. Foreknowing that Adam and Eve will suffer downfall, the Father and the Son discuss the conflicting claims of Justice and Mercy. The Son volunteers to become incarnate, then to undergo the further humiliation of death in order to satisfy divine justice. At the same time his self-sacrifice on behalf of humankind is a consummate act of mercy, one by which his merits through imputation will make salvation possible.
In a soliloquy at the beginning of book 4, a vestige of the dramatic origin of the epic, Satan, having arrived in the Garden of Eden, laments his downfall from Heaven and his hypocritical role in instilling false hope in his followers, whom he misleads into believing that they will ultimately triumph against God. Satan’s first view of Eden and of Adam and Eve arouses his admiration, which is rapidly replaced by his malice and hate for the creator and his creatures. Overhearing the conversation of Adam and Eve, Satan learns that God has forbidden them to partake of the fruit of a certain tree in the Garden of Eden. By the end of book 4 Satan has entered the innermost bower of Adam and Eve while they are asleep. In the shape of a toad at Eve’s ear, he influences her dream. When detected by the good angels entrusted with the security of Eden, Satan reacquires his angelic form, confronts Gabriel, but departs Eden. At the outset of book 5 Eve recounts her dream to Adam. In the dream Satan, who appears as a good angel, leads Eve to the interdicted tree, partakes of the fruit, and invites her to do likewise. Adam counsels Eve that her conduct in the dream is blameless because she was not alert or rational. He concludes his admonition by urging Eve to avoid such conduct when she is awake. Also in book 5 God sends the angel Raphael to visit Adam and Eve, chiefly to forewarn them that Satan is plotting their downfall. Midway through book 5, in response to a question from Adam, Raphael gives an account of the events that led to the War in Heaven.
Book 6 describes the war in detail as the rival armies of good and evil angels clash. Personal combat between Satan and certain good angels, such as Michael, is colorfully rendered, but a virtual stalemate between the armies is the occasion for intervention by the godhead. God the Father empowers the Son to drive the evil angels from Heaven. Mounting his chariot, the Son, armed with thunderbolts, accelerates toward the evil angels and discharges his weaponry. To avoid the onrushing chariot and the wrathful Son, the evil angels, in effect, leap from the precipice of Heaven and plummet into Hell. Also in response to a question from Adam, Raphael provides an account of the seven days of Creation, highlighting the role of the Son, who is empowered by the Father to perform the acts by which the cosmos comes into being, including the earth and its various creatures, most notably humankind. This account takes up all of book 7. In book 8 Adam recalls his first moments of consciousness after creation, his meeting with Eve, and their marriage under God’s direction. Using that account as a frame of reference, Raphael admonishes Adam to maintain a relationship with Eve in which reason, not passion, prevails.
Book 9 dramatizes the downfall of Eve, then Adam. Working apart from Adam, Eve is approached by Satan, who had inhabited the form of a serpent. Led by him to the interdicted tree, Eve yields to the blandishments of the serpent and partakes of the fruit, and the serpent rapidly departs. Eve, having rejoined Adam, gives him some fruit. His emotional state affects his power of reasoning, so that he eats the fruit. Book 10 begins with the Son having descended from Heaven to judge Adam and Eve. Though they are expelled from Eden, his merciful judgment, their contrition, and the onset of grace will eventually convert sinfulness to regeneration. Satan, who retraces his earthward journey to return to Hell, encounters Sin and Death, who had followed him. He urges them to travel to the earth and to prey on humankind. For the last two books of the epic, Adam, having been escorted to a mountaintop by the angel Michael, has a vision of the future. Narrated by Michael, the vision presents biblical history of the Old and New Testaments, with emphasis on the redemptive ministry of Jesus and the availability of salvation to humankind. The vision concludes with a glimpse of the general conflagration at Doomsday, the Final Judgment, and the separation of the saved from the damned in the hereafter.
Milton’s work differs significantly from the epic traditon of Greco-Roman antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. Earlier epics developed ideas of heroism that celebrate martial valor, intense passions such as wrath or revenge, and cunning resourcefulness. If indeed such traits of epic heroism are retained by Milton , they tend to be embodied in Satan. In other words, Milton uses the epic form simultaneously as a critique of an earlier tradition of heroism and as a means of advancing a new idea of Christian heroism for which the crucial virtues are faith, patience, and fortitude. Undoubtedly, this idea of heroism was influenced by Milton’s personal experience with adversity and by his public service as a polemicist and an opponent of Stuart absolutism and the episcopacy of the Church of England. Under attack from his adversaries, Milton , from his perspective, was the advocate of a righteous cause that failed. The triumph of his adversaries, his solitude after the Restoration, and his struggle to understand how and why, under the sufferance of Providence, evil seemingly prevailed—and other questions—presumably impelled him to modify an earlier plan to compose a British epic on Arthur. At the same time, however, one may acknowledge that some traditional traits of epic heroism are embodied in characters such as the Son. Surely wrath and martial effectiveness are manifested in the War in Heaven, but Milton more emphatically affirms that the greater triumph of the Son is his voluntary humiliation on behalf of humankind. Accordingly, faith, patience, and fortitude are the crucial virtues to be exercised by the Son in his redemptive ministry, which he has agreed to undertake because of meekness, filial obedience, and boundless love for humankind.
Heroism is simply one of a series of epic conventions used but adapted by Milton . Another is the invocation of the muse, who is not precisely identified—whether the Holy Spirit or, more generally, the spirit of the godhead. At times, Milton alludes to the classical muse of epic poetry, Urania. The intent, however, is to identify her not as the source of inspiration but as a symbol or imperfect type of the Hebraic-Christian muse through which the divine word was communicated to prophets or embodied in Jesus for dissemination to humankind. A third convention is intrusion by supernatural beings, action that takes place throughout the epic—when, for example, the godhead sends Raphael to forewarn Adam and Eve of the dangers of Satan or when the Son descends to Eden as the judge of humankind after the fall. In Adam’s vision of the future, the Son’s role as the Incarnate Christ and the unfolding of his redemptive ministry are highlights. The descent into the underworld, a fourth epic convention, occurs in Paradise Lost as early as book 1, which shows the punishment of the fallen angels in Hell. A fifth convention is the interrelation of love and war. The love of Adam and Eve before and after their expulsion from Eden is central to the epic, but the self-sacrifice of the Son on behalf of fallen humankind is the most magnanimous example of love. Warfare in Paradise Lost is sensational when the good and evil angels clash and as the Son expels Satan and his followers from Heaven; but the epic develops another form of struggle, humankind’s experience of temptation after Satan conceals his malice behind external friendliness and solicitude. Finally, the style of Paradise Lost, including the extended similes and catalogues, is a sixth epic convention. In book 1 Satan, who had plummeted from Heaven into Hell, is prone on the fiery lake. Across several lines, the narrator compares Satan’s enormous size with that of the Titans. Later in book 1, as the fallen angels file from the burning lake, an epic catalogue is used to cite their names as false gods whose idols were worshiped in infidel cultures, particularly in Asia Minor. Both the similes and catalogues, when examined closely, provide insight into other, but related, aspects of style, such as the Latinate diction and periodic sentence structure, which when accommodated to blank verse create a majestic rhythm, a sense of grandeur, and at times sublimity.
While contributing to Milton’s grand design, each book in the epic has distinctive features. The first book begins with an invocation, and three other books—three, seven, and nine—have similar openings. In all four instances the narrator invokes divine assistance or inspiration to begin or continue his epic poem. Furthermore, the invocations enable the narrator periodically to characterize himself, to announce his aspirations, and to assess his progress in composing the epic. Thus, in the invocation of book 1, the narrator pleads for inspiration comparable to what Moses experienced in his relationship with the Lord. Topography is mentioned, including Horeb and Sinai, the mountains, respectively, where God announced his presence to Moses and gave him the Commandments, and Siloa’s brook, where Christ healed the blind man. By implication the narrator interrelates Hebraic-Christian landscapes with the haunts of the classical muses. With his vision thus illuminated, he hopes to describe events of biblical history. At the same time, he invites comparison with epic writers of classical antiquity; but his work, which treats the higher truth of biblical history and interpretation, will supersede theirs.
After the invocation to book 1, the narrator’s description of Hell incorporates accounts of the volcanic fury of Mt. Aetna, where the leaders of the Titans, Typhon and Briareos, were incarcerated when cast down by Jove’s thunderbolts. Coupled with this analogue and others, including classical descriptions of Hades, is Milton’s adaptation of details from Dante’s Inferno. When, for example, the narrator describes how the fires of Hell inflict pain but do not provide light, the allusion is to Dante. And the lines “Hope never comes / That comes to all,” which describe the plight of the fallen angels, paraphrase the inscription on the gate to Hell in the Inferno: “Abandon all hope, ye who enter here.” In reviving the fallen angels, Satan, upright and with wings outstretched over the fiery lake, resembles the dove brooding on the abyss (book 1) or the Son (book 7) standing above Chaos to utter the words that result in Creation. Satan also parodically resembles Moses, who led his followers away from the threat of destruction. His speeches instill false hope in the angels, who are gulled by his public posturing, but the narrator alerts the reader to Satan’s duplicity. Privately the archfiend is in a state of despair. By the end of book 1 the fallen angels assemble in a palace called Pandemonium to deliberate on a course of action: to pursue the war against God by force or guile. As this convocation begins, Satan is not only the ruler in the underworld but its virtual deity.
Book 2 opens with Satan enthroned above the other angels. The first of the speakers to address the topic of ongoing warfare with God is Moloch, the warrior angel who urges his cohorts to ascend heavenward and to use black fire and thunder as weaponry. Despite his call to action, he recognizes that force will not prevail against God. To disrupt Heaven and to threaten its security, though not military triumphs, are nevertheless vengeful. The second speaker, Belial, debunks the argument of Moloch. Not to endure one’s lot in defeat is a sign of cowardice rather than courage, Belial argues. Moreover, he says, the fiery deluge is not as tumultuous as it was immediately after the expulsion of the fallen angels from Heaven, thus suggesting that God’s ire is remitting. Under these circumstances the fallen angels may become more acclimated to the underworld. By diverting attention from the stated premise of ongoing war against God and by urging the fallen angels to orient themselves toward their present habitat, Belial lays the groundwork for the third speaker, Mammon, who advocates the creation of a kingdom in Hell. To redirect the debate to its fundamental premise of ongoing war, Beelzebub, Satan’s chief lieutenant, intervenes. He mocks the fallen angels, particularly Belial and Mammon, by calling them “Princes of Hell” to indicate where their attention and energies are presently focused. At the same time he knows implicitly that if Moloch, the warrior angel, despairs of military success, then no one will be eager to pursue open war against God. Accordingly, he revives Satan’s earlier suggestion—that the earth and its newly created inhabitants should be assessed and then overcome by force or seduced by guile. After the hazards of travel to the newly created world are described, the fallen angels become silent until Satan agrees to undertake the mission. Seemingly voluntary, the decision is virtually constrained. Recognizing that an antagonistic relationship with God is essential to the pretense that the fallen angels are hopeful rivals, not vanquished foes, Satan revives the possibility of victory on the middle ground of earth. Having agreed to scout the earth, he emphasizes that he will travel alone. By preventing others emboldened by his lead from accompanying him, he reserves the glory for himself.
At the gates of Hell, Satan accosts Death, a wraithlike figure who challenges him. Nearby is Sin, a beautiful woman above the waist but a serpent below, tipped with a deadly sting. Her transmogrification prefigures Satan’s own degradation. As an allegorical figure, she synthesizes Homer’s Circe and Spenser’s Error. In her appearance and interactions with Satan and Death, she dramatizes the scriptural account that uses an image of monstrous birth to describe how Sin and Death emerge from lustful urges, which include both pride and concupiscence (James 1:15). Having recalled that she emerged from Satan’s forehead, an allusion to the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus, Sin incestuously consorts with the archfiend, a relationship that begets Death. What results is an infernal trinity, in which the offspring, Death, even copulates with his mother, Sin. The remainder of the book follows Satan’s journey through Chaos.
The invocation of book 2, like that of book 1, is a petition by the narrator for light or illumination, so that he may report events that occur in Heaven. Having ascended from Hell, through Chaos, to the convex exterior of the universe, the blind narrator likens himself to a bird, particularly the nightingale, which sings in the midst of darkness. He mentions many of the same topographic features—the mountains and waters associated with classical and Hebraic-Christian inspiration—cited in the invocation of book 1. Building on the earlier invocation, in which he courts comparison with earlier epic authors, he acknowledges a desire for fame comparable to that of Homer and Thamyris, a blind Thracian poet. Like the blind prophets of classical antiquity, Tiresias and Phineus, the narrator affirms that his physical affliction is offset by the gift of inward illumination. As he reports the dialogue in Heaven, the narrator develops structural and thematic contrasts between books 2 and 3, not to mention differences between Satan and the Son. The infernal consult, which aimed to bring about the downfall of humankind, is balanced against the celestial dialogue, which outlines the plan of redemption. If Satan is impelled by capital sins, such as hate, envy, revenge, and vainglory, then the opposite virtues are the Son’s meekness, obedience, love, and humility. The interaction of Justice and Mercy is also a central topic of the dialogue, which is interrupted by the Father’s question: Who among the angels “will be mortal” to redeem humankind? The question and the silence that ensues are contrasted structurally and thematically with book 2, when Satan, amid the hushed fallen angels, agrees to risk the threats of Chaos to travel to earth. As the Son volunteers to die on behalf of humankind the dialogue resumes, with emphasis on the imputation of his merits and the theology of atonement. In the meantime Satan, having traveled to the opening in the cosmos, alongside the point at which the world is connected to Heaven by a golden chain, descends. He flies first to the sun, where, by posing as a lesser angel, he acquires directions from Uriel to earth, where he arrives at the top of Mount Niphates in Eden.
Book 4 begins with a soliloquy by Satan, the speech that was to have opened the drama “Adam Unparadised.” At this point the so-called heroic nature of Satan as the archetypal rebel is offset by his candid awareness that downfall was caused by his own ambition; that his repentance is prevented by vainglory, which impelled him to boast to the fallen angels that they would overcome God; and that reconciliation with God, if possible, would lead inevitably to another downfall because of ambition. Satan thus becomes the prototype of the obdurate sinner. As he takes on the shapes of various animals—a cormorant, other predators, a toad, and finally a serpent—Satan’s degradation contrasts markedly with his earlier vainglorious posturing. Satan observes the resemblance of Adam and Eve to their maker, assesses the complementary relationship of male and female, learns of the divine prohibition concerning the Tree of Knowledge, and overhears Eve’s account of her creation, especially her attraction to her self-image reflected from the surface of a pool of water. Led from her reflected image by the voice of God, Eve encountered Adam, to whom she is wed. From the first, she acknowledges her hierarchical relationship with Adam, wherein “beauty is excelled by manly grace.” Appellations that she applies to him, such as “Author” and “Disposer,” reaffirm the relationship, along with her other assessments: “God is thy law, thou mine.” Satan, who becomes a toad at Eve’s ear, influences her dream while she and Adam are asleep in their bower of roses. He regains his shape as an angel when accosted by Gabriel and the other attendants in Eden.
When Eve at the outset of book 5 recounts her dream, it is evident that Satan has appealed to her potential for vainglory, the narcissistic inclinations toward self-love, which when magnified disproportionately would elevate her above Adam. Thus, the appellations that the tempter applies to Eve during her dream—”Angelic Eve” and “Goddess”—may engender in her the psychology of self-love and pride, precisely what brought about Satan’s downfall. Much as Satan challenged his hierarchical relationship with God, so too Eve is tempted to question her subordination to Adam. Dividing Book 5 in half is the visit by Raphael, who descends to earth at the behest of God to forewarn Adam and Eve of the wiles of the tempter. In his account of hierarchy, which is a discourse on the great chain of being, Raphael emphasizes how “by gradual scale sublimed” humankind, through continuing obedience, will ascend heavenward. His discourse, an apt commentary on Eve’s dream, particularly the temptation to disobedience, prepares for the account of Satan’s rebelliousness, the occasion for the emergence of Sin from the archfiend. The context for Satan’s rebellion is the so-called begetting of the Son, which does not refer to his origin as such but to his newly designated status as “Head” of the angels or to his first appearance in the form and nature of an angel. The latter possibility is the more likely because Satan’s hate and envy would emerge from his subordination to a being like himself, at least in external appearance. Having summoned numerous angels to a location in the northern region of Heaven, ostensibly to celebrate the begetting of the Son, Satan argues that God’s action is an affront to the dignity of the angels. One of the angels, Abdiel, refutes Satan’s argument. He contends that the manifestation of the Son as an angel is not a humiliation of the godhead but an exaltation of the angelic nature. Such an argument anticipates the eventual Incarnation of the Son, who unites his deific nature with the human nature. In both instances, with the Son having manifested himself in lesser natures, the solicitude of the deity for angels and humankind alike is paramount.
Approximately one-third of the angels rally behind Satan, who leads them in the three-day War in Heaven, the subject of book 6. Typical epic encounters include the personal combat of Satan and Abdiel, then Satan and Michael, not to mention the large-scale clashes of angels. On the dawn of the third day, a situation that prefigures the glorification of Christ at the Resurrection, the Son as the agent of the Father’s wrath speeds in his chariot toward the evil angels. His onrush, accompanied by lightning and a whirlwind, suggests the chariot of Ezekiel. Having described the wrathful godhead in the War in Heaven, Raphael balances this terrifying example by presenting a picture of the benevolent and bountiful deity in book 7. First, however, the narrator in the invocation alludes to his work’s half-finished state, expressing anxiety that his inspiration may be interrupted or that his personal safety is threatened. Through the narrator, Milton perhaps alludes to his own situation at the Restoration, his intercessors presumably having negotiated an agreement that spared his life, so long as he observed certain conditions. After the invocation, book 7 includes an account of Creation, which elaborates on the catalogues of Genesis to highlight how the plenitude, continuity, and gradation are manifestations of God’s benevolence. Most significant is the interactive relationship of male and female principles in Nature—for example, the sun’s rays against the earth—a model for the union of Adam and Eve.
Across books 5-7, the begetting of the Son, Satan’s sinfulness, the War in Heaven, and Creation are episodes that build toward a pointed commentary by Raphael on the relationship of Adam and Eve. Adam, however, first gives an account of his creation, the first moments of his consciousness, and his marriage to Eve. Whereas Eve was led shortly after her creation by the voice, not by the visible presence, of the Lord, Adam at his creation first experiences the warmth of sunlight, falls asleep, and in a dream is led by a “shape Divine” toward the summit of the Garden of Eden. When he awakens, he views among the trees his “Guide” or “Presence Divine,” who speaks to Adam: “Whom thou sought’st, I am.” This disclosure is comparable to what the Lord from the bush on Horeb uttered to Moses. Adam’s recognition of “single imperfection” moves him to request a helpmate, who is created from his side. At once in his relationship with Eve, Adam experiences “passion” and “commotion strange,” which cause Raphael to warn him not to abandon rational control. Discoursing on the hierarchy of reason and passion, the distinction between love and lust, and the scale or ladder along which humankind is to ascend heavenward, Raphael, by conflating Neoplatonic philosophy and traditional Christian theology, amplifies the context in which to understand obedience and disobedience.
The invocation of book 9 recapitulates Milton’s earlier plans to write an epic on “hitherto the only argument / Heroic deemed”: the exploits of “fabled knights,” like Arthur. As an index of his departure from epic tradition, Milton , through his narrator, argues that “the better fortitude / Of patience and heroic martyrdom,” previously “Unsung,” will distinguish his work. After the invocation the narrator describes how Satan, who enters as a serpent, utters a soliloquy (“O foul descent!”) that laments his degradation, an outlook that contrasts with the Son’s willingness to inhabit the nature and form of humankind. Because he is implementing a strategy of deception, Satan conceals his true nature behind a disguise; whereas the Son by becoming human intends to reveal and implement the divine plan of salvation.
In her first speech to Adam in book 9 Eve proposes that she and Adam “divide” their “labors” because their mutual affection has diverted them from their duties of gardening. Adam counters her proposal by affirming that he and Eve when together are “More wise, more watchful, stronger.” Despite the cogency of his argument, Adam twice urges Eve to “Go,” thereby forfeiting his responsibility to issue a lawful command for Eve to remain with him, a command that she would be free to obey or disobey. The topic of a lawful command recurs at the end of book 9, when during their mutual recrimination Eve faults Adam: “why didst not thou, the head, / Command me absolutely not to go ... ?” Agreeing to reunite with Adam by noon, Eve works alone among the roses, propping up the flowers with myrtle bands. Ironically, the very duty of gardening that she performs should bring to mind her relationship with Adam, from whom she is separated. Satan is pleased to have found her alone. Eve’s beauty momentarily awes Satan, who is rendered “stupidly good,” a phrase suggesting that he is disarmed of his enmity. In his approach to Eve the serpent/tempter seeks to re-create in her the psychology of transcendence, which he had engendered during her dream. Feigning submissiveness and awe because of her beauty, Satan deceives Eve into believing that his power of reasoning derives from the forbidden fruit. Characterizing God as a “Threatener” and “Forbidder” who denies the fruit to others to prevent them from becoming his equals, the serpent/tempter capitalizes on Eve’s unwariness, influences her perception, and thus affects her will. Having engorged the forbidden fruit, Eve for a time contemplates possible superiority over Adam; but fearful that death may overtake her and that Adam would be “wedded to another Eve,” she resolves to share the fruit with him. As he was awaiting the return of Eve, Adam had fashioned a garland of roses. Astonished to learn at their reunion that Eve violated the divine prohibition, he drops the wreath, which withers. This dramatic event foreshadows the process of dying that will be introduced into the human condition as a consequence of the downfall of Adam and Eve. Whereas Eve was deceived by the tempter, Adam is “overcome with Female charm,” a reaction whereby judgment gives way to passion, precisely the concern that Raphael had expressed at the end of book 8. Not unlike the phantasmic experience of Eve’s dream, Adam and Eve undergo illusory ascent, then sudden decline. With the onset of concupiscence, moreover, their lustful relationship contrasts with the previous expression of love in their innermost bower. Besieged by turbulent passions, Adam and Eve become involved in mutual recrimination, each faulting the other for their downfall, both denying culpability.
At the outset of book 10 the Father sends the Son to earth as “the mild Judge and Intercessor both,” as one who will temper justice with mercy. Despite the retribution meted out to Adam and Eve, the greater emphasis of the Son’s ministry is to encourage an awareness of sinfulness and the onset of sorrow and contrition as steps in the process of regeneration. Satan, who has begun to return to Hell, where with the fallen angels he plans to revel in his triumph over humankind, meets Sin and Death, who traveled earthward in the wake of his earlier journey. He urges them to prey on Adam and Eve and all their progeny. Though Adam and Eve have continued their mutual recrimination, each eventually acknowledges responsibility for sinfulness. Despite their evident frailties and imperfections, Adam and Eve are neither victims nor victors. Having been created “Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall,” they are endowed with the capability to withstand temptation; but when they suffer downfall, they cannot undergo regeneration without divine assistance. Their predicament, which typifies the human condition, provides the context for the Christian heroism of Milton’s epic. When measured in relation to humankind, heroism is manifested as one resists temptation in the manner of the Lady of Comus or when one, having yielded to temptation, experiences regeneration.
Books 11 and 12 include Adam’s dream vision of the future, which is narrated by the angel Michael, who presents a panoramic overview of the implementation of the divine will in human history. As Adam views Hebraic and Christian biblical history, the prophets and patriarchs of the Old Testament, such as Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and Joshua, are presented as “shadowy Types,” prefiguring the Son’s incarnate ministry of redemption. Interspersed with descriptions of the Old Testament types are accounts of evildoers, such as the tyrant Nimrod. The cyclical interaction of goodness and evil, which continues under the sufferance of Providence, is the context wherein obedience and heroism are manifested, for which Christ is the perfect exemplar. Indeed, the Pauline view that Jesus was obedient even unto death on the cross is the Christian heroism at the center of Adam’s dream vision. In addition to its typological emphasis, the vision of human history in books 11 and 12 is also apocalyptic, with focus on the Second Coming, when the final victory over Satan will occur and the union of sanctified souls with the godhead will take place in the heavenly hereafter. More immediate for Adam and Eve, however, is their expulsion from Eden and the change in their perception of Paradise—from an external garden to “A paradise within,” which results from the indwelling of the godhead in one’s heart.
Because of its length, complexity, and consummate artistry, Paradise Lost is deemed Milton’s magnum opus, the great work for which he had prepared himself since youth and toward which, in his view, the godhead guided him. As a biblical epic, Paradise Lost is an interpretation of Scripture: a selection of biblical events, their design and integration according to dominant spiritual themes—downfall and regeneration, the presentation of a Christ-centered view of human history, a virtual dramatization of the phenomenon of temptation to create psychological verisimilitude, and final affirmation about personal triumph over adversity and ultimate victory over evil. Imprinted in the epic are Milton’s personal and political circumstances: his blindness, on the one hand, and the dissolution of the Protectorate, on the other. Thus, Milton may have identified himself with intrepid spokespersons who advocated a righteous cause despite the adversity confronting them. Such figures include Abdiel, whose “testimony of Truth” is the single refutation of Satan and the fallen angels in book 5, and Noah, the “one just man” who, while surrounded by reprobates, continues to advocate the cause of goodness. Though evil may be ascendant for a time, including the Stuart monarchy at the Restoration, goodness in the cyclical panorama of history will have its spokesperson and, ultimately, will prevail.
After Paradise Lost Milton’s two major works are Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes, published in the same volume in 1671. As such, the works may be perceived as complementary, if not companion, pieces on the topic of temptation. The Christ of Paradise Regained successfully withstands the temptations of Satan in the desert, whereas Samson, who yields to temptation earlier in his career, undergoes the cycle of spiritual regeneration. Like the Lady in Comus, the Christ of Paradise Regained heroically refutes his tempter. Like Adam in Paradise Lost, Samson manifests his heroism in recovery after downfall.
If Paradise Lost treats “man’s disobedience,” then Paradise Regained presents Christ, whose human nature is emphasized, as the example of consummate obedience. The work, approximately one-fifth the length of Paradise Lost, is divided into four books. In the first book, after the Holy Spirit is invoked, Satan overhears the announcement by the Father, “the great proclaimer,” that Christ is his “beloved Son.” At Satan’s command a convocation of the fallen angels is held in “mid air,” after which the tempter travels earthward to use his wiles in order to learn the identity of Christ. His fear is that Christ fulfills the prophecy that “Woman’s seed” will inflict the “fatal wound” on him. Christ enters the desert, where he cogitates on the Old Testament prophecies of his coming, the earlier events of his life, and his role in the divine plan of redemption. After Christ has been in the wilderness for forty days, the tempter, disguised as an old man, accosts him. Urging him to convert stones into bread so that the two of them can alleviate their hunger, Satan is refuted by Christ, who acknowledges that he is being tempted to “distrust” God. In book 2 the absence of Christ troubles especially his mother. Satan in the meantime has convoked the fallen spirits in order to plan a more subtle seduction, which will begin with a temptation of food, then proceed to an appeal to one’s desire for “honor, glory, and popular praise.” Christ, who experiences hunger, dreams of food; when he awakens, he beholds “A table richly spread.” Rejecting the “guiles” of the tempter, Jesus also dismisses materialism and worldly power, symbolized by the scepter: “who reigns within himself, and rules / Passions, Desires, and Fears, is more a King.”
By the third book Satan is focusing on fame and glory, but Christ rejects earthly fame as false, decrying military heroes and extolling spiritual heroism. From a high mountain Christ views ancient kingdoms, over which he could become the ruler by commanding the numberless troops that he also sees. Christ remains unmoved by “ostentation.” Continuing the temptation in book 4, Satan shows Christ the Roman Empire, of which he could become the benevolent sovereign. Jesus, however, notes that “grandeur and majestic show” are transitory, whereas “there shall be no end” to his kingdom. Thereafter Satan presents him with a view of the whole world, a temptation that Jesus rejects outright. Still endeavoring to tempt Jesus with glory, Satan offers him the total learning of Greek antiquity—art, philosophy, and eloquence. By such gifts he would be equipped to rule the world. Christ dismisses Greek learning because his own direct knowledge of the Lord is the higher truth. While Jesus sleeps, Satan strives unsuccessfully to trouble him with dreams and a storm. The climax of the work occurs when Satan, having brought Christ to the pinnacle of the temple of Jerusalem, tells him to stand or to cast himself down so that angels will rescue him. Christ’s rebuke causes the tempter to flee. Angels then minister to Jesus, who by resisting temptation has begun the liberation of humankind from the wiles of the devil to which Adam had succumbed.
Milton follows the order of the temptations outlined in the Gospel of Luke, rather than in Matthew. Despite the focus on the trial in the desert, Milton interrelates this experience of the Son to earlier and later biblical history. Thus, Christ meditates on the events of his childhood and youth but also remembers Old Testament biblical prophecy that anticipates the coming of the Messiah. Furthermore, God the Father announces his intention to “exercise” Christ in the desert, where “he shall first lay down the rudiments / Of his great warfare” in preparation for his conquest over “Sin and Death” at the Crucifixion and Resurrection. At the same time the patience, faith, and fortitude that Christ manifests in the desert perfect the previous exercise of similar virtues by Old Testament precursors, notably Job, who is cited by Christ in one of his refutations of Satan. From this perspective the Book of Job is another biblical source of Milton’s so-called brief epic. Perhaps Milton was also modeling the trials and triumphs of Jesus after Spenser’s account of Sir Guyon in book 2 of The Faerie Queene, where a demonic figure tests the knight with temptations of materialism, worldly power, and glory. Christs Victorie and Triumph in Heaven and Earth (1610) by Giles Fletcher the Younger is another model possibly adapted by Milton.
When one considers the grand scale across which the action of Paradise Lost takes place—in Hell, Chaos, Heaven, the Cosmos, and Earth—Paradise Regained seems both limited and limiting in its outlook. When one recalls the grand events of Paradise Lost—from the War in Heaven to the Creation—what occurs in Paradise Regained appears to be static. Furthermore, the dramatic elements of Paradise Lost, such as motives for action, suspense, and conflict, excite the reader and encourage both intellectual and psychological responses. In Paradise Regained, on the other hand, the tempter is doomed to failure from the start because Christ does not heed the temptations at all but rejects them outright, with little or no internal conflict. Probably Milton is depending on the contrast between Christ’s wholesale dismissal of the temptations and the more engaged response by the reader, who is perhaps allured by the attractiveness of earthly glory. In his exercise of perfect obedience and of virtues such as faith, patience, and fortitude, Christ is the exemplar after whom we model our own conduct.
Though Paradise Regained lacks the grand and spectacular events of Milton’s longer epic, its purpose is vastly different. Milton’s plan is to provide a context for philosophical meditation and debate by Christ, who, at the outset of his public ministry, is being equipped for his role as the Savior. As such, Christ meditates on the significance of the two natures, divine and human, united in him. The drama of the brief epic derives in part from the tension in Christ between these two natures and the questions that emerge therefrom—how divine omniscience is balanced against human reasoning, why suffering is the prelude to triumph, and when Providence should rectify the misperceptions of the people, who expect the Messiah to be an earthly conqueror. While it is a foregone conclusion that Satan will not succeed with his wiles, the meditations of Christ and the debates with his adversary enable him to reconcile his two natures, to develop his message to the people, and to prepare for public service as a preacher and exemplar. Related to these perspectives is the tension between the ongoing relationship of Christ with the other divine persons and his disengagement from them after he becomes incarnate. Though the Father and the Spirit manifest themselves at the baptism of the Son in order to affirm his divinity in spite of his humanity, afterward the Son enters the human condition as fully as possible to enact his role as the suffering servant. This role, which becomes evident to him in the wilderness, culminates with his death on the cross.
If suffering, temptation, and heightened self-perception are characteristic of Paradise Regained, they are equally significant in Samson Agonistes, a dramatic poem not intended for stage performance. Using the Book of Judges as his chief source, Milton refocuses the saga of Samson in order to emphasize regeneration after downfall, rather than sensational feats of physical strength. Beginning the work with Samson’s degradation as a prisoner in a common workhouse in Gaza, Milton portrays a psychologically tormented character, confused about his downfall and at times antagonistic toward the godhead. Throughout the work a chorus of Danites from Samson’s tribe both observe his plight and speak with him. Three successive visitors also converse with Samson: Manoa, his father; Dalila, his wife; and Harapha, a Philistine giant. In the course of these three visits Samson acquires gradual, not complete, understanding of himself and of his relationship with the godhead. With the departure of Harapha, the change in Samson is noticeable to the chorus, which praises his psychological resurgence from a state of acute depression and his faith in the higher, though obscure, workings of Providence. The poem concludes with Samson in the theater of Dagon, collapsing its pillars of support so that the falling structure kills more of his adversaries than he has slain cumulatively in the past. He himself is killed in the process.
One of the chief ironies of Milton’s rendition is that Samson, though physically strong, is spiritually weak. After he becomes a captive of the Philistines, a consequence and manifestation of his having yielded to temptation, he gradually undergoes spiritual regeneration, which culminates in his renewed role as God’s faithful champion against the Philistines. Within the framework of temptation and regeneration Milton recasts the concept of heroism, debunking or at least subordinating feats of strength to the heroism of spiritual readiness, the state in which one awaits God’s call to service. In line with this outlook the structure of the work and the developing characterization of Samson are discernible. At the outset Samson is tormented by the irony of his captivity. The would-be liberator is himself enslaved. He questions the prophecy to his parents that they would beget an extraordinary son “Designed for great exploits.” At first Samson laments the contrast between his former, seemingly heroic, status and his present state of captivity and degradation. He and others recall his past feats: slaying a lion, dislodging and transporting the gates of Gaza, and slaughtering vast numbers of Philistines with only the jawbone of an ass.
As the poem progresses Samson’s self-knowledge increases, and he comes to realize that “like a petty God” he “walked about admired of all,” until “swollen with pride into the snare” he fell. This realization, as it gradually develops in Samson, is crucial to his self-knowledge and to the understanding of his relationship with God. Samson and others, such as the chorus and Manoa, have questioned, indeed impugned, Providence, likening God’s justice to the wheel of fortune, which is turned blindly. They allege that God, after having chosen Samson to be his champion, inexplicably rejected him. Samson believes that he is alienated from God. As the poem unfolds it first becomes evident to the reader, rather than to the characters, that God had guided Samson into an encounter with the woman of Timna in order to warn his champion of the dangers of pride. In particular, Samson married the woman of Timna, a Philistine, who cajoled him until he disclosed the secret of a riddle that he had posed to the thirty groomsmen at his wedding. When he yields the secret of the riddle to her, she divulges it to the groomsmen. Despite God’s plan to use this episode as a warning, Samson continues to be blinded by pride so that he falls into the snare of Dalila. Thus, his external blinding by the Philistines aptly signifies Samson’s benighted spiritual state. In Milton’s poem, moreover, Dalila is not simply a concubine, her role in Scripture, but Samson’s wife. This point emphasizes the parallel between the woman of Timna and Dalila, though the essential difference is that Samson violates divine prohibition when he reveals the secret of his strength to Dalila. The marital relationship of Samson and Dalila also enables Milton to suggest contrasts with the conjugal union of Adam and Eve. Whereas Samson rejects Dalila, Adam and Eve pursue their regeneration cooperatively.
After his downfall, therefore, Samson must clarify his perception in order to begin the process of regeneration. By recognizing that pride was the cause of his downfall, Samson becomes contrite. In the course of his trials, which involve both physical affliction and psychological torment, Samson exercises patience, faith, and fortitude until he regains the state of spiritual readiness that will enable him to serve as an instrument of God. Ironically, no one, not even Samson, believes that he will again be called to service by God.
The three visitors Manoa, Dalila, and Harapha function unwittingly—another source of irony—to assist Samson in the process of regeneration. Paternal solicitude impels Manoa to negotiate with the Philistines for his son’s liberation. If their desire for revenge against Samson is satisfied, Manoa believes, the Philistines may release his son. He does not recognize that enslavement by the Philistines is simply a sign of Samson’s inward thralldom to sinful passions. Nor does he recognize that God’s justice, rather than Philistine revenge, is to be satisfied and that Samson’s suffering is both a means of divine retribution and a source of wisdom. Dalila, who seeks by various arguments to elicit Samson’s forgiveness and to persuade him to be reunited with her, is rejected wholesale. In short, a measure of his progress is that Samson, who previously yielded to Dalila, resists her wiles.
Of all three visitors, Dalila is perhaps the most important because of past and present relationships with Samson. In his earlier relationship with Dalila, Samson recalls, he was “unwary” so that her “gins and toils” ensnared him. He likens her to a “bosom snake,” suggesting that she had gained access to, and influence over, his innermost being. Though it has been anticipated by the woman of Timna, Samson calls Dalila’s betrayal of him both “Matrimonial treason” and “wedlock-treachery.” To describe his present rejection of Dalila, Samson resorts to classical allusions. He shuns her “fair enchanted cup” and remains impervious to her “warbling charms,” thereby likening her to Circe and the Sirens, respectively. In his encounter with Dalila, Samson for the first time is gratified, rather than displeased, by the contrast between his past status and his present self. Another way of perceiving Samson’s relationships with Dalila is by reference to Milton’s De Doctrina Christiana. When Samson yielded to Dalila, he experienced evil temptation; as he resists her, he exercises virtue in the course of good temptation. Additionally, the rage that Dalila elicits in Samson carries over to his encounter with Harapha, who expects to see a crestfallen captive. Instead, Samson challenges the Philistine giant, who retreats.
The climax of the poem occurs when Samson, at first unwilling to attend the activities at the theater of Dagon, the Philistine idol, is impelled by “rousing motions” to go there. Initially, Samson feared that he would be publicly humiliated when performing feats of strength to entertain the Philistines; but his faith in the higher, though obscure, plan of Providence is rewarded not simply by the impulsion to attend the Dagonalia but by the inner light. “With inward eyes illuminated,” Samson, who becomes aware of the divine will, exercises his volition in concert with it by collapsing the pillars that support the theater of Dagon. Significantly, Samson’s death is described more as a resurrection, whereby he is likened to the phoenix that emerges from the conflagration at its funeral pyre. Finally, the fame that Samson achieves by his renewed spiritual readiness and service as God’s agent transcends his previous glory from feats of strength and slaughter of the Philistines. After all, he is included among the heroes of faith celebrated in the Epistle to the Hebrews.
Not to be overlooked are the political dimensions of the poem, at times counteracting the more traditional outlook on Samson. The saga of Samson may allegorize the heroic ambitions and failings of the Puritan revolution, and his demise, rather than a sign of heroism, may be the product of self-delusion. Samson Agonistes may also emerge from Milton’s personal and political circumstances—his blindness and his role during the rise and fall of a political movement in Britain toward which providential intent was obscure.
If Milton conceived of his dramatic poem after the manner of Greek tragedy, the resemblance is clearcut. The unities of time, place, and action are observed. The poem begins at dawn and ends at noon on the same day. The single place for the action is the workhouse, where, after the destruction of the Philistines, a messenger gives an account of the catastrophe. The action centers on Samson’s spiritual regeneration, culminating in his heroism. Because of Samson’s death and victory, the poem combines features of classical tragedy and Christian drama of regeneration, for which the saga of Samson is a Hebraic prefiguration. When Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes are juxtaposed in their probable order of composition, the threefold arrangement, a virtual triptych, depicts Old Testament types—Adam and Samson—yielding to temptation, then undergoing regeneration; Christ’s triumph over the tempter is the New Testament antitype at the center.
Milton’s influence in later eras derives from his prose and his poetry. His treatises against various forms of oppression and tyranny have elicited admiration in many quarters and in different eras. In fact, his influence as a political writer was felt in the American, French, and Russian revolutions, when he was cited to justify the opposition to monarchs and absolutists. Among the English Romantics, Milton was extolled as a libertarian and political revolutionary. His refusal to compromise on matters of principle, his blindness, and his punishment after the Restoration have caused many admirers to cite Milton as a model of the spokesperson of truth and of someone who pursues idealism despite adversity.
Milton’s reputation as one of the finest English poets was widespread soon after his death in 1674. While most of the critical attention was directed at Paradise Lost, it is essential to realize that his other works drew extensive commentary. In 1712 Joseph Addison devoted eighteen Spectator papers to Paradise Lost—six general essays and twelve others, one on each book of the epic. At times the outlook on Milton as a poet reflected the biases of the commentators. In the eighteenth century, for example, Tories and Anglicans had little admiration for him, but the Whigs were laudatory. Interestingly, Paradise Lost was cited for its contributions to the teaching of traditional Christianity because most interpreters were inattentive to possible implications in the epic that the Son might be subordinate to the Father. Also at the center of attention in the eighteenth century were the grandeur and sublimity of the poem. By the nineteenth century the critical outlook shifted to technical and stylistic features of the verse; but the Romantic admirers of the figure of Satan in Paradise Lost, including William Blake and Percy Bysshe Shelley , implicitly attacked the traditional theological and philosophical ideas in the work. Through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Milton’s reputation as a poet becomes quite complex. For a time, in fact, Milton fell into disrepute because of T. S. Eliot ‘s adverse comments decrying the artificiality of his verse.
More recently, Paradise Lost, in particular, has been at the center of rich and diverse critical commentary. The theology of the epic, its indebtedness to works of classical antiquity, its adaptation of Scripture and the Genesis tradition, its Christian humanism, its political overtones, and its varied perspectives on gender relations—these and other topics are explored and debated. Even Milton’s reputation as a misogynist has been challenged by feminists, who perceive tension in the Genesis tradition and in Paradise Lost between the orthodox hierarchical relationship of Adam and Eve and their reciprocal or complementary interaction, especially after their downfall and through their regeneration. Such commentary and the controversies that it ignites demonstrate that Milton’s poetry, like his prose, has durability and applicability beyond the era in which it was composed. It is not simply of an age but for all time.
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The musical instrument piccolo means what in Italian? | Milton's Life
MILTON'S LIFE
Read straight through, or use the timeline
to navigate Milton's life...
The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a
Free Commonwealth (1660).
A BIOGRAPHY of John Milton, 1608-1674
BY KATHARINE FLETCHER
I won't lie to you: biographies are often pretty dull, and you might think that the life of a middle-class, well-educated, religious poet born four hundred years ago would be duller than a blunt spoon, but nothing could be further from the truth. Aside from the obvious academic benefit of being able to understand the context of his work, Milton's life is an interesting and inspiring tale - a tale of the frustration and rebellion of a genius.
Beginnings
The story starts on December 9th 1608 (the same decade as the accession of James I, and the first performances of Shakespeare's King Lear and Jonson's Volpone), when our protagonist was born in Bread Street, London , an important street that also housed the Mermaid Tavern which was patronized by many notable literary figures of the time. His father, John Milton senior, was a successful scrivener (a sort of solicitor and money-lender) and respected amateur musician. Despite having been disinherited by his Catholic father for vigorously embracing Protestantism, he was able to provide a very good education for his son, sending him to St. Paul's School and employing a string of private tutors. From a young age our poet showed a strong interest in and talent for academic subjects, particularly languages, and from the age of twelve (presumably having no PlayStation), he regularly stayed up past midnight to study.
University Years
In 1625, at the age of sixteen (actually rather late for the time), Milton started his studies at Christ's College, Cambridge . It seems he was a bit of an outsider. He was nicknamed the 'Lady of Christ's' for his effeminate ways and youthful looks, and was in his turn scornful of the majority of his peers, disparaging their buffoonery and carousing. There is also a sense of frustration at the curriculum, and in a verse letter to his best friend Charles Diodati, Milton wrote of having been suspended over a clash with his tutor. His bombastic (yet playfully tongue-in-cheek) sense of self-worth is attested by his comparison of his suspension to Ovid's exile from eighth century BC Rome.
Christ's College, Cambridge, where Milton studied from 1625-32.
Take an interactive tour of Milton's Christ's
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In poems and exercises written during Milton's time at Cambridge, we see the seeds of poetic ambition germinating, and witness his growing interest in the English language and the service to which it could be put. In this time he wrote a number of notable short poems including 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso'. His poem 'On Shakespeare' was published in the second folio of Shakespeare's plays in 1632, the year he graduated from Cambridge with his MA.
Poetic Apprenticeship
Milton then spent a period of time at his father's home in Hammersmith (and later Horton) in private study - what has now been deemed his poetic apprenticeship. Works of this period include the masque now known as Comus , a courtly entertainment celebrating chastity in the face of temptation, written for an aristocratic family who had recently been involved in a licentious scandal. This period of time may seem uneventful, but it is interesting that while Milton felt he was destined for greatness, he had the maturity to see that he wasn't ready to compose a masterwork just yet, and indeed as well as the self-aggrandizing sections of his writing that are frequently noted, there is a concurrent, more subtle, theme of the piety of waiting for grace.
Towards the end of this period a young fellow at Christ's, Edward King, died in a shipwreck. In 1638 a book of poems composed by members of the college was published. Milton's pastoral elegy, Lycidas , was the most outstanding contribution, and is now regarded as one of the greatest lyric poems in the English language. The genre of elegy has many interesting tensions; its works are prompted by grief and are presented as an emotional outpouring, but often serve as self-conscious apprenticeship pieces for aspiring poets. Milton's complex poem mourns the loss of one so young, but also sees a galvanization of intent for the poet to rise to greatness, spurred on by fear at the example of King, a man cut down in his prime before glory had been achieved. In the middle section of the poem Milton takes the opportunity of contemplating King's piety to level some heavy criticism against the church in the first sally of his long attack against the prelates (or bishops).
In 1638, still unknown in England, Milton embarked on a fifteen-month Grand Tour (a visit to major places in Europe), as many young middle- and upper-class men did after university. He spent most of his time in Italy, and in spite of his anti-Catholic views, happily mingled with the literati and intelligentsia (including Galileo, then under house arrest for heresy, who is mentioned in Paradise Lost). Milton's poems in Latin and Italian won him great respect as a contemporary literary figure, but his return was a sharp comedown from this time of contentment. There was personal grief waiting for him - Charles Diodati had died, prompting the poem Epitaphium Damonis, a beautiful but heart-rending poem of genuine loss. He also returned to the turmoil of a country on the verge of civil war.
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From a biographical point of view, Milton is an interesting subject as, unusually for the time, he wrote a fair amount about his poetic intentions in his poems, prose and notebooks. Around this time we know that he was contemplating subject matter for a great English work. He wrote about the idea of an epic on the legends of King Arthur, and listed nearly a hundred stories from biblical and British history as potential subjects for a drama. However, Milton was also the kind of person who could not just turn his back on civil injustice. He put his own creative ambitions on hold to focus on prose - as he called it, the work of his left hand - devoting himself to the betterment of his country by propagating his unorthodox belief in liberty.
Controversy - Divorce and Free Speech
He first became involved in religious dispute on the Presbyterian side by writing a series of anti-prelatical tracts in 1641-42. As well as being learned and intellectual, they are also filled with clever and amusing rhetoric, satire and invective. His views here are very Puritan and call for the suppression of the Catholic idolatry that he and others felt was increasingly present in the Church of England. At this stage Milton hadn't rejected monarchism, and he believed that the bishops were a threat to England and to the king.
In 1642 Milton married, perhaps unwisely, the seventeen-year-old Mary Powell , a girl from an unintellectual, royalist family. After a few weeks she went to visit her family and didn't return. It has been suggested that the outbreak of the first civil war, which initially went Charles I's way, may have made the Powells indisposed to favour their troublesome reformist son-in-law. These difficulties prompted Milton to write a petition in favour of divorce on the grounds of incompatibility (at the time divorce was only granted on grounds of adultery). Although Milton was motivated by a very high and pure ideal of marriage as an intellectual union, he was publicly attacked on all sides for libertinism. His later pamphlets defending the subject develop his notion of Christian liberty and the idea that the grace of God imbues the good Christian with the reasoning faculties to govern himself without recourse to worldly authority: this was considered a very dangerous and anarchical idea. The divorce saga ultimately resulted in probably the most famous of Milton's prose works. The government's attempt to suppress his ideas prompted the 1644 publication of Areopagitica , a treatise rejecting censorship before publication and arguing for freedom of inquiry (although Milton still reserved the right for governments to censor works after publication if they were immoral or went against Protestantism). Milton believed in the strength of truth and the importance of man being free to choose it.
I cannot praise a fugitive and cloistered virtue, unexercised and unbreathed, that never sallies out and sees her adversary, but slinks out of the race where that immortal garland is to be run for, not without dust and heat.
~Areopagitica (CPW, II.515)
Later in the 1640s, Milton, who was working as a private tutor, became reconciled with his wife and she bore him a number of children. His home life at this time was not particularly content; a number of Mary's family moved in with the Miltons, creating a noisy atmosphere which was not particularly conducive to study or writing. As well as the pamphlets, Milton was also working on a history of Britain , and in 1646 he published a collection of his poetic works to date entitled Poems (this is dated 1645 in the old style).
Frontispiece portrait of Milton and title page to Poems (1645).
BECOMING MITON: explore Milton's 1645 portrait
Republicanism
Two weeks after the execution of Charles I in 1649, Milton committed himself to the Republican side by publishing The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates in support of the regicide. His argument (which runs in direct opposition to Hobbes' Leviathan, to be published in 1651), was that a monarch's power is not absolute, but derived from the people he rules and held in accordance with a social contract. If a monarch breaks this contract by abusing his position, the people have the right to remove him from power. A few months later, Milton was appointed Secretary of Foreign Tongues to the Council of State; it was his job to translate documents and to write defences of the Commonwealth against Royalist attacks.
By the end of 1651, Milton's sight , which had been deteriorating since 1644, failed him completely. He was 43, blind, and with his great work still yet to be written. (Milton comments sadly on his blindness in the opening of Book III of Paradise Lost, and also in the powerful 'Sonnet 19'.) Despite these misfortunes he persevered with his secretarial duties until 1659, and published his last major pamphlet in 1660. It was a brave anti-monarchical protest in the face of the coming Restoration, which also expresses a feeling of despair at seeing his countrymen so eager to run back to servitude. There is a real sense of Milton as a lone but stalwart adherent to a greater truth rebelling against a false authority, much like the character Abdiel as portrayed in Book V of Paradise Lost.
When Charles II assumed control of the country in May 1660, Milton was in serious trouble. A number of Commonwealth leaders were imprisoned or executed, with some choosing to flee abroad for safety. Milton's friends hid him throughout the summer so he escaped immediate arrest, but his books were burnt and in parliament his name was proposed for exclusion from the Act of Pardon to be passed in August. Through the work of friends in high places, Milton wasn't excluded in the end, although he was arrested and held in custody for some months. It is popularly held that the invocation to Book VII of Paradise Lost, which talks of his 'mortal voice, unchanged' in spite of 'evil days' and 'dangers compassed round' (23-27), was written at, or perhaps in memory of, this time.
Later Years and Paradise Lost
William Faithorne's portrait of Milton aged 62, from a drawing made while he was writing Paradise Lost.
Mary Powell died in 1652 and by 1656 Milton had married again , this time more happily. However his wife, Katherine Woodcock, died just two years later; she is the subject of the poignant 'Sonnet 23'. He married for the third time in 1663. Milton did not get on very well with his daughters, who were not academic and resented the schooling their father put them to. They stole from him and sold off portions of his library. Still, there is evidence that Milton was a reasonably sociable and agreeable man, amiably receiving visitors in spite of the pains of blindness and gout.
Milton began work on Paradise Lost at some point in the mid 1650s. It was composed orally by dictation to an amanuensis (or scribe) over the next decade, and was published in 1667. Despite Milton's unfortunate political reputation and the lack of serious interest in his previous poetic efforts, the epic was instantly recognized as a work of outstanding merit. These later years were spent in poetic endeavour. Paradise Lost was revised for the second edition in 1674, an enlarged edition of the Poems was published in 1673, and Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes , probably written in the 1660s, were published in 1671 or 70.
Milton remained in London, with the exception of 1665-66 when he moved with his family to Chalfont St. Giles to escape the plague. This is the only one of Milton's houses which still stands, and it has been turned into a sort of shrine-cum-museum, open to the public. The house he grew up in on Bread Street was destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666.
Milton died aged 65 on the 9th of November 1674, and was buried at St Giles, Cripplegate. He left behind some of the greatest works of the English language, and the memory of a man devoted to moral goodness and to liberty, with the strength to stand firm where others fell.
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In what country could you spend a tugrik? | Mongolia travel guide - Wikitravel
Understand[ edit ]
With only 1.7 people per km², Mongolia has the lowest population density among all independent countries in the world, and it is this vast and majestic emptiness that is the country's enduring appeal, bringing the traveller, as it does, into a close communion with nature and its nomadic inhabitants.
Mongolia is entirely landlocked, between China and Russia .
For several letters, the ISO 9 standard transliteration of Cyrillic is not widely used and there is no consensus either in Mongolia nor in Wikitravel. Specially, the same Cyrillic letter "х" is transliterated "h" or "kh", the letter "ө" is transliterated "ô", "ö", "o" or "u", but Latin "o" is also the transliteration of the Cyrillic "о", and Latin "u" is also the transliteration of Cyrillic "у" and "ү" (the latter should be transliterated "ù" according to ISO 9, but this is rarely done). So, if you can't find a name as you wrote it, try other spellings. See also: Mongolian phrasebook
Climate[ edit ]
Mongolia's nickname is the "Land of Blue Skies," and with good reason: there are said to be about 250 sunny days throughout each year, so you will need good UV protection.
During winter, protect your eyes, and during summer, protect your skin. The weather is bitterly cold during the winter, dropping down to -40º in some parts. With many types of terrain--from desert to verdant mountains--the weather during the summer varies from region to region, but is generally hot. Outside of the Gobi desert, this time of year is marked with many rains in some areas, and it can become quite cool at night.
The ideal Mongolia travel season starts in May and hits its highest peak in July, during the Naadam holiday, and in August when the weather is most favourable for travelling. This is the best time if you like the culture and can bear the crowds of other tourists. It is not a good time if you want to get away from your busy lifestyle because you will experience traffic, busy schedules, waiting in lines, etc.
September is also a very good time to visit, and October is not too late to travel to Mongolia. It is still warm during the days but a bit chilly during the nights. In the autumn, Mongolia is not very crowded, and this is time for late-comers and last-minute, unplanned trips. You will get to sightsee, enjoy the culture, and taste mare's milk, a bitter and at first somewhat unpleasant drink, throughout the country.
For visitors not afraid of cold or fermented mare's milk, travelling to Mongolia from November till the Lunar New Year is still an option. Winter tourism is a developing area of the Mongolian tourism industry.
The most rewarding experience will be visiting the nomads, as this is the time when you will experience their culture first-hand during "Tsagaan Sar" or the traditional (Lunar) New Year celebration.
Travellers will have the opportunity to watch lots of cultural activities: singing, dancing, wrestling, and winter horse racing.
History[ edit ]
History of ancient Mongolia dates back to third century BC when the Xiongnu came to power among many other nomadic tribes.
Due to illiteracy and nomadic lifestyle, little was recorded by Huns of themselves. They first appear in recorded Chinese history as "Barbarians" against whom the walls were built. Those walls later became known as the Great Wall of China.
There have been several Empires in Mongolia after the Hun Nu. For example, the A Tureg Empire around 650AD, with its capital approximately 110km north of Har Horin (Kharkhorum). There was also the Uighur Empire, with its capital Har Bulgas (Khar Bulgas or Xar Bulgas) near Har Horin. The Khitans who controlled North China around 1000AD as the Liao Dynasty had an administrative center (Har Bukh) 120km to the northeast. The Government of Turkey has been promoting some Turkish Empire monuments and there is a museum full of artifacts at the Bilge Khaan site.
The struggle for mere existence and power over other tribes kept going until the time of Genghis Khan. Chinggis Khan, as he is known in Mongolia, came to power and united the warring tribes under the Great Mongol Empire in 1206. He was proclaimed Genghis Khan (Chingis Haan), meaning ruler of all Mongol tribes. The Mongolian Empire was extended all the way to eastern Europe under Genghis Khan and to all of China and Central Asia, among other parts under his sucessors (including his grandson Kublai Khan), eventually becoming the largest continuous empire in history with thirty-three million square kilometers (about thirteen million square miles) of extension. After years of hegemony and exercise of a great connection between Eastern and Western civilizations, the empire suffered a collapse and split into four kingdoms (or Khanates) through Eurasia, each of which lately achieved nearly total independence. The easternmost of these kingdoms was called the Yuan dinasty and included Mongol native land and much of China. After times of dominance over China, the Mongols were driven back to the steppes by the Chinese Ming Dynasty under Emperor Hongwu. They were later conquered by the Manchurian-Chinese Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty.
An independent Mongol nation would only emerge again in 1924 but was not recognised by China until 1945, as the Chinese were forced to grant independence to Outer Mongolia by the Soviet Union, in exchange for Soviet assistance in fighting the Japanese invasion. Thus, the historic region of Mongolia was split into two, with Outer Mongolia becoming the independent nation of Mongolia, while Inner Mongolia remained a province of China. Since that time, Mongolia has had a close relationship with the Soviet Union (and Russia after the breakup of the Soviet Union). Mongolia even replaced its traditional script with the cyrillic alphabet. (The traditional script, however, continues to be used by ethnic Mongols in China). As Inner Mongolia was the more populated area before the partition, to this day the number of ethnic Mongols living in China outnumbers the population of Mongolia.
The Secret History of the Mongols is one of the great recordings of Mongolian history. Every Mongolian reads the book in the modern Mongolian language. This is one of the the oldest books in the Mongolian language. There are vivid similarities with the Bible in literary style, wording and story telling. It is speculated that the author could have been a Christian or at least was very knowledgeable about the Bible. According to Hugh Kemp, Qadag (pp 85-90, Steppe by Step) is the most likely candidate for authorship of Secret History of the Mongols. He writes about the history of ancient Mongolia and connects the modern reality with the ancient world. Even though the book is about the history of Christianity in Mongolia, it paints a view of ancient Mongolia from the height of 21st century. The "History of Mongolia" by B. Baabar is a good source for the Modern History of Mongolia.
On the trail of Marco Polo covers some travel through the Mongol Empire in the time of Genghis' grandson, Kublai Khan.
People[ edit ]
Mongolia is more than twice as big as Texas and nearly the same size as Alaska. Its area is 1.6 million km² (603,000 mi²), four times the size of Japan and almost double that of Eastern Europe.
This makes Mongolia the sixth-largest country in Asia and 19th in the world, but the population is only 2,727,966 (as of 09 November 2009), which makes Mongolia one of the least densely populated areas in Asia.
If you consider that 40% of the population lives in the capital city of Ulan Bator or Ulaanbaatar that leaves lots of room for you to travel in the outback. Of course, Gobi is even less densely populated.
Almost another 40% of population are scattered all over Mongolia with their 56 million head of sheep, goats, cattle, horses and camels. There are 21 provinces, called aimag. Each aimag has a central city or town and about 15-22 sub-provinces called soum, so you will know which aimag and which soum you are in.
70% of Mongolia is under the age of 35 and the genders are pretty well balanced. 84% are Khalkha Mongols, 6% Kazakhs and 10% other groups.
The majority of the Mongolian population; 90% follow a mixture of Tibetan Buddhism and shamanism while the remaining 10% follow a diverse range of different faiths, mainly Islam and Christianity.
Holidays and festivals[ edit ]
Naadam festival celebrations.
Mongolia is home to the "three manly sports": wrestling, horse racing, and archery, and these are the same three sporting events that take place every year at the Naadam festival.
Naadam is the National Holiday of Mongolia celebrated on 11-13 Jul. During these days all of Mongolia watches or listens to the whole event which takes place in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar through Mongolia's National Television and Radio. Many other smaller Naadam festivals take place in different aimags (provinces) around the country throughout the month of July, and it is at these Naadam festivals that you are able to get a much closer look at the action.
It is believed that Naadam celebrations started with the rise of the Great Mongolian Empire as Chinggis (also known as Genghis) Khan's strategy to keep his warriors strictly fit. After the fall of the empire, the contests were held during religious festivals, and since the communist revolution it was celebrated on its anniversary.
The legend says that in old times a woman dressed like a man won a wrestling competition once. That is why open chest and long sleeve wrestling costumes, called "zodog", are meant to show that every participant is male. Wrestlers wear short trunks, "shuudag", and Mongolian boots, "gutal". The yellow stripes on the tails of wrestlers' hats will indicate the number of times the wrestler became a champion in Naadam.
Only Naadam gives official titles to the wrestlers. Mongolian wrestling tournaments have 9 or 10 rounds depending on the number of 512 or 1024 wrestlers registered for the competition that year. If the wrestler wins 5 rounds, he will be awarded the title "Nachin" (bird), 6 rounds - Hartsaga (hawk), 7 rounds - Zaan (elephant), 8 rounds - Garuda (Eagle), 9 rounds - Arslan (lion) and 10 - Avarga (Titan).
In 2006, Zaan (Elephant) Sumyabazar won 9 rounds that made him Garuda but that year 1024 wrestlers had 10 rounds which he won all. This entitled him to Avarga. Or Arslan (Lion) must win 2 in a row to become Avarga (Titan). The titles are for life. If Avarga (Titan) keeps winning at Naadam more and more attributes will be added to his title.
There are no weight categories in Mongolian Wrestling tournaments but there is a time limit of 30 min, if the wrestlers can not overthrow each other, referees use lots for better position which often settles the match. One who falls or his body touches the ground loses the match.
Mongolian Wrestling matches are attended by seconds whose role is to assist their wrestlers in all matters and to encourage them to win by spanking on their buttocks. They also sing praise songs and titles to the leading wrestlers of both wings, west and east, after 5 and 7 rounds. The referees monitor the rules but the people and the fans are the final judges. They will speak and spread the word of mouth about who is who till the next year.
The Golden Eagle Festival in Ölgii on the first weekend of October is the largest gathering in the world of eagle hunters. The event typically has 60 to 70 Kazakh eagle hunters displaying their skills. The events include having their golden eagles fly to them on command and catching a fox fur being pulled by a horse from a perch on a nearby mountain. The event also features traditional Kazakh games like Kokpar (tug-of-war over a goat carcass while on horseback), Tiyn Teru (a timed race to pick up a coin on the ground while on horseback), and Kyz Kuar ("girl chase," is a race between a man and woman where the woman whips the man while he tries to hold on). The festival also has a traditional Kazakh concert, camel race, and displays of Kazakh art. A smaller eagle festival is held on 22 Sep in the nearby village of Sagsai.
Nauryz Festival also in Ölgii is the traditional new years celebration of Kazakhs held on 22 March. There is a parade, concert, and horse races during the several days of celebrating. Though most of the celebration involves visiting friends and relatives to eat Nauryz Koje (soup) and boiled mutton and horse meat.
The camel festival is an annual celebration held in the southern Gobi organised by a local NGO to help protect the Bactrian camel and the essential role it plays in the lives of the nomadic herders in the region. Highlights include camel races, camel polo competitions and traditional performances of Mongolian music and dance. Those that want to will be able to travel to the festival by camel, dressed in your Mongolian best including a traditional deel.
Regions[ edit ]
The country can be categorized into five distinct regions based on culture and geography. These regions are further divided into 21 provinces and one special municipality.
Mongolia regions
For up to 14 days: Hong Kong SAR , Singapore
For other foreign nationals, the process for obtaining a thirty day visa or tourist visa is relatively painless, requiring a visa application form, a small fee at your local Mongolian embassy and an invitation letter that is arranged through tour companies. Licensed tour companies can issue this invitation letter for you. However, the citizens of Indonesia, Russia, China and Taiwan and some other countries needs to get an official invitation letter that is issued by the Consular Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs after confirmation by the tour company or firm or individual who is inviting you. Longer visas are available; it requires an invitation letter from a Mongolian company or individual.
Citizens of countries where a Mongolian Embassy or Honorary consulate of Mongolia doesn't exist, can apply for a Mongolian visa at the Mongolian borders - Chinggis Khaan Airport , Zamyn - Uud and Altanbulag . It requires your official permission letter that is issued by Immigration Office in Ulaanbaatar according to your invited person or entity's request, exact arrival date and time, flight or train number. Once you got the permission, you have to bring the copy of permission, passport sized photo and visa fee of c. US$105 per applicant and then you can get the visa at the airport. For most cases, it is easy to seek a help from licensed travel company that can get permission for you from Immigration Office in Ulaanbaatar.
Also, it is possible to acquire an expedited visa in a matter of hours at the Mongolian consulate in Erlian, though there is a steep $50 US fee for this service. A similar service is available in the Mongolian consulate in the Russian city of Irkutsk and Ulan-Ude . Indian nationals are required to apply for a visa, although the visa fee is waived.
You won't get more than 30 days on a tourist visa. In Mongolia you can extend your visa for another 30 days maximum.
The Embassy of Mongolia in the UK website is useful for updates.
The Embassy of Mongolia in China website allows you to print off the application form you will need if you are applying for your Mongolian visa in China, although the consulate does have them too. If you going to stay more than 30 days you have to get registered at Mongolia Immigration.
As of September 2013, the consulate in Irkutsk does not require an invitation letter any more and will issue even one year multiple entry visas without a fuss.
By plane[ edit ]
There are a few places with flights into the capital, Ulaanbaatar. National air carrier MIAT Mongolian airlines operates daily flights (during some peak season - twice a day) from Beijing and Seoul, twice a week flights from Hong Kong, Berlin, Moscow and Tokyo (during some peak season - from Narita). During peak summer season it increases flight frequencies and operates direct flights from Berlin. There are branch offices in Berlin, Moscow, Hong Kong, Seoul, Tokyo and Beijing. North American branch office is in Denver, CO and can be reached via Air Bridge
There are almost daily flights from Seoul on Korean Air as well as other flights through Beijing. It is also possible to fly to Ulaanbaatar through Tokyo's Narita Airport. There are also direct flights from Istanbul with Turkish Airlines. Don't buy a non-refundable or unchangeable ticket if you are going to Mongolia, because flights don't always actually happen. You can also fly in from Beijing, with MIAT Mongolian airlines being the cheapest, then Air China after that. You may find the cheapest air ticket to Mongolia from travel agents.
Hunnu Air , a Mongolian Airline, offers flights from Hong Kong, Shanghai, Bangkok to Ulaanbaatar.
Once you are in the country you can also fly to all the provincial capitals. Plane flights between the capitals may be hard to find though. But air travel agents, guest houses, and hotels can help you to obtain your domestic air ticket in Mongolia.
As of 24th September 2014 MIAT has started cheap (relatively) flights from Singapore to Ulan Bator twice a week (Wednesdays and Saturday).
The Trans-Mongolian Line of the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway links Mongolia's capital Ulaanbaatar with Moscow and Vladivostok , Russia and Beijing , China
How to travel from Beijing to Ulaanbataar on budget (September 2016).
Every Wednesday train number K3 and every Saturday train number K23 (Legendary Trans Mongolian train) runs all way to Ulaanbataar, but if you buy ticket only for Erlian (the border town) you will pay 130RMB for hard sleeper, this is cheaper than overnight uncomfortable bus from Beijing . The train leaves at 11:22AM from Beijing and arrive at Erlian (Erenhot) at 21:48.
Stay overnight in one of the cheap hotels in Erlian around train station (double bed with bathroom from 60 RMB).
Next day pick up one of the old jeeps from the main park (50-70 RMB) or there is local bus from the bus station which runs between Erlian and Zamiid Uud, this bus has clear sign on the front Mongolia, leaves when full (40RMB). The bus and the jeep will drop you off in front of train station in Zamiid Uud.
There is daily local overnight train from Zamiid Uud to Ulaanbataar at 18:15. Very comfortable first class bed (soft sleeper) is 33950 MNT (4 beds in closed compartment, ask for bottom bunk) and second class (hard sleeper) 24000 MNT. There is hard seat option, which is very cheap. You will arrive around 9.30am to Ulaanbataar.
From Russia[ edit ]
The Trans-Mongolian train crosses the Russia/Mongolia border at the town of Naushki , Russia.
Those interested in saving money can book one way elektrichka (regional train) tickets from Irkutsk or Ulan Ude to Naushki. In Naushki, one can spend the night in the recently (June 2009) renovated train resting rooms (komnati otdiha) for US$.50 per hour. From there, it is possible to take a marshrutka to the land border crossing town of Kyakhta , Russia. Walking across the border is prohibited, but travelers have no problems arranging for Mongolia bound cars to take them across the border, either for a small fee or for free. Upon crossing into Mongolia it is relatively easy to hitchhike, taxi, or bus to Sukhbaator or UB, as all southbound traffic is headed towards those cities.
From the West, from Russia, it is possible to cross at the land border in Tsagaannuur . There are daily petrol and wheat-carrying Russian Kamaz trucks headed to Olgii and it is possible to hitchhike to Tsagaannuur or even Olgii . Regular buses and marshrutkas also operate from the border, though service is unpredictable due to the lack of a schedule.
From China[ edit ]
Trans Mongolian Railway[ edit ]
2nd class (hard sleeper) costs about US$200 (Mar 2011) from Beijing to Ulaanbaatar . The ride takes almost 30 hours, but you are given a berth in a sleeper-car. The train leaves twice per week from Beijing. Currently, as of Mar 2011, tickets cannot be purchased from the Beijing station. Instead you will be directed to the China International Tour Service (CITS) office at 2nd floor of the Beijing International Hotel (10 min. walk north of the station, large, white building).
Local Trains[ edit ]
Beijing to the border: If the Beijing - Ulaanbaatar train is sold out, as seems to be common, or you need a more frequent option, you can make your way from Beijing to the border at Erlian by local train as described below, and then on to Ulaanbaatar by bus and train. You may also try looking on eLong.com for flights from Beijing to Erlian (Elianhaote on eLong). As of March 2011, there are morning flights from Beijing to Erlian out of Capital Airport Terminal 1 that only cost 160Y, which is cheaper than the bus.
Trains run daily from Beijing to Jining (Inner Mongolia) or Hohhot . You can change there for a train to the border town of Erlian near the Mongolian-Chinese border. The K89 leaves Beijing in the morning and arrives at Jining in the evening. Jining has many hotels near the train station and has karaoke bars to keep you entertained while you wait. From Jining to Erlian there is a slow train that leaves in the morning, passes the great wall multiple times, and arrives in the early evening. For up to date train times and costs see China Guide . Note that this will take a night longer than getting the sleeper bus as described in "By Bus".
Crossing the border
Be wary of scams at the border where people in uniform will attempt to sell you "required travel insurance." There is no such thing and you can safely ignore them.
You should then cross the border from Erlian in China to Zamiin-Uud in Mongolia as described in Erlian to and from Mongolia .
In Erlian you can cross the border in a Jeep or by Bus. The bus goes everyday. In the bus station look for the international ticket window.
Once in Zamin-Uud, the only option is the train.
From the border to Ulaanbaatar
Once you have crossed the border, you will need to get from Zamiin-Uud to Ulaanbaatar as described in Zamiin-Uud get in .
This website here has a full write up (including maps, times, specific details, etc.) of how you can get from Beijing to Mongolia. It was updated in 2016 and I just took this trip so I think the prices/times here are the most accurate for now since they seem to change a lot.
To China[ edit ]
From Ulaanbaatar there are several options.
Firstly, the International train. Tickets at the International ticket office located across the street from the train station. The ticket office is on the second floor in the VIP lounge.
The second option is to get on the Hohhot international train and transfer at Erlian or Jining (Inner Mongolia) .
The third option is to take the daily train to Zamiin-Uud , Mongolia at the border and take a bus or jeep to China. You can then go to the bus or train station in Erlian , China.
By bus[ edit ]
From Beijing to Erlian by bus costs 180 RMB and takes 12hrs. Several buses leave different bus stations in Beijing bound for Erlian:
Liuliqiao long-distance bus station (六里桥客运主枢纽 or lìu lǐ qiáo kè yùn zhǔ shū nǐu）, phone 010-83831716, address: A1, Liuliqiao Nan Li, Fengtai District. Departure at 16:30. These are supposed to run every day, but may not. You can phone at 10:00 on the morning of departure to see if the bus is running and to reserve a place.
Muxiyuan long-distance bus station ( 木樨园才华长途汽车站 ), phone 010-67267149, location: go to Liujiayao Metro Station and get a cab. Departs 17:00.
Lizeqiao long-distance bus station ( 丽泽桥长途汽车站 ), phone ( 丽泽桥长途汽车站 ) Address 中国, 北京市丰台区北京市丰台区西三环丽泽桥东 010-63403408, address 中国, 北京市丰台区北京市丰台区西三环丽泽桥东. Location is difficult to get to. Departs 17:00.
From Hohhot by bus cost 88 RMB and takes 6 - 7 hrs. There are several buses each day.
Once you've got to Erlian you should then follow the Crossing the border and From the border to Ulaanbaatar steps above.
Should you be travelling at a busy time (i.e. around Naadam on the 11th/12th July) and want to be sure of getting tickets for the last leg of the trip in Mongolia, you could take one of the packages from the guesthouses in Beijing. These cost around 570 RMB (July 2009). They include will include a taxi to the coach station in Beijing, Beijing to Erlian by sleeper coach, a bed in the hotel in the bus station for a few hours, a bus from Erlian to Zamyn-Uud across the border, then soft sleeper overnight from Zamyn-Uud to Ulaanbaatar . Purchased separately the tickets cost about 360 RMB. The Saga guesthouse in Beijing sells these, and although they insist til they're blue in the face the train is hard sleeper it's actually soft sleeper!
From Russia[ edit ]
A daily bus goes from Ulan-Ude to Ulanbaatar . The ticket is priced at 1500 Roubles (As on July, 2015) but it is better to take help of various tour companies which can buy the tickets for you. The tickets bear your name and Passport number so may be used for visa purpose as well. The companies may charge anywhere between 1700 Roubles to 1900 Roubles for each ticket.
The bus leaves at 7:30 AM from South Bus Station in Ulan Ude and reaches Ulanbaatar at about 10:00 PM, depending on the time taken at border. It drops passengers at Dragon Bus Station. Try getting window seat for enjoying beautiful scenery on your way.
By thumb[ edit ]
The road stops at the border town of Zamyn-Uud and gives way to an open desert, with tracks going in various directions but generally heading north toward the capital city. Hitchhiking in Mongolia is not easy and a little bit of money can be expected. There is an average of one car every hour heading into the desert. Expect a bumpy road with not much to see -- but this is the real Mongolian steppe.
Get around[ edit ]
If you plan to travel around the countryside without a guide, take a GPS and get some maps. The "Mongolia Road Atlas" is available in many bookstores, it is over 60 pages and covers the whole country: note there is a latin character version and cyrillic character version, in the countryside most people won't understand the latin version. More detailed maps are available at the Mongolian Government Map Store. These maps are 1:500,000. Also some other special purpose maps and a very good map of downtown Ulaanbaatar. The map store is on Ih Toiruu St. Go west from the State Department store on the main street, called Peace, Peace and Friendship, or Ekhtavan Ave, two blocks to the large intersection with traffic lights, Turn right (North) and the map store is about half way along the block. There is an Elba electronic appliance store set back from the street, a yellow and blue building, the next building is a large Russian style office building 4 floors in height, the map store entrance is on the west side, toward the south end of the building, it lines up with the North wall of the Elba building.
Whichever method of long-distance travel is chosen, keep in mind that everything in Mongolia has a tendency to break down. Don't be shocked if part of the suspension breaks and the driver jimmy-rigs a carved wooden block in the place of a mount. For more serious breakdowns, it can easily take an entire day or longer for somebody to come along and help, so leave plenty of slack in itineraries. Finally, Mongolians are rather notorious for being late. A bus that is scheduled to leave at 08:00 will probably not be out of the city till almost 11:00.
By plane[ edit ]
Domestic flight to the popular capital city in the province is available. There are 3 domestic airline companies including Aero Mongolia , Eznis Airways , and Hunnu Air . All websites have online booking system but Aero Mongolia does not accept last name less than 3 letters. Hunnu Air's online booking system can process for sure. Contacting travel agents for booking flight tickets is another way to get the domestic flight ticket in advance.
By car[ edit ]
Road accidents are frequent. The bigger the vehicle is, the safer it is. Outside of the capital, there are few paved roads. The easiest way to travel long distance is using AeroMongolia. AeroMongolia uses Fokker-50 turboprops. Air travel in Mongolia involves a two-tier price structure, with the costs for foreigners being significantly higher than for locals.
For the budget conscious, Russian Jeeps and 4WD Mini-buses act as a public transport system. About 85,000 tugrik pays for the all-day trip from UB to Tsetserleg (the regional capital of Arkhangai). Note that this involves being crammed into a Jeep with about nine locals (some of whom may be drunk) and spending the entire day racing over very bumpy dirt trails. Bus is a better option.
By motorbike[ edit ]
Having read the above statement about road safety in Mongolia you might be put off by touring the country by motorcycle but you would be missing out on some of the best motorbike touring in the world: open steppes, freedom and a culture of hospitality make Mongolia one of the best motorcycle touring destinations - period.
If you haven't brought your own you can rent them for as little as 13 Euro per day in UB. Alternatively, you can arrange buy-sell back agreements with motorbike sellers of Chinese motorbikes at motorbike markets like the Black Market that will often end up being cheaper than renting if you plan on biking for two weeks or more. Plus, you will ride a brand new bike as opposed to the often quite run-down rental bikes. New Chinese Mustang bikes sell for 725 USD and can be sold back for about 2/3 the original price, depending on your negotiating skills. Registration of the motorbike is a must and must be done by a Mongolian or a person holding a visa of 90 days or longer.
By bus[ edit ]
Travelling by local bus is also an option, though these buses tend only to connect the provincial capital with UB, and it is quite difficult to find any public transportation linking one provincial capital with another. Lately the Bus situation is much better. Most cities and towns are refered to in two ways, their name or the name of the Aimag (province) or Sum (county). e.g. Dornod or Dornod Aimag or Choybalsan (the actual city name). Most buses have their destination on a card in the front window. If you have either name written down in Mongolian Cyrillic, you can just show to the drivers or helpers and they will get you on the right bus.
There are two types of buses, micro vans and large buses (some large buses are old Russian types and some are modern western type), depending on the road. The large buses run on schedule, but the micro-buses are much more lax. In Ulaanbaatar, there are two bus stations, one on the west near the Dragon Shopping Center and one on the East near the Botanical Gardens. Get local to write directions. For the large buses buy your tickets the day before.
In the Aimag centres, there will be service to Ulaanbaatar and to local suems (small county seats) and usually the next Aimag Center. However, all locations may not be available at one location. Ask for help from the locals. For example, In Ondorkhaan, the capital of Khentii Province, there is bus service between Ondorkhaan and UB from a central bus station, however the through buses going to/from UB to Dornad and Sukhbaatar Aimags (Choybalsan and Baruun-Urt) will stop at a gas station on the North side of the city.
Bus tickets[ edit ]
You purchase your ticket at the station, not in the coach. Don't expect any cashier, driver or conductor to speak anything but Mongolian and, possibly, Russian. It's not possible to pay by credit card. Your passport is required to buy a ticket. If you have a luggage exceeding the standard (written in your ticket) in weight or size, you'll be asked for an extra fee by the conductor. You can negotiate this one.
Inside a bus[ edit ]
On some destinations, the driver and the conductor illegally add extra passengers and get the money for themselves. They might even try to make 3 people sit on 2 seats, for instance: you can protest in such a case. Your ticket gives you the right to a full seat and this is what you get in most coaches. The coaches for different destinations have normally 20-40 passenger seats.
The coach will usually stop for a rather quick lunch or dinner at a local snack or canteen.
By train[ edit ]
There is only one railway company in Mongolia, owned by the Russian and Mongolian States. It is probably the best way to experience something of the communist time, even if it has evolved a bit since then. The railway network is poor, consisting mainly in the Irkutsk-Beijing trans-mongolian way with a few extensions. The rolling stock consist of 30–40 year old Soviet cars. Trains are extremely slow. They usually leave on time, and arrive on time or less than 20 min late.
Don't expect to encounter any English-speaking staff. Conductors and cashiers speak only Mongolian, and if you're lucky, also a little bit Russian.
The local trains stop at many small stations in the countryside. For example, there is the small town of Batsumber, located about 34km north of Ulaanbaatar (as the crow flies) longer on the train. Take your camping gear and hike to the mountains about 10km east of the town. There are two streams flowing west out of the mountains, hike and camp along the streams. There is a small restaurant, and food shops in the town.
See train timetable and ticket prices on the company website [2] (only in Mongolian).
Train tickets[ edit ]
Mongolian trains are cheap, even in comparison with Russian and Chinese trains. You pay an extra fee if you book in advance, and also an extra fee if you buy it in the train, which is the only possibility left if there are less than 10 min left before the train departure. Your passport is required to buy a ticket.
There are 3 classes: tasalgaat, untlagyn, and niytiyn, they directly correspond to the Russian train classes kupeyniy, platskartniy and obshchiy.
Tasalgaat class is the only one with closed compartments, with 4 berths for each. You'll be charged for MNT200o for compulsory bed sheets inside the train (Aug 2013).
Untlagyn cars have open compartments with 6 berths.
Niytiyn class is the cheapest, but definitely not recommended. You have to spend your night sitting and even with little space on crowded days. The tickets are numbered, but, when the seats are exhausted, the company overbooks public seats with tickets numbered "0", at the same price.
Inside a national train[ edit ]
There is a small water boiler at the end of each train car which dispenses free hot water, so it's a good idea to stock up on instant noodles and tea for the trip. You will be offered drinks and Mongolian food inside the train, both by official sellers of the company and, at the big stations with long stops, from private people getting in the train for that purpose.
Be careful of your belongings: thefts are not rare. But there are policemen in each train.
On a long trip, your ticket will be checked again and again, and you'll be woken up in the middle of the night for that. Nobody will wake you if you have to get off during the trip, but if you get off at the terminus, you'll be woken up, even more than one hour before arrival, depending on the agent. The train toilets officially close 30 min before the terminus, sometimes even before that.
By minivan[ edit ]
Public countryside taxis and minivans offer more destinations than coaches and many more than train, especially between provinces. They are more dangerous than coaches and trains. Most drivers don't respect the traffic rules. Countryside taxis and minivans leave when full. They always say they will go "now" ("odo") but it's rarely true and you can wait hours before they really go. See how many people are already sitting inside the vehicle to have an idea of how long you'll wait.
By chartered jeep[ edit ]
It is also possible to charter a Jeep and driver for private use. Prices are typically negotiated by the kilometre. While far more expensive than sharing a ride with the locals, this means of transport is considerably more convenient and allows you to visit more remote sites. It can also be quite convenient to hire a guide to use during the length of your stay. Doing so can allow you to travel without worrying about taxi drivers wanting to overcharge up to 10X just for being a foreigner.
By taxi[ edit ]
In the cities, taxis should charge about MNT800/km. The drivers will set their trip meter and charge accordingly.
By horse[ edit ]
For local travel, horse-back is a good option. Note, however, that Mongolians ride on wooden saddles, so if you value your buttocks it's probably a good idea to pick up a leather, Russian saddle in UB.
By foot[ edit ]
Another great alternative is to simply walk. Since camping is possible anywhere, resting is never a problem. Wherever there is water there are nomads, and if you stick to the major dirt-roads you will encounter plenty of guanz, who can provide huge cheap meals to keep you going. Adopting the Mongolian style of sleeping outdoors is also an option - wrap yourself in wool blankets and then cover yourself with a Russian raincoat (essentially a tarp in the form of a trench coat), and simply plop yourself down on the ground. One night sleeping this way gives a whole new appreciation for the wonders of sleeping bags and bivvy sacks/tents.
See also: Mongolian phrasebook
With the exception of the westernmost province where Kazakh is spoken, everybody in the country speaks Mongolian . The language is extremely difficult for Westerners to learn and speak, even after multiple months of being immersed in the culture. Westerners typically take a minimum of 9-18 months of full time Mongolian language study to be conversant. Most locals will appreciate attempts to speak phrases in Mongolian, although the traveller will inevitably pronounce them wrong (be careful when ordering water in a restaurant - the word for water [pronounced "oos"] is indistinguishable for that of "hair" to the English ear! Makes for a good laugh over and over ...). Picking up a phrasebook and practising a few phrases will help. The numbering system is regular, and fairly easy to learn. Despite the government's efforts to promote the Mongolian writing system, the Cyrillic system is still the standard and being able to read it might help you.
If you can speak Russian you should not have any major problems communicating. Mongolia has had a long history of alliance with the Soviet Union, and Russia after the break up of the Soviet Union, so Russian is compulsory in all Mongolian schools and widely spoken in urban areas. English is not widely spoken, although it's been getting more popular lately.
Foreigners able to speak German should give it a try, as especially in the older generations there are folks that do speak it due to Mongolia's ties to the G.D.R. that caused many Mongolians to work and study in East Berlin.
See[ edit ][ add listing ]
Mongolia is a big country with bad transportation means, so trying to see too many provinces you would spend your holidays inside vehicles. Hôvsgôl (or "Hövsgöl") lake, in Hövsgöl province, is very beautiful. There is not much architecture in Mongolia, but Amarbaysgalant monastery, Selenge province, in the middle of nowhere, is worth seeing. Interested by the economical aspect? See Erdenet 's open copper mine, the biggest copper mine in Asia, in Orhon province.
The Trans-Mongolian Railway passes through the country.
Mongolia Canoeing, ☎ 976-99826883, [3] . River Tours, Canoe down some of Mongolia's major rivers edit
visit Reindeer Herders (Tsaatan Community), Tsagaan nuur, Khovsgol (West of Khovsgol lake, From Moron drive WNW, Past the Airport, Go to Ulaan Uul and continue north. High water can make the roads difficult.), [4] . Reindeer herders living in High Alpine mountains. Must ride horses or reindeer from Tsagaan nuur. It can be a long hard ride. edit
Local Bonda Lake Camp in Khatgal village near Lake Khovsgol offers various nature and cultural featuring: fishing, hiking, winter tours, nomad visits, horse back riding, visiting reindeer herders and Darhad valley. Horse riding, you have chance discover Lake Khovsgol and its beautiful waters, meet Tsataan (nomadic reindeer herders) living in yurts in the north of Khovsgol area. This region is incredibly scenic, perched at 1645 m altitude in green mountains, covered with thick pine forests and lush meadows with grazing yaks and horses, and rich with wildlife: the lake has 9 species of fish and its surroundings are full of sheep, goats, elk and more than 430 species of birds. There are 5 different Mongolian tribes nearby: Khalh, Darhad, Buriad, Hotgoid, & Urianhai. The Camp has a hot shower, sauna, internet and a restaurant with Mongolian and European meals.
Shopping[ edit ]
Mongolian cashmere is known as the best in the world. Garments and blankets made of cashmere. You can find lots of stores that sells cashmere products.
Mongolia is famous for its copper mines Erdenet and Oyu Tolgoi. Copper bookmark is one of the ideal souvenirs and you can easily find this USD1 metal souvenir in Ulaanbaatar souvenir shops.
Paintings by local artists are excellent buys in Mongolia(local painting center gps coordinate: 47.928958, 106.928024 , "N+106°55'40.9"E/@47.9289438,106.9280278,15 ).
You can find felt poker-work in Erdenet .
Note that it is illegal to take antiques out of the country without a special permit.
The huge open-air market, Narantuul ("The Black Market") in Ulaanbaatar offers the lowest prices on just about anything you could want. Be very careful of the many pickpockets and even attackers there. This can be a great place to get a good pair of riding boots. You can opt for a variety of Mongolian styles, from fancy to the more practical, or even get a good set of Russian style boots.
In Erdenet is a ISO 9 001 certified carpet factory, making and selling also slippers made in carpet.
Eat[ edit ][ add listing ]
The main diet in rural Mongolia is mutton or sheep. Beef might also hit the menu occasionally. Here, about MNT8,000-10,000 will buy you a large platter heaped with fried noodles and slivers of mutton. On the side will be a large bottle of ketchup. A tasty and greasy dish served is khuushuur (huushoor), which is a fried pancake stuffed with bits of mutton and onion. Three to four make a typical meal. Also, the ubiquitous buuz (booz) can be had at any canteen in town or the countryside. Buuz are similar to khuushuur in that they are big dumplings stuffed with mutton and onion, however they are steamed rather than fried. About 6 buuz cost MNT3,000-4,000 (USD2.15-2.87) and serves one.
The boodog or goat/marmot barbecue, is particularly worth experiencing. For about MNT30,000-40,000, a nomad will head out with his gun, shoot a marmot, and then cook it for you using hot stones in its skin without a pot. Along the same lines as boodog is khorkhog (made of mutton), which is prepared like so: build a fire; toss stones into fire until red hot; place water, hot stones, onions, potatoes, carrots, and, finally, mutton chops, into a large vacuum-sealed kettle; let the kettle simmer over a fire for 30-60 minutes; open kettle carefully, as the top will inevitably explode, sending hot juices flying everywhere; once the kettle is opened, and all injuries have been tended to, eat contents of kettle, including the salty broth. This cooking method makes mutton taste tender and juicy, like slow-roasted turkey. Ask your guide if he or she can arrange one (but only during summer).
The boodog is also made of other meat, usually goat, and is similar to the khorhog with one major difference: the meat, vegetables, water and stones are cooked inside the skin of the animal. They skin it very carefully, and then tie off the holes at the legs and back side, put the food and hot stones inside, tie off the throat, and let it cook for about 30 minutes.
Drink[ edit ][ add listing ]
The legal drinking/purchasing age of alcoholic beverages is 18.
The national drink is called Airag. (It is available in for example in traditional mongolian "ger" tents in Ulan Bator at the main entrance of Gandantegchinlen Monastery, GPS decimal coordinates N47.92069 E106.89467 for 1500T and a the West Market N47.91118 E106.83569 for MNT1000 per bowl as of September 2010) This is a summer seasonal drink made from fermented mare's milk, and is certainly an acquired taste. The alcohol content is less than that of beer, but can have noticeable effects. Be careful, if you aren't accustomed to drinking sour milk products the first time might give you diarrhea as your stomach gets accustomed to it. This should only happen the first time though. Once you've completed the ritual, your digestive system shouldn't complain again. There are numerous ways to describe the taste, from bile-like to a mixture of lemonade and sour cream. The texture can also be offputting to some people since it can be slightly gritty. It is worth keeping in mind that Airag is milk and a source of nutrients. After a day of riding it can actually be quite refreshing, once acquiring a taste for it.
The first thing you will be served every time you visit a ger will be milk tea, which is essentially a cup of boiled milk and water, sometimes with a couple pieces of tea leaf thrown in for good measure. You might want to build up your tolerance by drinking lots of milk in preparation for your stay because they don't drink much else, except perhaps boiled water if you specially request it during a longer stay. Also, most traditional nomadic foods such as dried yogurt and the like require acclimatization to milk as well. Cold drinks don't actually exist in the countryside (unless you intend to drink straight out of a river, generally not recommended).
If you are in Mongolia especially in the country side try their National Home Made Vodka. It's usually made from distilled yogurt or milk. It doesn't have any weird taste. After you have your first shot of the vodka you won't feel anything, but few minutes later it will get to your head. Most people in Mongolia usually drink this for medical reasons. First you heat up the vodka then put in a little bit of special oil which is also made from milk. Careful don't overheat it, you might get blind. Mongolians call their national vodka nermel areehk ("distilled vodka") or changa yum ("tight stuff"). There are lots of Russian type Vodkas sold all over the country. The best ones are Chinggis Khaan vodka, Soyombo and Golden Chinggis.
In Ulaanbaataar you can find most of Western beers, from Miller to Heineken. They sell Budweiser -- not American Bud but the Czech Budweiser. Local beer, such as Chingiss, Gem Grand, Borgio or Sengur is fine.
Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ]
Some western-style accommodations are available in Ulaanbaatar , but they go for western prices. There are a few nice guest houses in UB for less than US$10 per night (even as cheap as 3,000 tugrik if you're willing to share a room), but they are crowded during the tourist season and hard to get into.
Out in the countryside, most of the hotels are rundown leftovers from the Soviet era. A better option is tourist ger, set up by various entrepreneurial locals. Staying at one of these costs about MNT5,000 per person per night. They often include breakfast and dinner as well. When staying in one of these guest ger, the usual gift-giving customs can be skipped.
Finally, there are also ger-camps. Set up by tour-companies, they do occasional rent out space to independent travellers. Unfortunately, they tend to be both expensive (35 US$ per person per night with 3 meals) and out of the way.
Except for the cities and larger towns, all of the land is publicly owned. This means you can pitch a tent pretty much anywhere. Courtesy dictates that you keep your distance from existing nomad encampments. Common-sense dictates that you don't pitch a tent in the middle of or too close to a road.
In Mongolia, nowadays there are more 300 hotels and these are graded between 1 to 5 stars in the international standards Hotels holding 3 stars or more are for tourist service. 3 – 5 star holders must obtain special permission in order to operate. “Accommodation grading committee” consisting of the Ministry, travel industry associations and tourism researchers categorize an accommodation according to Mongolian standards.
Currently, 4 five star hotels: Shangri-La Hotel, Best Western Premier Tuushin Hotel (one of the Best Western international chain hotels, located next to the Mongolian parliament building), Terelj Hotel (set in the natural environment of the popular Terelj National Park, around 70km from Ulaanbaatar.) and Ulaanbaatar Hotel, three 4 star hotels: Chinggis, Kempinski hotel Khan Palace (German-based Kempinski Hotels took over the management of Khan Palace, renaming it Kempinski Hotel Khan Palace.) Ramada Hotel and Bayangol hotel.
Three stars 30 hotels and other hotels have one or two stars hotels are operating. Most hotels offered on a bed and breakfast basis and hotels have three types of rooms: a deluxe, a semiluxe, and a standard.
Learn[ edit ]
There are some language schools in the capital. The two best known ones to foreigners are Bridge School and Friends School. Both schools offer group study classes or individual tutors. Also the National University of Mongolia offers courses.
It usually takes Westerners about 9 to 18 months before they acquire good conversational abilities in Mongolian. Speakers of Turkic languages, such as Turks or Kazakhs, tend to pick it up quicker due to the similarities in grammatical structure.
Work[ edit ]
There is a huge demand for "Native" English speakers as English teachers. Anyone who is interested in teaching English will have no trouble getting employment and a work visa through a school or organization. However, the pay is generally low compared to other countries. Though it'll usually be just enough for room and board plus a little extra.
Local English-language media are another source of employment for native English speakers, offering work as editors, proof-readers or photojournalists.
Volunteer work is available teaching English, assisting with charity work and joining archaeological digs. These jobs are easy to find and are very rewarding.
Stay safe[ edit ]
Apart from Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia is generally a safe place to travel. However, incidences of pick pocketing and bag slashing have been on the rise in recent years, so always keep your personal belongings in a safe place (money belts are highly recommended), especially in crowded areas or in places where your attention is diverted, such as internet cafes . Notorious places for theft are the Black Market (bazaar), the railway station and crowded bus stops.
Violent crime is uncommon outside the capital city, but still caution is required at night, and dark or deserted alleys and streets, in particular, should be avoided.
Unfortunately, Xenophobia is rampant, and violence towards foreigners can happen and avoid anyone who is intoxicated, they may want to start a fight.
Corruption is a huge problem in Mongolia, and locals are convinced that the police are not to be trusted.
There are small bands of Mongolian ultra nationalists that style themselves as neo-Nazis who assault foreigners so be cautious.
Be careful when travelling by horse as it is not unknown for groups to follow tourists and then steal their goods, including the horses, while they sleep at night.
Many tourists are injured from falling off of horses. Mongolian herders are expert riders, thus their idea of a horse suitable for riding is quite different from most casual riders. Also, the horses are trained differently than in the west. If you are injured in Mongolia, you may be hundreds of kilometres from medical aid and ambulance service may be hard to obtain and consist of a Russian minivan. Medical evacuation insurance is advisable.
Dogs in Mongolia can be aggressive and may run in packs. It is a good idea to be wary of them since they are not likely to be as tame as domestic dogs elsewhere and they may be rabid.
Stay healthy[ edit ]
Nomads' dogs may have rabies. As a precaution, consider having a rabies shots before coming.
Marmots should not be eaten at certain times of the year because they can carry pnemonia. That said, the disease is carried by the marmot's fleas so the afflicted tend to be fur traders, and marmot is not a mainstream dish even in Mongolia.
Hepatitis and tuberculosis are common throughout Mongolia.
The USA Center for Disease Control, [5] . Country by country warnings and advice edit
Respect[ edit ]
Mongols traditionally live on the steppes, breeding horses, just like their ancestor Genghis Khan. Not surprisingly, following Western pleasantries will not have the intended effect in Mongolia. That being said, there are still a few rules to follow. Always receive items with the right hand, palm facing up. Drink from the right hand with the palm up as well. It is very rude to refuse a gift. If offered a plate of hospitality munchies, take at least a small nibble from something. You should never point anyone with your index finger since it implies disrespect.
Whenever you approach a nomadic family, or enter a ger, you will, without knowing, break one or several of the many traditional, religious and superstitious customs. If you do become confused, don't panic, minor indiscretions will be tolerated and forgiven. The following do's and don'ts will help minimize cultural differences.
Contact[ edit ]
There are plenty of Internet cafés in the capital. The postal service is slow and most people have a PO Box if they want to get anything. It is possible to buy phone cards that can be used to call abroad very cheaply from domestic phones, but not all phones can do this. (You can ask for MiCom or MobiCom cards). In the countryside, don't expect to be staying in contact with anyone. Most Aimag Centers (Province Capitals) have an Internet Café in the post office.
To make local calls in Ulaanbaatar use a phone of one of the many entrepreneurs with cellular telephones on the street corners. Expect to pay MNT800-1000/h (June 2009 prices).
| Mongolia |
Pernell Roberts played which character in a TV western series? | Have You Heard The Get-Rich-Quick Rumor About The Iraqi Dinar? - Business Insider
Have You Heard The Get-Rich-Quick Rumor About The Iraqi Dinar?
Feb. 4, 2012, 6:53 AM
28,407
Simon Black is an international investor, entrepreneur, permanent traveler, and self-described free man
Recent Posts
February 3rd, 2012
Talca, Chile
After a week away, I’m really happy to be back down on the farm in Chile. This is one of the most peaceful places I’ve ever been on the planet… and each day, it’s becoming more and more a place where all of the fiat bubble kleptocratic nonsense doesn’t matter in the least.
Central bankers can print all they want, politicians can bicker and spend all they want… down here, it really doesn’t matter. I have more food and water than thousands of people could ever consume, and enough renewable energy resources to power a small city.
More on that soon, let’s move on to this week’s questions. First, Mark asks, “Simon, what are your thoughts on the Iraqi Dinar? I have a chance to purchase $3,000,000 worth of dinar for approximately $4,000 USD. Would this be a prudent investment? Thank you for your input, and keep up the great work.”
Are they selling a bridge too?
Look, I know this is a really touchy subject for some folks… there’s a religious fascination with the Iraqi dinar these days. The prevailing rumor is that the Iraqi central bank is going to revalue the dinar 1:1 to the US dollar, making instant millionaires out of anyone holding the old currency.
This is a get rich quick scheme, nothing more. If you have any doubts, I encourage you to take a trip to rural Iraq and spend time with the locals there. They’ll happily sell you their dinars for hard currency. Are they all fools, trading in future millions for a few measly bucks? Or simply realists who recognize a good scam when they see it?
Decide for yourself. But at least do the research.
[Hypothetically, even if anyone holding dinars does become unimaginably wealthy, I should point out that US taxpayers who realize a profit on physical currency get taxed at ordinary rates, not on long-term capital gains. See IRC section 988 for more.]
Next Frank asks, “Simon, I know you gave a rare public appearance in the Bahamas earlier this week; can you tell us what your speech was about?”
Sure. BFI Capital Group held an intimate private briefing earlier this week, and they asked me to give the keynote address. While I almost always turn down speaking requests, I’m glad I made this exception; there were a number of Sovereign Man subscribers in the room, and it was a real pleasure to meet face to face.
As for my remarks, I explained to the audience that what’s happening right now in the west is not new. This is not some apocalyptic, end of the world scenario– imperial collapse has been happening for millenia, from the Macedonians to the Mongolians to the Ming Dynasty.
Empires are born. They rise. They peak. They decline. And they collapse. Big deal. The same thing is happening in the west right now– it’s not new, and we’re not special.
The larger point, is that rational, thinking people need to acknowledge this reality and understand the lessons from history. Collapse of empire is seldom smooth or peaceful. I encouraged everyone in the room to take rational steps based on measured outcomes… and avoid emotional reactions based on fear.
Fortunately there are plenty of good news stories in the world and a multitude of really exciting opportunities. Then we walked through some of my own steps that I’m taking, or have taken… including multiple passports, foreign accounts, and the farm down here in Chile.
I’ll be putting together a video on the topic soon to explain more.
Next, Sarah asks, “Simon, I listened to your recent teleconference about Mongolia banking and brokerages… very insightful, and it seems like a land of real opportunity! My question, though, is about inflation. I’ve read that inflation in Mongolia is quite high. Doesn’t that make the local currency a poor choice to hold?”
Mongolia is definitely a land of tremendous opportunity, and in our recent teleconference, we explained to members a number of different ways to stake your claim in the country, including by opening a bank account there.
As we’ve discussed before, Mongolian bank accounts denominated in the local currency (tugrik) yield up to 14% or more for short-term deposits. In a world full of 0% yields, this is an extraordinary rate.
That being said, there is no asset class or instrument on this planet that carries zero risk and is on a one-way elevator ride up. Is it possible that the tugrik will depreciate against the US dollar?
Certainly. And in the short-term, it’s impossible to predict what will happen. But when you look at the fundamentals, the long-term picture looks very bright.
The biggest thing to keep in mind is that the Mongolian currency is in tight supply, especially compared to dollars, euros, and renminbi. The tugrik market is tiny… and that generally keep speculators away. There is no Goldman Sachs trading desk in Ulan Bator (at least, not yet) speculating writing huge contracts worth hundreds of billions of dollars.
It also means that, as a nation with unimaginable resource wealth and export potential, the relative demand for the Mongolian currency will be extremely high relative to other major currencies.
The tens of billions of dollars flowing into the country should continue to put upward pressure on the currency, and this means a lot more to the tugrik’s trajectory than how much the price of lettuce went up last year.
I have no doubt that Mongolian politicians and central bankers will play games with their money supply just like every other country in the world. But given the absurd amount of resource wealth in Mongolia, it seems implausible that they could screw the tugrik up too badly in the long run.
Ultimately, as with most things in finance these days, it will also depend on Ben Bernanke . If he keeps easing and printing, tangible assets (or paper tied to tangible assets) will likely appreciate. That includes the tugrik, which will become one of the world’s staple commodity currencies down the road.
Last, Chuck asks, “Simon, out of curiosity, do they show NFL games in Chile?”
You bet. In fact I had a bunch of friends over to my home in Santiago a few weeks ago to watch the NFC championship game over pizza and beer. We may do a repeat this Sunday.
| i don't know |
Which orchestral instrument can play the highest note? | lowest and highest-pitched instruments in the orchestra
lowest and highest-pitched instruments in the orchestra
« on: February 09, 2008, 12:59:34 PM »
Assuming there is no organ or piano, what are the highest and lowest-pitched instruments in the orchestra? Can the contrabasoon play lower than the double bass? The tuba? Can a violin produce a higher-pitched note than a piccolo?
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« Reply #1 on: February 09, 2008, 06:44:08 PM »
Lowest is tuba while piccolo is highest.
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Quote from: XB-70 Valkyrie on February 09, 2008, 12:59:34 PM
Assuming there is no organ or piano, what are the highest and lowest-pitched instruments in the orchestra?
Generally speaking, they are the piccolo (highest note is the highest C on the piano, although it requires a skilled player to comfortably play the notes in the top half or so of the highest octave) and the contrabassoon (which can comfortably reach the lowest Bb on the piano, and some instruments with a low A extension can even reach the lowest note on the piano. This makes the Bb impossible to play though, and while low A's can be found for bassoon in plenty of late-romantic music, the contrabassoon's low A an octave lower is very rarely written).
However, do bear in mind the following:
Quote
Can a violin produce a higher-pitched note than a piccolo?
With harmonics, it is possible for a violin to reach the highest C on the piano and even higher but these notes can only be produced somewhat reliably by the most advanced players and would require an incredible amount of effort to produce above C or so. I definitely know that the original cadenza for Ligeti's Violin Concerto (written in collaboration with the work's dedicatee Saschko Gawriloff) reaches a high E above the highest note of the piano and there are probably some contemporary pieces that go even higher. However, these ridiculously high notes are definitely not in the "standard range" and you will not find much music at all that requires a violinist to play this high, except in some contemporary pieces. Also, you would never find anything this high being written for an entire violin section in the orchestra, because it would be too difficult to get a stable sound from that many players.
Quote
Can the contrabassoon play lower than the double bass? The tuba?
Yes, the contrabassoon can reach the lowest Bb on the piano, whereas the double bass can only go down to a low E, or with a C extension a low C. The tuba's lowest "standard range" note is a low E, but some tubas are able to go down even further to as low as the lowest Bb on the piano and maybe even further. I'm fairly sure though that only a contrabass tuba can go down this low, and any lower notes will be ugly unstable pedal tones.
« Last Edit: February 09, 2008, 08:54:22 PM by Symphonien »
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« Reply #7 on: February 12, 2008, 04:27:15 PM »
All right, time for a monkey wrench in this discussion.
The ranges of instruments are actually pretty flexible. Strings can be retuned; brass players can use the seldom-used 1st (fundamental) harmonic/overtone which is usually not considered part of the normal range; and other factors may be involved. The upper ranges, especially, are theoretically unlimited; in practice they are limited only by the players' strength and/or skill.
Strings: I've heard many five-stringed basses on which the lowest string is tuned to a low B or even a low A (the lowest note on the piano). The upper ranges are not hard to produce--any competent violinist can go well above the piano's highest C with no unusual effort--but they are hard to control. Imagine a violin section trying to play in tune at those Himalayan heights!
Woodwinds: The low ends of woodwind ranges are pretty well fixed by physical laws; you can't go lower than to play with all holes covered. (I have seen bassoonists put a roll of paper or plastic in the end of their horns to play a low A, but then they lose their low Bb.) But the upper range is limited only by the pressure a player's lungs and lips can put on the reed or hole. On the oboe I can play up to a high G four lines above the staff comfortably, and if I really stretch I can hit the A above; while on the flute I can play the D in the piano's last octave, and I've heard flutists hit the F or even G above. Jazz flutists, notably Paul Horn, regularly play in this altissimo range.
Brass: Using the fundamental harmonic adds an additional octave to the low ranges. In Var�se's Arcana there's a sustained low G (below the piano's lowest A) for tuba toward the end, making the tuba the lowest instrument in the orchestra--at least at that moment. Again, the tone is not hard to make, but hard to control. And again, the only limit to the upper ranges is the pressure a great player can put on his/her lips. As usual, jazz players have explored the upper limits much more than orchestral players; some of today's jazz trumpeters leave Maynard Ferguson far below.
So the only orchestral instruments whose ranges are really fixed are mallet percussion such as the glockenspiel and xylophone--and individual instruments' range may vary.
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Quote from: Manuel on February 12, 2008, 06:18:14 PM
How low is this one?...
If it were written, it would be two octaves lower than the lowest C on a standard piano, an octave lower than the B�sendorfer concert grand's lowest note.
What I find unusual about this particular rank is that it's a trombone stop--a reed stop, rather than a pipe. I've heard 32' organ pipes live, or maybe they were 16' closed pipes that only sounded like 32', but I've never heard a 64' one! More felt than heard. I have seen organs with trumpet/trombone pipes that point directly at the audience; huge sounds from those reeds!
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Quote from: Symphonien on February 09, 2008, 08:16:52 PM
Yes, the contrabassoon can reach the lowest Bb on the piano, whereas the double bass can only go down to a low E, or with a C extension a low C.
On a 5-string bass, the 5th string is typically tuned to B, but it can of course be tuned down to Bflat or A or Aflat. The low A actually occurs in Berg's Drei Orchesterst�cke, a low B in Also sprach Zarathustra. But apart from these and a few other examples, notes below C are fairly rare.
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Quote from: M forever on April 22, 2008, 02:06:54 PM
On a 5-string bass, the 5th string is typically tuned to B, but it can of course be tuned down to Bflat or A or Aflat. The low A actually occurs in Berg's Drei Orchesterst�cke, a low B in Also sprach Zarathustra. But apart from these and a few other examples, notes below C are fairly rare.
Yes, you are right. I completely forgot about the 5-stringed bass when I wrote that!
And very interesting to note that the Berg 3 Pieces go down to a low A; I did not know that. Do you know any other examples of scordatura on the lowest string for the 5-stringed bass? I'm sure there are plenty of contemporary pieces like the Penderecki Greg mentioned that will go extremely low... but this would seem to be more of an effect than a practical clear-pitched note.
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Quote from: paul on June 19, 2008, 09:55:17 AM
M, where in the Berg does the low A occur?
I was about to say, "three ledger lines below the staff," but I'll have to wait until I get home tonight to check my score. The low B (in German nomenclature H), however, definitely occurs in Wozzeck, Act Three Scene Two. This is the scene where Wozzeck murders Marie and Berg calls it an "Invention on a Note," which in this case is - B.
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| The Violin |
Airman T E Shaw in WW2 was better known as who? | Orchestra | Parts of a Symphonic Orchestra | History of Orchestral Music
The Orchestra
An orchestra is a group of musicians who play together on various instruments. Sometimes it performs alone ,at other times it plays along with a group of singers. Orchestras give concerts and play for ballets or operas. They also provide background music for movies and TV shows.
When we speak of orchestras we usually mean symphony orchestras. They have many instruments and play mostly classical music which is performed in concerts.
Some symphony orchestras have only professional musicians. The most famous are in the larger cities of the world. Among them are the Berlin Philharmonic, the Vienna Philharmonic, the New York Philharmonic, the Boston and London Symphony.
Orchestral music is written in the form of a score, which shows the notes that are played by each instrument. Every musician only sees the notes that he or she plays. The conductor stands in front of the orchestra and directs the musicians .
An orchestra can have up to 20 kinds of different instruments. Large symphony orchestras can have a hundred musicians . Smaller ones like chamber orchestras have between 5 and 40 players. They originally were small enough to play in a chamber or hall.
A Philharmonic Orchestra - Pedro Sánchez
Sections of an Orchestra
A modern orchestra consists of four sections or families of instruments. The string section is the most important part of a symphony orchestra. It has more than half of the musicians and consists of violins, violas , cellos and string basses . The violinists play high sounds and are divided into two groups. The first violins and the second violins usually play different parts. The leading first violinist is the concertmaster of the orchestra. He helps the other musicians tune their instruments and serves as the assistant . Cellos and string basses play low sounds .
The woodwind section consists of flutes, bassoons , oboes and clarinets. An orchestra can have between two and four of each of these instruments. Sometimes these musicians change instruments , for example, a flutist may switch to a piccolo . These two instruments have high piercing tones , whereas the bassoon may have the lowest tones of the whole orchestra.
The brass section has several trumpets, French horns, trombones and one tuba . These instruments are especially important in the loud, exciting parts of the music. Trumpets and horns play the higher parts, trombones and tubas dominate the lower parts. This section is located mostly at the centre and back of the orchestra.
The percussion section has all sorts of instruments, especially those that you can hit, rattle or shake . The drums are the best known among these instruments. In a symphony orchestra, kettledrums or timpani make the music more exciting . Other percussion instruments include bells, cymbals , gongs, tambourines or xylophones.
Other instruments like the harp , piano or saxophone may be added to the orchestra if they are needed.
The Conductor
A conductor directs the musicians with a stick, called the baton. But he does important things before the performance . He chooses the music that is to be played at a concert and decides how it should be played- loud or soft, fast or slow. Then he calls the musicians to rehearsals where he often lets sections or individual musicians play their parts over and over again until the sound is perfect.
History of the Orchestra
The word orchestra was first used by the ancient Greeks and meant the front part of a stage . During the Middle Ages it also included the musicians on the stage . The first orchestras were organized by kings and queens of France and in Italian churches and places during the late 6th and early 7th centuries . Most of these orchestras used stringed instruments and played for ballets, operas and at dance parties.
By the early 1700s some European composers , like Johann Sebastian Bach or George Frederic Handel, wrote music just for orchestras. Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang A. Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven perfected the classical symphony in the late 1700s and early 1800s. In the 20th century composers like Richard Strauss or Igor Stravinsk y created musical works that needed large ensembles . Later on electronic instruments were added and new sounds created .
among = along with, together with
ancient = old
assistant = someone who helps his boss
bassoon = a musical instrument like a long wooden tube; it produces a low sound
brass = musical instruments that are made of metal
century = a hundred years
chamber orchestra = a small group of musicians who play classical music together
common = something that can be found very often
composer = a person who writes music
conductor = someone who stands in front of a group of musicians and directs them
consist of = is made up of
create = make, write
cymbal = a musical instrument in the form of a thin round metal plate, which you play by hitting it with a stick or by hitting two of them together
decide = choose
direct = to be in control of
divide = separate
dominate = here: they are the most important instruments in this section
ensemble = group of musicians who play regularly
especially = above all
flutist = someone who plays the flute
harp = large instrument with strings that you play with your fingers
include = contain, consist of
kettledrum = large metal drum with a round bottom
late = the last years of ...
leading = the best or most important
located = is found
musicians = people who play music
note = a symbol on paper that stands for a musical sound
percussion = musical instruments that you hit or shake
perfect = to do something so long that you can do it very very well
perform = to play in front of people
performance = presentation of music in front of people
piccolo = musical instrument that looks like a small flute
piercing = very high , sharp and not so nice to hear
professional = to do something for money
provide = give
rattle = shake quickly many times
rehearsal = when all the musicians practise before a performance
section = part
serve = work as, operate as
several = many
shake = to move an object quickly from one side to another
stage = higher area of a hall or theatre on which the musicians sit when they perform
string = instruments that have strings
string bass = a very large musical instrument shaped like a violin that the musician plays standing up
switch = change
symphony = long piece of music, usually in four parts that is written for an orchestra
tone = sound
trombone = a large metal instrument that you play by blowing into it and sliding a long tube in and out to change sounds
tuba = a large metal instrument that consists of a curved tube with a wide opening that points straight up; it produces a very low sound
tune = to make a musical instrument play the right tone
various = different
viola = a wooden instrument that you play like a violin ; but it is larger and has a lower sound
whereas = while, but
woodwind = musical instruments made of wood or metal that you play by blowing air into them. They usually have finger holes.
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What were volitos first demonstrated in Soho London in 1823? | Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947 who was opponent - IT - 402
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Jimmy Doyle died during a title fight in 1947 who was opponent Sugar Ray Robinson 66 In 1900 Persian soldiers were paid with what Donkeys 67 In Islington in London it’s a £50 fine for sleeping where The Public Library 68 Dr Deidrich Knickerbocker invented which famous character Rip Van Winkle 69 What occupation would use a dibber Gardener - to make planting holes 70 Which group of people first used gold fillings Incas of Peru 71 Miss Lemon is what detectives confidential secretary Hercule Poirot 72 Name Alice's pet cat Dinah 73 In the siege of Mafeking who led the defenders Robert Baden Powell 74 Beethoven's fifth piano concerto is nicknamed what The Emperor 75 What did Aristotle claim as the most delicate of table meats Camel 76 Which annual world championship is held at Coxheath Kent Custard Pie throwing 77 In which film did Cliff Richard sing Living Doll in 1959 Serious Charge 78 Which Lombardy town is famed for its cheese Gorgonzola 79 Which acid dissolves glass Hydrofluoric Acid 80 Who wrote The female of the species more deadly than the male Rudyard Kipling 81 Musical terms - what does De Capo mean on a score From the beginning 82 What is a half of a half of a half of a half A Sixteenth 83 Who recorded as Dib Cochran and the Earwigs Marc Bolan and David Bowie 84 In what country is Tiahuanaco Bolivia 85 What exactly are chitterlings Fried animals birds small intestines 86 What was Winston Churchill's codename during WW2 Agent 87 There are 4.5 gallons of ale in what container Pin 88 Of what did the poet John Milton die Gout 89 The musical instrument piccolo means what in Italian Small 90 In what country could you spend a tugrik Mongolia 91 All the pictures of which king are always shown in profile King of Diamonds 92 Pernell Roberts played which character in a TV western series Adam Cartwright 93 1937 saw the first BBC TV broadcast of which event Wimbledon Tennis 94 Which orchestral instrument can play the highest note The Violin 95 Who was the runner up in the 1979 Le Mans 24 hour race Paul Newman 96 Airman T E Shaw in WW2 was better known as who T E Laurence of Arabia 97 Italian painter Jacopo Robusti is better known as who Tintoretto 98 What were volitos first demonstrated in Soho London in 1823 Roller Skates 99 Which Mozart opera is subtitled School for Lovers Cosi fan Tuti 100 In literature who married Mary Morstan Dr John Watson Page 135
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10000 general knowledge questions and answers www.cartiaz.ro No Questions Quiz 68 Answers 1 Which game begins when the referee shouts draw Lacrosse 2 What is litmus derived from Lichens 3 Hydrosis is the medical term for what Sweating 4 Misogamy is a dislike or hatred of what Marriage 5 What car has been voted European car of the Century Mini 6 In India what is a khidmutgar A Waiter 7 Who sang about Saturday Night at the Movies The Drifters 8 Who owned the sword Joyeuse Charlemagne 9 It was finally abolished in Britain in 1948 - what was Flogging 10 Beethoven's sixth symphony is known as what The Pastoral 11 Which English King had the most legitimate children (18) Edward I 12
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| Roller Skates |
In literature who married Mary Morstan? | April 22 | Little Bits of History
Little Bits of History
Posted in History by patriciahysell on April 22, 2015
Lenin reading Pravda
April 22, 1912 (OS): Pravda becomes Lenin’s and the Communist Party’s mouthpiece. The Soviets were still using the old style calendar at the time, changing in 1918. The paper’s name translates into “Truth” and remains the political paper of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation. Though officially given this day as its birthday to coincide with Karl Marx’s birthday, it traces its origins back to 1903. It was founded by VA Kozhevnikov, a wealthy railway engineer, in Moscow during the buildup to the Russian Revolution of 1905. The original paper had no political agenda and was an outlet for the arts and literature as well as Moscovian social life. Many of the early writers became the editorial board and then part of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP). Kozhevnikov fell out with them and replaced them with a new editorial board supporting the Menshevik faction.
Spilka, another splinter group of the RSDLP, took over the paper and in 1908, Leon Trotsky was invited to edit the paper, which moved to Vienna in 1909. Now with a hard-line Bolshevik editorial board, Trotsky put the printing into a tabloid format and distanced the subject matter from inner party politics. A large following of Russian workers supported Pravda. In January 1912, a sixth conference of the RSDLP was held and the Menshevik faction was expelled. Lenin decided to make Pravda his mouthpiece and shifted the publishing site from Vienna to St. Petersburg with the first official paper coming out on this date.
Up to 42 different editors followed before a tsarist edict shut down the paper in July 1914. With the tsar overthrown in the February Revolution of 1917, the paper was once allowed to see print. When Joseph Stalin and others returned from exile in March, they took over the editorial board. Their outlook was far different from their predecessors and they supported the Provisional Government and the war effort. When Lenin returned to Russia on April 3 and condemned the Provisional Government, Pravda supported him. After the October Revolution of 1917, there were almost 100,000 copies of Pravda sold daily.
In 1991, Russian President Boris Yeltsin shut down the Communist Party and seized all of its property, including Pravda. The paper was sold and resold and in 1996 was once again held by the Communist Party. Today, the paper is politically aligned with Communism or the far-left. The three times a week broadsheet is published under the leadership of Boris Komotsky. It is owned by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation and has a circulation of 100,300. They also maintain a web presence with an English version available online as well. Their print version is suffering hard times, like other papers around the world. They are still located at the same headquarters at Pravda Street where it once put out daily Soviet papers.
Did you know that there is no exact rhyme in the Russian language for the word ‘pravda’? Ponder and weigh this insufficiency in your mind. Doesn’t that just echo down the canyons of your soul? – Julian Barnes
A good newspaper, I suppose, is a nation talking to itself. – Arthur Miller
That ephemeral sheet,… the newspaper, is the natural enemy of the book, as the whore is of the decent woman. – Edmond de Goncourt
I read the newspaper avidly. It is my one form of continuous fiction. – Aneurin Bevan
Also on this day: One Ringy-Dingy – In 2000, the UK updates the phone system.
Earth Day – In 1970, Earth Day was first celebrated.
Oklahoma Land Run – In 1889, land in Oklahoma was parceled out in a land run.
Posted in History by patriciahysell on April 22, 2014
Robert John Tyers patent for roller skates
April 22, 1823: Robert John Tyers patents roller skates. He was a fruit seller from Piccadilly, London and called his invention Volitos. They were an “apparatus to be attached to boots … for the purpose of travelling or pleasure.” They used a series of five small wheels arranged in a single line and the developer demonstrated their use at the tennis court in Windmill Street. The first use of something akin to skates was in 1760 by Joseph Merlin in Belgium (perhaps). The paired four small boxwood wheeled skates were patented in 1863 by James L. Plimpton of New York. This became a far more popular style, at least for a time.
The early roller skates simply took the idea of ice skates and instead of having a blade to slide across the ice, used an arrangement of wheels to slide across a smooth surface. They were difficult to use as they did not steer well and stopping was a problem since they had no brakes. The improvement of a new type of wheel placement was shown when Plimpton arranged the wheels like those seen on a carriage which provided stability. Each pair of wheels was placed on its own axel and gave the wearer far more control with steering. The popularity of skating increased dramatically and this type of skate is still used today.
What started out as a game eventually became a competitive sport. Speed skating, racing on skates, and figure skating evolved. Roller Derby is a contact sport played on roller skates and developed in the 1930s. Roller hockey was developed in the 1990s and the game played with a ball rather than a puck became so successful that it made a brief appearance in the 1992 Olympics. By the end of the millennium, a study by The National Sporting Goods Association showed that 2.5 million people had played roller hockey. Roller skating itself was considered as an Olympic sport, but has not yet been included.
Roller Skating Rinks opened and allowed people a place to skate with a known flat surface. They formed their own association in 1937 as the craze for skating spread. They still offer classes to the public and help to educate the public on the benefits of skating. During the 1980s there was a disco dance craze that allowed skaters to bust a move to the tunes of the day. The health benefits of skating are put forth at the Roller Skating Association’s web page and include a total body workout which burns 350 calories per hour if covering 6 miles and 600 calories if skating at 10 mph. Inline skates (trade name Rollerblade) were first available commercially in 1987 and changed the whole game of skating.
Talent without discipline is like an octopus on roller skates. There’s plenty of movement, but you never know if it’s going to be forward, backwards, or sideways. – H. Jackson Brown, Jr.
I’d ice-skated before, because I’m Canadian and that’s what you do as a kid, but I’d never, ever been on quad skates. – Ellen Page
The Orioles’ Dick Hall comes off the mound like a drunk kangaroo on roller skates. – Joe Garagiola
I laugh at absurdity hardest, then stories, then observations, then bearded men on roller skates. – T. J. Miller
Also on this day: One Ringy-Dingy – In 2000, the UK updates the phone system.
Earth Day – In 1970, Earth Day was first celebrated.
Oklahoma Land Run – In 1889, land in Oklahoma was parceled out in a land run.
Posted in History by patriciahysell on April 22, 2013
Earth Day 1970
April 22, 1970: Earth Day is first celebrated. There are two spring dates set aside to honor our planet. The UN sponsors a date at the vernal equinox, a tradition founded by John McConnell. A second date, founded by US Senator Gaylord Nelson, is celebrated worldwide on April 22. Each year, people from around the world stop and look around, noticing the fragile system we call home. They give voice to environmental issues with outreach programs to include schools, churches, and all concerned inhabitants of Mother Earth.
Nelson was an environmentalist with a passion for preservation. He was responsible for keeping many open spaces throughout the US and after 18 years in the Senate, he became counselor of The Wilderness Society where he continued to embrace environmental issues. He was concerned with sustainable populations, clean air, and conservation techniques. He was Chairman for Earth Day XXV in 1995. His last Earth Day was celebrated with his grandson, planting a tree. He died in 2005 at the age of 89.
John McConnell began a push for a day to support stewardship of Earth in the late 1960s. He wrote a Declaration of Planetary Rights “concerning the rights of all people to Earth’s land, sea, minerals, oil and other natural resources.” While the opening line suggests the Earth is for humans, the text repeatedly implores us to remain conscious of conservation of precious resources. He wrote an Earth Day Proclamation for the United Nations in 1973 and it was signed by 36 dignitaries. McConnell also wrote the 77 Theses On the Care of the Earth. He addressed this work to those “who seek to do the things about ecology, economics and ethics that foster peaceful progress on our planet.”
The theme for Earth Day 2008 was “A Call for Climate.” In 2009, we celebrated “The Green Generation” and this year, the day coincides with the World People’s Conference on Climate Change. It is the International Year of Biodiversity. Nothing is without criticism. Earth Day, claimed Alex Steffen (advocate for bright green environmentalism) has come to symbolize the pessimistic, political thinking and portrays humans in a negative light. Arbor Day which was begun in the United States in 1872, he said, was a celebration of trees – something lost to the newer movement.
“There is a sufficiency in the world for man’s need but not for man’s greed.” – Mohandas K. Gandhi
“I’m not an environmentalist. I’m an Earth warrior.” – Darryl Cherney
“I think the environment should be put in the category of our national security. Defense of our resources is just as important as defense abroad. Otherwise what is there to defend?” – Robert Redford
“I am the earth. You are the earth. The Earth is dying. You and I are murderers.” – Ymber Delecto
This article first appeared at Examiner.com in 2010 . Editor’s update: Gaylord Nelson chose the date for his celebration of Mother Earth deliberately. He felt that college students were our greatest hope for a better future and he wanted to include as many of them as possible in the plan. The dates he selected were between April 19 and 25 because students were done with Spring Break and not yet into finals or graduation worries. The theme for Earth Day 2013 is The Face of Climate Change. Their mission statement is “Climate change can seem like a remote problem for our leaders, but the fact is that it’s already impacting real people, animals, and beloved places. These Faces of Climate Change are multiplying every day. Fortunately, other Faces of Climate Change are multiplying too: those stepping up to do something about it. Together, we’ll personalize the massive challenge climate change presents by telling the world these stories through images shown at thousands of Earth Day events around the world.”
Also on this day: One Ringy-Dingy – In 2000 the UK updates the phone system.
Oklahoma Land Run – In 1889, land in Oklahoma was parceled out in a land run.
Posted in History by patriciahysell on April 22, 2012
Antonia de Padua Maria Severino Lopez de Santa Anna y Perez de Lebron
April 22, 1836: The Texas forces under Sam Houston capture Santa Anna. Antonia de Padua Maria Severino Lopez de Santa Anna y Perez de Lebron was a Mexican political leader, on and off president of Mexico, and General leading the troops against the Texans fighting a war of Independence. Texas was under Mexican control when hostilities broke out on October 2, 1835. The American settlers were not happy with the Mexican rule of Coahuila y Tejas. The Siete Leyes (Seven Laws) of 1835 saw Santa Anna (then President) abolishing the Constitution of 1824, a representative government offering the ruled a voice in their leadership.
The Seven Laws were unpopular throughout Mexico and several of the United Mexican States resorted to violence. The Battle of Gonzales began the Texans’ War of Independence. By March 2, 1836, Texas had declared itself independent of Mexican rule. On March 6, the Battle of El Alamo (from the Mexican perspective) was ended with the Texans suffering a crushing defeat. The Alamo was taken and every American rebel was killed. Even the Texans who had surrendered were killed as the order came to take no prisoners. Davy Crockett and James Bowie both died in the attack. The Goliad Massacre (March 27) also resulted in 350 Texans killed.
The battle of San Jacinto was fought on April 21. General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican forces numbering 1,360. The 910 Texans were waiting for Santa Anna’s troops to attack. Instead of allowing them to rest, the Texans took the lead and attacked with an outflanking maneuver interrupting the Mexicans taking their afternoon siesta (with no guards posted). At 4:30 PM, Vince’s Bridge was burned and the Texans silently advanced through the woods and surprised Santa Anna’s troops. There were only nine Texans killed with 23 more wounded. The Mexican forces had 630 killed, 208 wounded, and 730 captured.
Santa Anna escaped and was found hiding in a marsh, wearing a dragoon private’s uniform on this date. He was taken to acting Texas President, David G. Burnet and eventually the Treaties of Velasco were signed by both men. Santa Anna was held for months before being transported back to Mexico. The new government there failed to recognize the treaty signed by their ex-President. There were two treaties, one formal with ten points, and a second secret treaty with seven points. Eventually a pact was reached later in the year marking the border between the two combatants at the Rio Grande.
Texas, to be respected must be polite. Santa Anna living, can be of incalculable benefit to Texas; Santa Anna dead, would just be another dead Mexican. – Sam Houston
When a general is given command of an army and everything that is necessary is furnished to him and placed at his disposal, he should be held strictly responsible if he departs from the established rules of war. The government has said, and with truth, that all the resources at its command were placed at my disposal in this campaign, but these being so few, could it have given me many? – Santa Anna
History does not teach fatalism. There are moments when the will of a handful of free men breaks through determinism and opens up new roads. – Charles de Gaulle
Liberty is always dangerous, but it is the safest thing we have. – Harry Emerson Fosdick
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What links Dr Spock Errol Flynn and Emperor Nero? | No Questions Quiz 64 Answers - No Questions Quiz 1 Answers
No Questions Quiz 1 Answers
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No Questions Quiz 64 Answers
1 What links Dr Spock Errol Flynn and Emperor Nero Olympics Rowing
Boxing Chariot
2 In what series of books did The Empress of Blandings appear Jeeves and Wooster
a pig
3 What colour is iridium Steel Grey
4 Who founded ASH ( Action on Smoking and Health ) in 1971 Royal College of
Physicians
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10000 general knowledge questions and answers www.cartiaz.ro No Questions Quiz 64 Answers 1 What links Dr Spock Errol Flynn and Emperor Nero Olympics Rowing Boxing Chariot 2 In what series of books did The Empress of Blandings appear Jeeves and Wooster a pig 3 What colour is iridium Steel Grey 4 Who founded ASH ( Action on Smoking and Health ) in 1971 Royal College of Physicians 5 What organisation opposes ASH FOREST 6 Who was the 1958 Cha-Cha champion of Hong Kong Bruce Lee 7 Who directed the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia David Lean 8 In mythology Romulus Remus suckled by a shewolf fed by what Woodpecker 9 In Gustav Holsts Planets suite what planet is missing Pluto not known then 10 If you went on the road to Mandalay what country are you in Miramar or Burma 11 Which cathedral has 4440 statues Milan 12 Tarom Airlines is the national carrier of which country Romania 13 What does an armadillo taste like Pork 14 In what French district do most of the best clarets come from Medoc 15 What was the first complete symphony to be recorded Beethoven's fifth 16 Thomas Minton at Stoke on Trent created what in 1789 The Willow Pattern 17 What European nation was the first to drink tea The Dutch 18 What's the worlds longest rail journey made no train change Moscow Peking 19 What was first built in the Place de Greve in 1792 The Guillotine 20 In what book does Humpty Dumpty first appear Through the looking Glass 21 Who was called The Man of Destiny Napoleon Bonaparte 22 19-19-19 who's vital statistics Olive Oyl 23 Name both families in Soap Tates Campbells 24 Where would you find a gemshorn On an Organ 25 The flower convallaria is better known as what Lily of the Valley 26 In what stage show does Frank N Furter appear The Rocky Horror Picture Show 27 Who invented the rocking chair Benjamin Franklin 28 Gerald Thomas directed what series of films Carry on Films 29 What did composer Berlioz originally study Medicine 30 Ocean is NOT recognised International Hydrographic Bureau Antarctic Ocean 31 In the Saint series of books what is Inspector Teal's full name Claude Eustace Teal 32 What is the most common Spanish surname Garcia 33 Pirates of Penzance 34 Aconite the poison is obtained from what plant Wolf's-bane 35 What culture introduced hats and crackers at Xmas season Ancient Rome 36 Chang 1st Wang 2nd what third most common Chinese name Li 37 What word is derived from the Arabic mawsim meaning season Monsoon 38 What's the other name for the statue of Egyptian god Harmachis The Sphinx 39 The French call it nature morte the Spanish bodegon what is it Still Life painting 40
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Kenyatta University
IT 402 - Spring 2015
1 2 3 4 5 Sampling In Research What is research? According Webster (1985), to researc
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Who founded ASH ( Action on Smoking and Health ) in 1971? | About ASH – Action on Smoking and Health
Home / About ASH
About ASH
Action on Smoking and Health (ASH) was established in 1971 (20 January) by the Royal College of Physicians. It is a campaigning public health charity that works to eliminate the harm caused by tobacco. We do not attack smokers or condemn smoking. The organisation is headed by the Chief Executive, Deborah Arnott, and governed by a Board of Trustees . The Duke of Gloucester is our patron.
While we aim to be innovative and agenda setting in our work, our policies are always evidence based and follow a dual approach:
Information and networking: To develop opinion and awareness about the “tobacco epidemic”
Advocacy and campaigning: To press for policy measures that will reduce the burden of addiction, disease and premature death attributable to tobacco.
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Who was the 1958 Cha-Cha champion of Hong Kong? | Forest | ASH awarded WHO medal on 40th "birthday"
Headlines > ASH awarded WHO medal on 40th "birthday"
ASH awarded WHO medal on 40th "birthday"
Thu 16th June, 2011
Public health minister Anne Milton presented ASH chief executive Deborah Arnott with an award from the World Health Organisation at a special meeting of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Smoking and Health.
Milton presented Arnott with the World No Tobacco Day Award 2011 in recognition of ASH’s "dynamic" international work.
The meeting, held to mark the anti-smoking group's 40th anniversary, was hosted by Liberal Democrat MP Stephen Williams, chairman of the APPG on Smoking and Health.
Other speakers were Labour MP Kevin Barron, chairman of the Health Select Committee when the smoking ban was introduced in England in 2007, Sir Richard Thompson, president of the Royal College of Physicians, which founded ASH in 1971, and Professor John Moxam, chairman of ASH.
Source: Action on Smoking and Health (16 June 2011)
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Who directed the 1962 film Lawrence of Arabia? | Watch Lawrence of Arabia Online | 1962 Movie | Yidio
Watch Lawrence of Arabia
"A Mighty Motion Picture Of Action And Adventure!"
Lawrence of Arabia is an epic drama film that came out in the year 1962. It is about a life experience of T.E. Lawrence. The movie was directed by David Lean along with being written by Robert Bolt and Michael Wilson. The film Lawrence of Arabia is known to be one of the greatest movies of all time. In the film, viewers will see the experiences of Lawrence in Arabia during World War I. These events include the attacks on Aqaba and Damascus, along with his experiences with the Arab National Council. During this film, Lawrence has many psychological conflicts including the violence of war, his allegiance to Britain, and also his own identity.
During World War I, Lawrence was a lieutenant in the British army. He did not fit into the culture and was a bit of an outcast as a result. Despite being a bit of a misfit, he is known to have a vast amount of knowledge and is then sent to the Arab Bureau to investigate Prince Faisal's revolt against Turkey. While Lawrence is going to meet with Faisal, his guide is killed by a Sheriff named Ali. After a while, Lawrence orders a surprise attack on Aqaba to help open up a port for the British military. Lawrence then leads his allies to overtake a Turkish garrison. Later on, Lawrence goes to Cairo to inform his commanders of his recent victory. Lawrence is then appointed to major and to support the Arabs in the war.
Once Lawrence has become major, he orders a guerilla war by attacking the Turks at every opportunity. This gets the attention of an American war correspondent named Jackson Bentley. Lawrence is now famous as his exploits have been exposed. During a scouting mission in the city of Daraa, Lawrence is taken to a Turkish hideout. There he is ogled, prodded and stripped. After this experience he is very traumatized and no longer wants to be part of military operations. However, a man named Allenby asks him to help try to take over Damascus. Eventually Lawrence regains his confidence and decides to go on the mission. In the end Lawrence recruits killers and mercenaries to help defeat the Turks. He is then promoted to Colonel. After his victory, he is driven away by a car once his usefulness to Britain and Arabia is established.
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In mythology Romulus Remus suckled by a she-wolf fed by what? | Super Reviewer
½
A splendorous epic restored to near perfection, running now for almost four hours of magnificent visuals and fantastic dialogue, and it offers us both O'Toole and Sharif in superb performances - especially the former as a complex, contradictory man in a journey from eccentric soldier to mad exhibitionist.
Carlos Magalhães
Super Reviewer
½
During production,no one knew that this would be a bold or mad act of genius it would be to make Lawrence of Arabia,or even think that it could be made. In the words years later of one of it's stars,Omar Sharif: "If you are the man with the money and somebody comes to you and says he wants to make a film that's four hours long,with no stars,and no women,and no love story,and not much action either,and he wants to spend a huge amount of money to go film it in the desert-what would you say?" The impulse to make this movie was based,above all,on imagination. The story of Lawrence is not founded on violent battle scenes or cheap melodrama but on David Lean's ability to imagine what it would look like to see a spec appear on the horizon of the desert and slowly grow into a human being. There are severa moments in the film when the hero,the British eccentric soldier and author T.E. Lawrence has survived a suicidal trek across the desert and is within reach of shelter and water-and he turns around and goes back,to find a friend who has fallen behind. This sequence builds up to the shot in which the shimmering heat of the desert reluctantly yields the speck that becomes a man-a shot that is held for a long time. That is just the first of several scenes that stand out which includes the spectacular battle sequences and in the moment where Peter O'Toole's character does a victory dance on top of a Turkish train. For a movie that runs 216 minutes,plus intermission is one of cinema's great masterpieces and for it's 50th Anniversary it still stands throughout the test of time(originally the running time stands at 227 minutes which was the roadshow version complete with full entrance overture and intermission and exit music). When it came out in 1962,it became the highest grossing film in the history of Columbia Pictures,not to mentioning becoming the highest grossing picture that year. Nominated for an impressive 12 Oscars,it was victorious in winning 7 including the Best Picture of 1962. Lawrence of Arabia might have been lost forever if it hadn't been for the film's restorers Robert A. Harris and Jim Painten They discovered the original negative in Columbia's vaults,inside crushed,and rusting film cans,and also was missing about thirty-five minutes of footage that had been trimmed by distributors final Lean's final cut(when in the 1971 re-release was completely butchered). They painstakenly put it together again,sometimes by one crumbling frame at a time. But to see this in a movie theater is to basically appreciate the subtlety of Freddie Young's Oscar winning cinematography. Lawrence of Arabia was one of the last films to be actually photographed in 70mm(Super Panavision 70),and to see this in it's restored Technicolor format after it's glorious re-release in 1989 and to experienced this in full 6-channel Dobly Stereo Sound is something every filmgoer can appreciate. Lawrence of Arabia made Peter O'Toole an international icon and a major bonafide star along with Omar Sharif(who would go on to star in another David Lean epic "Doctor Zhivago" three years later). The cast itself is astounding ranging from Alec Guinness,Anthony Quinn,Claude Rains,Arthur Kennedy,Jack Hawkins,Anthony Quayle and Jose Ferrer. Please avoid the cable TV versions and it is worth seeing in a huge movie theater with 70mm projection.
Mister Caple
Super Reviewer
An indisputable classic concerning an unruly British soldier (Peter O'Toole) tasked by the army to provide assistance to the Arabs in their battle against the Turks. This sweeping, nearly four-hour epic is definitely a long watch, but a rewarding one if you have the patience to see the complete arc of a fascinating, arresting character. O'Toole is the perfect man of the part, as he fully captures the emotions of a character in a "fish out of water" scenario. Aided by a strong supporting cast and a story that expertly captures the politics of the days of the WWI, this is a bonafide masterpiece. Sure, it is definitely overlong, but it is better that way, as it feels in some ways viewing the movie as a journey itself, which in turn feels fitting.
Dan Schultz
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What does an armadillo taste like? | Armadillos as Food
Armadillos as Food
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Do people really eat armadillos?
It may seem like an odd question, but the answer is “Yes”. In many areas of Central and South America, armadillo meat is often used as part of an average diet. Armadillo meat is a traditional ingredient in Oaxaca, Mexico. I have heard that some peoples of South America keep small varieties of armadillos as edible housepets. During the Depression, armadillos were often eaten by hungry people. They were called “Hoover hogs” by people angry with then-President Herbert Hoover’s broken promise of a chicken in every pot. The meat is said to taste like fine-grained, high-quality pork.
I have seen several online recipes for armadillo, and I have been told that armadillo meat is an acceptable substitute for pork, chicken, or beef in many dishes. (I have not yet had an opportunity to dine on armadillo myself, so I can&38217; say personally whether this is true.) If you have access to armadillo meat, don’t be afraid to try it, but you should make sure that the meat is cooked thoroughly to avoid the possibility of contracting a disease. Armadillos are known to carry leprosy , and although the incidence level is fairly low in most regions there is still a risk of transmission if the meat is undercooked.
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In what French district do most of the best clarets come from? | Armadillo | Uncyclopedia | Fandom powered by Wikia
“Put an Armadillo in your tank, that's the way to keep the tiger in!”
~ Vladimir Exxon
“Crusty from the inside, no, wait... soft from the crust, no dammit! Don't you touch it !!”
~ Jack "Armadillo" Burton trying to get his advert line right
The Armadillo is a carnivorous quadruped of the American Southwest, especially Mexico . The Armadillo is a reptomammal; this means that it is part reptile and part mammal . The skin is scaly like that of a reptile , yet the creature has hair, which is a characteristic of mammals. Among Americans, the Armadillo is most famed for its starring role in the music video Rock the Casbah by The Clash . It is also a well known fact that Armadillos are responsible for everything that goes wrong in the world, and that they're good eatin'.
For the religious among us who choose to believe lies, the so-called experts at Wikipedia have an article about Armadillo .
Contents
[ show ]
edit General Description and Corporal Hygiene
Where? Where? Where does it come from, where is it, where does it go, where were you when they arrived? Where do you find the right answers to the wrong questions? Not at Wikipedia , my dear facts lover, not there. Read on, find the correct nonsense here, at Klondyke.
edit Etylom... etomyl... where the name comes from
The word "Armadillo" is Mexican for "The Walking Human Arm Which Resembles Both a Reptile and a Mammal". The Armadillo was named so because it resembles a large human arm. It also looks like a large penis ( having an erection ) [1] . Spanish talking people from outside Mexico keep believing in their old popular omylot... elotym... way of explaining where the word comes from: they believe it to be a diminutive form of "armado", which means "armed". They're wrong, of course: the animal doesn't have arms, it only looks one, albeit a Mexican one. Read on, read on, and you will know why it doesn't always look like a (Mexican) arm.
Armadillos are experts at camouflage
An Armadillo using camouflage to ambush a truck.
The question whether the Armadillo is a camouflage virtuoso or not remains unanswered so far: some scientists claim it is unsurpassed, others call it "unuseless creativity" [2] While examples of advanced camouflage tactics, envied by the US Marines, are to be found in many places (such as the right side of this page) and occasions (now, for example), we can also find examples of equally advanced camouflage tactics, envied by nobody:
Armadillos are experts at creativity
edit Habitat and bad habits
Armadillos thrive wherever humans are found, such as slums, cantinas, dumpsters, Wal-Marts, Home Depots, and taxis. The man-eating variety of Armadillos are also known to inhabit Long Island New York. Extended contact with said human habitat also led to assimilating his bad habits, such as smoking and running for president , properties which both can lead to universally dreaded New Year Resolutions. The "Smoke a Dillo" campaign didn't help much: the little animals keep smoking like chimneys, as the Spanish saying goes.
The armadillo, seen in its natural environment.
Despite its cute appearance, some Armadillos tend to develop as highly aggressive, territorial creatures, feeding on small children, rodents, and anything with a pulse. These behaviors have led to many confrontations between man and Armadillo. Since its discovery, the Armadillo has competed with man in order to survive. The score so far: Man 6 billion - Dillo 6 brazillon (most of them in Texas )
edit Armadillo attacks
The incidence of Armadillo attacks has risen dramatically in the past 28 years. Unfortunately, growing human populations have encroached onto the Armadillo's natural habitat, which has lead to a rise in deadly encounters. For example, in 1967, only 113 people were killed by Armadillos in the United States. However, by 2004, there were over 200 billion [3] Armadillo-related deaths in the state of Texas alone. It is predicted that if left unchecked Armadillos will cause the extinction of the human race by 2017. This happens to be one of NRA's most brandished arguments, especially in the southern states. Plus also Armadillos are ruthless aunt eaters, too! FACT!
Also known as Armoured Possums in the south. They are known to make noises similar to giggling leprechaun children.
edit What to do in case of an encounter with an Armadillo
Don't be fooled. It is not a hug he's after.
If you are enjoying a day in the slums, dumpsters, or retail stores, or taking a ride in the back of a taxi in the Southwest, it is advised that you keep a sharp eye out for Armadillos. In order to steer clear of them, it is wise that you follow the
edit 6 Basic Rules Of Armadillo Avoidance
1. Look for Armadillo tracks and fresh scat. For that matter, look for Armadillos.
2. Listen for Armadillo calls (resembles the sounds made by children with The Most Severe Form Of Mental Retardation ).
3. Try not to roll around in areas that are permeated by the estrus scents of female Armadillos.
4. Stay away from Armadillo burrows.
5. Keep your face well away from the ground at all times.
6. If you are in the process of intercourse and an Armadillo comes out, be prepared for it to furiously rape you and your partner with its thorny cock.
The following rules are a list of guidelines for the most extreme of circumstances, and tell you
edit What You Should Do In Case You Are Attacked By A Wild Armadillo
1. Do not fight back against an Armadillo. This will only cause additoinal injuries.
2. Dog urine and feces are natural Armadillo deterants. If you happen to be carrying either of these two items, use them to your advantage.
3. If bad comes to worse , and an Armadillo tries to maul you, the safest thing to do is play dead.
4.If the Armadillo continues to maul you after you've assumed the prone position and are not moving, just wait for the pain to subside. Most fatal Armadillo attacks end within 10-15 minutes.
5. Remember, killing an Armadillo is a serious offense in the state of California. Killing an Armadillo carries a fine between $50,000-$80,000,000,000.
6. Always check if it is just drunk. Armadillos are ALL notorious for being alchoholics; this drunkenness leads to further visciousness. Don't touch one if it is passed out; you will die.
edit Armadillo mutants
edit The scientific side
We've all heard about mutating hedgehogs growing fierce armors with steel-like spikes capable of puncturing car tyres, haven't we? The seemingly cute Armadillo is probably heading in that direction too. Professor A.B.S. Booty, already known to the real Uncyclopedia reader from her work on the Thong Dynasty , is doing some mighty interesting research on the subject now. Her work isn't published yet [4] , but moved by her sympathy for the groundbreaking work Uncyclopedia's authors deliver in spreading hidden science amongst its discerning readers, she allowed a peek into her writings. That's where we found -and were allowed to publish- the drawing she made of the "Hideous Hedgehog" and some interesting photographs of the "Tankadillo", a very dangerous mutation of the Armadillo.
The Hideous Hedgehog and three important phases in the life of a mutant Armadillo-Tankadillo.
Anthony Oz, one of the most feared leaders of the Tankadillo uprise, wearing his exclusive (XVIIth Century Vintage!) "Rabane" sunglasses while inspecting his troops.
Attention: not ALL mutants end up as Tankadillo: their commanders tend to keep the aspect of harmless (?) Armadillos, as shown on our exclusive picture of one of them, wearing a set of exclusive "Rabane" sunglasses. They use to operate at night, remember? However advanced their mutations may become, their eyes will always remain very sensitive! They are dumb mutating armadillos!
edit The artist's view
An early artist's take on the Tankadillo. Courtesy of the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas (US)
Once again, artist's were ahead of science. The 1971 ELP's "Tarkus" front cover unveils a well-felt premonition of the upcoming danger. Da Vinci's sketches of armoured vehicles are said to be inspired by the looks of an Armadillo brought from the Spanish colonies. The famous Samurai look the Japanese are so fond of, is not due to an artist inspired by dillos, nor is it an example of supreme Armadillo camouflage: it's just a matter of bad taste in choosing underwear.
edit Save the Armadillo
We were also allowed to read (and publish) some of Prof. Booty's early conclusions, one of which led to her foundation of the "Save the Armadillo!" movement. "Rather than trying to fight them, we should learn to domesticate the "dillos", in order to prevent them from mutating ALL! I'm currently experimenting with feeding them cornflakes with olive oil, and spinach on sundays. It makes them very tame and friendly, and they don't have those wild dreams anymore. I love them!", Prof. Booty says. Donations can be made through her bank account [5] , and are used to create armadillo reserves. The movement is located in California , and the fines that are paid in that state for killing Armadillos go straight to said bank account.
edit Dance and Dine, Guns and Movies: Armadillos in Culture
edit Limbo champions
Do you belong to those who's knowledge of dancing animals is restricted to bears , elephants , horses and other circus acts? Lucky you, who's horizon is on the verge of being broadened!
edit Invading Limbabwe's Pride
Emilio "El Dillo" Camillo, the 2007 World Champion on his way to the contest.
The Armadillo is the unbeaten World Champion of Limbo dancing, leaving the authentic Limbos [6] a sad second place. Well, even with only a couple of thousand dillos participating, the Limbos couldn't even come near the podium, but after having failed to disqualify the Armadillo for those dancing contests, they managed to change the rules so that each "tribe" can delegate only one dancer at a World Championship contest. This results in a steady occupation of the podium: Armadillos first, Limbabwe second, Trinidad third.
edit Dancing technique
The way Armadillos win the dancing contests is as simple as spectacular: when the stick is lowered too closely to the ground to let pass even a small "armadillito", the dillo goes underground, dancing beneath ground level. Their digging abilities enable them to cross the line at exactly the same speed, and with exactly the same (if not increased) musicality as when "upstairs". Their glittering outfit adds quite some glamour to the dancing too, even after a passage down below. While the champion stands on the podium, another kingsize giant dillo does one more passage, and that one's resurfacing in all its splendour closes the contest.
edit The kitchen side
Our little animal is quite popular amongst certain culinary connoisseurs too! Probably the most interesting compilation of recipes is to be found in Washington's Texan cookbook [7] , not the least because it also contains some very fine wine suggestions. You'll find that preparing a "Dasypus Novemcinctus" [8] is quite different from cooking a "Chlamyphorus Truncatus" [9] or a "Mephitis Mephitis" [10] ! This delicious book even contains the original "Hoover Hog" recipe this famous president used to serve as dinner to guests of high rank, as well as the "possum-on-the-half shell" recipe so dear to the Texan people.
edit National Armadillo Day: February the 30th
The logo of National Armadillo Day.
because you killed puppy's
edit Texas
In Texas, National Armadillo Day is in fact a day to "stay indoors because there's goddamn Armadillos out there". The brave Texans usually don't care about this well-meant warning, and go out anyway, massively, thus throwing some more Armadillos into the roadkill statistics, making them join their unhappy aforementioned brothers.
edit Indiana
Truckloads of Armadillos are brought in from the Jerome B. Washington Armadillo Farm in Texas, to be used as moving targets during the "Indiana Armadillo Shooting Contest", which stretches from the weekend before till the weekend after N.A.D. Several disciplines can be applied for, such as shooting an Armadillo
from your front porch without hitting the truck driver who just released the target
with one hand from the back of a tractor while steering with the other hand
as mentioned before, but laying on your back, thus looking at the target upside down. This is also known as the "Aussie Variant"
The most popular weapon here is the AK-47, aka the "Armadillo Bane". Outstanding champions are Jack "Armadillo" Burton (five times champion all categories save the "Aussie Variant"), and Spam Highlander . Noteworthy is Jack Fortuwan, who keeps beating Burton on the Aussie Variant.
edit Armadillo Jack goes to the movies
Already a collector's item: the original movie poster!
Due to huge demand from his fans, Jack "Armadillo" Burton was offered the main role in the -now classic- movie "Totally Clueless", a detective-western-biodocu produced by Gung Chow Ong-Nyeth, known for the thorough documentation and research he does before (and while) making a movie. This classic also features Spam Highlander, and his well-known tagline: "I've got a capslock button and I'm not afraid to use it" Needless to say that truckloads of Armadillos have been sacrified for this thrilling product.
At the moment of this writing, Armadillo Jack has nearly finished his job on "Armadillogate 08" [11] , the sequel, which is said to have even more guns and dillos in it! Jack is pitted against two (2!) villains [12] , and a charming British aristocrat [13] with a truckload of degrees is on the side of the dillos.
edit Source of all evil
Armadillos are known on the internet as the source of all evil. It is believed that the events said to happen on December 12th, 2012 will be caused by an armadillo uprising in Texas. The armadillos will conquer all of America and move to other parts of the world.
How will armadillos cause the great Southern uprising? Beginning in Texas, Chester A. Arthur (the armadillo shown in Tobe Hooper's The Texas Chainsaw Massacre) invested the paltry sum he received from his brief film career into oil speculation. Selling his first well to Exxon (now Exxon-Mobil) in 1979, Arthur now owns and operates 74 oil fields in Southeast Texas and has sold over 20 to various oil conglomerates.
A zealous member of the newly founded Tea Party, Arthur lost an election for mayor of Sweetwater, Texas. Spurred on by a dissent of the Democrat victor and the discrimination against Arthur for being an armadillo, Tea Parties cried "speciesism" while burning down Sweetwater. The movement quickly moved through Texas and infected both the Southwest and Southeast.
On December 12th, 2012 Arthur was shot three times while marching through the streets of Crowley, Louisiana. Tea Partiers swear he is innocent, even though Arthur was carrying and using weapons, including two handguns, a slingshot, and Molotov cocktails.
For more information regarding Chester A. Arthur and his current petroleum endeavors, please visit his website
| i don't know |
What was the first complete symphony to be recorded? | Ten Perfect Orchestral Recordings - The New Yorker
Ten Perfect Orchestral Recordings
May 1, 2012
I don’t know that perfection is of the greatest importance in music-making. Spirit, power, phrasing, tempo, expressiveness—all these things matter more than note-perfect execution. Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886-1954) is widely considered the one of the greatest—if not the very greatest—conductors of the twentieth century, and most of the recordings we have of Furtwängler were made at live performances and could hardly be described as perfect. Furtwängler bent phrases, extended climaxes, caressed lyrical passages—he went beyond the score in ways that most conductors would no longer dare. He had a hard-to-follow, nearly circular beat, which nevertheless produced a flow of music in which tension and relaxation electrify the meaning and emotional significance of the music. His recordings of the Brahms symphonies made in concert with the Berlin Philharmonic in the late forties and early fifties (EMI) are full of imperfections, but they make you say, again and again, “So that’s what that phrase was about—I never quite got that before.” For the listener, the result is amazement and rapture, and when the great moments come, the orchestra is there for him, with shattering power.
Arturo Toscanini screaming “più forte!” at the NBC Symphony in his live recording from Carnegie Hall of the Verdi Requiem (in 1951; BMG) is almost terrifying—the enraged old man wanted the audience to feel the power of the “Day of Judgment” section of the piece. Any modern recording executive would have taken the scream out or made the ensemble do the section over. But the scream is imperishable. And so are the bumps and mishaps in the scintillating complete Wagner Ring Cycle, conducted by the semi-obscure German Joseph Keilberth, at the Bayreuth Festival in 1955 (Testament). You can hear the singers grunting and the prompter whispering, but the music seethes (at generally fast tempos) as it does in no other Cycle, and the singers, including Astrid Varney, Hans Hotter, and Wolfgang Windgassen, were the greatest then available for these exhausting roles.
Having said all that, I would be faking if I didn’t also say that orchestral perfection can be breathtaking, particularly when it reveals new details. Hearing everything in a score, and in perfect balance—that’s part of the emotion of music-listening, too. What follows is a short list of what sound to me like perfect orchestral recordings. I say this as a complete amateur, a mere music-lover. I can’t follow the performances score in hand, but I have heard many recordings and live performances of these works, and I’m sure, simply by means of comparison, that these are great performances. You can get any of them from ArkivMusic or Amazon .
The best general guide to recordings of classical music is the enormous (fourteen hundred pages) Gramophone Classical Music Guide (published annually), not to be confused with the equally enormous but mediocre Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music (which seems to have given up on annual publication). The Gramophone people are both erudite and impassioned, and do their best to match up old and new recordings.
Beethoven: Symphonies No. 5 & 7. Carlos Kleiber, Vienna Philharmonic (DG). According to one of his fans, Kleiber conducted just ninety-six concerts and around four hundred operatic performances. He made only a handful of orchestral and operatic recordings—not much activity for a man who lived to the age of seventy-four. Standing before an orchestra, Kleiber, who was exceptionally handsome, with an eagle-like gaze and great long arms, was in absolute command (see the rehearsal footage of him in the moving documentary “ Carlos Kleiber: Traces to Nowhere ”). When conducting a concert—his eyes afire, smiling at the orchestra, his right arm slashing through the air—he seems to be enjoying himself as much as, say, Leonard Bernstein (there are excerpts of Kleiber conducting Beethoven , Mozart , and Brahms in concert on YouTube). Yet he just wouldn’t do it; at least, not very often. Didn’t want to, and no one could make him. Despite universal adoration, he cancelled almost as often as he showed up. He was moody, hyper-sensitive, childishly demanding, reclusive, a perfectionist, a kind of nervously brilliant adolescent, easily upset; he hated the recording studio and loved women and nature, running off to some hideaway in Slovenia and staring at the fields for hours. He died there, alone. A complete mystery. Herbert von Karajan, a mentor to him, was amazed by the public diffidence of so obviously talented a man, and, in fact, Kleiber turned down the directorship of the Berlin Philharmonic when von Karajan resigned, in 1989.
The famous recordings of Beethoven’s Fifth and Seventh were made with the Vienna Philharmonic, in the mid-nineteen-seventies. The Fifth—it’s pretty much the consensus view—is the greatest modern recording of the piece. When Mahler conducted the New York Philharmonic, in the early twentieth century, he tried to get the orchestra to play the opening chords with the proper weight. Well, with Kleiber, you certainly hear it—not just weight, but, as the movement goes on, speed, elegance of phrasing, perfect unanimity, and awesome power. The rest of the symphony is fine, but not as overwhelming as the first movement. The distinction of the Seventh can be heard right at the beginning, in the extraordinary tension of those rapid figures in the introduction. The allegretto is taken at a steady, fast pace, almost heartbreaking as it goes on; the third and forth movements are articulated with complete clarity and a kind of ecstatic bounce.
Berlioz: “Symphonie Fantastique.” Colin Davis, London Symphony (LSO Live). Colin Davis has led the Berlioz revival for more than forty years; this is his fourth recording of the “Symphonie Fantastique,” and the best (it was made at a concert at the Barbican, in London, in 2000). Davis takes his time; the pauses, hesitations, rumblings, murmurs, and dreamy passages are given full play. He lays out the structure very clearly, and with all sorts of details—a soft caressing of strings, bits of color in the winds and harp—that go beyond performance levels of any other recording I’ve heard. Tremendous excitement at the end.
Bruckner: Symphony 4. Günter Wand. Berlin Philharmonic (RCA). Von Karajan’s recording of this strange, awkward, magnificent symphony with the same orchestra on Deutsche Grammophon is faster and more dramatic; Böhm’s, with the Vienna Philharmonic, is just lumbering and grand. Wand’s performance, captured at a concert in 1998, is incandescently beautiful. Any conductor can make an impression in Bruckner with those gigantic sonorities. Wand makes the quiet moments signify, and the build up to the climaxes, with those maddeningly repetitive string figures, are amazing—each little figure has character and warmth. When the peak arrives, you feel as if the orchestra has fought for it, earned it.
Dvořák: Symphonies No. 8 & 9. Rafael Kubelík, Berlin Philharmonic (DG). Full-bodied yet lithe, these are the best versions of these two popular works. Kubelík gets the dance rhythms, the burbling woodwinds, the graciousness and charm, and then the fiery summing-up. Other performances can sound clumsy, rigid, or overdriven by comparison.
Mahler: Symphony No. 7. Leonard Bernstein, New York Philharmonic (DG). The first movement of the Seventh is a lurching stop-and-go affair, a procession of exaltations, despairs, desperate feints, reassurances, and stern marches, followed by parody of stern marches, and so on. If a conductor just races through all the gear changes, as Valery Gergiev does with his technically accomplished but uninflected performance with the London Symphony, the music sounds rushed and disorganized. In brief, you have to embrace the craziness to make the music sound sane. The earlier Bernstein performance with the Philharmonic, from the sixties, always felt overwrought to me, but in this concert recording, from 1985 (I was there for one of the performances), Bernstein got it exactly right. The lyrical episodes are exceptionally tender, and the transitions back to the principal-march material, in which Bernstein stretches tempo and holds the moment until he seems about to burst, are, well, orgasmic. The spooky middle movements go very well, and the last movement is a riotous rush. At the end, the entire orchestra slowly swings back and forth, like a giant hanging onto a bell rope. The Bernstein performance of the morbidly intense Symphony No. 6, with the Vienna Philharmonic (DG), is also tremendous—feverish and harrowing, but very clear in texture and exquisitely shaded; for instance, the Grand Guignol mutterings and shudders at the beginning of the last movement.
Mahler: Symphony No. 9. Herbert von Karajan, Berlin Philharmonic (DG). Von Karajan came to Mahler late in his career. Let’s agree to pretend that anti-Semitism had nothing to do with it. In any case, I remember not liking his first recorded effort—the Fifth Symphony, from 1973. The textures were too thick, too carpeted and beautiful; he didn’t seem to have a handle on the pungently aerated style, the true Mahler sound. The later performances of other works were better, but this Ninth—the greatest of all Mahler symphonies—is pretty much amazing from beginning to end (it’s the consensus choice). Von Karajan had always possessed an absolute sense of pulse. He doesn’t rush through those long, excruciating climaxes in the first movement, when the music seems to be tearing itself apart; he holds a steady course, and you hear everything, with no loss of power. The solo playing is incomparable, the Berlin strings consoling. The peasant-dance second movement is a little slower than that of other conductors, but the detail—those trills in the horns and winds—are biting; the famously difficult-to-play scherzo as viciously annihilating as you could want, and the finale is one of the greatest things von Karajan ever did . There is the enormous, shaded, songful sonority of the strings; the frozen interludes (very still, like some sort of futuristic music from an outer galaxy); and then the wrenching climax—one of the truly apocalyptic moments in all music—followed by the release from that catastrophe, as the horns sing out in what feels like a defiant affirmation in the face of death, before the music fades away. One bit of confusion: there are two recordings of the Ninth by von Karajan and the Berlin Philharmonic, made only a few years apart (1980 and 1982). They are very similar, but I slightly prefer the earlier one. It’s cheaper, too.
Rimsky-Korsakov: “Scheherazade.” Sir Thomas Beecham, Royal Philharmonic (EMI). Gergiev’s recording (with the Kirov Orchestra) is more violent, Reiner’s (with the Chicago Symphony) is richer sounding. But this performance, from 1958 (sound is good), feels right for the music. Beecham understood that “Scheherazade” was possibly the most expertly made crowd-pleaser ever written (Rimsky write it in six weeks, which makes one wonder why he didn’t write five other pieces like it). The phrasing is relaxed but not indulgent; glamorous but not swamped in unfocussed luxuriance in the Ormandy manner. It’s a very sophisticated, knowing performance, elegant and then muscular, with a great shipwreck at the end.
Stravinsky: “Le Sacre du Printemps.” Pierre Boulez, Cleveland Orchestra (Sony). Not to be confused with Boulez’s later performance of the work with the same orchestra on DG, which isn’t as good. Again, Gergiev’s performance is more violent, theatrical, an assault. Some of Boulez’s tempos are deliberate, but this performance (from 1970) reveals colors and rhythmic intricacies that I’ve never heard elsewhere, and there’s plenty of power when you want it.
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5. Serge Koussevitzky, Boston Symphony (EMI; with other works conducted by Koussevitzky). There are good modern recordings of the Fifth—Mravinsky and the Leningrad Philharmonic is a great one—but nothing that has the special fervor of this vintage Boston Symphony performance from 1944 (sound is no better than O.K.). At that point, the B.S.O. really was the greatest orchestra in the world. Every section sings, even the trombones. Like Furtwängler, Koussevitzky takes liberties—slowing before climactic moments, for instance—that no one would get away with now. Such liberties are a matter of taste; there’s no hard-and-fast rule about them. Either they fit the music or they don’t. These fit.
Strauss: “Ein Heldenleben.” Fritz Reiner, Chicago Symphony (BMG). The year after he took over the orchestra, in 1953, Reiner recorded “Heldenleben” and “Also Sprach Zarathustra” (also on this disk), and the Chicago Symphony was born as the modern American super-orchestra. Firm bass line, magnificent brass, a terrifically articulate moving mass of sound. Plenty of thrust to both performances, and the early stereo recording sounds great. It was made with a simple three-mic setup, and in some ways has never been bettered for naturalness and warmth.
Photograph of Carlos Kleiber conducting the Teatro alla Scala Orchestra, in 1978, by Giorgio Lotti/Mondadori/Getty Images.
David Denby has been a staff writer and film critic at The New Yorker since 1998.
| Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven) |
Thomas Minton at Stoke on Trent created what in 1789? | Ten Perfect Orchestral Recordings - The New Yorker
Ten Perfect Orchestral Recordings
May 1, 2012
I don’t know that perfection is of the greatest importance in music-making. Spirit, power, phrasing, tempo, expressiveness—all these things matter more than note-perfect execution. Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886-1954) is widely considered the one of the greatest—if not the very greatest—conductors of the twentieth century, and most of the recordings we have of Furtwängler were made at live performances and could hardly be described as perfect. Furtwängler bent phrases, extended climaxes, caressed lyrical passages—he went beyond the score in ways that most conductors would no longer dare. He had a hard-to-follow, nearly circular beat, which nevertheless produced a flow of music in which tension and relaxation electrify the meaning and emotional significance of the music. His recordings of the Brahms symphonies made in concert with the Berlin Philharmonic in the late forties and early fifties (EMI) are full of imperfections, but they make you say, again and again, “So that’s what that phrase was about—I never quite got that before.” For the listener, the result is amazement and rapture, and when the great moments come, the orchestra is there for him, with shattering power.
Arturo Toscanini screaming “più forte!” at the NBC Symphony in his live recording from Carnegie Hall of the Verdi Requiem (in 1951; BMG) is almost terrifying—the enraged old man wanted the audience to feel the power of the “Day of Judgment” section of the piece. Any modern recording executive would have taken the scream out or made the ensemble do the section over. But the scream is imperishable. And so are the bumps and mishaps in the scintillating complete Wagner Ring Cycle, conducted by the semi-obscure German Joseph Keilberth, at the Bayreuth Festival in 1955 (Testament). You can hear the singers grunting and the prompter whispering, but the music seethes (at generally fast tempos) as it does in no other Cycle, and the singers, including Astrid Varney, Hans Hotter, and Wolfgang Windgassen, were the greatest then available for these exhausting roles.
Having said all that, I would be faking if I didn’t also say that orchestral perfection can be breathtaking, particularly when it reveals new details. Hearing everything in a score, and in perfect balance—that’s part of the emotion of music-listening, too. What follows is a short list of what sound to me like perfect orchestral recordings. I say this as a complete amateur, a mere music-lover. I can’t follow the performances score in hand, but I have heard many recordings and live performances of these works, and I’m sure, simply by means of comparison, that these are great performances. You can get any of them from ArkivMusic or Amazon .
The best general guide to recordings of classical music is the enormous (fourteen hundred pages) Gramophone Classical Music Guide (published annually), not to be confused with the equally enormous but mediocre Penguin Guide to Recorded Classical Music (which seems to have given up on annual publication). The Gramophone people are both erudite and impassioned, and do their best to match up old and new recordings.
Beethoven: Symphonies No. 5 & 7. Carlos Kleiber, Vienna Philharmonic (DG). According to one of his fans, Kleiber conducted just ninety-six concerts and around four hundred operatic performances. He made only a handful of orchestral and operatic recordings—not much activity for a man who lived to the age of seventy-four. Standing before an orchestra, Kleiber, who was exceptionally handsome, with an eagle-like gaze and great long arms, was in absolute command (see the rehearsal footage of him in the moving documentary “ Carlos Kleiber: Traces to Nowhere ”). When conducting a concert—his eyes afire, smiling at the orchestra, his right arm slashing through the air—he seems to be enjoying himself as much as, say, Leonard Bernstein (there are excerpts of Kleiber conducting Beethoven , Mozart , and Brahms in concert on YouTube). Yet he just wouldn’t do it; at least, not very often. Didn’t want to, and no one could make him. Despite universal adoration, he cancelled almost as often as he showed up. He was moody, hyper-sensitive, childishly demanding, reclusive, a perfectionist, a kind of nervously brilliant adolescent, easily upset; he hated the recording studio and loved women and nature, running off to some hideaway in Slovenia and staring at the fields for hours. He died there, alone. A complete mystery. Herbert von Karajan, a mentor to him, was amazed by the public diffidence of so obviously talented a man, and, in fact, Kleiber turned down the directorship of the Berlin Philharmonic when von Karajan resigned, in 1989.
The famous recordings of Beethoven’s Fifth and Seventh were made with the Vienna Philharmonic, in the mid-nineteen-seventies. The Fifth—it’s pretty much the consensus view—is the greatest modern recording of the piece. When Mahler conducted the New York Philharmonic, in the early twentieth century, he tried to get the orchestra to play the opening chords with the proper weight. Well, with Kleiber, you certainly hear it—not just weight, but, as the movement goes on, speed, elegance of phrasing, perfect unanimity, and awesome power. The rest of the symphony is fine, but not as overwhelming as the first movement. The distinction of the Seventh can be heard right at the beginning, in the extraordinary tension of those rapid figures in the introduction. The allegretto is taken at a steady, fast pace, almost heartbreaking as it goes on; the third and forth movements are articulated with complete clarity and a kind of ecstatic bounce.
Berlioz: “Symphonie Fantastique.” Colin Davis, London Symphony (LSO Live). Colin Davis has led the Berlioz revival for more than forty years; this is his fourth recording of the “Symphonie Fantastique,” and the best (it was made at a concert at the Barbican, in London, in 2000). Davis takes his time; the pauses, hesitations, rumblings, murmurs, and dreamy passages are given full play. He lays out the structure very clearly, and with all sorts of details—a soft caressing of strings, bits of color in the winds and harp—that go beyond performance levels of any other recording I’ve heard. Tremendous excitement at the end.
Bruckner: Symphony 4. Günter Wand. Berlin Philharmonic (RCA). Von Karajan’s recording of this strange, awkward, magnificent symphony with the same orchestra on Deutsche Grammophon is faster and more dramatic; Böhm’s, with the Vienna Philharmonic, is just lumbering and grand. Wand’s performance, captured at a concert in 1998, is incandescently beautiful. Any conductor can make an impression in Bruckner with those gigantic sonorities. Wand makes the quiet moments signify, and the build up to the climaxes, with those maddeningly repetitive string figures, are amazing—each little figure has character and warmth. When the peak arrives, you feel as if the orchestra has fought for it, earned it.
Dvořák: Symphonies No. 8 & 9. Rafael Kubelík, Berlin Philharmonic (DG). Full-bodied yet lithe, these are the best versions of these two popular works. Kubelík gets the dance rhythms, the burbling woodwinds, the graciousness and charm, and then the fiery summing-up. Other performances can sound clumsy, rigid, or overdriven by comparison.
Mahler: Symphony No. 7. Leonard Bernstein, New York Philharmonic (DG). The first movement of the Seventh is a lurching stop-and-go affair, a procession of exaltations, despairs, desperate feints, reassurances, and stern marches, followed by parody of stern marches, and so on. If a conductor just races through all the gear changes, as Valery Gergiev does with his technically accomplished but uninflected performance with the London Symphony, the music sounds rushed and disorganized. In brief, you have to embrace the craziness to make the music sound sane. The earlier Bernstein performance with the Philharmonic, from the sixties, always felt overwrought to me, but in this concert recording, from 1985 (I was there for one of the performances), Bernstein got it exactly right. The lyrical episodes are exceptionally tender, and the transitions back to the principal-march material, in which Bernstein stretches tempo and holds the moment until he seems about to burst, are, well, orgasmic. The spooky middle movements go very well, and the last movement is a riotous rush. At the end, the entire orchestra slowly swings back and forth, like a giant hanging onto a bell rope. The Bernstein performance of the morbidly intense Symphony No. 6, with the Vienna Philharmonic (DG), is also tremendous—feverish and harrowing, but very clear in texture and exquisitely shaded; for instance, the Grand Guignol mutterings and shudders at the beginning of the last movement.
Mahler: Symphony No. 9. Herbert von Karajan, Berlin Philharmonic (DG). Von Karajan came to Mahler late in his career. Let’s agree to pretend that anti-Semitism had nothing to do with it. In any case, I remember not liking his first recorded effort—the Fifth Symphony, from 1973. The textures were too thick, too carpeted and beautiful; he didn’t seem to have a handle on the pungently aerated style, the true Mahler sound. The later performances of other works were better, but this Ninth—the greatest of all Mahler symphonies—is pretty much amazing from beginning to end (it’s the consensus choice). Von Karajan had always possessed an absolute sense of pulse. He doesn’t rush through those long, excruciating climaxes in the first movement, when the music seems to be tearing itself apart; he holds a steady course, and you hear everything, with no loss of power. The solo playing is incomparable, the Berlin strings consoling. The peasant-dance second movement is a little slower than that of other conductors, but the detail—those trills in the horns and winds—are biting; the famously difficult-to-play scherzo as viciously annihilating as you could want, and the finale is one of the greatest things von Karajan ever did . There is the enormous, shaded, songful sonority of the strings; the frozen interludes (very still, like some sort of futuristic music from an outer galaxy); and then the wrenching climax—one of the truly apocalyptic moments in all music—followed by the release from that catastrophe, as the horns sing out in what feels like a defiant affirmation in the face of death, before the music fades away. One bit of confusion: there are two recordings of the Ninth by von Karajan and the Berlin Philharmonic, made only a few years apart (1980 and 1982). They are very similar, but I slightly prefer the earlier one. It’s cheaper, too.
Rimsky-Korsakov: “Scheherazade.” Sir Thomas Beecham, Royal Philharmonic (EMI). Gergiev’s recording (with the Kirov Orchestra) is more violent, Reiner’s (with the Chicago Symphony) is richer sounding. But this performance, from 1958 (sound is good), feels right for the music. Beecham understood that “Scheherazade” was possibly the most expertly made crowd-pleaser ever written (Rimsky write it in six weeks, which makes one wonder why he didn’t write five other pieces like it). The phrasing is relaxed but not indulgent; glamorous but not swamped in unfocussed luxuriance in the Ormandy manner. It’s a very sophisticated, knowing performance, elegant and then muscular, with a great shipwreck at the end.
Stravinsky: “Le Sacre du Printemps.” Pierre Boulez, Cleveland Orchestra (Sony). Not to be confused with Boulez’s later performance of the work with the same orchestra on DG, which isn’t as good. Again, Gergiev’s performance is more violent, theatrical, an assault. Some of Boulez’s tempos are deliberate, but this performance (from 1970) reveals colors and rhythmic intricacies that I’ve never heard elsewhere, and there’s plenty of power when you want it.
Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 5. Serge Koussevitzky, Boston Symphony (EMI; with other works conducted by Koussevitzky). There are good modern recordings of the Fifth—Mravinsky and the Leningrad Philharmonic is a great one—but nothing that has the special fervor of this vintage Boston Symphony performance from 1944 (sound is no better than O.K.). At that point, the B.S.O. really was the greatest orchestra in the world. Every section sings, even the trombones. Like Furtwängler, Koussevitzky takes liberties—slowing before climactic moments, for instance—that no one would get away with now. Such liberties are a matter of taste; there’s no hard-and-fast rule about them. Either they fit the music or they don’t. These fit.
Strauss: “Ein Heldenleben.” Fritz Reiner, Chicago Symphony (BMG). The year after he took over the orchestra, in 1953, Reiner recorded “Heldenleben” and “Also Sprach Zarathustra” (also on this disk), and the Chicago Symphony was born as the modern American super-orchestra. Firm bass line, magnificent brass, a terrifically articulate moving mass of sound. Plenty of thrust to both performances, and the early stereo recording sounds great. It was made with a simple three-mic setup, and in some ways has never been bettered for naturalness and warmth.
Photograph of Carlos Kleiber conducting the Teatro alla Scala Orchestra, in 1978, by Giorgio Lotti/Mondadori/Getty Images.
David Denby has been a staff writer and film critic at The New Yorker since 1998.
| i don't know |
What European nation was the first to drink tea? | Tea's Arrival in Europe
Tea's Arrival in Europe
By James Norwood Pratt
When the Dutch brought the first tea to Europe in 1610, England's Good Queen Bess had been dead seven years, Shakespeare had six years to live, and Rembrandt was four years old. After decades of Portuguese middle-manship, the Dutch East India Company had been formed in 1602, to establish bases in Indonesia and Japan and trade directly with the Orient. And by 1637 the Company's directors, the Lords Seventeen, were writing their governor general in Indonesia: "As tea begins to come into use by some of the people, we expect some jars of Chinese as well as Japanese tea with each ship." They got their jars on a regular basis thereafter, it appears, for within a few years tea had become a fashionable, if expensive, beverage among high society at The Hague. And if it sometimes cost the equivalent of a hundred dollars or more per pound, so what? The people Vermeer pictured for us in rooms rich with colored maps and intricate Oriental carpets were nothing if not affluent. At first they bought their tea from apothecaries, who added it and other such luxury items as sugar and ginger and spices to their line of medicines. By the year of Vermeer's death (1675, six years after Rembrandt's), tea was being sold in grocery stores to rich and poor alike and was in general use throughout Holland.
It is about this time we find a certain Dr. Bontekoe advising his Dutch readers to use eight or ten cups of tea daily, hastily adding he sees no reason to object to fifty, one hundred or two hundred cups, as he frequently consumed that much himself! The good Dr. Bontekoe met a premature end from a fall for which tea was no cure; his detractors thought him in the pay of the Dutch Fast India company, which had made him a handsome honorarium for the impetus he'd given their tea sales. Tea became a daily necessity in Dutch life as quickly as people could learn how to enjoy it.
In the light of more recent history, it seems strange that tea drinking encountered no official intolerance in Europe-no rabid prohibitionists, no self-perpetuating anti-drug agency. You can, however, trace the spread of tea from Holland by the proliferation of medical Viewers with Alarm. Even before regular imports began, the first of these had warned in a Latin treatise that tea "...Hastens the death of those that drink it, especially if they have passed the age of forty years." This same medical authority, Dr Simon Paulli, also assured his readers that "girl's breasts that are rubbed with the juice of hemlock do not grow thereafter, but remain properly small and do not change the size they are." Prior to Bontekoe's pronouncements, even a Dutch physician, prejudiced by a moldy batch it sounds like, could deride tea as "groats and dishwater, a tasteless and disgusting beverage!" Soon after tea reached Germany we find a German medico gravely blaming tea for the "dried-up" appearance of the Chinese and exclaiming, "Down with tea! Send it back!"
The mid-1600s saw tea set off the kind of raging debate the French are famous for, a prominent Parisian doctor becoming the first to denounce it as "the impertinent novelty of the century." A colleague of his was soon complaining that "the Dutch bring tea from China to Paris and sell it at thirty francs a pound, though they have paid but eight or ten sous in that country, and it is old and spoiled into the bargain. People must regard it as a precious medicament..." You can just see how he must have shook his head. Nonetheless, before the century is finished, poems to tea appear in French. In one of her letters, Madame de Sevigne finds it worthy of note that a friend of hers takes her tea with milk-imagine!-and the aged Racine, who died in 1699, begins every day drinking tea with his breakfast. There is a painting in the Louvre by a certain Olivier depicting perhaps the most famous French tea. It is entitled Tea a l'anglaise in the Grand Salon of the Temple with the Court of the Prince de Conti Listening to the Young Mozart, and it is dated nigh a century after the honest de Sevigne gossip. It is precisely this depiction of how the French nobility gave an "English-style" tea party that assures us the French had given up on tea for themselves. Once the "novelty of the century" had worn off, almost all Frenchmen returned to the beverages traditionally associated with their national life-wines, mostly cheap and occasionally divine, and dark-roasted coffee. The Germans likewise, after the first flurry of excitement, came to ignore the new drink, preferring their old and true favorite, beer. A European tea merchant of 1700 would have recognized only two growing markets outside Holland-England and Russia.
| Dutch people |
What was first built in the Place de Greve in 1792? | Tea History - Europe - Colonies
The Dutch brought tea to Europe from China, trading dried sage in exchange.
1618
Chinese ambassadors presented Czar Alexis with a gift of several chests of tea.
1657
Tea was first sold in England at Garway's Coffee House in London. The East India Company operated out of several sites in the City of London, the first in Philpot Lane, Fenchurch, then it took a lease on Lord Northampton's mansion, Crosby Hall, Bishopsgate and then in 1658 another move before it finally leased Lord Craven's House in Leadenhall Street.
Under the terms of a charter granted by Elizabeth I, The East India Company owned all trading rights and controlled the sale of those imported goods back to Britain.
1661
The Taiwanese began to drink wild tea.
1662
Charles II took Catherine Braganza of Portugal as his wife. They both drank tea, creating a fashion for it. Its popularity among the aristocracy causes alcohol beverages to fall from favor.
1669
Close to 150 pounds of tea were shipped to England. Until 1669, most of the tea drunk in Britain was bought from the Dutch.
1689
Traders with three hundred camels traveled 11,000 miles to China and back in order to supply Russia's demand. The trip took sixteen months.
1697
In Taiwan, settlers of Formosa's Nantou County cultivated the first domestic bushes. Dutch ships carried the tea to Persia, the first known export of Taiwanese tea.
1705
The yearly importation of tea to England grew to approximately 800,000 pounds
1706
The first auction dedicated to tea took place in Craven House, which became known as East India House. These East India Company auctions were held quarterly. Such early auctions were "Sold by the Candle," a system whereby a candle was marked off in inches, it was lit when the bidding began, the hammer was brought down as the first inch line was reached and so on down the candle for each lot.
1710
Wealthy American Colonists developed a taste for tea.
1773
The Tea Act of 1773 giving the East India Company control of trading in the Americas imposed the same taxes and levies on the colonists as paid by the British. Objection led to an act of rebellion known as the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, which is commonly viewed as a first step towards the American War of Independence. Under cover of night, colonists dressed as Native Americans boarded the East India Company ships in Boston Harbor. They opened chests of tea and dumped their contents into the water. This was repeated in other less known instances up and down the coast.
1776
China was the main tea source of eighteenth century. Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka), Central and Eastern African countries were sending teas to the London Auction.
1833
The East India Company enjoyed its monopoly for two and a half centuries. Independent merchants campaigned for change and modernization, which was achieved in 1833.
1834
An imperial edict from the Chinese Emperor closed all Chinese ports to foreign vessels until the end of the First Opium War in 1842.
Royal Assent was given to the Bill who rescinded the charter given to the East India Company; this came into force on 22nd, April 1834. The brokers began to look for new premises and found a dancing studio in Exchange Alley, City of London. In November 1834 the tea auctions were moved again to the newly built London Commercial Salesrooms, Mincing Lane and remained there until 30th January 1937 when they moved down the lane to Plantation House.
1840's
Clipper ships, built in America, sped-up the transportation of tea to America and Europe, livening the pace of trade. Some ships could make the trip from Hong Kong to London in ninety-five days. Races to London became commonplace; smugglers and blockade runners also benefited from the advances in sailing speeds.
1870
Twinings of England began to blend tea for consistency.
Tea companies began to blossom in Britain by the late nineteenth century blending, branding and packaging were giving the public a wide variety of choice.
1900
Trans-Siberian railroad made transport to Russia cheaper and faster. Java became an important producer as well.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the London Tea Auction had grown in importance. Most working days of the week were allotted to a particular country's sale with minor suppliers being herded together on convenient days.
1904
Richard Blechynden created iced tea for the St. Louis World Fair.
1909
Thomas Sullivan invented tea bags in New York, sending tea to clients in silk bags, which they began to mistakenly steep without opening.
1910
Sumatra, Indonesia grows and exports tea. Soon thereafter, tea is grown in Kenya and other parts of Africa.
1918
A National Tea Control was brought in, tea was split into three grades and sold at a fixed retail price of two shillings and eight pence, the equivalent of three and a half modern pence.
1919
The London Tea Auction resumed on 5th May 1919.
1920 - 1930
The tea trade suffered a slump like most other industry in Britain. However the tea trade found export markets to fill the gap.
1940
As Britain recovered, so did the UK tea trade, but again the economy collapsed with World War II. In 1940 tea was rationed, this remained until October 1952.
1952
The London Tea Auction resumed and took place in Plantation House until it moved to Sir John Lyon House on 8th, February 1971. Since then the tea trade has seen the introduction of the off shore auction, tea sold by the container whilst on route for the UK and the growth of the producer countries' own auctions due to increased volumes.
1970
The Taiwanese government encouraged its population to drink tea, revitalizing tea culture on the island.
1998
In the last twenty years the frequency of and volumes sold at the London Tea Auction have declined. In 1990 the auction moved to The London Chamber of Commerce where it closed in 1998.
*Information provided by www.lamyx.com
2003
India is the country with the most tea consumption in the world - an average of 651,000 metric tons per year. China is second, and consumes about 463,000 metric tons per year. USA is number one consumer of iced tea, with between 80% and 85% of our total tea consumed that way.
2006
Water is the most consumed beverage in the world, but tea is number two.
With the explosion of the Internet, almost any type of tea is easily available to anyone with a computer throughout the world.
Take a look at the tea producing regions of the world with our tea map .
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Bernhard Jr. Prince of Netherlands? | Prince Bernhard - pathological liar, Nazi background and his part in the founding of the Bilderbergers
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05Mar10 - Daily Telegraph - Dutch Prince Bernhard 'was member of Nazi party'
Prince Bernhard, the father of Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, was a member of the Nazi party, a new book has claimed, contracting the German-born Dutch war hero's life-long denials.
By Bruno Waterfield in Brussels - 6:51PM GMT 05 Mar 2010
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/netherlands/7377402/Dutch-Prince-Bernhard-was-member-of-Nazi-party.html
"Bernhard, a secret history" has revealed that the prince was a member of the German Nazi party until 1934, three years before he married Princess Juliana, the future queen of the Netherlands.
Annejet van der Zijl, a Dutch historian, has found membership documents in Berlin's Humboldt University that prove Prince Bernhard, who studied there, had joined Deutsche Studentenschaft, a National Socialist student fraternity, as well as the Nazi NSDAP and its paramilitary wing, the Sturmabteilung.
He left all the groups on leaving university in December 1934, when he went to work for the German chemical giant, IG Farben.
The prince always denied having been a member of the Nazi party, although he admitted that he briefly had sympathised with Adolf Hitler's regime. In one of the last interviews he gave before his death in 2004, he said: "I can swear this with my hand on the Bible: I was never a Nazi."
As the Nazis invaded Holland in 1940, the young prince consort, then aged 28, organised a group of palace guards that engaged in combat with German forces.
Denied the chance to stay and organise resistance by the then Queen Wilhelmina, he became head of the Dutch Royal Military Mission based in London.
As "Wing Commander Gibbs" an honorary rank he held in the RAF the prince later flew Allied bombing raids over occupied Europe before returning in 1944 as a Dutch war hero.
09Mar10 - Queen's father, Bernhard, a creature of his own myths
By our news staff
http://vorige.nrc.nl/international/article2500347.ece/Queens_father_a_creature_of_his_own_myths
A new biography of the late Dutch prince Bernhard, the current queens father, reveals more of his Nazi past.
Prince Bernhard zur Lippe-Biesterfeld (1911 2004) was the father to the Dutch queen Beatrix, a hero for the Dutch resistance against the German occupation during the second world war, and a member of the Nazi party. In a new biographical dissertation published on Monday, journalist and historian Annejet van der Zijl reveals a lot of unflattering information about this man who, even after his death, continues to inspire strong emotions.
Van der Zijl draws harder conclusions about his behaviour than other biographers before her. She writes that Bernhards lifestyle and the myths he created around his own person have done permanent damage to the integrity of the monarchy. She dubs him a failure in the history of the Dutch royal family.
In spite of his German blood, prince Bernhard was seen as a hero of the Dutch resistance against the German occupation of 1940 - 1945. But his life was also mired in controversy. In 1976, the prince was stripped of his military titles after allegations of accepting bribes from the American aircraft manufacturer, Lockheed, which was then trying to sell its planes to the Dutch military. In an interview that was published after his death, he admitted to having two illegitimate children, next to the four daughters he fathered with the late Dutch queen Juliana.
Saviour or failure?
Prince Bernhards marriage to Juliana, who ruled the Netherlands from 1948 till 1980, also remains the subject of frequent debate. The couple spent large parts of their lives effectively, though not publicly, separated. The marriage, and the monarchy, was cast into crisis when the queen befriended a faith healer, Greet Hofmans, in the 1950s. As the time Hofmans spent at the court and her influence on the queen grew, Bernhard increasingly objected to her presence. In 1956, he leaked the story of this Dutch Rasputin to the German press, jumpstarting a chain of events that would lead to her removal from the court.
A biography of the couples marriage published in 2008 painted a far more flattering picture of Bernhard than Van der Zijls new work does. Its author, historian and legal scholar Cees Fasseur believed prince Bernhard had saved the monarchy by leaking the story to the press.
Even though Fasseur was a member of her dissertation committee, Van der Zijl comes to an almost opposite conclusion.
Lies and omissions
Van der Zijl, who is famous in the Netherlands for other biographies and works of narrative non-fiction, spent five years studying the early years of Bernhards life in Germany. Her dissertation was published under the title Bernhard, a secret history on Monday. According to Van der Zijl, the main question guiding her research: What makes Sammy run? was quickly supplemented with a second: What makes Sammy lie?
Van der Zijl shows that prince Bernhards account of facts in his life very often differed from reality. For example, he did not tell the (whole) truth concerning his membership of Hitlers national-socialist organisations. Bernhard may have later sincerely felt he was not a former Nazi, but he was one, Van der Zijl writes.
She claims that till now Bernhard has never been placed in his proper historical context. In her dissertation, she describes pre-war Germany, where he grew up, as a place where anti-Semitism was an everyday, almost unremarkable part of life certainly with the nobility that classically thought in terms of lower and higher types of people .
Prince Bernhard always denied he harboured sympathies for the Nazis, who came to power when he was 21 years old. He admitted to being a (novice) member of national socialist organisations like the German Students Association, but he always insinuated he had been forced into membership because, without it, he would have been unable to pass his exams.
Nazi membership
Van der Zijl, however, found a membership card signed by the prince himself on which he reported being a member of the Nazi paramilitary group SA since April 27, 1933. The SA-membership was preceded by an obligatory six month novice membership, which means Bernhard must have applied for membership as early as 1932, a year before the Nazis rose to power, Van der Zijl argues. At that time in history there was no pressing reason for him to do so, she writes. She proposed this claim to the head archivist of Berlins Humboldt Universität, where Bernhard had studied. It would be years before [
] the nazification of education had progressed so far that political demands were placed on students from the top down, he told her.
Bernhard lied about other things beside his Nazi involvement, according to Van der Zijl. For example, he omitted crucial facts regarding his athletic abilities. Bernhard, who loved nothing more than to present himself as a born athlete, never reported that his athletic abilities were given a humiliating mangelhaft (lacking) grade at the high school he attended. Bernhard had also said his parents were so rich he was the only student in Berlin in the 1930s who owned a car,but on his membership card of the German Students Association (Deutsche Studentenschaft), Bernhard reported he lacked means of transportation.
Money and social standing
Van der Zijl argues that Bernhard married Juliana not out of love for her, but for his own mother, Armgard. His marriage to Juliana assured Bernhard and his family a place in the highest circles. His father had done the opposite and lost social standing by marrying Bernhards mother.
Van der Zijl was allowed access to Bernhards Zur Lippe family archives. She also spoke to family members, friends and other people who had encountered Bernhard in the first part of his life. According to her, Bernhard himself proved to be one of the most unreliable sources.
Project CA-35
The incredible story of a probable attempt to end World War Two early by German industrialists. They could see they were about to loose the war and their wealth.
Was Prince Bernhard waiting for the ill-fated industrialists with Princess Juliana at the Chatham Bars Inn, Cape Cod? see also Sub Sea Recovery's website and the Bilderberg History page
The U-boat was sunk by a US Navy Blimp using depth charges - see scans of the U-boat lying in sand off Cape Cod as well as original plans copied from captured documents now in US archives.
The wreck of a giant and secret WWII U-boat has been found by the above off Cape Cod, Mass. east coast USA. It slipped out of Germany on the same day as the assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler.
What was it's mission and what happened between its first signal messages to the map room at the White House and its sinking? Why, moreover, was the Dutch Royal family, and possibly Bilderberg supremo Prince Bernhard, holidaying on the coast that day?[TG]
CA35 Type XI-B U-boat - See the full story at The Project CA35 website http://www.subsearecovery.com/ca35/
A JOINT VENTURE BY: Sub Sea Recovery Inc. and Trident Research & Recovery, Inc.
CA-35 website: A Preliminary Brief On The Search For Historical Truth - ©1998 Trident Research & Recovery Inc. - Sub Sea Recovery Inc. "On Site Operations are in progress, updates will be forthcoming"
VIII. RECENT RESEARCH - extract from CA-35 website
There have been some very interesting revelations in the Project's follow-up of research data. Due to the efforts of contributing researcher Mr. Eric Brothers U.S. State Department Protocol documents are now available to confirm one of this investigation's long-standing curiosities - the visit of members of the Dutch Royal Family to Chatham, Cape Cod during the very same time-frame in which the German Type XI-B U-Boat was known to have been operational off Cape Cod.
These documents consist of a series of notifications between the representatives of the Dutch Royal Family in exile and the Protocol Section of the Department of State. On the surface they do indeed appear to be routine in nature. It is only when viewed with the other known occurrences off Cape Cod at this time that these Protocol records seem to indicate more than just routine procedure.
For example: One of the most obvious details that stand out is the sudden departure from Chatham of Princess Juliana and her royal attendants on the morning of the 26th. of August, 1944, only hours after the known destruction of the Type XI fourteen miles to the southeast. This, combined with a published news report in the local Cape Cod Times for that date, quote the Princess as opening a short public statement upon her departure, stating: "I will not talk about anything political and cannot take questions". She goes on to say how the Royal Family enjoyed their stay at the Chatham Bars Inn, etc.
Within five minutes the impromptu interview is over and the Royal Family departs by car for Boston enroute to Canada. The fact that these State Department Protocol documents were only declassified at the time Mr. Brothers requested to view them in July of 1997 is possibly indicative - fifty four years after the fact.
To add to this new information Trident had conducted background research into the Dutch Royal Family due to its suspicions and has confirmed the following:
1) The Royal Consort, Prince Bernhardt, Husband of Juliana since 1937, was previous to their marriage an active card-carrying member of Hitler's black-shirted SS.
2) Prince Consort Bernhardt was employed prior to, during, and after the war by I.G.Farben's Industrial Espionage Unit "NW-7" which, needless to say, placed him under great suspicions by both the British and American intelligence communities. The mere fact of his employment as an "industrial spy" for Farben places him squarely within the sphere of the German Industrial community, links for which have already been established with the Type XI-B U-Boat.
There are many more details regarding the Dutch Royal Family, Prince Bernhardt, Princess Juliana and the German Industrialists which have not been included in this specific brief due to space considerations. However, the basic facts as listed above give very strong indications regarding the Dutch Royal visit to Cape Cod at this specific time in July and August of 1944. Suffice it to say that there is the very strong possibility that Prince Consort Bernhardt, through his wife Princess Juliana, may very well have been acting as a sort of liaison or facilitator in connections for Armistice Negotiations between German Industrialists and certain members of the American Department of State and Intelligence Community. The final proof for this is as yet not confirmed, but the stage is certainly set for such endeavors. Perhaps the amplified documentation for such a situation is contained within the hull of the Type XI off Cape Cod.
Used with permission - from http://www.subsearecovery.com/ca35/
©1998 Trident Research & Recovery Inc. - Sub Sea Recovery Inc.
[this article] All Rights Reserved. No part of this site may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, downloading or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers of: The CA-35 website.
The Prince and the Nazis
NATO=Nazi link two - click here for next
Extract from 'H. R. H. Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands; an authorized biography' Harrap, 1962. by Alden Hatch
In order to finish his education quickly Bernhard had to make some compromises with the monstrous political system that was fastening its grip on Germany. The story that the Prince of the Netherlands once wore the black uniform of Hitlers SS is quite true. It came about in this way.
Only eleven days after his fathers death, on June 30, 1934, Hitlers first purge, known as The Night of the Long Knives, shocked Germany and the world. On that pleasant summer evening Ernst Rohm, who had been Hitlers friend and ally from the beginning, and other leaders of the brown-shirted SA (Storm Troopers), the private army which had brought Hitler to power and who were now challenging his will, were taken in their beds and their offices, in beer-halls and on railway trains or in the streets, and shot without even a drumhead court-martial. They were an evil and degenerate crew who lived by violence and appropriately died by it, but the capricious manner of their liquidation proved that justice in Germany had been replaced by the will of a tyrant.
Nor were they the only victims. General Kurt von Schleicher, who had opposed Hitler politically, was shot in the doorway of his home, and when his wife protested too much she was murdered too. All sorts of private grudges were satisfied in the slaughter which was said at the Nuremberg trials to have taken over a thousand lives. It lasted for thirty-six hours.
From that moment no man or woman in the land was safe from the terror, especially not those who wielded power, least of all Hitler himself. The SA was disbanded and replaced by Heinrich Himmlers black-uniformed SS (Schutzstaffel), and the Gestapo (Secret State Police). They quickly set about tightening the screws of the police state.
At the beginning of his serious studies Bernhard learned that a new sort of test had been decreed for every one graduating from the universities - a written and oral political attitude examination. With his ideals and high temper he knew that was one examination he could not pass.
However, there was a way round it. Members of the various Nazi paramilitary organizations were ipso facto considered politically reliable. Bernhard had joined the League for Air Sports because he wanted to learn to fly. It had been started by the Nazi Party as a sub-rosa method of training war pilots, but it had virtually no political implications. Its leaders were the old World War I airmen like Ernst Udet, who were not Nazis and cared only about teaching young people to fly.
So Bernhard was all set until he went larking around the sky with a wild young friend who flew their plane into a lake. They swam ashore, but the plane had ceased to exist.
When they got back to the base their commander was furious. He was right, of course, says Bernhard, and we were wrong. Even though I was not at the controls, I knew I was out. So while the commandant was screaming at my friend I said, I resign too. It was just a question of who could get the words out first.
His ignominious ejection from Air Sports left Bernhard in a very vulnerable position. He belonged to no organization and had no uniform or badge to wear. He knew that the law examinations were made doubly difficult for uncommitted people, and that even if he passed them the political attitude test would eliminate him. So he looked around for a harmless cover. He found it by the grace of the son of the man who owned Bernhards favourite Berlin pub.
Young Walter Wunderlich was an idealistic Nazi: there were many such young men who truly believed in the noble aspirations of the party as voiced, but not practised, by Hitler and his lieutenants. Wunderlich was head of the Berlin unit of the Motor SS, which was made up of young men who had their own cars. They put on their uniforms and met once a week for what almost amounted to a sportscar rally. Bernhard and five or six friends in the same boat as he, including the Langenheim brothers from Morocco, went to Wunderlich.
Bernhard knew that a man had to serve in the SS for a year and a half before he was admitted to membership; until then he was on probation. Speaking for all of them, he said, Look, Walter, you know exactly how we think and what we are. But we need some sort of protection. Will you take us into your motor unit until we finish our studies? Then out we go.
Is that how you want it? Walter asked.
Yes, said Bernhard. You know just why we are doing this. Under no circumstances does any of us want to become and SS man by quicker promotion or whatsoever. Well come in our motorcars, and well all drive together till we graduate. Then out. That is the understanding.
Though Walter was a dedicated Nazi, he was a loyal friend ready to stick his neck out to help. Ill take you, he said.
They were issued overcoats, and went to the best tailor in Berlin to have their uniforms specially made. I must say we looked smart in them, Bernhard says. The extent of my services included the weekly rallies and standing guard occasionally, because if you did that you could have a free garage. We had a lot of fun and no trouble.
At the end of their studies Bernhards whole group, with one exception, left the SS and severed all connection with the party. This fellow appeared later in Holland and took advantage of Bernhards trusting nature to commit an act of treachery.
By the time Bernhard had graduated he was completely determined to get out of Germany. Von Hindenburg was dead. The last vestige of constitutionalism had disappeared as the office of President of the German Republic was abolished and Hitler named himself Fuhrer. He was now more powerful than any German Emperor had ever been, and more obsessed by lust of conquest than old Frederick Barbarossa.
The Nazi movement had gathered such momentum that Bernhard could see no hope of stopping it short of bloody catastrophe. This is not to say that he foresaw the future clearly in all its Wagnerian tragedy. He did not. But neither did he believe for a moment that the Third Reich would last a thousand years, or fifty for that matter. Even if it did he could not conceive of living in a land of government by terror. And despite the military tradition of his family and h is own creed of loyalty, he had not the conscience to become, as conscription would soon compel him to, part of a military machine dedicated to conquest.
Had he been older and his character more hardened by adversity he might have considered remaining to oppose the regime, hopeless as opposition seemed. Even so, open dissent was impossible, and he had neither the talent nor the taste for conspiracy. In addition, the only organized underground resistance was the Communist Party, which was equally distasteful to him.The only solution was self-exile.
Bernhard did not burn all his bridges immediately. As a first step he got a job in the Paris office of I.G.Farben, the great German chemical combine. Though his training had been in law, he was fascinated by industry and finance, and thought that his talents lay in this direction. Which proved to be the case.
In Paris Bernhard threw all his energy into his new career. He says that he wanted to prove that it was not nepotism that got him the job. But the truth is that by now he was so geared to high-pressure work that he could not have done otherwise. Also, the more he learned about business the more interested he became.
Though his working hours were from 8 am to 7 pm he was among the first to reach the office in the morning and the last to leave at night. In addition he took a course in shorthand and typing in the evening or during his lunch-hour, munching a sandwich while he worked. They were mad for garlic in that school, he says. I have never smelt anything like it. I started eating it in self-defence and learned to like it very much. I still do, though my family is not quite in agreement with me.
I.G.Farbens Paris manager, Dr Passarge, soon recognized Bernhard as executive material and sent him on a training course through the various departments. In the sales department he really found his metier. He negotiated several barter deals with French Indo-China - rice for chemicals - and took part in various other selling campaigns. It gave him a chance to use all his talents - financial acuteness, ability to think fast, persuasiveness, and that God-given charm of which he was completely aware. He did so well that Dr Passarge said, If you dont do something stupid youll be a manager by the time youre thirty. A little later he got the same promise in writing.
In Paris Bernhard lived in the luxurious house of his uncle and aunt by marriage, Count and Countess Paul de Kotzebue. The Countess was an American, Allene Tew, whose first husband had been Anson Wood Berther, an executive of General Electric from whom she inherited a fine old-fashioned American fortune. Countess Kotzebue doted on Bernhard, Princess Armgard says, She spoiled him terribly. All her cars were his to drive. She never refused him anything he asked. His wish was literally her command. The Kotzebues had no children, and she regarded him as a son.
Bernhard, who always returned affection in full measure, was completely devoted to Aunt Allene, and equally willing to gratify her wishes. Count Kotzebue says that many years later, when the Countess was dying at Nice, Bernhard drove all the way from Soestdijk to see her once more. Though my wife seemed to be unconscious, he said, she recognized his horn in the courtyard and said, Thats my Bernilo come to see me.
It is not to be supposed that the life of a bachelor prince in Paris was a social blank. No matter how hard Bernhard worked he always had energy left for fun. He was invited to a great many parties and went to most of them. He was a great favourite in the embassies, with one exception. Soon after I began working for I.G.Farben [see note below], he says, the German Ambassador sent a man to ask me if I would join the organization of Germans living abroad. It was, of course, a party organization, so I said, No. They gave me no further trouble, but I was never invited to the German Embassy.
However, the Belgian Ambassador, Count van Kerckhoven, was especially friendly. He had been Ambassador to Berlin when Bernhard was a student there and had been awfully nice to him. Their friendship continued in Paris. Though Bernhard had only an hour off at noon, the Ambassador often invited him for lunch and arranged things so that the meal was served the moment he arrived and protocol dispensed with, so that he could eat and run back to his job.
At one of these luncheons late in 1935 Bernhard found himself seated next do Dr Loudon, the Dutch Minister to Portugal, whom he also knew quite well. The conversation turned to the Winter Olympics at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, where Bernhard planned to go during his winter holidays. Dr Loudon told him that Queen Wilhelmina and her daughter, Princess Juliana, also planned to go to the Olympics. They will be staying at Igls, just over the mountain, he said. Perhaps you would like to call Her Majestys aide-de-camp and arrange to pay them a courtesy visit.
Thank you, I believe I will, Bernhard said. It might be amusing.
Preceding extract from:
Hatch, Alden, 'H. R. H. Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands; an authorized biography'.
Subject : Bernhard Leopold, consort of Juliana, Queen of the Netherlands,
Harrap, 1962.
Notes:
A celebration was held at the Petersburg Hotel in 1937 with top Nazis and the IG Farben board and friends to celebrate 'Nazification'.
I.G. Farben paid the SS three marks a day for unskilled concentration camp workers and four marks a day for skilled. For child labour they paid the SS 1.5 marks a day.
Bernhard and IG Farben background explored
Excerpted from the book Murder by Injection by Eustace Mullins, chapter 10: by Eustace Mullins
http://www.goldismoney.info/forums/showthread.php?t=4298&goto=nextoldest
Many American conservatives believe as a matter of faith that the Rockefellers and the Council on Foreign Relations exercise absolute control over the government and the people of United States . This thesis can be accepted as a working formula if one remains conscious of the larger issues . Two writers for whom the present writer has great respect, Dr. Emanuel Josephson and Morris Bealle, insisted on focusing on the Rockefellers and excluding all other aspects of the World Order . This severely limited the effect of their otherwise ground breaking work on the Medical Monopoly.
This writer advanced a contrary view in ``The World Order,'' fixing upon the Rothschild monetary power, which reached a point of world control by 1885, and its London policy group, the Royal Institute of International Affairs, as the policy makers for what has essentially been since 1900, re-established colonial government in the United States. The colonial, or occupation, government, functions primarily through the Council on Foreign Relations, but only as the subsidiary of RIIA and through the Rockefeller Foundation which controls government functions, the educational establishments, the media, the religions and the state legislatures.
It is true that the American colonials have ``free elections,'' in which they have the absolute right to vote for one of two opposing candidates, both of whom have been handpicked and financed by the Rockefeller syndicate. This touching evidence of ``democracy'' serves to convince most Americana that we are indeed a free people. We even have a cracked Liberty Bell in Philadelphia to prove it. American youth have been free since 1900 to be marched off to die in Hegelian wars in which both combatants received their instructions from the World Order. We are free to invest in a stock market in which the daily quantity, price and value of the monetary unit is manipulated and controlled by a Federal Reserve System which is answerable only to the Bank of England. It has maintained its vaunted ``independence'' from our government's control, but this is the only independence it has ever had.
The realization that we do indeed live under the dictates of the ``Rockefeller Syndicate'' can well be the starting point of the long road back of a genuine struggle for American independence. In exposing ``the Rockefellers'' as agents of a foreign power, which is not merely a foreign power, but a genuine world government, we must realize that this is not merely a group dedicated to making money, but a group which is committed to maintaining the power of a colonial form of government over the American people. Thus the ancient calumny of John D. Rockefeller as a man obsessed by greed (a category in which he has plenty of company) obscures the act that from the day the Rothschilds began to finance his march towards a total oil monopoly in the United States from their coffers at the National City Bank of Cleveland, Rockefeller was never an independent power, nor does any department of the Rockefeller Syndicate operate as an independent power. We know that the Cosa Nostra, or Mafia, with which the Syndicate is closely allied, has somewhat autonomous power in the regions which have been assigned to that particular ``family'' by the national directors, but this always implies that that family remains under total control and answerable for everything which occurs in its territory.
Similarly, the Rockefeller Syndicate operates under clearly defined spheres of influence. The ``charitable'' organizations, the business companies, and the policy groups, always meld into a working operation, nor can any department of the Syndicate strike out on its own or formulate an independent policy, no matter what may be its justification.
The Rockefeller Syndicate operates under the control of the world financial structure, which means that on any given day, all of its assets could be rendered close to worthless by adroit financial manipulation. This is the final control, which ensures that no one can quit the organization. Not only would he be stripped of all assets, but he would be under contract for immediate assassination. Our Department of Justice is well aware that the only ``terrorists'' operating in the United States are the agents of the World Order, but they prudently avoid any mention of this fact.
The world financial structure, far from being an unknown or hidden organization, is actually well known and well defined. It consists of the major Swiss Banks; the survivors of the old Venetian-Genoese banking axis; the Big Five of the world grain trade; the British combine, centered in the Bank of England and its chartered merchant banks, functioning trough the Rothschilds and the Oppenheimers and having absolute control over their Canadian colony through the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Montreal, their Canadian lieutenants being the Bronfmans, Belzbergs, and other financial operators; and the colonial banking structure in the United States, controlled by the Bank of England through the Federal Reserve System; the Boston Brahmin families who made their fortunes in the opium trade, including the Delanos and others and the Rockefeller Syndicate, consisting of the Kissinger network headquartered in the Rockefeller Bank, Chase Manhattan Bank, American Express, the present form of the old Rothschild representatives in the United States, which includes Kuhn, Loeb Company and Lehman Brothers.
It is notable that the Rockefeller Syndicate is far down on the list of the world's financial structure. Why then is it of such importance ? Although it is not the crucial factor in financial decision in the Western Hemisphere, it is the actual working control mechanism of the American colony. The Rockefeller family themselves, like the Morgans, Schiffs and Warburgs, have faded into insignificance, but the mechanism created in their name roars along at full power, still maintaining all of he functions for which it was organized. Since he set up the Trilateral Commission, David Rockefeller has functioned as a sort of international courier for the World Order, principally concerned with delivering working instructions to the Communist bloc, either directly, in New York or by traveling to the area. Laurance Rockefeller is active in the operation of the Medical Monopoly, but his principal interests are in operating various vacation spas in tropical areas. They are the two survivors of the ``Fortunate Five,'' the five sons of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Abby Aldrich. John D.
Rockefeller, Jr. died in an institution in Tucson, Arizona and was hastily cremated. John D. Rockefeller III died in a mysterious accident on a New York Parkway near his home. Nelson Rockefeller, named after his grandfather, died in the arms of a TV journalist; it was later revealed that he had also been in the arms of another TV journalist at the same time; the death was hushed up for many hours. It is generally believed hat he ran afoul of his Colombian drug connection, the disagreement hardly being trivial ; it involved several billion dollars in drug profits which had not been properly apportioned. Winthrop Rockefeller died an alcoholic in the arms of his black boy friend. He had been interviewed on television by Harry Reasoner to explain his hasty move from New York to Arkansas.
Winthrop leered that his black boy friend, an Army sergeant who apparently taught him the mysteries of drill, refused to live in New York. To celebrate this alliance, Winthrop Rockefeller gave magnificently to Negro causes, including the Urban League building on East 48th Street in New York. A plaque on the second floor notes that it was his gift; it might well have stated ``From Hadrian to his Antinous''.
We do not wish to imply that the Rockefellers no longer have influence, but that the major policy dictates of the Rockefeller Syndicate are handed down by other capos, of whom they continue to be a visible force. Through the person of David Rockefeller, the family is sometimes called ``the first family of the Soviet Union.'' Only he and Dr. Armand Hammer, the moving force behind USTEC, have permanent permission to land their private planes at the Moscow Airport. Others would suffer the fate of KAL 007.
Both the Rockefeller family fortune and the considerable portion set aside in the foundations of the Rockefeller Syndicate are effectively insulated against any type of government control . Fortune magazine noted August 4, 1986, that John D. Rockefeller, Jr. had created trusts in 1934 which now amounted to some $2.3 billion; another $200 million had been set aside for the Abby Rockefeller branch. The five sons had trusts which in 1986 amount to $2.1 billion. These trusts had originally amounted to only $50 million each, showing the increase in their assets as well as inflation during the ensuing half century . Fortune estimated the 1986 total Rockefeller wealth as $3.5 billion, of which $900 million was in securities and real estate.
They owned 45% of the Time Life Building; Nelson Rockefeller's International Basic Economy Corporation had been sold to a British company in 1980. For years, the Rockefeller family had deliberately kept the rents low in its major holding, the Rockefeller Center, a $1.6 billion investment yielding an annual return of 1%. This was a convenient maneuver, for tax purposes. Rockefeller Center recently went public issuing stock which was sold to public buyers. The Rockefellers are rumored to be liquidating their investments in the New York area, and reinvesting in the West, particularly in the area around Phoenix, Arizona. It is possible that they know something we don't.
However much of the Rockefeller wealth may be attributed to old John D.'s rapacity and ruthlessness, its origins are indubitably based in his initial financing from the National City Bank of Cleveland, which was identified in Congressional reports as one of the three Rothschild banks in the United States and by his later acceptance of the guidance of Jacob Schiff of Kuhn, Loeb & Company, who had been born in the Rothschild house in Frankfort and was now the principal Rothschild representative (but unknown as such to the public) in the United States.
With the seed money from the National City Bank of Cleveland, old John D. Rockefeller soon laid claim to the title of ``the most ruthless American''.
It is more than likely that it was this quality which persuaded the Rothschilds to back him . Rockefeller realized early in the game that the oil refinery business, which could offer great profits in a short time, also was at the mercy of uncontrolled competition. His solution was a simple one - crush all competition. The famous Rockefeller dedication to total monopoly was simply a business decision. Rockefeller embarked on a campaign of coercing all competing oil refineries out of business. He attacked on a number of fronts, which is also a lesson to all would be entrepreneurs. First, he would send a minion, not known to be working for Rockefeller, with an offer to buy the competing refinery for a low price, but offering cash. If the offer was refused, the competitor would then come under attack from a competing refinery which greatly undercut his price. He might also suffer a sudden strike at his refinery, which would force him to shut down. Control of labor through unions has always been a basic Rockefeller technique. Like the Soviet Union, they seldom have labor trouble. If these techniques failed, Rockefeller would then be saddened by a reluctant decision to use violence; beating the rival workers as they went to and from their jobs, or burning or blowing up the competing refinery.
These techniques convinced the Rothschilds that they had found their man.
They sent their personal representative, Jacob Schiff, to Cleveland to help Rockefeller plan further expansion. At this time, the Rothschilds controlled 95% of all railroad mileage in the United States, through the J.P. Morgan Company and Kuhn Loeb & Company according to official Department of Commerce figures for the year 1895. J.P. Morgan mentions in his Who's Who listing that he controlled 50,000 miles of U.S. railways.
Schiff worked out an elaborate rebate deal for Rockefeller, through a dummy corporation, South Improvement Company. These rebates ensured that no other oil company could survive in competition with the Rockefeller firm. The scheme was later exposed, but by that time Rockefeller had achieved a virtual monopoly of the oil business in the United States. The daughter of one of his victims, Ida Tarbell, whose father was ruined by Rockefeller's criminal operations, wrote the first major expose of the Standard Oil Trust. She was promptly denounced as a ``muckraker'' by the poseur, Theodore Roosevelt, who claimed to be a ``trust buster''. In fact, he ensured the dominance of the Standard Oil Trust and other giant trusts.
During the next half century, John D. Rockefeller was routinely caricatured by socialist propagandists as the epitome of the ruthless capitalist. At the same time, he was the principal financier of the world Communist movement, through a firm called American International Company. Despite the fact that the House of Rothschild had already achieved world control, the sound and fury was directed exclusively against its two principal, representatives, John D. Rockefeller and J.P. Morgan. One of the few revelations of the actual state of affairs appeared in Truth magazine, December 16, 1912, which pointed out that ``Mr. Schiff is head of the great private banking house of Kuhn, Loeb & Company, which represents the Rothschild interests on this side of the Atlantic. He is described as a financial strategist and has been for years the financial minister of the great impersonal power known as Standard Oil.'' Note that this editor did not even mention the name of Rockefeller.
Because of these concealed factors, it was a relatively simple matter for the American public to accept the ``fact'' that the Rockefellers were the preeminent power in this country. This myth was actually clothed in the apparel of power, the Rockefeller Oil Trust becoming the ``military-industrial complex'' which assumed political control of the nation; the Rockefeller Medical Monopoly attained control of the health care of the nation, and the Rockefeller Foundation, a web of affiliated tax exempt creations, effectively controlled the religious and educational life of the nation. The myth succeeded in its goal of camouflaging the hidden rulers, the Rothschilds.
After the present writer had been exposing this charade for some twenty-five years, a new myth began to be noised about in American conservative circles, effectively propagated by active double agents. This myth found a host of eager believers, because it heralded a growing crack in the monolithic power which had been oppressing all the peoples of the world. This new ``revelation'' was that a struggle to the death for world power had developed between the Rockefellers and the Rothschilds. According to this startling development, one faction or the other, depending on which agent you were listening to, had gained control of the Soviet Union and would use its power as the basis for achieving the overthrow of the other faction. The sudden death of several members of the Rockefeller family was cited as ``proof'' that such a struggle was taking place, although no Rothschild is known to have succumbed during this ``war''. This ignored the general understanding that Nelson Rockefeller had been ``eliminated'' as the result of losing deposit slips for several billion dollars of drugs from the Colombian cartel, or that the other Rockefeller deaths showed no trace of a ``Rothschild connection''.
Having maintained extensive files on this situation for several decades, the present writer could not believe anyone could be so misinformed as to think that ``the Rockefellers'' were now trying to seize power from the Rothschilds, at a time when the influence of members of the Rockefeller family was already in great decline, their family finances being handled by J. Richardson Dilworth, their legal affairs being handled by John J.
McCloy, and other faithful retainers; none of these retainers would have been willing to engage in a genuine power struggle, as they were faceless managers who lived only for their weekly paycheck. They had no ambitions of their own. Nevertheless, many hopeful Americans grasped the will-o-the-wisp notion that the Rockefellers were now ``good Americans'' who were willing to risk all to overthrow the Rothschilds. Amazingly enough, this pernicious story persisted for almost a decade before being relegated to the curiosities of history.
Like J.P. Morgan, who had begun his commercial career by selling the U.S. Army some defective guns, the famous fall carbine affair, John D. Rockefeller also was a war profiteer during the Civil War ; he sold unstamped Harkness liquor to Federal troops at a high profit, gaining the initial capital to embark on his drive for monopoly. His interest in the oil business was a natural one; his father, William Rockefeller had been ``in oil'' for years . William Rockefeller had become an oil entrepreneur after salt wells at Tarentum, near Pittsburgh, were discovered in 1842 to be flowing with oil. The owners of the wells, Samuel L. Kier, began to bottle the oil and sell it for medicinal purposes. One of his earliest wholesalers was William Rockefeller. The ``medicine'' was originally labeled ``Kier's Magic Oil''. Rockefeller printed his own labels, using ``Rock Oil'' or ``Seneca Oil,'' Seneca being the name of a well known Indian tribe. Rockefeller achieved his greatest notoriety and his greatest profits by advertising himself as ``William Rockefeller, the Celebrated Cancer Specialist''. It is understandable that his grandsons would become the controlling power behind the scenes of the world's most famous cancer treatment center and would direct government funds and charitable contributions to those areas which only benefit the Medical Monopoly.
William Rockefeller spared no claim in his flamboyant career. He guaranteed ``All Cases of Cancer Cured Unless They Are Too Far Gone.'' Such were the healing powers that he attributed to his magic cancer cure that he vas able to retail it for $25 a bottle, a sum then equivalent to two months' wages.
The ``cure'' consisted of a few well known diuretics, which had been diluted by water. This carnival medicine show barker could hardly have envisioned that his descendants would control the greatest and the most profitable Medical Monopoly in recorded history .=20
As an itinerant ``carnie,'' a traveling carnival peddler, William Rockefeller had chosen a career which interfered with developing a stable family life. His son John rarely saw him, a circumstance which has inspired some psychological analysts a conjecture that the absence of a father figure or parental love may have contributed to John D. Rockefeller's subsequent development as a money mad tyrant who plotted to maim, poison and kill millions of his fellow American during almost century of his monopolistic operations and whose influence, reaching up from the grave, remains the most dire and malignant presence in American life. This may have been a contributing factor - however, it is also possible that he was totally evil.
It has long been a truism that you can find a horse thief or two in any prominent American family. In the Rockefeller family it was more than a truism. William seems to have faithfully followed the precepts of the Will of Canaan throughout his career, ``love robbery, love lechery.'' He fled from a number of indictments for horse stealing, finally disappearing altogether as William Rockefeller and re-emerging as Dr. William Levingston of Philadelphia, a name which he retained for the rest of his life. An investigative reporter at Joseph Pulitzer's New York World received a tip that was followed up. The World then disclosed that William Avery Rockefeller had died May 11, 1906 in Freeport, Illinois, where he was interred in an unmarked grave as Dr. William Levingston.
William Rockefeller's vocation as a medicine man greatly facilitated his preferred profession of horse thief. As one who planned to be in the next county by morning, it was a simple matter to tie a handsome stallion to the back of his wagon and head for the open road. It also played a large part in his vocation as a woman-chaser; he was described as being ``woman-mad''.
He not only concluded several bigamous marriages, but he seems to have had uncontrolled passions. On June 28, 1849, he was indicted for raping a hired girl in Cayuga, New York; he later was found to be residing in Oswego, New York and was forced once again to decamp for parts unknown. He had no difficulty in financing his woman-chasing interests from the sale of his miraculous cancer cure and from another product, his ``Wonder Working Liniment,'' which he offered at only two dollars a bottle. It consisted of crude petroleum from which the lighter oils had been boiled away, leaving a heavy solution of paraffin, lube oil and tar, which comprised the ``liniment.'' William Rockefeller's original miracle oil survived until quite recently as a concoction called Nujol, consisting principally of petroleum and peddled as a laxative. It was well known that Nujol was merely an advertising sobriquet meaning ``new oil,'' as opposed, apparently, to ``old oil''. Sold as an antidote to constipation, it robbed the body of fat-soluble vitamins, it being a well-established medical fact that mineral oil coated the intestine and prevented the absorption of many needed vitamins and other nutritional needs. Its makers added carotene as a sop to the health-conscious, but it was hardly worth the bother. Nujol was manufactured by a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey, called Stanco, whose only other product, manufactured on the same premises, was the famous insecticide, Flit.
Nujol was hawked from the Senate Office Building in Washington for years during a more liberal interpretation of ``conflict of interest.'' In this case, it was hardly a conflict of interest, because the august peddler, Senator Royal S. Copeland, never had any interests other than serving the Rockefellers. He was a physician whom Rockefeller had appointed as head of the New York State Department of Health and later financed his campaign for the Senate. Copeland's frank display of commercialism amazed even the most blasé Washington reporters. He devoted his Senate career to a daily program advertising Nujol. A microphone was set up in his Senate office each morning, the first order of business being the Nujol program, for which he was paid $75,000 a year, an enormous salary in the 1930s and more than the salary of the President of the United States. Senator Copeland's exploits earned him a number of nicknames on Capitol Hill. He was often called the Senator from the American Medical Association, because of his enthusiastic backing for any program launched by the AMA and Morris Fishbein. More realistically, he was usually referred to as ``the Senator from Standard Oil''. He could be counted on to promote any legislation devised for the greater profit of the Rockefeller monopoly. During congressional debate on the Food and Drug Act in 1938, he came under criticism from Congresswoman Leonor Sullivan, who charged that Senator Copeland, a physician who handled the bill on the Senate floor, frankly acknowledged during the debate that soap was exempted from the law, because the soap manufacturers, who were the nation's largest advertisers, would otherwise join with other big industries to fight the bill. Congresswoman Sullivan complained the ``Soap was officially declared in the law not to be a cosmetic . .. The hair dye manufacturers were given license to market known dangerous products, just so long as they placed a special warning on the label - but what woman in a beauty parlor ever sees the label on the bulk container in which hair dye is shipped ?''
Just as the elder Rockefeller had spent his life in the pursuit of his personal obsession, omen, so his son John was equally obsessed, being money-mad instead of women-mad, totally committed to the pursuit of ever-increasing wealth and power. However, the principal accomplishments of the Rockefeller drive for power, the rebate scheme for monopoly, the chartering of the foundations to gain power over American citizens, the creation of the central bank, the Federal Reserve System, the backing of the World Communist revolution and the creation of the Medical Monopoly, all came from the Rothschilds or from their European employees. We cannot find in the records of John D. Rockefeller that he originated any one of these programs. The concept of the tax exempt charitable foundation originated with the Rothschild minion, George Peabody, in 1865. The Peabody Educational Foundation later became the Rockefeller Foundation. It is unlikely that even the diabolical mind of John D. Rockefeller could have conceived of this devious twist. A social historian has described the major development of the late nineteenth century, when charitable foundations and world Communism became important movements, as one of the more interesting facets of history, perhaps equivalent to the discovery of the wheel. This new discovery was the concept developed by the rats, who after all have rather highly developed intelligences, that they could trap people by baiting traps with little bits of cheese. The history of mankind since then has been the rats catching humans in their traps. Socialism - indeed any government program - is simply the rat baiting the trap with a smidgen of cheese and catching himself a human.
Congressman Wright Putman, chairman of the House Banking and Currency Committee, noted from the floor of Congress that the establishment of the Rockefeller Foundation effectively insulated Standard Oil from competition.
The controlling stock had been removed from market manipulation or possible buy-outs by competitors. It also relieved Standard Oil from most taxation, which then placed a tremendous added burden on individual American taxpayers. Although a Rockefeller relative by marriage, Senator Nelson Aldrich, Republican majority leader in the Senate, had pushed the General Education Board charter through Congress, the Rockefeller Foundation charter proved to be more difficult. Widespread criticism of Rockefeller's monopolistic practices was heard, and his effort to insulate his profits from taxation or takeover was seen for what it was. The charter was finally pushed through in 1913 (the significant Masonic numeral 13 - 1913 was also the year the progressive income tax and of the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act). Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, another senator from Standard Oil (there were quite a few), ramrodded the Congressional approval of the charter. The charter was then signed by John D. Rockefeller, John D.
Rockefeller, Jr., Henry Pratt Judson, president of the Rockefeller established University of Chicago, Simon Flexner, director of the Rockefeller Institute, Starr Jameson, described in Who's Who as ``personal counsel to John D. Rockefeller in his benevolences,'' and Charles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University.
The Rockefeller Oil Monopoly is now 125 years old, yet in 1911, the Supreme Court, bowing to public outrage, had ruled that it had to be broken up. The resulting companies proved to be no problem for the Rockefeller interests.
The family retained a two per cent holding in each of the ``new'' companies, while the Rockefeller foundations took a three per cent stock holding in each company. This gave them a five per cent stock interest in each company ; a one per cent holding in a corporation is usually sufficient to maintain working control.
The involvement of the Rockefellers in promoting the world Communist Revolution also developed from their business interests. There was never any commitment to the Marxist ideology; like anything else, it was there to be used. At the turn of the century Standard Oil was competing fiercely with Royal Dutch Shell for control of the lucrative European market.
Congressional testimony revealed that Rockefeller had sent large sums to Lenin and Trotsky to instigate the Communist Revolution of 1905. His banker, Jacob Schiff, had previously financed the Japanese in their war against Russia and had sent a personal emissary, George Kennan to Russia to spend some twenty years in promoting revolutionary activity against the Czar. When the Czar abdicated, Trotsky was placed on a ship with three hundred Communist revolutionaries from the Lower East Side of New York.
Rockefeller obtained a special passport for Trotsky from Woodrow Wilson and sent Lincoln Steffens with him to make sure he was returned safely to Russia. For traveling expenses, Rockefeller placed a purse containing $10,000 in Trotsky's pocket.
On April 13, 1917, when the ship stopped in Halifax, Canadian Secret Service officers immediately arrested Trotsky and interned him in Nova Scotia. The case became an international cause celebre, as leading government officials from several nations frantically demanded Trotsky's release. The Secret Service had been tipped off that Trotsky was on his way to take Russia out of the war, freeing more German armies to attack Canadian troops on the Western Front. Prime Minister Lloyd George hurriedly cabled orders from London to the Canadian Secret Service to free Trotsky at once--they ignored him. Trotsky was finally freed by the intervention of one of Rockefeller's most faithful stooges, Canadian Minister Mackenzie King, who had long been a ``labor specialist'' for the Rockefellers. King personally obtained Trotsky's release and sent him on his way as the emissary of the Rockefellers, commissioned to win the Bolshevik Revolution.
Thus Dr. Armand Hammer, who loudly proclaims his influence in Russia as the friend of Lenin, has an insignificant claim compared to the role of the Rockefellers in backing world Communism. Although Communism, like other isms, had originated with Marx's association with the House of Rothschild, it enlisted the reverent support of John D. Rockefeller because he saw Communism for what it is, the ultimate monopoly, not only controlling the government, the monetary system and all property, but also a monopoly which, like the corporations it emulates, is self-perpetuating and eternal. It was the logical progression from his Standard Oil monopoly.
An important step on the road to world monopoly was the most far-reaching corporation invented by the Rothschilds. This was the international drug and chemical cartel, I.G. Farben. Called ``a state within a state,'' it was created in 1925 as Interessen Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie Aktien gesellschaft, usually known as I.G. Farben, which simply meant ``The Cartel''. It had originated in 1904, when the six major chemical companies in Germany began negotiations to form the ultimate cartel, merging Badische Anilin, Bayer, Agfa, Hoechst, Weiler-ter-Meer, and Greisheim-Electron. The guiding spirit, as well as the financing, came from the Rothschilds, who were represented by their German banker, Max Warburg, of M.M. Warburg Company, Hamburg. He later headed the German Secret Service during World War I and was personal financial adviser to the Kaiser. When the Kaiser was overthrown, after losing the war, Max Warburg was not exiled with him to Holland, instead he became the financial adviser to the new government.
Monarchs may come and go, but the real power remains with the bankers.
While representing Germany at the Paris Peace Conference, Max Warburg spent pleasant hours renewing family ties with his brother, Paul Warburg, who, after drafting the Federal Reserve Act at Jekyl Island, had headed the U.S. banking system during the war. He was in Paris as Woodwow Wilson's financial advisor.
I.G. Farben soon had a net worth of six billion marks, controlling some five hundred firms. Its first president was Professor Carl Bosch. During the period of the Weimar Republic, I.G. officials, seeing the handwriting on the wall, began a close association with Adolf Hitler, supplying much needed funds and political influence. The success of the I.G. Farben cartel had aroused the interest of other industrialists. Henry Ford was favorably impressed and set up a German branch of Ford Motor Company. Forty per cent of the stock was purchased by I.G. Farben. I.G. Farben then established an American subsidiary, called American I.G., in cooperation with Standard Oil of New Jersey . Its directors included Walter Teagle, president of Standard Oil, Paul Warburg of Kuhn Loeb & Company and Edsel Ford, representing the Ford interests. John Foster Dulles, for the law firm, Sullivan and Cromwell, became the attorney for I.G., frequently traveling between New York and Berlin on cartel business. His law partner, Arthur Dean, is now director of the $40 million Teagle Foundation which was set up before Teagle's death. Like other fortunes it had become part of the network. Like John Foster Dulles, Arthur Dean has been a director of American Banknote for many years; this is the firm which supplies the paper for our dollar bills. Dean also has been an active behind the scenes government negotiator, serving as arms negotiator at disarmament conferences. Dean was also a director of Rockefeller's American Ag & Chem Company. He was a director of American Solvay, American Metal and other firms. As attorney for the wealthy Hochschild family, who owned Climax Molybdenum and American Metal, Dean became director of their family foundation, the Hochschild Foundation. Dean is director emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Asia Foundation, International House, Carnegie Foundation, and the Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.
In 1930, Standard Oil announced that it had purchased an alcohol monopoly in Germany, a deal which had been set up by I.G. Farben. After Hitler came to power, John D. Rockefeller assigned his personal press agent, Ivy Lee, to Hitler to serve as a full- time adviser on the rearmament of Germany, a necessary step for setting up World War II. Standard Oil then built large refineries in Germany for the Nazis and continued to supply them with oil during World War II. In the 1930s Standard Oil was receiving in payment from Germany large shipments of musical instruments and ships which had been built in German yards.
The dreaded Gestapo, the Nazi police force, was actually built from the worldwide intelligence network which I.G. Farben had maintained since its inception. Herman Schmitz, who had succeeded Carl Bosch as head of I.G., has been personal advisor to chancellor Brüning; when Hitler took over, Schmitz then became his most trusted secret counselor. So well concealed was the association that the press had orders never to photograph them together . Schmitz was named an honourary member of the Reichstag, while his assistant, Carl Krauch, became Göring's principal advisor in carrying out the Nazis' Four Year Plan. A business associate, Richard Krebs, later testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee, ``The I.G.
Farbenindustrie, I know from personal experience, was already, in 1934, completely in the hands of the Gestapo.'' This was a misstatement; the I.G. Farben had merely allied itself with the Gestapo.
In 1924 Krupp Industries was in serious financial difficulty; the firm was saved by a $10 million cash loan from Hallgarten & Company and Goldman Sachs, two of Wall Street's best known firms. The planned re-armament of Germany was able to proceed only after Dillon Read floated $100 million of German bonds on Wall Street for that purpose. It was hardly surprising that at the conclusion of the Second World War, General William Draper was appointed Economic Czar of Germany, being named head of the Economic Division of the Allied Military Government. He was a partner of Dillon Read.
In 1939 Frank Howard, a vice-president of Standard Oil visited Germany. He later testified, #147;We did our best to work out complete plans for a modus vivendi which would operate throughout the term of the war, whether we came in or not.'' At this time American I.G. had on its board of directors Charles Mitchell, president of the National City Bank, the Rockefeller bank, Carl Bosch, Paul Warburg, Herman Schmitz and Schmitz' nephew, Max Ilgner.
Although his name is hardly known, Frank Howard was for many years a key figure in Standard Oil operations as director of its research and its international agreements. He also was chairman of the research committee at Sloan Kettering Institute during the 1930s; his appointee at Sloan Kettering, Dusty Rhoads, headed the experimentation in the development of chemotherapy. During the Second World War Rhoads headed the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington at U.S. Army Headquarters. It was Frank Howard who had persuaded both Alfred Sloan and Charles Kettering of General Motors in 1939 to give their fortunes to the Cancer Center, which then took on their names . A member of the wealthy Atherton family, Frank Howard (1891-1964) had married a second time, his second wife being a leading member of the British aristocracy, the Duchess of Leeds. The first Duke of Leeds was titled in 1694, Sir Thomas Osborne, who was one of the key conspirators in the overthrow of King James II and the seizure of the throne of England by William III in 1688. Osborne had made peace with Holland during the reign of King Charles II, and singlehandedly promoted the marriage of Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, to William of Orange in 1677. The Dictionary of National Biography notes that Osborne ``for five years managed the House of Commons by corruption and enriched himself.'' He was impeached by King Charles II for treasonous negotiations with King Louis XIV and imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1678 to 1684. After his release, he again became active in the conspiracy to bring in William of Orange as King of England and secured the crucial province of York for him. William then created him Duke of Leeds. The placing of William on the throne of England made it possible for the conspirators to implement the crucial step in their plans, setting up the Bank of England in 1694. This enabled the Amsterdam bankers to gain control of the wealth of the British Empire. Osborne's biography also notes that he was later accused of Jacobite intrigues and was impeached for receiving a large bribe to procure the charter for the East India Company in 1695, but ``the proceedings were not concluded''. It was further noted that he ``left a large fortune''.
The 11th Duke of Leeds was Minister to Washington from 1931 to 1935, Minister to the Holy See from 1936 to 1947, that is, throughout the Second World War. One branch of the family married into the Delano family, becoming relatives of Franklin Delano Roosevelt . A cousin, Viscount Chandos, was a prominent British official, serving in the War Cabinet under Churchill from 1942 to 1945, later becoming a director of the Rothschild firm, Alliance Assurance, and Imperial Chemical Industries.
Frank Howard was the key official in maintaining relations between Standard Oil and I.G. Farben. He led in the development of synthetic rubber, which was crucial to Germany in the Second World War; he later wrote a book, ``Buna Rubber''. He also was the consultant to the drug firm, Rohm and Haas, representing the Rockefeller connection with that firm. In his later years, he resided in Paris, but continued to maintain his office at 30 Rockefeller Center, New York.
Walter Teagle, the president of Standard Oil, owned 500,000 shares of American I.G., these shares later becoming the basis of the Teagle Foundation. Herman Metz, who was also a director of American I.G., was president of H.A. Metz Company, New York, a drug firm wholly owned by I.G.
Farben of Germany. Francis Garvan, who had served as Alien Property Custodian during the First World War, knew many secrets of I.G. Farben's operations. He was prosecuted in 1929 to force him to remain silent. The action was brought by the Department of Justice through Attorney General Merton Lewis, the former counsel for Bosch Company. John Krim, former counsel for the German Embassy in the United States, testified that Senator John King had been on the payroll of the Hamburg American Line for three years at a salary of fifteen thousand dollars a year; he appointed Otto Kahn as treasurer of his election fund. Homer Cummings, who had been Attorney General for six years, then became counsel for General Aniline and Film at a salary of $100,000 a year. During the Second World War, GAF was supposedly owned by a Swiss firm; it came under considerable suspicion as an ``enemy'' concern and was finally taken over by the United States government. John Foster Dulles had been director of GAF from 1927 to 1934; he was also a director of International Nickel, which was part of the network of I.G. Farben firms. Dulles was related to the Rockefeller family through the Avery connection. He was attorney for the organization of a new investment firm, set up by Avery Rockefeller, in 1936 which was called Schröder-Rockefeller Company. It combined operations of the Schröder Bank, Hitler's personal bank and the Rockefeller interests. Baron Kurt von Schröder was one of Hitler's closest confidantes, and a leading officer of the SS. He was head of the Keppler Associates, which funneled money to the SS for leading German Corporations. Keppler was the official in charge of Industrial Fats during Göring's Four Year Plan, which was launched in 1936.
American I.G. changed its name to General Aniline and Film during the Second World War, but it was still wholly owned by I.G. Chemie of Switzerland, a subsidiary of I.G. Farben of Germany. It was headed by Gadow, brother-in-law of Herman Schmitz. I.G. Farben's international agreements directly affected the U.S. war effort, because they set limits on U.S. supplies of magnesium, synthetic rubber and, crucial medical supplies. The director of I.G. Farben's dyestuffs division, Baron George von Schnitzler, was related to the powerful von Rath family, the J.H. Stein Bankhaus which held Hitler's account and the von Mallinckrodt family, the founders of the drug firm in the United States. Like other I.G. officials, he had become an enthusiastic supporter of the Hitler regime. I.G. Farben gave four and a half million reichsmarks to the Nazi Party in 1933; by 1945, I.G. had given the Party 40 million reichsmarks, a sum which equaled all contributions by I.G. to all other recipients during that period. One scholar of the Nazi era, Anthony Sutton, has focussed heavily on German supporters of Hitler, while ignoring the crucial role played by the Bank of England and its Governor, Sir Montague Norman, in financing the Nazi regime. Sutton's position on this problem may have been influenced by the fact that he is British. In view of the outspoken statements from Adolf Hitler about Jewish influence in Germany, it would be difficult to explain the role of I.G. Farben in the Nazi era. Peter Hayes' definitive study of I.G. Farben shows that in 1933 it had ten Jews on its governing boards. We have previously pointed out that I.G., from its inception was a Rothschild concern, formulated by the House of Rothschild and implemented through its agents, Max Warburg in Germany and Standard Oil in the US.
Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands joined the SS during the early 1930s. He then joined the board of an I.G. subsidiary, Farben Bilder, from which he took the name of his postwar supersecret policy making group, the Bilderbergers. Farben executives played an important role in organizing the Circle of Friends for Heinrich Himmler, although it was initially known as Keppler's Circle of Friends, Keppler being the chairman of an I.G. subsidiary. His nephew, Fritz J. Kranefuss, was the personal assistant to Heinrich Himmler. Of the forty members of the Circle of Friends, which provided ample funds for Himmler, eight were executives of I.G. Farben or of its subsidiaries.
Despite the incredible devastation of most German cities from World War II air bombings, the I.G. Farben building in Frankfort, one of the largest buildings there, miraculously survived intact. A large Rockefeller mansion in Frankfort also was left untouched by the war, despite the saturation bombing. Frankfort was the birthplace of the Rothschild family. It was hardly coincidental that the postwar government of Germany, Allied Military Government, should set up its offices in the magnificent I.G. Farben building. This government was headed by General Lucius Clay, who later became a partner of Lehman Brothers bankers in New York. The Political Division was headed by Robert Murphy, who would preside at the Nüremberg Trials, where he was successful in glossing over the implication of I.G.
Farben officials and Baron Kurt von Schröder. Schröder was held a short time in a detention camp and then set free to return to his banking business. The Economic Division was headed by Lewis Douglas, son of the founder of Memorial Cancer center in New York, president of Mutual Life and director of General Motors. Douglas was slated to become U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, but he agreed to step aside in favor of his brother-in-law, John J. McCloy. By an interesting circumstance, Douglas, McCloy and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer of Germany had all married sisters, the daughters of John Zinsser, a partner of J.P. Morgan Company.
As the world's pre-eminent cartel, I.G. Farben and the drug companies which it controlled in the United States through the Rockefeller interests were responsible for many inexplicable developments in the production and distribution of drugs. From 1908 to 1936 I.G. held back its discovery of sulfanilamide, which would become a potent weapon in the medical arsenal.
In 1920, I.G. had signed working agreements with the important drug firms of Switzerland, Sandoz and Ciba-Geigy. In 1926, I.G. merged with Dynamit-Nobel, the German branch of the dynamite firm, while an English firm took over the English division. I.G. officials then began to negotiate with Standard Oil officials about the prospective manufacture of synthetic coal, which would present a serious threat to Standard Oil's monopoly. A compromise was reached with the establishment of American I.G., in which both firms would play an active role and share in the profits.
Charles Higham's book, ``Trading with the Enemy,'' offers ample documentation of the Rockefeller activities during the Second World War.
While Hitler's bombers were dropping tons of explosives on London, they were paying royalties on every gallon of gasoline they burned to Standard Oil, under existing patent agreements. After World War II, when Queen Elizabeth visited the United States, she stayed in only one private home during her visit, the Kentucky estate of William Irish, of Standard Oil.
Nelson Rockefeller moved to Washington after our involvement in World War II, where Roosevelt named him Coordinator of Inter- American Affairs.
Apparently his principal task was to coordinate the refueling of German ships in South America from Standard Oil tanks. He also used this office to obtain important South American concessions for his private firm, International Basic Economy Corporation, including a corner on the Colombian coffee market. He promptly upped the price, a move which enabled him to buy seven billion dollars worth of real estate in South America and also gave rise to the stereotype of the ``Yanqui imperialismo''. The attack on Vice President Nixon's automobile when he visited South America was explained by American officials as a direct result of the depredations of the Rockefellers, which caused widespread agitation against Americans in Latin America.
After World War II, twenty-four German executives were prosecuted by the victors, all of them connected with I.G. Farben, including eleven officers of I.G. Eight were acquitted, including Max Ilgner, nephew of Herman Schmitz. Schmitz received the most severe sentence, eight years. Ilgner actually received three years, but the time was credited against his time in jail waiting for trial, and he was immediately released. The Judge was C.G. Shake and the prosecuting attorney was Al Minskoff.
The survival of I.G. Farben was headlined by the Wall Street Journal on May 3, 1988 - GERMANY BEATS WORLD IN CHEMICAL SALES. Reporter Thomas F. O'Boyle listed the world's top five chemical companies in 1987 as 1. BASF $25.8 billion dollars. 2. Bayer $23.6 billion dollars. 3. Hoechst $23.5 billion dollars. 4. ICI $20 billion dollars. 5. DuPont $17 billion dollars in chemical sales only.
The first three companies are the firms resulting from the ``dismantling'' of I.G. Farben from 1945 to 1952 by the Allied Military Government, in a process suspiciously similar to the ``dismantling'' of the Standard Oil empire by court edict in 1911. The total sales computed in dollars of the three spin-offs of I.G. Farben, some $72 billion, dwarfs its nearest rivals, ICI and DuPont, who together amount to about half of the Farben empire's dollar sales in 1987. Hoechst bought Celanese corp. in 1987 for $2.72 billion.
O'Boyle notes that ``The Big Three (Farben spin-offs) still behave like a cartel. Each dominates specific areas; head to head competition is limited.
Critics suspect collusion. At the least, there's a cosiness that doesn't exist in the U.S. chemical industry."
After the war, Americans were told they must support an ``altruistic'' plan to rebuild devastated Europe, to be called the Marshall Plan, after Chief of Staff George Marshall, who had been labeled on the floor of the Senate by Senator Joseph McCarthy as ``a living lie''. The Marshall Plan proved to be merely another Rockefeller Plan to loot the American taxpayer. On December 13, 1948, Col. Robert McCormick, editor of the Chicago Tribune, personally denounced Esso's looting of the Marshall Plan in a signed editorial. The Marshall Plan had been rushed through Congress by a powerful and vocal group, headed by Winthrop Aldrich, president of the Chase Manhattan Bank and Nelson Rockefeller's brother-in-law, ably seconded by Nelson Rockefeller and William Clayton, the head of Anderson, Clayton Company. The Marshall Plan proved to be but one of a number of lucrative postwar swindles, which included the Bretton Woods Agreement, United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation and others.
After World War II, the Rockefellers used their war profits to buy a large share of Union Miniere du Haut Katanga, an African copper lode owned by Belgian interest, including the Societe Generale, a Jesuit controlled bank.
Soon after their investment, the Rockefellers launched a bold attempt to seize total control of the mines through sponsoring a local revolution, using as their agent the Grangesberg operation. This enterprise had originally been developed by Sir Ernest Cassel, financial advisor to King Edward VII - Cassel's daughter later married Lord Mountbatten, a member of the British royal family, who was also related to the Rothschilds.
Grangesberg was now headed by Bo Hammarskjold, whose brother, Dag Hammarskjold was then Secretary General of the United Nations - Bo Hammarskjold became a casualty of the Rockefeller revolution when his plane was shot down during hostilities in the Congo. Various stories have since circulated about who killed him and why he was killed. The Rockefeller intervention in the Congo was carried out by their able lieutenants, Dean Rusk and George Ball of the State Department and by Fowler Hamilton.
In the United States, the Rockefeller interests continue to play the major political role. Old John D. Rockefeller's treasurer at Standard Oil, Charles Pratt, bequeathed his New York mansion to the Council on Foreign Relations as its world headquarters. His grandson, George Pratt Shultz, is now Secretary of State. The Rockefellers also wielded a crucial role through their financing of the Trotskyite Communist group in the United States, the League for Industrial Democracy, whose directors include such staunch ``anti-communists'' as Jeane Kirkpatrick and Sidney Hook. The Rockefellers were also active on the ``right-wing'' front through their sponsorship of the John Birch Society. To enable Robert Welch, a 32nd degree Mason, to devote all of his time to the John Birch Society, Nelson Rockefeller purchased his family firm, the Welch Candy Company, from him at a handsome price. Welch chose the principal officers of the John Birch Society from his acquaintances at the Council On Foreign Relations. For years afterwards, American patriots were puzzled by the consistent inability of the John Birch Society to move forward on any of its well-advertised ``anti-Communist'' goals. The fact that the society had been set up at the behest of the backers of the world Communist revolution may have played some role in this development. Other patriots wondered why most American conservative writers, including the present writer, were steadily blacklisted by the John Birch Society for some thirty years.
Despite thousands of requests from would be book buyers, the John Birch Society refused to review or list any of my books. After several decades of futility, the Society was totally discredited by its own record. In a desperate effort to restore its image, William Buckley, the CIA propagandist, launched a ``fierce'' attack against the John Birch Society in the pages of his magazine, the National Review. This free publicity campaign also did little to revive the moribund organization.
The Rockefeller monopoly influence has had its effect on some of New York's largest and wealthiest churches. Trinity Church on Wall Street, whose financial resources had been directed by none other than J.P. Morgan, owns some forty commercial properties in Manhattan and has a stock portfolio of $50 million, which, due to informed investment, actually yields a return of $25 million a year! Only $2.6 million of this income is spent for charitable work. The rector, why receives a salary of $100,000 a year, lives on the fashionable Upper East Side. Trinity's mausoleum sells its spaces at fees starting at $1250 and rising to $20,000 . St. Bartholomew, on Fifth Avenue, has an annual budget of $3.2 million a year of which only $100,000 is spent on charity. Its rector resides in a thirteen room apartment on Park Avenue.
In medicine, the Rockefeller influence remains entrenched in its Medical Monopoly. We have mentioned its control of the cancer industry through the Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. We have listed the directors of the major drug firms, each with its director from Chase Manhattan Bank, the Standard Oil Company or other Rockefeller firms. The American College of Surgeons maintains a monopolistic control of hospitals through the powerful Hospital Survey Committee, with members Winthrop Aldrich and David McAlpine Pyle representing the Rockefeller control.
A medical fraternity known as the ``rich man's club,'' the New York Academy of Medicine, was offered grants for a new building by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Foundation, its subsidiary group. This ``seed money'' was then used to finance a public campaign which brought in funds to erect a new building. For Director of the new facility, the Rockefellers chose Dr. Lindsly Williams, son-in-law of the managing partner of Kidder, Peabody, a firm strongly affiliated with the J.P. Morgan interests (the J.P. Morgan Company had originally been called the Peabody Company).
Williams was married to Grace Kidder Ford. Although Dr. Williams was widely known to be an incompetent physician, his family connections were impeccable. He became a factor in Franklin D. Roosevelt's election campaign when he publicly certified that Roosevelt, a cripple in a wheelchair who suffered from a number of oppressive ailments, was both physically and mentally fit to be the President of United States. Dr. Williams' opinion, published in an article in the widely circulated Collier's Magazine, allayed public doubts about Roosevelt's condition. As a result, Williams was to be offered a newly created post in Roosevelt's cabinet, Secretary of Health. However, it was another thirty years before Health became a cabinet post, due to the politicking of Oscar Ewing.
The Rockefellers had greatly extended their business interests in the impoverished Southern states by establishing the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission. It was headed by Dr. Wickliffe Rose, a longtime Rockefeller henchman whose name appears on the original charter of the Rockefeller Foundation. Despite its philanthropic goals, the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission required financial contributions from each of the eleven Southern states in which it operated, resulting in the creation of State Departments of Health in those states and opening up important new spheres of influence for their Drug Trust. In Tennessee, the Rockefeller representative was a Dr. Olin West, who moved on to Chicago to become the power behind the scenes at the American Medical Association for forty years, as secretary and general manager.
The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research finally dropped the ``Medical Research'' part of its title; its president, Dr. Detlev Bronk, resided in a $600,000 mansion furnished by this charitable operation.
Rockefeller's general Education Board has spent more than $100 million to gain control of the nation's medical schools and turn our physicians to physicians of the allopathic school, dedicated to surgery and the heavy use of drugs. The Board, which had developed from the original Peabody Foundation, also spent some $66 million for Negro education.
One of the most far-reaching consequences of the General Education Board's political philosophy was achieved with a mere six million dollar grant to Columbia University in 1917, to set up the ``progressive'' Lincoln School.
From this school descended the national network of progressive educators and social scientists, whose pernicious influence closely paralleled the goals of the Communist Party, another favorite recipient of the Rockefeller millions . From its outset, the Lincoln School was described frankly as a revolutionary school for the primary and secondary schools of the entire United States. It immediately discarded all theories of education which were based on formal and well-established disciplines, that is, the McGuffey Reader type of education which worked by teaching such subjects as Latin and algebra, thus teaching children to think logically about problems. Rockefeller biographer Jules Abel hails the Lincoln School as ``a beacon light in progressive education ''.
Rockefeller Institute financial fellowships produced many prominent workers in our atomic programs, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer, who was later removed from government laboratories as a suspected Soviet agent. Although most of his friends and associates were known Soviet agents, this was called ``guilt by association.'' The Rockefeller Foundation created a number of spin-off groups, which now plague the nation with a host of ills, one of them being the Social Science Research Council, which single-handedly spawned the nationwide ``poverty industry,'' a business which expends some $130 billion a year of taxpayer funds while grossing some $6 billion income for its practitioners. The money, which would amply feed and house all of the nation's ``poor,'' is dissipated through a vast administrative network which awards generous concessions to a host of parasitic ``consultants''.
Despite years of research, the present writer has been able to merely scratch the surface of the Rockefeller influences listed here. For instance, the huge Burroughs Wellcome drug firm is wholly owned by the ``charitable'' Wellcome Trust. This trust is directed by Lord Oliver Franks, a key member of the London Connection which maintains the United States as a British Colony. Franks was Ambassador to the United States from 1948 to 1952. He is now a director of the Rockefeller Foundation, as its principal representative in England. He also is a director of the Schröder Bank, which handled Hitler's personal bank account, director of the Rhodes Trust in charge of approving Rhodes scholarships, visiting professor at the University of Chicago and chairman of Lloyd's Bank, one of England's Big Five.
Other Rockefeller Foundation spin-offs include the influential Washington think-tank, the Brookings Institution, the National Bureau of Economic Research, whose findings play a critical role in manipulating the stock market; the Public Administration Clearing House, which indoctrinates the nation's municipal employees ; the Council of State Governments, which controls the nation's state legislatures; and the Institute of Pacific Relations, the most notorious Communist front in the United States. The Rockefellers appeared as directors of this group, funneling money to it through their financial advisor, Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss, of Kuhn, Loeb Company.
The Rockefellers have maintained their controlling interest in the Chase Manhattan Bank, owning five per cent of the stock. Through this one asset they control $42.5 billion worth of assets. Chase Manhattan interlocks closely with the Big Four insurance companies, of which three, Metropolitan, Equitable and New York Life had $113 billion in assets in 1969.
With the advent of the Reagan Administration in 1980, the Rockefeller interests sought to obscure their longtime support of world Communism by bringing to Washington a vocally ``anti-Communist'' administration. Reagan was soon wining and dining Soviet premiers as enthusiastically as had his predecessor Jimmy Carter. The Reagan campaign had been managed by two officials of Bechtel Corporation, its president, George Pratt Schultz, a Standard Oil heir, and his counsel, Casper Weinberger. Shultz was named Secretary of State, Weinberger, Secretary of Defense, Bechtel had been financed by the Schröder-Rockefeller Company, the 1936 alliance between the Schröder Bank and the Rockefeller heirs.
The Rockefeller influence also remains preeminent in the monetary field.
Since November, 1910, when Senator Nelson Aldrich chaired the secret conference at Jekyl Island which gave us the Federal Reserve Act, the Rockefellers have kept us within the sphere of the London Connection.
During the Carter Administration, David Rockefeller generously sent his personal assistant, Paul Volcker, to Washington to head the Federal Reserve Board . Reagan finally replaced him in 1987 with Alan Greenspan, a partner of J.P. Morgan Company. Their influence on our banking system has remained constant through many financial coups on their part, one of the most profitable being the confiscation of privately owned gold from American citizens by Roosevelt's edict. Our citizens had to turn over their gold to the privately owned Federal Reserve System. The Constitution permits confiscation for purposes of eminent domain, but prohibits confiscation for private gain. The gold's new owners then had the gold revalued from $20 an ounce to $35, giving them an enormous profit.
In reviewing the all-pervasive influence of the Rockefellers and their foreign controllers, the Rothschilds, in every aspect of American life, the citizen must ask himself, "What can be done?'' Right can prevail only when the citizen actively seeks justice . Justice can prevail only when each citizen realizes that it is his God-given duty to mete out justice. History has documented all of the crimes of the usurpers of our Constitution. We have learned the painful lesson that the Rockefeller monopolists exercise their evil power almost solely through federal and state agents. At this writing, former Congressman Ron Paul is running for the Presidency of the United States on an eminently sensible and practical campaign - abolish the Federal Reserve System - abolish the FBI - abolish the Internal Revenue Service - and abolish the CIA. It has been known for years that 90% of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, ostensibly set up to ``fight crime'' has been to harass and isolate political dissidents.
The criminal syndicalists are now looting the American nation of one trillion dollars each year, of which about one-third, more than three hundred billion dollars per year, represents the profitable depredations of the Drug Trust and its medical subsidiaries . Before a sustained effort to combat these depredations can be mounted, Americans must make every effort to regain their health. As Ezra Pound demanded in one of his famous radio broadcasts, ``Health, dammit !'' America became the greatest and most productive nation in the world because we had the healthiest citizens in the world. When the Rockefeller Syndicate began its takeover of our medical profession in 1910, our citizens went into a sharp decline. Today, we suffer from a host of debilitating ailments, both mental and physical, nearly all of which can be traced directly to the operations of the chemical and drug monopoly and which pose the greatest threat to our continued existence as a nation. Unite now to restore our national health - the result will be the restoration of our national pride, the resumption of our role as the inventors and producers of the modern world, and the custodian of the world's hopes and dreams of liberty and freedom.
WALL STREET AND THE RISE OF HITLER
Anthony C Sutton 1976
Chapter 12
CONCLUSIONS
We have demonstrated with documentary evidence a number of critical associations between Wall Street international bankers and the rise of Hitler and Nazism in Germany.
First: that Wall Street financed the German cartels in the mid-1920s which in turn proceeded to bring Hitler to power.
Second: that the financing for Hitler and his S.S. street thugs came in part from affiliates or subsidiaries of U.S. firms, including Henry Ford in 1922, payments by I.G. Farben and General Electric in 1933, followed by the Standard Oil of New Jersey and I.T.T. subsidiary payments to Heinrich Himmler up to 1944.
Third: that U.S. multi-nationals under the control of Wall Street profited handsomely from Hitler's military construction program in the 1930s and at least until 1942.
Fourth: that these same international bankers used political influence in the U.S. to cover up their wartime collaboration and to do this infiltrated the U.S. Control Commission for Germany.
Our evidence for these four major assertions can be summarised as follows:
In Chapter One we presented evidence that the Dawes and Young plans for German reparations were formulated by Wall Streeters, temporarily wearing the hats of statesmen, and these loans generated a rain of profits for these international bankers. Owen Young of General Electric, Hjalmar Schacht, A. Voegler, and others intimately connected with Hitler's accession to power had earlier been the negotiators for the U.S. and German sides, respectively. Three Wall Street houses - Dillon, Read; Harris, Forbes; and, National City Company - handled three-quarters of the reparations loans used to create the German cartel system, including the dominant I.G. Farben and Vereinigte Stahlwerke, which together produced 95 per cent of the explosives for the Nazi side in World War II.
The central role of I.G. Farben in Hitler's coup d'etat was reviewed in Chapter Two. The directors of American I.G. (Farben) were identified as prominent American businessmen: Walter Teagle, a close Roosevelt associate and backer and an NRA administrator; banker Paul Warburg (his brother Max Warburg was on the board of I.G. Farben in Germany); and Edsel Ford. Farben contributed 400,000 RM directly to Schacht and Hess for use in the crucial 1933 elections and Farben was subsequently in the forefront of military development in Nazi Germany.
A donation of 60,000 RM was made to Hitler by German General Electric (A.E.G.), which had four directors and a 25-30 percent interest held by the U.S. General Electric parent company. This role was described in Chapter Three, and we found that Gerard Swope, an originator of Roosevelt's New Deal (its National Recovery Administration segment), together with Owen Young of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Clark Minor of International General Electric, were the dominant Wall Streeters in A.E.G. and most significant single influence.
We also found no evidence to indict the German electrical firm Siemens, which was not under Wall Street control. In contrast, there is documentary evidence that both A.E.G. and Osram, the other units of the German electrical industry - both of which had U.S. participation and control - did finance Hitler. In fact, almost all directors of German General Electric were Hitler backers, either directly through A.E.G. or indirectly through other German firms. G.E. rounded out its Hitler support by technical co-operation with Krupp, aimed at restricting U.S. development of tungsten carbide, which worked to the detriment of the U.S. in World War II. We concluded that A.E.G. plants in Germany managed, by a yet unknown manoeuvre, to avoid bombing by the Allies.
An examination of the role of Standard Oil of New Jersey (which was and is controlled by the Rockefeller interests) was undertaken in Chapter Four. Standard Oil apparently did not finance Hitler's accession to power in 1933 (that part of the "myth of Sidney Warburg" is not proven). On the other hand, payments were made up to 1944 by Standard Oil of New Jersey, to develop synthetic gasoline for war purposes on behalf of the Nazis and, through its wholly owned subsidiary, to Heinrich Himmler's S.S. Circle of Friends for political purposes. Standard Oil's role was technical aid to Nazi development of synthetic rubber and gasoline through a U.S. research company under the management control of Standard Oil. The Ethyl Gasoline Company, jointly owned by Standard Oil of New Jersey and General Motors, was instrumental in supplying vital ethyl lead to Nazi Germany - over the written protests of the U.S. War Department - with the clear knowledge that the ethyl lead was for Nazi military purposes.
In Chapter Five we demonstrated that International Telephone and Telegraph Company, one of the more notorious multi-nationals, worked both sides of World War II through Baron Kurt von Schröder, of the Schroder banking group. I.T.T. also held a 28-percent interest in FockeWolfe aircraft, which manufactured excellent German fighter planes. We also found that Texaco (Texas Oil Company) was involved in Nazi endeavours through German attorney Westrick, but dropped its chairman of the board Rieber when these endeavours were publicised.
Henry Ford was an early (1922) Hitler backer and Edsel Ford continued the family tradition in 1942 by encouraging French Ford to profit from arming the German Wehrmacht. Subsequently, these Ford-produced vehicles were used against American soldiers as they landed in France in 1944. For his early recognition of, and timely assistance to, the Nazis, Henry Ford received a Nazi medal in 1938. The records of French Ford suggest Ford Motor received kid glove treatment from the Nazis after 1940.
The provable threads of Hitler financing are drawn together in Chapter Seven and answer with precise names and figures the question, who financed Adolf Hitler? This chapter indicts Wall Street and, incidentally, no one else of consequence in the United States except the Ford family. The Ford family is not normally associated with Wall Street but is certainly a part of the "power elite."
In earlier chapters we cited several Roosevelt associates, including Teagle of Standard Oil, the Warburg family, and Gerard Swope. In Chapter Eight the role of Putze Hanfstaengl, another Roosevelt friend and a participant in the Reichstag fire, is traced. The composition of the Nazi inner circle during World War II, and the financial contributions of Standard Oil of New Jersey and I.T.T. subsidiaries, are traced in Chapter Nine. Documentary proof of these monetary contributions is presented. Kurt von Schroder is identified as the key intermediary in this S.S. "slush fund."
Finally, in Chapter Ten we reviewed a book suppressed in 1934 and the "myth of 'Sidney Warburg.'" The suppressed book accused the Rockefellers, the Warburgs, and the major oil companies of financing Hitler. While the name "Sidney Warburg" was no doubt an invention, the extraordinary fact remains that the argument in the suppressed "Sidney Warburg" Book is remains that the argument in the suppressed "Sidney Warburg" book is remarkably close to the evidence presented now. It also remains a puzzle why James Paul Warburg, fifteen years later, would want to attempt, in a rather transparently slipshod manner, to refute the contents of the "Warburg" book, a book he claims not to have seen. It is perhaps even more of a puzzle why Warburg would choose Nazi von Papen's Memoirs as the vehicle to present his refutation.
Finally, in Chapter Eleven we examined the roles of the Morgan and Chase Banks in World War II, specifically their collaboration with the Nazis in France while a major war was raging.
In other works, as in our two previous examinations of the links between New York international bankers and major historical events, we find a provable pattern of subsidy and political manipulation.
The Pervasive Influence of International Bankers
Looking at the broad array of facts presented in the three volumes of the Wall Street series, we find persistent recurrence of the same names: Own Young, Gerard Swope, Hjalmar Schacht, Bernard Baruch, etc.; the same international banks: J.P. Morgan, Guaranty Trust, Chase Bank; and the same location in New York: usually 120 Broadway.
This group of international bakers backed the Bolshevik Revolution and subsequently profited from the establishment of a Soviet Russia. This group backed Roosevelt and profited from New Deal socialism. This group also backed Hitler and certainly profited from German armament in the 1930s. When Big Business should have been running its business operations at Ford Motor, Standard of New Jersey and so on, we find it actively and deeply involved in political upheavals, war, and revolutions in three major countries.
The version of history presented here is that the financial elite knowingly and with premeditation assisted the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in concert with German bankers. After profiting handsomely from the German hyper-inflationary distress of 1923, and planning to place the German reparations burden onto the backs of American investors, Wall Street found it had brought about the 1929 financial crisis.
Two men were then backed as leaders for major Western countries: Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States and Adolf Hitler in Germany. The Roosevelt New Deal and Hitler's Four Year Plan had great similarities. The Roosevelt and Hitler plans were plans for fascist take-overs of their respective countries. While Roosevelt's NRA failed, due to then-operating constitutional constraints, Hitler's Plan succeeded.
Why did the Wall Street elite, the international bakers, want Roosevelt and Hitler in power? This is an aspect we have not explored. According to the "myth of 'Sidney Warburg,'" Wall Street wanted a policy of revenge; that is, it wanted war in Europe between France and Germany. We know even from Establishment history that both Hitler and Roosevelt acted out policies leading to war.
The link-ups between persons and events in this three-book series would require another book. But a single example will perhaps indicate the remarkable concentration of power within a relatively few organisations, and the use of this power.
On May 1st, 1918, when the Bolsheviks controlled only a small fraction of Russia (and were to come near to losing even that fraction in the summer of 1918), the American League to Aid and Co-operate with Russia was organised in Washington, D.C. to support the Bolsheviks. This was not a "Hands off Russia" type of committee formed by the Communist Party U.S.A. or its allies. It was a committee created by Wall Street with George P. Whalen of Vacuum Oil Company as Treasurer and Coffin and Oudin of General Electric, along with Thompson of the Federal Reserve System, Willard of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, and assorted socialists.
When we look at the rise of Hitler and Nazism we find Vacuum Oil and General Electric well represented. Ambassador Dodd in Germany was struck by the monetary and technical contribution by the Rockefeller-controlled Vacuum Oil Company in building up military gasoline facilities for the Nazis. The Ambassador tried to warn Roosevelt. Dodd believed, in his apparent naiveté of world affairs, that Roosevelt would intervene, but Roosevelt himself was backed by these same oil interests and Walter Teagle of Standard Oil of New Jersey and the NRA was on the board of Roosevelt's Warm Springs Foundation. So, in but one of may examples, we find the Rockefeller-controlled Vacuum Oil Company prominently assisting in the creation of Bolshevik Russia, the military build-up of Nazi Germany, and backing Roosevelt's New Deal.
Is the United States Ruled by a Dictatorial Elite?
Within the last decade or so, certainly since the 1960s, a steady flow of literature has presented a thesis that the United States is ruled by a self perpetuating and unelected power elite. Even further, most of these books aver that this elite controls, or at the least heavily influences, all foreign and domestic policy decisions, and that no idea becomes respectable or is published in the United States without the tacit approval, or perhaps lack of disapproval, of this elitist circle.
Obviously the very flow of anti-establishment literature by itself testifies that the United States cannot be wholly under the thumb of any single group or elite. On the other hand, antiestablishment literature is not fully recognised or reasonably discussed in academic or media circles. More often than not it consists of a limited edition, privately produced, almost hand-to-hand circulated. There are some exceptions, true, but not enough to dispute the observation that anti-establishment critics do not easily enter normal information/distribution channels.
Whereas in the early and mid-1960s, any concept of rule by a conspiratorial elite, or indeed any kind of elite, was reason enough to dismiss the proponent out of hand as a "nut case," the atmosphere for such concepts has changed radically. The Watergate affair probably added the final touches to a long-developing environment of scepticism and doubt. We are almost at the point where anyone who accepts, for example, the Warren commission report, or believes that the decline and fall of Mr. Nixon did not have some conspiratorial aspects, is suspect. In brief, no one any longer really believes the Establishment information process. And there is a wide variety of alternative presentations of events now available for the curious.
Several hundred books, from the full range of the political and philosophical spectrum, add bits and pieces of evidence, more hypotheses, and more accusations. What was not too long ago a kooky idea, talked about at midnight behind closed doors, in hushed and almost conspiratorial whispers, is now openly debated - not, to be sure, in Establishment newspapers, but certainly on non-network radio talk shows, the underground press, and even from time to time in books from respectable Establishment publishing houses.
So let us ask the question again: Is there an unelected power elite behind the U.S. Government?
A substantive and often-cited source of information is Carroll Quigley, Professor of International Relations at Georgetown University, who in 1966 had published a monumental modern history entitled Tragedy and Hope. Quigley's book is apart from others in this revisionist vein, by virtue of the fact that it was based on a two-year study of the internal documents of one of the power centres. Quigley traces the history of the power elite:
.The powers of financial capitalism had another far reaching aim, nothing less than to create a world system of financial control in private hands able to dominate the political system of each county and the economy of the world as a whole.
Quigley also demonstrates that the Council on Foreign Relation, the National Planning Association, and other groups are "semi-secret" policy-making bodies under the control of this power elite.
In the following tabular presentation we have listed five such revisionist books, including Quigley's. Their essential theses and compatibility with the three volumes of the "Wall Street" series are summarised. It is surprising that in the three major historical events noted, Carroll Quigley is not at all consistent with the "Wall Street" series evidence. Quigley goes a long way to provide evidence for the existence of the power elite, but does not penetrate the operations of the elite.
Possibly, the papers used by Quigley had been vetted, and did not include documentation on elitist manipulation of such events as the Bolshevik Revolution, Hitler's accession to power, and the election of Roosevelt in 1933. More likely, these political manipulations may not be recorded at all in the files of the power groups They may have been unrecorded actions by a small ad hoc segment of the elite. It is noteworthy that the documents used by this author came from government sources, recording the day-to-day actions of Trotsky, Lenin, Roosevelt, Hitler, J.P. Morgan and the various firms and banks involved.
On the other hand, such authors as Jules Archer, Gary Allen, Helen P. Lasell, and William Domhoff, writing from widely different political standpoints, are consistent with the "Wall Street" evidence. These writers present a hypothesised "power elite" has manipulated specific historical events.
Obviously any such exercise of unconstrained and supra-legal power is unconstitutional, even though wrapped in the fabric of law-abiding actions. We can therefore legitimately raise the question of the existence of a subversive force operating to remove constitutionally guaranteed rights.
The New York Elite as a Subversive Force
Twentieth-century history, as recorded in Establishment textbooks and journals, is inaccurate. It is a history which is based solely upon those official documents which various Administrations have seen fit to release for public consumption.
But an accurate history cannot be based on a selective release of documentary archives. Accuracy requires access to all documents. In practice, as previously classified documents in the U.S. State Department files, the British Foreign Office, and German Foreign Ministry archives and other depositories are acquired, a new version of history has emerged, the prevailing Establishment version is seen to be, not only inaccurate, but designed to hide a pervasive fabric of deceit and immoral conduct.
The centre of political power, as authorised by the U.S. Constitution, is with an elected Congress and an elected President, working within the framework and under the constraints of a Constitution, as interpreted by an unbiased Supreme Court. We have in the past assumed that political power is consequently carefully exercised by the Executive and legislative branch, after due deliberation and assessment of the wishes of the electorate. In fact, nothing could be further from this assumption. The electorate has long suspected, but now knows, that political promises are worth nothing. Lies are the order of the day for policy implementors. Wars are started (and stopped) with no shred of coherent explanation. Political words have never matched political deeds. Why not? Apparently because the centre of political power has been elsewhere than with elected and presumably responsive representatives in Washington, and this power elite has its own objectives, which are inconsistent with those of the public at large.
In this three-volume series we have identified for three historical events the seat of political power in the United states - the power behind the scenes, the hidden influence on Washington - as that of the financial establishment in New York: the private international bankers, more specifically the financial houses of J.P. Morgan, the Rockefeller-controlled Chase Manhattan Bank, and in earlier days before amalgamation of their Manhattan Bank with the former Chase Bank), the Warburgs.
The United States has, in spite of the Constitution and its supposed constraints, become a quasi-totalitarian state. While we do not (yet) have the overt trapping of dictatorship, the concentration camps and the knock on the door at midnight, we most certainly do have threats and actions aimed at the survival of non-Establishment critics, use of the Internal Revenue Service to bring dissidents in line, and manipulation of the Constitution by a court system that is politically subservient to the Establishment.
It is in the pecuniary interests of the international bankers to centralise political power - and this centralisation can best be achieve within a collectivist society, such as socialist Russia, national socialist Germany, or a Fabian socialist United States.
There can be no full understanding and appreciation of twentieth-century American politics and foreign policy without the realisation that this financial elite effectively monopolises Washington policy.
In case after case, newly released documentation implicates this elite and confirms this hypothesis. The revisionist versions of the entry of the United States into World Wars I and II, Korea, and Vietnam reveal the influence and objectives of this elite.
For most of the twentieth century the Federal Reserve System, particularly the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (which is outside the control of congress, unaudited and uncontrolled, with the power to print money and crate credit at will), has exercised a virtual monopoly over the direction of the American economy. In foreign affairs the Council on Foreign Relations, superficially an innocent forum for academics, businessmen, and politicians, contains within its shell, perhaps unknown to many of its members, a power centre that unilaterally determines U.S. foreign policy. The major objective of this submerged - and obviously subversive - foreign policy is the acquisition of markets and economic power (profits, if you will), for a small group of giant multi-nationals under the virtual control of a few banking investment houses and controlling families.
Through foundations controlled by this elite, research by compliant and spineless academics, "conservatives" as well as "liberals," has been directed into channels useful for the objectives of the elite essentially to maintain this subversive and unconstitutional power apparatus.
Through publishing houses controlled by this same financial elite unwelcome books have been squashed and useful books promoted; fortunately publishing has few barriers to entry and is almost atomistically competitive. Through control of a dozen or so major newspapers, run by editors who think alike, public information can be almost orchestrated at will. Yesterday, the space program; today, an energy crisis or a campaign for ecology; tomorrow, a war in the Middle East or some other manufactured "crisis."
The total result of this manipulation of society by the Establishment elite has been four major wars in sixty years, a crippling national debt, abandonment of the Constitution, suppression of freedom and opportunity, and creation of a vast credibility gulf between the man in the street and Washington, D.C. While the transparent device of two major parties trumpeting artificial differences, circus-like conventions, and the cliché of "bipartisan foreign policy" no longer carries credibility, and the financial elite itself recognises that its policies lack public acceptance, it is obviously prepared to go it alone without even nominal public support.
In brief, we now have to consider and debate whether this New York-based elitist Establishment is a subversive force operating with deliberation and knowledge to suppress the Constitution and a free society. That will be the task ahead in the next decade.
The slowly Emerging Revisionist truth
The arena for this debate and the basis for our charges of subversion is the evidence provided by the revisionist historian. Slowly, over decades, book by book, almost line by line, the truth of recent history has emerged as documents are released, probed, analysed, and set within a more valid historical framework.
Let us consider a few examples. American entry into World War II was supposedly precipitated, according to the Establishment version, by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Revisionists have established that Franklin D. Roosevelt and General Marshall knew of the impending Japanese attack and did nothing to warn the Pearl Harbour military authorities. The Establishment wanted war with Japan. Subsequently, the Establishment made certain that Congressional investigation of Pearl Harbour would fit the Roosevelt whitewash. In the words of Percy Greaves, chief research expert for the Republican minority on the Joint Congressional Committee investigation Pearl Harbor:
The complete facts will never be known. Most of the so-called investigations have been attempts to suppress, mislead, or confuse those who seek the truth. For the beginning to the end, facts and files have been withheld so as to reveal only those items of information which benefit the administration under investigation. Those seeking the truth are told that other facts or documents cannot be revealed because they are intermingled in personal diaries, pertain to our relations with foreign countries, or are sworn to contain no information of value.
But this was not the first attempt to bring the United States into war, or the last. The Morgan interests, in concert with Winston Churchill, tried to bring the U.S. into World War 1 as early as 1915 and succeeded in doing so in 1917. Colin Thompson's Lusitania implicates President Woodrow Wilson in the sinking of the Lusitania - a horror device to generate a public backlash to draw the United States into war with Germany. Thompson demonstrates that Woodrow Wilson knew four days beforehand that the Lusitania was carrying six-million rounds of ammunition plus explosives, and therefore, "passengers who proposed to sail on that vessel were sailing in violation of statute of this country."
The British Board of Inquiry under Lord Mersey was instructed by the British Government "that it is considered politically expedient the Captain Turner, the master of the Lusitania, be most prominently blamed for the disaster."
In retrospect, given Colin Thompson's evidence, the blame is more fairly to be attributed to President Wilson, "Colonel" House, J.P. Morgan, and Winston Churchill; this conspiratorial elite should have been brought to trial for wilful negligence, if not treason. It is to Lord Mersey's eternal credit that after performing his "duty" under instructions from His Majesty's government, and placing the blame on Captain Turner, he resigned, rejected his fee, and from that date on refused to handle British government commissions. To his friends Lord Mersey would only say about the Lusitania case that it was a "dirty business.
Then in 1933-4 came the attempt by the Morgan firm to install a fascist dictatorship in the United States. In the words of Jules Archer, it was planned to be a Fascist putsch to take over the government and "run it under a dictator on behalf of America's bankers and industrialists." Darlington Butler, who blew the whistle on the Wall Street conspiracy. And once again Congress stands out, particularly Congressmen Dickstein and MacCormack, by its gutless refusal to do no more than conduct a token whitewash investigation.
Since World War II we have seen the Korean War and the Vietnamese War - meaningless, meandering no-win wars costly in dollars and lives, with no other major purpose but o generate multibillion-dollar armaments contracts. Certainly these wars were not fought to restrain communism, because for fifty years the Establishment has been nurturing and subsidising the Soviet Union which supplied armaments to the other sides in both wars - Korea and Vietnam. So our revisionist history will show that the United States directly or indirectly armed both sides in at least Korea and Vietnam.
In the assassination of President Kennedy, to take a domestic example, it is difficult to find anyone who today accepts the finding of the Warren Commission - except perhaps the members of that Commission. Yet key evidence is still hidden from public eyes for 50 to 75 years. The Watergate affair demonstrated even to the man in the street that the White House can be a vicious nest of intrigue and deception.
Of all recent history the story of Operation Keelhaul is perhaps the most disgusting. Operation Keelhaul was the forced repatriation of millions of Russians at the orders of President (then General) Dwight D. Eisenhower, in direct violation of the Geneva Convention of 1929 and the long-standing American tradition of political refuge. Operation Keelhaul, which contravenes all our ideas of elementary decency and individual freedom, was undertaken at the direct orders of General Eisenhower and, we may now presume, was a part of a long-range program of nurturing collectivism, whether it be Soviet communism, Hitler's Nazism, or FDR's New Deal. Yet until recent publication of documentary evidence by Julius Epstein, anyone who dared to suggest Eisenhower would betray millions of innocent individuals for political purposes was viciously and mercilessly attacked.
What this revisionist history really teaches us is that our willingness as individual citizens to surrender political power to an elite has cost the world approximately two-hundred-million persons killed from 1820 to 1975. Add to that untold misery the concentration camps, the political prisoners, the suppression and oppression of those who try to bring the truth to light.
When will it all stop? It will not stop until we act upon one simple axiom: that the power system continues only so long as individuals want it to continue, and it will continue only so long as individuals try to get something for nothing. the day when a majority of individuals declares or acts as if it wants nothing from government, declares it will look after its own welfare and interests, then on that date power elites are doomed. The attraction to "go along" with power elites is the attraction of something for nothing. That is the bait. The Establishment always offers something for nothing, but the something is taken from someone else, as taxes or plunder, and awarded elsewhere in exchange for political support.
Periodic crises and wars are used to whip up support for other plunder-reward cycles which in effect tighten the noose around our individual liberties. And of course we have hordes of academic sponges, amoral businessmen, and just plain hangers-on, to act as non-productive recipients for the plunder.
Stop the circle of plunder and immoral reward and elitist structures collapse. But not until a majority finds the moral courage and the internal fortitude to reject the something-for-nothing con game and replace it by voluntary association, voluntary communes, or local rule and decentralised societies, will the killing and the plunder cease.
AUTHOR :Sutton, Antony C.
TITLE :Wall Street and the rise of Hitler
PLACE :Seal Beach, California
See also Wall Street/SS connections Bernhard/Dulles http://www.silcom.com/~patrick/mag3/pwrprnts.htm
See also book: 'Trading with the enemy : an expose of the Nazi-American money plot, 1933-1949' - Charles Higham
Extract from - The Lockheed Papers -
David Boulton - Jonathan Cape - 1978 pp 258-261
The Grease Machine Exposed - extract
Certainly there was no hint, late in 1974, of a Lockheed connection. Which is why, in total ignorance of the time-bomb on which his American friends were sitting, Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands felt confident enough in September to write to Burbank asking for a new commission arrangement. The sum involved this time: anything up to six million dollars.
2
Early in 1973 the Dutch government had begun to consider a long-term replacement for the navy's obsolete Lockheed P-2V Neptune patrol and anti-submarine planes. By June the admiralty council had three candidates under consideration: the British Nimrod from Hawker Siddeley, the French Breguet Atlantique Mark lA and II, and Lockheed's P-3C Orion.
The Dutch deliberations soon came to the notice of Fred C. Meuser in his mountain retreat at St Moritz. Mouser was by now something of an elder-statesman among the master-salesmen of the aerospace industry. He had served Lockheed, Northrop, and Lockheed again. His loyalty to Prince Bernhard, meanwhile, had never wavered. Now, with an immense new order in the offing (the Dutch admiralty were talking of spending up to 148 million guilders on thirteen planes between 1974 and 1978, and a further 452 million in the 1979-83 period) his eye for the main chance did not fail him.
Meuser contacted the prince and put to him a simple proposition. If the Orion were selected, and if a consultant's contract were concluded with Lockheed on the basis of commission for aircraft supplied to the Dutch navy and for the supply of spare parts, a large sum of money would be at the prince's disposal. He might wish to pass it, for instance, to his very own prestige charity, the World Wildlife Fund.
Bernhard didn't turn down the idea and Meuser was encouraged to take it a step further. In April 1974 he gave the prince a draft note and suggested he send it to Lockheed. It read:
Last time around it would have been of no use to accept Lockheed's offer to appoint Dr. H. Weisbrod agent for the reequipping of the Navy's ASW aircraft fleet with Orions, as European pressures required a European solution. This time around the situation may be more favourable for the Orion, in part due to Dr. Weisbrod's efforts, and it would now seem appropriate for Lockheed to appoint him their 'sub silentio' agent for a prospective Orion program. This could be done on the basis of an agent's agreement between Lockheed and Dr. Weisbrod, calling for a 4 per cent commission on all Lockheed billings for complete aircraft and 8 per cent for parts, services, etc., for the life of the program. As and when payments are received by Lockheed, corresponding commission payments to be made in a manner to be indicated by Dr. Weisbrod.
It was the same old formula that had proved so successful in the past: The Meuser-Weisbrod connection, with Bernhard as the intended principal beneficiary. When Meuser wrote that the Orion's prospects were good 'in part due to Weisbrod's effort,' he was unmistakably signalling to Lockheed that the prince himself had been, and could continue to be, active on Lockheed's behalf. In fact there is no evidence whatever that Bernhard really did involve himself in any way with the admiralty's evaluations. But what mattered was that Lockheed should believe he was rooting for them, and that this could be decisive.
Bernhard accepted Meuser's draft but did not send it to Lockheed immediately. Possibly he was shaken by the much-publicised conviction of his friend Tom Jones on May 1 and fearful of further revelations: but if so, he had overcome such fears by September. On the ninth of that month he sent the note to Roger Bixby-Smith, the intermediary with Lockheed on the abortive Orion deal in 1968 when $100,000 had ended up in the pocket of 'Victor Baarn'. With it he sent a covering letter in his own handwriting. It was one of two letters which, when unexpectedly made public, would finally destroy his good name.
It was short and to the point. He recalled the talks of 'a few years ago', evidently meaning 1968, and said that 'after a hell of a lot of pushing and pulling' it now looked as if something positive might develop and that it therefore might be a good idea to 'process the enclosed idea personally'. Neither the letter nor enclosure referred to the World Wildlife Fund, which seems by now to have dropped from Bernhard's mind.
Bixby-Smith passed the letter and note on to Burbank, probably direct to Haughton or Kotchian, but when they calculated that commission at the rate suggested would add up to between $4 million and $6 million they decided the prince's price was altogether too high. Smith was asked to convey as much to Bernhard, and to explain that in any case commission wasn't allowed on a government-to-government contract - though this prohibition hadn't always inhibited the company in the past.
Accordingly, Bixby-Smith arranged to meet the prince on October 30 on one of his frequent visits to Paris in the elegant company of Miss Helen 'Pussy' Grinda. The prince expressed surprise that the commission rate he was asking had checked out at so high a total. He had in mind, he told Smith, 'only about $1 million'. But he was angry at Lockheed's flat rejection of his proposal, and as the evening wore on he became angrier.
Three days later the prince despatched a second hand-written letter to Burbank. He was to claim later that he based it on a draft suggested by Smith. It seemed incredible, he wrote, that his approach had been rejected without discussion and without consideration of other possibilities. And he added bitterly: 'It would never have happened in the days of Bob or Courtlandt Gross.' He had 'spent a great deal of time and effort' since 1968 'to turn things in the right direction and to prevent wrong decisions influenced by political considerations'meaning a French or British purchase in the interests of European unity (of which he was a professed champion.). He had done this because of his old friendship for Lockheed 'and based on its past actions'. He now felt 'a little bitter' and would do nothing more for the company. What's more, he would make his attitude clear if he were consulted on the procurement decision by the admiralty or government. Finally, he was considering writing to or phoning Courtlandt Gross, who was still on Lockheed's board with the title 'Senior Adviser', andat least in Bernhard's viewnot without influence.
The letter evidently made a strong impression on Haughton and Kotchian. Whether moved by Bernhard's recollections of old and productive friendships, or by the implied threat to throw his influence decisively against the Orion, Lockheed came up with a new otter. Presumably Bixby-Smith had conveyed to them the prince's expectation of 'about $1 million', because that is exactly what was now proposed: a fixed commission of $1 million provided at least four aircraft were bought. The prohibition of commission on a government-to-government sale was conveniently forgotten. Bixby-Smith conveyed the offer to the prince on December 2 during a visit to the royal palace at Soestdijk, and he accepted immediately. Weisbrod, however, was to be cut out of the reduced sum. The prince, for reasons which are not clear, told Smith he did not wish the money to be paid through the Weisbrod route and would prefer it to be paid into a numbered account in Geneva specially opened for the purpose.
As it turned out, Bernhard never received his million dollars. The Dutch Government opted for defence cuts and postponed its purchase of a successor to the Neptunes. The prince's fateful, tell-tale letter lay forgotten in Haughton's files. And meanwhile the timebomb in Washington ticked away on an ever-shortening fuse.
3
Concurrent with all the Watergate investigations and quite independent of them was another which had quite separate origins. In 1972 the Democratic Senator from Idaho, Frank Church, had set up a Sub-committee on Multinational Corporations of the powerful Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, to follow up disclosures of ITT's interventions in Chile and to investigate how far big companies were influencing or forming foreign policy. From ITT Church and his Sub-committee moved on to the oil giants, opening public hearings on Gulf, Exxon and Mobil on May 16, 1975.
'What we are concerned with', Church told a huge array of press, radio and television reporters who would soon become very familiar with the dark-panelled Hearings Room, No. 4221, in the Dirksen Senate Building, 'is not a question of private or public morality. What concerns us here is a major issue of foreign policy for the United States.' Watergate had shown how domestic corruption could weaken democratic government. The multinationals' investigation would show that corruption abroad subverted the free world and weakened America's international standing.
The Senate's revelations of huge, systematic bribery by the oil companies caused a sensation. Suddenly it was Church rather than Sam Irvin, Archibald Cox or Stanley Sporkin who held the limelight; and now the Sub-committee decided to expand its reach and go after Northrop.
Preceeding extract was from 'The Lockheed Papers '- Chapter Entitled: The Grease Machine - By David Boulton
At The Hand Of Man - The White Man's Game
Raymond Bonner
Prince Bernhard and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
The White Man's Game pp. 66-71
To attract donors, large and small, as well as media attention, Nicholson, Scott and the founding fathers of WWF wanted the royal family to lend their name. They approached Prince Philip to be president. Philip was an avid outdoorsman and hunterin January 1961 he had bagged a Bengal tiger in Indiaand he and Queen Elizabeth had been to Kenya, on a safari best remembered because King George VI died while they were watching wild animals and Princess Elizabeth had become Queen. Scott sent Philip a draft of the proposed charter. Philip read it carefully, replying that one provision was "unctuous," and another "to wordy." This careful reading was not what Scott hold expected. It is "a great bore that he suggests so much alteration," Scott wrote Nicholson. The founding fathers had wanted the Prince only as a figurehead. Philip agreed to head up the British chapter of WWF, but he turned down the presidency of the International and suggested his friend Prince Bernhard for the post. The men were alike in many ways. Both had been born into European royal families, but not very distinguished ones, and had acquired their status and string of titles when they marriedBernhard to the future Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. The two men were handsome, dashing, and staunchly conservative politically.
Scott, who liked consorting with royalty, made the pitch. "Prince Philip (who was sailing with me at Cowes in the 12 metre 'sceptre' on Saturday) . . . told me that he was very keen that you should 'head-up' the international Trustees," Scott wrote to Bernhard. "Please may I ask Your Royal Highness to say that you will be President of the Trustees of The World Wildlife Fund.'' Prince Bernhard he eventually said yes, and he served as president until 1976, when he was forced to resign after it became public that he had solicited more than a million dollars in 'commissions" from Lockheed in exchange for Lockheed's receiving contracts to build warplanes for the Netherlands. (At One point after the scandal broke, Bernhard said that he had intended to give the money from Lockheed to WWF; a member of the board at the time insists this is not true.
Bernhard remained active behind the scenes in WWF, but a couple of years after he resigned, Philip became president of the International, and though it was thought he would serve for only a few years, he is still in power. The Prince is a committed conservationist and he undoubtedly has given prestige and visibility to WWF around the world. At the same time, however, many in the Third World have questioned whether he is the right person to head an organisation that does most of its work in developing countries. At a meeting of the Commonwealth Heads of state, most of them from the Third World and black, Philip said to an aide, "You wouldn't think the peace of the world rested on this lot, would you'?" on another occasion, he referred to the Chinese as "slitty-eyed."
WWF WAS SET UP to raise money, but in spite of the initial successes, it did not prove very effective. Nicholson had said that $1.5 million each year would be needed for conservation, which Scott thought he could easily raise; indeed, he anticipated coaxing $25 million from the rich. Scott discovered that socializing with the elite was one thing, getting them to part with their money quite another, and it was several years before the total of WWF's revenues reached $1 million.
WWF's financial fortunes began to change dramatically after a hard-driving South African businessman, Anton Rupert, joined the board. An Afrikaaner from the Cape, Rupert had already made millions as the owner of Rothmans International tobacco company, the foundation of the Rembrandt Group, his wholly owned business empire. When Rupert expanded beyond South Africa, he bought Dunhill and Cartier, and eventually he became one of the richest men in South Africa, rivalled only by Harry Oppenheimer, the gold and diamond industrialist. Rupert had long been interested in conservation, including the restoration of historic buildings, and in 1968 he joined the WWF board of trustees; he stayed on the board for twenty-two years, ill spite of a provision in the organisation's original incorporation documents that limited members to two three-year terms, a provision that was routinely ignored for the benefit of several other influential members of the board as well. Rupert brought a considerable amount of his own money to WWF, but, more important, he conceived a plan that would raise millions
Rupert's idea was the "1001 Club" The "one" was Prince Bernhard The other one thousand were wealthy individuals who could be persuaded to part with $10,000. The one-time donation brings lifetime membership, and the names of the generous patrons are kept secret by the organisation. According to these secret lists, American givers have included August A Busch, Jr, of the beer company; Henry Ford II; Peter Grace; Nelson Bunker Hunt, the silver trader; Mrs Geoffrey Kent, of Abercrombie & Kent; Robert S. McNamara; Cyril Magnin; Lew Wasserman, of MCA; Thomas Watson, of IBM. Many of the donors understandably wish to remain anonymous (in part to avoid being badgered by other charities), but it is also understandable why WWF does not want the list made public. It has included many less savoury individualsZaire's President Mobutu, Sese Seko, one of the most corrupt leaders in Africa; Daniel K Ludwig, the reclusive American billionaire, whose companies destroyed thousands of miles of the Amazon rain forest; Agha Hasan Abedi, the founder of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCC1); Robert Vesco, the financier who fled the United States in the 1970s to escape trial on charges of fraud, embezzlement and obstruction of justice; Tibor Rosenbaum, founder of a Swiss bank that laundered billions of dollars of organised crime money and who was accused of embezzling Israeli deposits in the bank; Thomas Jones, who was forced out as chief executive of Northrop after it was revealed that the company paid $30 million in bribes to government officials and agents around the world in exchange for contracts; Lord Kagan, a British businessman convicted of theft and conspiracy to defraud the British tax service; a Norwegian shipowner convicted of taking a £1 million bribe; an individual who was the conduit for the money from Lockheed to Prince Bernhard.
There has been another remarkable feature about the 1001 Clubthe number of South Africans. On the 1989 list, at least sixty individuals were from South Africa, including seven of Rupert's relatives. Many were also members of the Broederbond, the secret, conservative Afrikaaner society that has traditionally wielded immense political power in South Africa. Only five countries had more donors, and as a percentage of their population, South African whites had three hundred times as many members as the United States. It is easy to understand why so many South Africans have been willing to part with $10,000 to Join the 1001 and not all of it has to do with conservation. Not many international clubs welcomed white South Africans, and membership in the 1001 provided them an opportunity to mingle and do business with tycoons, as well as with Prince Philip and Prince Bernhard. What else they may have gained from the membership is unknown, in part because so much of what WWF-lnternational does is kept from the public and even from the organisation's own trustees. Because of the secrecy and closed nature of the WWF club, it is also difficult to know the extent of the influence that so much South African money has had on the organisation's conservation work. There can be little doubt, however, that WWF-International's initial opposition to the ivory ban reflected South African power on the boardSouth Africa was adamantly opposed to the ban, because its elephants were not being poached and it made money from selling ivory.
One place where South Africa's clout has been felt is in the office of the director-general, the man who runs WWF. Since 1977 that man has been Charles de Haes. Much of de Haes's past is vague, which seems to be by design: he has chosen to reveal very little about his background and some of what the organisation does say publicly about him is at odds with the facts. On WWF's public list of officers and trustees, de Haes is identified as being from Belgium, and he was born there, in 1938. But as a young boy, he moved with his family to South Africa. After graduating from Cape Town University with a law degree, he got a job with Rothmans International, Rupert's tobacco company. De Haes's Official resumethat is, the one WWF distributesmakes a point of noting that he went to work for the tobacco company "although himself a nonsmoker." It then says de Haes "helped establish companies" in Sudan, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. What it does not say is that these were companies that sold cigarettes. Maybe de Haes didn't smoke, but he made money by encouraging others to do so.
De Haes was brought to WWF through the back door by Anton Rupert in 1971. He was first assigned to be personal assistant to Prince Bernhard. One of his tasks was to implement the 1001 Club project. He was tremendously successful. Ten thousand dollars was worth even more back then, yet it took de Haes only three years to find one thousand donors. Prince Bernhard provided the letters of introduction, but de Haes was the salesman who clinched the deals. Even de Haes's fiercest criticsand they are manyuse the word "brilliant" when describing his fund-raising skills.
In 1975, with the backing of Rupert and Prince Philip de Haes was named joint director-general of WWF, and two years later he had the top position to himself. De Haes had no education or experience in conservation, other than his few years at WWF, yet he was now in charge of the most prestigious and influential conservation organisation in the world. It was a position that would have appealed to the most qualified and eminent individuals in the field, yet no effort was made to recruit any of them.
WWF may have taken on someone without conservation experience, but then, it cost the organisation nothing: Rupert agreed to pay de Haes's salarywhich, according to a British trustee, goes far in explaining why de Haes got the Job. WWF never said at the time that Rupert was paying de Haes, and it still tries to conceal this fact. The organisation's chief spokesman, Robert SanGeorge, stated emphatically during an interview in 1991 that de Haes had not been seconded from Rothmans to Prince Bernhard and WWF during the early years. But an internal WWF memorandum signed by the organisation's executive vice-president in 1975 talks specifically about "Mr. de Haes's period of secondment to WWF." What this means, of course, is that de Haes was still employed by a South African corporation while working for WWF. "I thought it was a scandal," says a former board member from North America, Who added that it was only by accident that he learned that Rupert was paying de Haes. This board member did not like the arrangement. "Who does the director general serve'? Is the interest of a South African tobacco company synonymous with the world conservation movement? Even more troubling to this director was the fact that it was kept a secret. "lf it was such a good thing, why weren't they willing to say so in the annual report?"
In a similar vein, the organisation treats as a state secret the question of who paid de Haes after he became director-general. It was "an anonymous donor" SanGeorge says. Even board members have been in the dark. When on occasion one asked, he was told that the donor wished to remain anonymous.
It is unlikely that any other charitable organisation that depends on public support operates with such little accountability and in such secrecy as WWF has under de Haes. It is easier to penetrate the CIA. And when WWF has been caught in embarrassing conducts it has engaged in damage control and cover-ups of the kind that might be expected from a company whose products have caused injury to consumers and the environment. Under rules de Haes promulgated, WWF employees are prohibited from talking to anyone outside the organization about anything except what the organisation has already made public; the obligation to secrecy binds the employee even after he or she has left WWF. Few are willing to break this code of silencegiven their fear of de Haes and, in the case of current employees, the generous salaries and pleasant living conditions in Switzerland.
It may well be, as one senior WWF officer put it somewhat defensively, that a dollar given to WWF is still a dollar well spent for conservation. But, as this person added, "imagine what the organisation could be with better leadership."
Over the years there has been increasing dissatisfaction with de Haes's leadership. One of the most serious challenges to his rule came in the early 1980s, when the heads of the WWF organisations in Britain, the Netherlands and Switzerland began to discuss among themselves changes they thought were necessary in the organisation. These organisations should be able to effect change because they provide most of the funds for the InternationalWWF-UK alone contributes nearly one-third of the International's budget, and Switzerland and the Netherlands rank second and third. The way WWF was set up, two-thirds of the money raised by the national organisations goes to the International, while one third remains with the national organisation. The "dissident" leaders of the three national organisations objected to this because there was no accountability over how the International spent the money. They also did not like the fact that the WWF-International board of trustees doesn't represent the national organisations. The board is a self-selected body that is, those on the board decide whom to place on itand the national organisations, even though they give the money, have no right of representation. In short, the heads of the British, Dutch and Swiss organisations felt that too much power was concentrated in Glandthe Swiss town where WWF-lnternational's headquarters is locatedand that the local organisations should have more autonomy.
Sir Arthur Norman, the head of WWF-UK at the time, was particularly disturbed by the manner in which WWF-International set up chapters in other countries. He thought they should "be triggered off by local people, local enthusiasm, and not by someone in Bland saying "it's time".
The White Man's Game - pp78-81
Phillipson found that "a diligent auditor set among the project account files in Switzerland would surely open a cupboard full of skeletons." He was referring to the International's field projectsfrom some there were no reports at all, and many others had made no accounting of how the money was spent. Phillipson's conclusion that WWF's attitude engendered accusations of "neo-colonialism" remained in the summary.
Occasionally other skeletons got out, and when they did, it became clear that WWF had lost its ethical way, at least in carrying out its conservation work in Africa. In the late 1980s, for example, WWF provided Zimbabwe's Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management with funds to buy a helicopter for its anti-poaching operations in the Zambezi Valley, where the black rhino was on the verge of extinction because of poachers. The department used the helicopter to deploy anti-poaching units when it received reports of poachers in an area. At least fifty-seven poachers were killed in the helicopter-supported operations, and the WWF office in Zimbabwe reported that the helicopter "has made an enormous difference to staff morale and efficiency" in the wildlife department.
That WWF was involved was not flown publicly until the environment correspondent of the British newspaper The Guardian, Paul Brown, broke the story. WWF responded with a statement saying that it had provided the funds for the helicopter "on the strict understanding that the helicopter would never be used as a gun-ship," and that it was "official WWF policy not to use any of its funds for purchase of arms or ammunition." The truth is the organisation knew that the helicopter would be used in operations in which poachers would be killed. Indeed, there had been a long and fierce debate within WWF about the project, and many on the staff were opposed because Zimbabwe's policy was "Shoot first, ask questions later," as one of those involved in the debate puts it. Providing the helicopter "made the policy more effective," he said. As for WWF's statement that it did not provide funds for arms or ammunition, the organisation's internal documents show that it was doing precisely that for at least one project in Tanzania in 1987.
De Haes and WWF-International had to work harder to cover up another scandal in Africa, this one involving mercenaries, intrigue, high level WWF officials and Prince Bernhard. The mercenaries were former British commandos who worked for KAS Enterprises, a company headed by Sir David Stirling, the legendary founder of Britain's Special Air Services (SAS), Britain's most elite commando force. Stirling, who died in 1990, engaged in clandestine activities throughout the world, setting up ostensibly private companies that were in fact covers for Britain's MI-5 and MI-6. In Africa s conservation wars, in the late 1980S KAS, as part of its arrangement with WWF officials, trained anti-poaching units in Namibia, which was then still under the control of South Africa, as well as Mozambicans in South Africa. (The South African government was trying to destabilise Mozambique.) KAS also set up a "sting" operation to catch traffickers in ivory and rhino horn. The project was code-named "Operation Lock," Lock being the maiden name of the wife of a former SAS officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Ian Crooke, who was in charge of it.
Some of KAS's anti-poaching activities were exposed in July 1989 by Robert Powell, the Reuters correspondent in Nairobi. Powell, however, was unable to link WWF to the operation, and so WWF remained silent when Powell's story appeared, and continued working with KAS. But Powell's article provoked Stephen Ellis, editor of Africa Confidential, a fortnightly newsletter published in London, to probe further. Ellis, also a freelance journalist, got an assignment from The Independent to write an article about Operation Lock. In the course of his reporting he called WWF and talked with Robert SanGeorge, the organisation's chief spokesman. SanGeorge, an American, had come to WWF-International in 1940 along with his wife, a tough lawyer who became executive assistant to de Haes. Without telling Ellis, SanGeorge, who has been seen with a recording device attached to his phone, made a verbatim transcript of their conversation, which he passed on to de HaesSanGeorge even noted when Ellis "paused to fetch a cup of coffee he had left in another room.
A few days later, SanGeorge faxed a statement to Ellis. The statement began: "it is, and always has been, the policy of WWF not to engage in clandestine or covert operations which might be considered unethical by governments, the public, or supporters of WWF." The organisation then went on to lay the blame for the covert operation on John Hanks, head of the Africa Programme at WWF-International. It said that Hanks had initiated the project "without the knowledge or approval of WWF-lnternational's management." Six months earlier Hanks had been forced out of WWF by de Haes and had gone to South Africa as director of the Southern African Nature Foundation, the name of WWF's affiliate in South Africa. Not wanting to cross de Haes again and being loyal to WWF, Hanks signed a statement assuming responsibility for Operation Lock.
Ellis wrote his story, and the day it appeared, SanGeorge sent a memorandum to all WWF national organisations. The memo reiterated what SanGeorge had told Ellis, and emphasised that Operation Lock "was initiated without the knowledge or authority of the Director General" and that "no funds for the Operation were channelled through WWF International's books." It was a carefully crafted statement, befitting the work of a lawyer who wants to keep his client out of Jail. But it was hardly an honest explanation befitting a charitable organisation.
The truth, which has never come out publicly, is found in a series of communications from Frans Stroebel, executive director of WWF's South African affiliate when Operation Lock commenced and the man who had introduced Lieutenant-Colonel Crooke to senior police and conservation officials in South Africa. Stroebel wrote Prince Philip:
I have given Mr. de Haes a number of comprehensive briefings on the project since I first became involved. In May 1989, I gave him full details. He then went to HRH Prince Bernhard to confirm that Prince Bernhard was indeed the sponsor. Mr. de Haes satisfied himself with the developments, and in subsequent discussions with me he never expressed any concern about my involvement, or, for that matter, the covert programme itself.
As for the funds for the operation, Stroebel said, in another letter, "The funds for Operation Lock were actually WWF funds." The money had come to WWF-lnternational, then was channelled back out to Bernhard for Operation Lock in a series of strange transactions. First, in December 1988, Sotheby's auctioned two paintings owned by BernhardThe Holy Family, a seven-by-five-foot oil by Bartolome Esteban Murillo, and The Rape of Europa, a four-by-five-foot oil by Elisabetta Sirani. Together they brought in £610,000. On Bernhard's instructions the proceeds were donated to WWF-International; Sotheby's had noted in its catalogue that they would be. But if the buyerwho remains anonymousthought the money was going toward WWF's general conservation work, he was mistaken. Within a few weeks after the sale, Bernhard called the administrator of the 1001 Club and asked her to transfer £500,000 from the 1001 Club account to Queen Juliana's (his wife's) account in the Netherlands. The £500,000 was needed for Operation Lock, according to Stroebel, and de Haes "agreed to the use of these funds as requested." (Bernhard told WWF it could keep the remaining £110,000, which at the time was worth a little less than $200,000.)
After Ellis's story appeared, many Western conservationists working in Africa were embarrassed, because Operation Lock had been exposednot because they thought it was wrong to engage in a covert operation to stop the illegal trade in rhino horn and ivory. Indeed, the possibility of covert operations had often been discussed by elephant and rhino specialists. On one occasion, at a meeting attended by conservationists from WWF, AWF and other organisations, Hanks outlined what he had in mind and the general response, as described by a person who attended, was "Get on with it. Don't tell us what you're doing, but get on with it." Government officials in Zambia, Tanzania and Kenya did not feel quite the same way. They declined offers of assistance from KAS.
That there was a schism as big as a canyon between the approach to conservation taken by the Africans on the one hand and the conservation organisations on the other was not surprising, not when one looked at the conservation organisations: they were the monopoly of white Westerners. Whites headed them, hired whites to staff them, and implemented programs that reflected Western values.
WWF-International has its headquarters in Gland, a quintessential Swiss townsmall, quiet, neat, and white. It carries out programs around the world, most of them in the Third World, yet one has rarely seen other than a white face in the Gland offices.. For thirty years, not a single African, and only a handful of Asians and Latin Americans, were ever hired by WWF-International. Only one black has ever held a professional position in the Africa section of WWF-US, and he was not hired until 1991. In the fieldthat is, in Africawalk into the organisation's offices, and it is like colonial days: white at the top, blacks in the inferior positions. WWF's major presence in Africa has been its regional office in Nairobi, which in various incarnations has existed since the 1960s; it has always been headed by whites, and not until 1989 was there a single African in a professional position. Only one WWF program anywhere on the continent has ever been headed by an African.
COMODO - Group campaigning to expose the Dutch Royal Family
*** ORANGE SQUASH ***
Amsterdam, 2-2-2002: Party & Resistance at the Royal Wedding
Dodgyness is the keyword in all the Dutch Royal Affairs. Following the tradition of Queen Beatrix's marriage to an ex-Hitlerjugend member and her mother Juliana's marriage to an up-to-1938 member of the German Nazi's, Dutch crown prince Willem Alexander is marrying the daughter of a minister in the Argentinian fascist junta.
Committee March on the House of Orange (COMODO) is planning to have a big party of resistance and anarchy in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, on the day of the royal wedding, 2-2-2002 of the crownprince with his Argentinian sweetheart Maxima.
As the Dutch royal family, the Dutch parliament, the police and security services are preparing for the wedding, so should we.
It will be a day with lots of actions, fun and possibilities: so please join us and come to Holland on the wedding day! Interested to help preparing? Send an email to [email protected]
A first public meeting, dicussion and action will take place on May 26th in Amsterdam by De Vrije Zone (The Free Zone) and COMODO.
SOME BACKGROUND INFO
In dutch newspapers and magazines the hype around the father of Maxim, Jorge Zorreguieta, who has been Minister of agriculture in the Videla-junta in Argentinia and was spokesman for the big farmers and landowners, has been going on for months now.
"Is it appropiate for such a person to attend the wedding of his daughter with 'our' prince?" Or: "Shouldn't he be ill just for that day?". And the most progressive: "Should she not denounce the junta publicly before she can become princess of the Netherlands?"
For us the questions are of course different: should there be a royal family at all and is this case not precisely what is wrong with an institute like the monarchy? The Dutch royal family is quite famous for their contacts with "wrong" regimes and dictators throughout history. This is nothing new for us. An institute like the monarchy is an expression of how this capitalistic world works, nothing is democratic, just 'bread and plays' for 'normal people'. Give us queensday every year, a handwaving queen and people will be happy?
We cannot accept backward institutes like monarchies. That is why we will not accept the royal wedding. There is no justification for the existance of a wealthy elite which stands above the law, consolidates hierarchic strucures, stimulates nationalism and tortures animals. We want the entire monarchy abolished.
WHY SHOULD THE DUTCH MONARCHY BE A TARGET WORLDWIDE?
Well, it shouldn't. But it is interesting to note that our current queen, Beatrix, is one of the few permanent members of the Bilderberg group, and very respected in those high level circles that discuss what should happen to the world. The secretary general of the group is a Dutch economic professor, Victor Rosenboom, and has been put in charge by Beatrix of teaching Maxima Zorreguieta the finer points of Dutch society, such as the world renowned dutch policies of repressive tolerance.
The Dutch monarchy is a powerful party in global high-circles and represents Dutch transnationals, such as Shell, Unilever and Philips on the forefront of developments in globalisation. The Dutch tend to be a favorite for international posts because of their pseudo-neutrality, always wearing the coat of political correctness and compromise. Recent example is the appointment of ex prime minister Ruud Lubbers as UN high commissioner for refugees. In the eighties and early nineties he was the responsible cabinet leader for closing the borders, disallowing refugees to work, the Schengen and Maastricht treaties.
In this time, the Dutch also invented the 'third way', now so revered by social democrats worldwide, by starting the Dutch 'poldermodel' of permanent negotiation between unions and employers, effectively paralysing what was left of worker's protests, while inequality kept growing.
A decade earlier, the Dutch were one of the major economic partners for the fascist Argentinian junta under general Videla. Tens of thousands of people, especially thousands of leftists and jews, were tortured and murdered. "We have to seperate the economic and political side of things", have always been the Dutch motto. Thus the Dutch supplied the Fokker planes with which the Argentinian victims where simply thrown in to the ocean. "Now we have to seperate politics and romance", and thus allow one of the fascist cabinet members become the queen's father and have a direct line of influence in both dutch and global politics.
Anarchists and antifascists may find the Dutch monarchy a worthy symbol of hierarchy, backwardness, fascism and especially deceit.
There is a lot more about the Dutch royal family. Interested in the history of the Dutch royal family?
Send us an email: [email protected] or look at the website
http://squat.net/beakomt
COMODO
Our group, Committee March on the House of Orange (COMODO) was formed last year when queen Beatrix planned to visit Leiden on queensday (30th of april, the birthday of her mother) and a lot of repressive measures were announced. With a succesful day of action and a public tribunal against the royals in Leiden, we had a load of fun.
For the manifesto (in English as well) of Comittee March on the House of Orange: see our website http://squat.net/beakomt There is the possibilty to get on the mailinglist.
Note: our phone nr. has changed! (see below)
PO BOX 85069 3508 AB Utrecht Netherlands
Giro 4370351 tnv Steungroep NVDA te Utrecht ovv GroenFront!
Phone/fax: +31 84 8666018
Germans black-out their past
The sensibility for "shadow governments" and "New World Order" is quite minor in Ger"money"... the reasons may lie in the tendency of Germans to "black out" their past. So far as I know Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands was a former SS-officer before marrying into the Dutch Kings-House. He was also employee of a sub-division of the German "IG Farben", "IG Farben und Bilder". The latter fact indicates, that the choice of the Hotel Bilder-Burg for the first meeting was not accidental. There was even a close relationship between Exxon (Standard Oil company) and IG Farben. This connections last until the present time - Monsanto Inc. took over much of the expertise of IG Farben concerning chemical weapons. "Agent Orange" was a "follow up" of Sarin, Senfgas and Tabun. When Monsanto faced financial difficulties in restructuring from a chemical to a biogenetic Company, Citibank (part of the Rothschild-universe) helped out with a loan.
Hannes Oberlindober <[email protected]>
13Feb11 - Dutch Royal family insights
In the article 'Prince Bernhard and the Nazi's' his aunt's name is wrongly spelled. Her correct name is The Countess Paul de Kotzebue née Allene Tew formerly Princess Heinrich Reuss XXXIII formerly the Widow Anson Wood Burchard (1876-1955).
Queen Wilhelmina (1880-1962) was the only surviving child of King Willem III of the Netherlands, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (1817-1890). The whole future of the Dutch monarchy and the House of Orange-Nassau was on the shoulders of the young Wilhelmina.
Would something happen to her, then via her father's sister -Queen Wilhelmina's aunt- Grand Duchess Sophie von Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach the most likely Heir to the throne was Prince Heinrich XXIII Reuss, who would later marry the dazzlingly rich American widow Mrs Anson Wood Burchard née Allene Tew. This lady would divorce Prince Heinrich and marry for a third time, now with Count Paul de Kotzebue.
For some reason she managed it to bring the apple of her eye, Prince Bernhard zur Lippe-Biesterfeld (1911-2004) in contact with Queen Wilhelmina's single child and heiress, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands (1909-2004). They would have a stormy marriage of 67 years surviving the Hofmans Affair, the Lockheed Scandal, etc. Prince Bernhard, co-founder and central figure of Bilderberg, was the father of the present Queen Beatrix.
Marcel d'Ailly, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
From ANIMAL PEOPLE, June 1994:
Editorial: What's Wrong with "Sustainable Use"?
www.animalpeoplenews.org
U.S. World Wildlife Fund president Kathryn Fuller didn't just rattle the Clinton administration with her May 12 declaration of opposition to any "first step toward the resumption of commercial whaling." More significant was her statement that, "Even if commercial whaling could be sustainable, it cannot be justified," a welcome marked departure from 35 years of WWF policy, which essentially has endorsed any use of wildlife that even promised to be sustainable.
The most influential of all animal and habitat protection groups internationally, WWF has been problematic since 1961, when founder Sir Peter Scott, a trophy hunter, recruited the leadership elite from among fellow hunters who feared that African independence would lead to the rapid loss of target species. The elite included longtime WWF International president Prince Bernhard of The Netherlands, who escaped punishment for allegedly overshooting bird quotas in Italy in the early 1970s to resign, finally, in 1987, after being implicated in a Dutch bribery scandal. Bernhard was succeeded by another of the founding elite, Prince Philip, long the honorary head of the British chapter. One of the world's most prolific tiger-killers when tigers were abundant, Philip showed his allegiance to conservation ethics that Christmas by leading his sons Charles, Andrew, and Edward in killing 10,000 pigeons, 7,000 pheasants, 300 partridges, and several hundred ducks, geese, and rabbits--all captive-raised--in a six-week vacation bloodbath. This slightly exceeded Philip's previous record of 15,500 captive birds killed during a five-week spree. Early WWF U.S. chapter presidents included C.R. "Pink" Gutermuth, who doubled as president of the National Rifle Association, and Francis L. Kellogg, a notorious trophy hunter.
The attitude of WWF in those days was characterized by support for seal-clubbing off the east coast of Canada, benefit fur auctions (only halted in 1988), and Bernhardt's formation of the 1001 Club, a group of billionaire patrons. A 1988 probe of the 1001 Club by the magazine Private Eye found that the members "by and large owe their fortunes to activities completely at odds with preserving wildlife habitat." The most notorious member was Mobuto Sese Soto, who ruled Zaire from 1965 until mid-1993. Under Mobuto, Zaire protected about 84,000 elephants on spacious reserves. Then, as two decades of reckless spending and blatant corruption brought on the national crisis that finally toppled Mobuto, poachers slew about 60% of the elephants in just five years--while Mobuto and supporters reputedly stashed the take in Swiss banks.
Despite or perhaps because of such fancy patronage, WWF meanwhile spent so much of its income on direct mail fundraising that in 1990 it failed to meet the National Charities Information Bureau requirement that it spend at least 60% on program service. Simultaneously WWF was severely embarrassed by a leaked internal study that documented 20 years of massive waste. Nearly every major WWF project had failed. Even pandas, the WWF symbol species, were near extinction. WWF had bribed Chinese officials to preserve panda habitat by allowing them to use donated funds for such projects as building a hydroelectric dam--which only brought demands for still bigger bribes.
WWF turned down the heat by officially turning from a so-called "preservationist" philosophy, which in WWF practice meant only the privileged were allowed to kill endangered wildlife, to endorsement of "sustainable use"--interpreted to mean killing animals for the most profitable use possible at the fastest rate each species can withstand. The WWF doctrine has huge influence. Just a month ago Tufts Center for Animals and Public Policy director Andrew Rowan found a single difference in the responses of zoo and humane representatives to 12 hypothetical ethical problems he posed at the White Oak conference on zoos and animal protection. Most agreed that hunting is both ethically and pragmatically dubious as an alleged tool of wildlife management. Yet, endorsing the WWF view, the zoo people were virtually all willing to tolerate trophy hunting as a way to make wildlife lucrative for poor nations, and presumably therefore worth protecting.
The case for "sustainable use" holds accurately enough that poor nations usually can't or won't protect wildlife without both economic means and an economic incentive; notes that trophy hunters pay much more for a head than tourists do for a snapshot; and asserts that trophy hunters, armed with guns and bribes, will go places and take risks that most tourists won't. One might counter that since potential tourists are much more plentiful than trophy hunters, and since tourism creates more jobs than trophy hunting, even though tourists spend less per capita, a wise conservation strategy would help poor nations to create the political stability and economic infrastructure that would attract more tourists, and would oppose activity, including both poaching and trophy hunting, that contributes to instability by heightening the concentration of wealth and privilege with the well-positioned few instead of the desperately needy many.
Instead, the sustainable use doctrine asserts that since hunting is going on, and will go on anyway, legally or not, better to regulate it and make a buck than to merely spend bucks trying to control poaching, as the wildlife traffickers continually jack up the price for bootlegged animal parts and corrupt officials accept ever larger bribes to ignore poachers who often are better equipped than their national armies--or in many cases are themselves renegade army units, with strong clandestine ties to government leaders.
Currently, "sustainable users" point out, hunting is restricted, at least on paper, across much of Africa and Asia. Yet poachers are annihilating elephants, rhinos, and tigers wherever they can, to supply the Asiatic demand for aphrodisiacs and traditional medicines derived from their ivory, horns, bones, and genitals. The demand increases as growth of the leading Asian economies comes faster than the absorption of modern medical knowledge, while ruthless mercantilism shoves aside Buddhist and Hindu teachings which stress human kinship to other species. Because the only current source of the most coveted animal parts is the international black market, and because prices climb as supplies become scarcer, cartels such as the notorious Poon or Pong family of Hong Kong not only promote poaching, but allegedly seek the extinction of the target species, at least in the wild, to guarantee the lasting value of their animal part stockpiles.
Species conservation programs should cash in, the "sustainable users" contend, by helping poor nations to manage wildlife reserves like huge game farms, combining canned hunts for culled animals with the legal sale of their remains. This would supposedly undercut poaching in the marketplace.
Principles and Practice "Sustainable use" is attractive to free marketers who don't know their wildlife history--but there is no evidence that legal traffic in wildlife parts can preserve species. On the contrary, legal ivory traffic provided the cover that nearly wiped out elephants in much of Africa before 1989, when the ivory trading ban adopted by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species curtailed poaching by giving customs officials worldwide the ability to interdict ivory shipments, regardless of purported origin.
The elephant episode duplicated the disastrous attempted international regulation of commercial whaling, begun with the formation of the International Whaling Commission in 1946: by 1986, when the current whaling moratorium began, every species of whale was severely depleted and some were near extinction because of ruthless poaching that used the legal quotas for cover. Russian whaling authorities disclosed recently that some Soviet vessels killed from 10 to 30 times as many whales as they admitted killing--and killed hundreds of some species which were completely off limits.
Even in the closely regulated climate of the U.S. and Canada, the "sustainable use" theory doesn't work, as flagrant poaching continues to masquerade behind legal hunting and game farming. The high rate of poaching in North America also belies the claim, made in support of "sustainable use" in Africa, that the presence of hunters deters poachers. "Sustainable users" contend the mandatory employment of guides will discourage hunters from becoming poachers--but that hasn't worked in Maine, Alaska, or Alberta, where veteran guides have lately been caught running poaching rings after many years of simultaneously catering to both wealthy trophy hunters and the Asian wildlife parts market. Hunters and parts traffickers in effect subsidize each other, with corrupt guides as brokers.
Truth is, those who commit crimes against wildlife will exploit any opportunity. "Sustainable use" is a one-way ticket to extinction because bloodlust and greed, once accepted as legitimate conduct, cannot be appeased or restrained by mere regulation. The political argument against "sustainable use" is equally rooted. "Sustainable users" hope to convince poor Africans and Asians that they should not kill wildlife to collect the equivalent of several years' wages, while rich Europeans and Americans kill the same animals for fun--a new and dangerous idea to people whose own killing is mostly from need, especially when coupled with the idea that thrill-killing has a higher rationale.
"Sustainable users" argue that giving poor Africans and Asians a collective economic stock in wildlife will lead to the development of a collective ethic, whereby poachers will become pariahs. This ignores the history of collectivism wherever it has been attempted, from the failed USSR to Africa's own overgrazed grasslands. It also overlooks the poachers' own collective ethic (perhaps a higher ethic in that it excludes mere thrill-killing). They already use the animals they kill for what they perceive as the common good, the good of their families. Having no faith in corrupt governments that purport to protect wildlife, but in fact sell animals to the highest bidder, they see no reason why they should not poach animals now, before others do and take the profits.
Finally, Africa in particular already suffers too much from the idea that whoever has the most money and firepower is above morality. The example of the Great White Hunter who receives special privileges because he has money reinforces the notion of the Big Man who is above the law because he commands a well-armed tribe.
The "sustainable use" doctrine could be applied to other Third World problems. For instance, the same newly rich and ethically alienated Asian men who buy aphrodisiacs made from wildlife parts are also the chief patrons of the increasingly notorious brothels of the poorest regions of Southeast Asia, where up to 400,000 children a year are bought from illiterate parents in remote villages and held for enforced prostitution until, diseased and often cruelly injured, they are cast out and replaced at the advanced age of perhaps 15. One hopes "sustainable users" would not also endorse financing schools and orphanages by letting well-heeled pedophiles rape selected children--even though child prostitution is reportedly a $3.77-billion-a-year business in Taiwan alone, twice the size of the U.S. retail fur trade at its peak.
Some may respond that the ethics of human welfare should not be the same as those of species conservation. Yet the leaders of the Rwandan massacres in April and May rationalized their deeds with "sustainable use" rhetoric. Hutus didn't massacre Tutsis, reporters were told; they merely culled them. Then, Juliana Mukankwaya explained to Mark Fritz of the Associated Press, she and other women of their village bludgeoned the orphaned children as a purported act of mercy.
WWF is not responsible for the deaths of half a million civilians in Rwanda, nor for the ongoing tribal strife elsewhere in Africa. Nor is WWF to blame for perversions of conservation rhetoric, any more than humane societies are to blame for Mukankwaya's warped notion of euthanasia. Yet WWF is culpable for advancing the view that thrill-killing can be excused--for a price. We hope Fuller's apparent turn away from "sustainable use" means WWF is ready to take a different direction. -- Merritt Clifton Editor, ANIMAL PEOPLE P.O. Box 960 Clinton, WA 98236 Telephone: 360-579-2505 Fax: 360-579-2575 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.animalpeoplenews.org
[ANIMAL PEOPLE is the leading independent newspaper providing original investigative coverage of animal protection worldwide, founded in 1992. Our readership of 30,000-plus includes the decision-makers at more than 8,300 animal protection organizations. We have no alignment or affiliation with any other entity.]
Fall of the Royal Fortune; How a Dutch prince knocked his family down the Forbes list
By Friso Endt and Karen Lowry Miller
30 June 2003
Newsweek International
"Kings, Queens and Despots," a short list of the world's most wealthy rulers published by Forbes magazine, comes with a number of caveats. Valuing these multibillion-dollar private fortunes is a "tricky business," says Forbes. Most royal families decline to comment on their wealth. But last December, as the 2003 list was being compiled, a prominent member of the Netherland's illustrious House of Orange broke the family's long silence on the issue. Prince Bernhard, feisty 92-year-old father of Queen Beatrix, phoned Christopher Forbes, who is married to his German niece, and demanded that he stop printing "bulls--t" exaggerations of his family fortune. Forbes told him to call editor Luisa Kroll, who wanted evidence. Bernhard faxed a handwritten letter with enough detail about holdings in companies like Royal Dutch Shell and ABN AMRO to persuade her to slash the estimate from $2.5 billion in 2002 to $250 million.
The Oranges would have been in the billionaire class occupied by the House of Saud and Prince Hans Adam II of Liechtenstein. But when the list was published earlier this year, they were wedged in among the lowly multimillionaires, like Yasir Arafat and Fidel Castro.
It was the first time Kroll had ever gotten a call from a complaining prince, but the plainspoken Bernhard is not your typical royal. In an increasingly transparent financial world, the massive restatement is a reminder of how difficult it remains to penetrate the regal sphere. Dutch stipends are a matter of public record--Queen Beatrix takes home 3.8 euros million per year in "salary" and other expenses. But support for the family is spread across so many departments and "hidden posts" that "nobody, no member of Parliament," knows the real total, according to the Republican Association, a Dutch group of royal reformers. As for the Orange family fortune, which goes back to the early-19th-century spice-, rubber-, tea- and coffee-trading exploits of King Willem I in the East Indies, the discreet Dutch generally consider the subject off-limits. "We are not so rich," Bernhard said in a brief phone interview. "People think we are stingy with money and the truth is that we have to be careful with money."
So why would a prince bother downplaying his fortune for the commoners? According to people who have spoken to Bernhard recently, he worries that exaggerated estimates could inspire personal attacks--either from criminals like those who tried to kidnap his wife, Juliana, in the 1970s, or perhaps from budget cutters in Parliament. (In fact, Parliament last discussed royal funding in the 1960s, when Juliana complained that she had to spend her own money on royal-household expenses, and Parliament agreed to pick up the tab.) The whole episode also fits the prince's reputation for impulsive meddling. Last year, after two supermarket workers were fined for injuring a thief while handing him over to the police, the outraged prince called newspapers to complain about the fine and made a public show of paying it for the two men.
His actions this time have exposed cracks in a family that prides itself on not behaving badly. Bernhard told a close family friend that his daughter was angry at him for calling Forbes. She has been titular head of the family since 1980, when she took over the mantle of queen from her aging mother, but that doesn't mean Bernhard listens to her--"he just reminds her that he is her father," says one royal watcher.
Once a high flier (who in 1954 helped launch a secretive gathering of the global elite called the Bilderberg Group), Bernhard's reputation took a sharp blow in the Lockheed scandal of 1976. He was accused of taking a $1 million bribe. Queen Juliana kept the law at bay, but the prime minister devised a devastating penalty: a onetime Spitfire pilot, Bernhard was forbidden to don a military uniform in public. The wounds are still raw. He and his wife have barely spoken since, and live in separate halves of the Soestdijk Palace. Each has different treasurers, says a former member of the government information service.
That's led some Dutch royal watchers to suspect that Bernhard is now underestimating the family fortune. It's not clear he's privy to the right information: like all royal spouses, Bernhard lives on a stipend and does not have access to the family capital. Republican Association member Hans van den Bergh scoffs at the $250 million estimate and figures the Oranges have a fortune worth between $17 billion and $23 billion, including Rembrandt paintings and silver services from tsarist Russia. "He has a sharp mind, he knows what he wants and he gets what he wants," says Cor de Horde, editor of a monthly royals magazine. "If Prince Bernhard phones you up and doesn't like what you've written, you have to stand firm." Estimating the real wealth of kings, queens and despots remains as tricky as ever.
Royal fortunes tricky to pin down
By Friso Endt and Karen Lowry Miller.
26 June 2003
New Zealand Herald
"Kings, Queens and Despots," a shortlist of the world's most wealthy rulers published by Forbes magazine, comes with several caveats. Valuing these multibillion-dollar private fortunes is a "tricky business", says Forbes.
Most royal families decline to comment on their wealth. But in December, as the 2003 list was being compiled, a prominent member of the Netherlands' illustrious House of Orange broke the family's long silence on the issue.
Prince Bernhard, feisty 92-year-old father of Queen Beatrix, phoned Christopher Forbes, who is married to his German niece, and demanded that he stop printing "bulls***t" exaggerations of his family fortune.
Forbes told him to call editor Luisa Kroll, who wanted evidence. Bernhard faxed a handwritten letter with enough detail about holdings in companies like Royal Dutch Shell and ABN Amro to persuade her to slash the estimate from US$2.5 billion ($4.28 billion) last year to US$250 million.
The Oranges would have been in the billionaire class occupied by the House of Saud and Prince Hans Adam II of Liechtenstein.
But when the list was published this year, they were wedged in among the lowly multimillionaires, like Yasser Arafat and Fidel Castro.
It was the first time Kroll had ever had a call from a complaining prince, but the plainspoken Bernhard is not your typical royal.
In an increasingly transparent financial world, the massive restatement is a reminder of how difficult it remains to penetrate the regal sphere.
Dutch stipends are a matter of public record - Queen Beatrix takes home 3.8 million ($7.49 million) a year in "salary" and other expenses.
But support for the family is spread across so many departments and "hidden posts" that "nobody, no member of Parliament", knows the real total, says the Republican Association, a Dutch group of royal reformers.
As for the Orange family fortune, which goes back to King Willem I's trading of spice, rubber, tea and coffee in the East Indies in the early 19th century, the discreet Dutch generally consider the subject off-limits.
"We are not so rich," Bernhard said in a brief phone interview.
"People think we are stingy with money and the truth is that we have to be careful with money."
So why would a Prince bother downplaying his fortune for the commoners? People who have spoken to Bernhard recently say he worries that exaggerated estimates could inspire personal attacks - either from criminals like those who tried to kidnap his wife, Juliana, in the 1970s, or from budget-cutters in Parliament.
(In fact, Parliament last discussed royal funding in the 1960s, when Juliana complained that she had to spend her own money on royal-household expenses, and Parliament agreed to pick up the tab.)
The whole episode also fits the Prince's reputation for impulsive meddling. Last year, after two supermarket workers were fined for injuring a thief while handing him over to the police, the outraged Prince called newspapers to complain about the fine and made a public show of paying it for the two men.
His actions this time have exposed cracks in a family that prides itself on not behaving badly.
Bernhard told a close family friend that his daughter was angry at him for calling Forbes. She has been titular head of the family since 1980, when she took over the mantle of Queen from her aging mother, but that doesn't mean Bernhard listens to her - "He just reminds her that he is her father," says one royal watcher.
Once a high flyer (who in 1954 helped to launch a secretive gathering of the global elite called the Bilderberg Group), Bernhard's reputation took a blow in the Lockheed scandal of 1976. He was accused of taking a US$1 million bribe.
Queen Juliana kept the law at bay, but the Prime Minister devised a devastating penalty: a one-time Spitfire pilot, Bernhard was forbidden to don a military uniform in public.
The wounds are still raw. He and his wife have barely spoken since, and live in separate halves of the Soestdijk Palace. Each has different treasurers, says a former member of the Government information service.
That's led some royal watchers to suspect that Bernhard is now underestimating the family fortune.
Republican Association member Hans van den Bergh scoffs at the US$250 million estimate and figures the Oranges have a fortune worth between US$17 billion and US$23 billion, including Rembrandt paintings and silver from tsarist Russia.
"He has a sharp mind, he knows what he wants and he gets what he wants," says Cor de Horde, editor of a monthly royals magazine.
"If Prince Bernhard phones you up and doesn't like what you've written, you have to stand firm."
Estimating the real wealth of Kings, Queens and despots remains as tricky as ever. - NEWSWEEK.
| one thousand nine hundred and sixty nine |
In the fairy tale 'Snow White...', how many dwarfs were there? | Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands - personal background and his part in starting the Bilderberg Conferences - No Cancer Foundation research archive N°8
No Cancer Foundation research archive N°8
Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands - personal background and his part in starting the Bilderberg Conferences
Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands - personal background and his part in starting the Bilderberg Conferences
This site campaigns for a press conference at all Bilderberg venues - and a declaration from the steering committee that any consensus reached must be in our public, not their private interest.
The in Jena (Germany) 1911 born Nazi, Prince of Orange Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld
Prince of Orange Bernhard of LippeBiesterfeld ended his doctoral in 1935 and started working for this German I.G. Farben chemical company and his holocaust , that took the Holland-route to the U.S. with the services of the de Hollandsche Koopmansbank in Amsterdam (HKB) supported by the BBH, UBC and Dillon Read. Bernhard was a IGFarben spy within the secret intelligence department NW7 which became the Third Reich’s private eyes and ears during World War II. This company supplied Zyklon B gas to Auschwitz, (a cyanide based made pesticide ). Bernhard was a member of the SS and SA in Berlin, the Sturmabteilung of Hitler's NSDAP. Here you will find his membership card of the Student Landschaft
membership card of the Student Landschaft, which Prince Bernhard had filled in as a member of the NSDAP and SA since 27 April 1933. The document in question is located under number S II 1849 Act 28 in the archives of the Humboldt Universität, he was a member of the SS.here the official registration of Prince Bernhard in the register of the NSDAP .
Prince Bernhardt was employed prior to, during, and after the war by I.G.Farben's Industrial Espionage Unit "NW-7" The mere fact of his employment as an "industrial spy" for Farben places him squarely within the sphere of the German Industrial community, who funded Hitler and continued the Nazi regime silently (stealth) from Dutch territory in the Benelux, Europe, America and eventually the rest of the world wherefore he founded in 1954 Bilderberg Conferences .
Daily Telegraph - Dutch Prince Bernhard 'was member of Nazi party'
Prince Bernhard, the father of Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, was a member of the Nazi party, a new book has claimed, contracting the German-born Dutch war hero's life-long denials.
By Bruno Waterfield in Brussels - 6:51PM GMT 05 Mar 2010
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/netherlands/7377402/Dutch-Prince-Bernhard-was-member-of-Nazi-party.html
"Bernhard, a secret history" has revealed that the prince was a member of the German Nazi party until 1934, three years before he married Princess Juliana, the future queen of the Netherlands.
Annejet van der Zijl, a Dutch historian, has found membership documents in Berlin's Humboldt University that prove Prince Bernhard, who studied there, had joined Deutsche Studentenschaft, a National Socialist student fraternity, as well as the Nazi NSDAP and its paramilitary wing, the Sturmabteilung.
He left all the groups on leaving university in December 1934, when he went to work for the German chemical giant, IG Farben.
The prince always denied having been a member of the Nazi party, although he admitted that he briefly had sympathised with Adolf Hitler's regime. In one of the last interviews he gave before his death in 2004, he said: "I can swear this with my hand on the Bible: I was never a Nazi."
As the Nazis invaded Holland in 1940, the young prince consort, then aged 28, organised a group of palace guards that engaged in combat with German forces.
Denied the chance to stay and organise resistance by the then Queen Wilhelmina, he became head of the Dutch Royal Military Mission based in London.
As "Wing Commander Gibbs" – an honorary rank he held in the RAF – the prince later flew Allied bombing raids over occupied Europe before returning in 1944 as a Dutch war hero.
Queen's father, Bernhard, a creature of his own myths
A new biography of the late Dutch prince Bernhard, the current queen’s father, reveals more of his Nazi past.
http://vorige.nrc.nl/international/article2500347.ece/Queens_father_a_creature_of_his_own_myths
Prince Bernhard zur Lippe-Biesterfeld (1911 – 2004) was the father to the Dutch queen Beatrix, a hero for the Dutch resistance against the German occupation during the second world war, and a member of the Nazi party. In a new biographical dissertation published on Monday, journalist and historian Annejet van der Zijl reveals a lot of unflattering information about this man who, even after his death, continues to inspire strong emotions.
Van der Zijl draws harder conclusions about his behaviour than other biographers before her. She writes that Bernhard’s lifestyle and the “myths” he created around his own person have done “permanent damage to the integrity of the monarchy”. She dubs him “a failure” in the history of the Dutch royal family.
In spite of his German blood, prince Bernhard was seen as a hero of the Dutch resistance against the German occupation of 1940 - 1945. But his life was also mired in controversy. In 1976, the prince was stripped of his military titles after allegations of accepting bribes from the American aircraft manufacturer, Lockheed, which was then trying to sell its planes to the Dutch military. In an interview that was published after his death, he admitted to having two illegitimate children, next to the four daughters he fathered with the late Dutch queen Juliana.
Saviour or failure?
Prince Bernhard’s marriage to Juliana, who ruled the Netherlands from 1948 till 1980, also remains the subject of frequent debate. The couple spent large parts of their lives effectively, though not publicly, separated. The marriage, and the monarchy, was cast into crisis when the queen befriended a faith healer, Greet Hofmans, in the 1950s. As the time Hofmans spent at the court and her influence on the queen grew, Bernhard increasingly objected to her presence. In 1956, he leaked the story of this ‘Dutch Rasputin’ to the German press, jumpstarting a chain of events that would lead to her removal from the court.
A biography of the couple’s marriage published in 2008 painted a far more flattering picture of Bernhard than Van der Zijl’s new work does. Its author, historian and legal scholar Cees Fasseur believed prince Bernhard had “saved the monarchy” by leaking the story to the press.
Even though Fasseur was a member of her dissertation committee, Van der Zijl comes to an almost opposite conclusion.
Lies and omissions
Van der Zijl, who is famous in the Netherlands for other biographies and works of narrative non-fiction, spent five years studying the early years of Bernhard’s life in Germany. Her dissertation was published under the title Bernhard, a secret history on Monday. According to Van der Zijl, the main question guiding her research: ‘What makes Sammy run?’ was quickly supplemented with a second: ‘What makes Sammy lie?’
Van der Zijl shows that prince Bernhard’s account of ‘facts’ in his life very often differed from reality. For example, he did not tell the (whole) truth concerning his membership of Hitler’s national-socialist organisations. “Bernhard may have later sincerely felt he was not a former Nazi, but he was one,” Van der Zijl writes.
She claims that till now Bernhard has never been placed in his proper historical context. In her dissertation, she describes pre-war Germany, where he grew up, as a place where “anti-Semitism was an everyday, almost unremarkable part of life – certainly with the nobility that classically thought in terms of ‘lower’ and ‘higher’ types of people” .
Prince Bernhard always denied he harboured sympathies for the Nazis, who came to power when he was 21 years old. He admitted to being a (novice) member of national socialist organisations like the German Students Association, but he always insinuated he had been forced into membership because, without it, he would have been unable to pass his exams.
Nazi membership
Van der Zijl, however, found a membership card signed by the prince himself on which he reported being a member of the Nazi paramilitary group SA since April 27, 1933. The SA-membership was preceded by an obligatory six month novice membership, which means Bernhard must have applied for membership as early as 1932, a year before the Nazis rose to power, Van der Zijl argues. “At that time in history there was no pressing reason for him to do so,” she writes. She proposed this claim to the head archivist of Berlin’s Humboldt Universität, where Bernhard had studied. “It would be years before […] the nazification of education had progressed so far that political demands were placed on students from the top down,” he told her.
Bernhard lied about other things beside his Nazi involvement, according to Van der Zijl. For example, he omitted crucial facts regarding his athletic abilities. Bernhard, “who loved nothing more than to present himself as a born athlete”, never reported that “his athletic abilities were given a humiliating mangelhaft (lacking) grade” at the high school he attended. Bernhard had also said his parents were so rich he was the only student in Berlin in the 1930s who owned a car,but on his membership card of the German Students’ Association (Deutsche Studentenschaft), Bernhard reported he lacked means of transportation.
Money and social standing
Van der Zijl argues that Bernhard married Juliana not out of love for her, but for his own mother, Armgard. His marriage to Juliana assured Bernhard – and his family – a place in the highest circles. His father had done the opposite and lost social standing by marrying Bernhard’s mother.
Van der Zijl was allowed access to Bernhard’s Zur Lippe family archives. She also spoke to family members, friends and other people who had encountered Bernhard in the first part of his life. According to her, Bernhard himself proved to be one of the most unreliable sources.
Project CA-35
The incredible story of a probable attempt to end World War Two early by German industrialists. They could see they were about to loose the war and their wealth.
Was Prince Bernhard waiting for the ill-fated industrialists with Princess Juliana at the Chatham Bars Inn, Cape Cod? see also Sub Sea Recovery's website and the Bilderberg History page
The U-boat was sunk by a US Navy Blimp using depth charges - see scans of the U-boat lying in sand off Cape Cod as well as original plans copied from captured documents now in US archives.
The wreck of a giant and secret WWII U-boat has been found by the above off Cape Cod, Mass. east coast USA. It slipped out of Germany on the same day as the assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler.
What was it's mission and what happened between its first signal messages to the map room at the White House and its sinking? Why, moreover, was the Dutch Royal family, and possibly Bilderberg supremo Prince Bernhard, holidaying on the coast that day?[TG]
CA35 Type XI-B U-boat - See the full story at The Project CA35 website http://www.subsearecovery.com/ca35/
A JOINT VENTURE BY: Sub Sea Recovery Inc. and Trident Research & Recovery, Inc.
CA-35 website: A Preliminary Brief On The Search For Historical Truth - ©1998 Trident Research & Recovery Inc. - Sub Sea Recovery Inc. "On Site Operations are in progress, updates will be forthcoming"
VIII. RECENT RESEARCH - extract from CA-35 website
There have been some very interesting revelations in the Project's follow-up of research data. Due to the efforts of contributing researcher Mr. Eric Brothers U.S. State Department Protocol documents are now available to confirm one of this investigation's long-standing curiosities - the visit of members of the Dutch Royal Family to Chatham, Cape Cod during the very same time-frame in which the German Type XI-B U-Boat was known to have been operational off Cape Cod.
These documents consist of a series of notifications between the representatives of the Dutch Royal Family in exile and the Protocol Section of the Department of State. On the surface they do indeed appear to be routine in nature. It is only when viewed with the other known occurrences off Cape Cod at this time that these Protocol records seem to indicate more than just routine procedure.
For example: One of the most obvious details that stand out is the sudden departure from Chatham of Princess Juliana and her royal attendants on the morning of the 26th. of August, 1944, only hours after the known destruction of the Type XI fourteen miles to the southeast. This, combined with a published news report in the local Cape Cod Times for that date, quote the Princess as opening a short public statement upon her departure, stating: "I will not talk about anything political and cannot take questions". She goes on to say how the Royal Family enjoyed their stay at the Chatham Bars Inn, etc.
Within five minutes the impromptu interview is over and the Royal Family departs by car for Boston enroute to Canada. The fact that these State Department Protocol documents were only declassified at the time Mr. Brothers requested to view them in July of 1997 is possibly indicative - fifty four years after the fact.
To add to this new information Trident had conducted background research into the Dutch Royal Family due to its suspicions and has confirmed the following:
1) The Royal Consort, Prince Bernhardt, Husband of Juliana since 1937, was previous to their marriage an active card-carrying member of Hitler's black-shirted SS.
2) Prince Consort Bernhardt was employed prior to, during, and after the war by I.G.Farben's Industrial Espionage Unit "NW-7" which, needless to say, placed him under great suspicions by both the British and American intelligence communities. The mere fact of his employment as an "industrial spy" for Farben places him squarely within the sphere of the German Industrial community, links for which have already been established with the Type XI-B U-Boat.
There are many more details regarding the Dutch Royal Family, Prince Bernhardt, Princess Juliana and the German Industrialists which have not been included in this specific brief due to space considerations. However, the basic facts as listed above give very strong indications regarding the Dutch Royal visit to Cape Cod at this specific time in July and August of 1944. Suffice it to say that there is the very strong possibility that Prince Consort Bernhardt, through his wife Princess Juliana, may very well have been acting as a sort of liaison or facilitator in connections for Armistice Negotiations between German Industrialists and certain members of the American Department of State and Intelligence Community. The final proof for this is as yet not confirmed, but the stage is certainly set for such endeavors. Perhaps the amplified documentation for such a situation is contained within the hull of the Type XI off Cape Cod.
Used with permission - from http://www.subsearecovery.com/ca35/
©1998 Trident Research & Recovery Inc. - Sub Sea Recovery Inc.
[this article] All Rights Reserved. No part of this site may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, downloading or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers of: The CA-35 website.
The Prince and the nazi's
Extract from 'H. R. H. Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands; an authorized biography' Harrap, 1962. by Alden Hatch
In order to finish his education quickly Bernhard had to make some compromises with the monstrous political system that was fastening its grip on Germany. The story that the Prince of the Netherlands once wore the black uniform of Hitler’s SS is quite true. It came about in this way.
Only eleven days after his father’s death, on June 30, 1934, Hitler’s first purge, known as ‘The Night of the Long Knives,’ shocked Germany and the world. On that pleasant summer evening Ernst Rohm, who had been Hitler’s friend and ally from the beginning, and other leaders of the brown-shirted SA (Storm Troopers), the private army which had brought Hitler to power and who were now challenging his will, were taken in their beds and their offices, in beer-halls and on railway trains or in the streets, and shot without even a drumhead court-martial. They were an evil and degenerate crew who lived by violence and appropriately died by it, but the capricious manner of their liquidation proved that justice in Germany had been replaced by the will of a tyrant.
Nor were they the only victims. General Kurt von Schleicher, who had opposed Hitler politically, was shot in the doorway of his home, and when his wife protested too much she was murdered too. All sorts of private grudges were satisfied in the slaughter which was said at the Nuremberg trials to have taken over a thousand lives. It lasted for thirty-six hours.
From that moment no man or woman in the land was safe from the terror, especially not those who wielded power, least of all Hitler himself. The SA was disbanded and replaced by Heinrich Himmler’s black-uniformed SS (Schutzstaffel), and the Gestapo (Secret State Police). They quickly set about tightening the screws of the police state.
At the beginning of his serious studies Bernhard learned that a new sort of test had been decreed for every one graduating from the universities - a written and oral ‘political attitude” examination. With his ideals and high temper he knew that was one examination he could not pass.
However, there was a way round it. Members of the various Nazi paramilitary organizations were ipso facto considered “politically reliable.” Bernhard had joined the League for Air Sports because he wanted to learn to fly. It had been started by the Nazi Party as a sub-rosa method of training war pilots, but it had virtually no political implications. Its leaders were the old World War I airmen like Ernst Udet, who were not Nazis and cared only about teaching young people to fly.
So Bernhard was all set until he went larking around the sky with a wild young friend who flew their plane into a lake. They swam ashore, but the plane had ceased to exist.
When they got back to the base their commander was furious. “He was right, of course,” says Bernhard, “and we were wrong. Even though I was not at the controls, I knew I was out. So while the commandant was screaming at my friend I said, “ I resign too.” It was just a question of who could get the words out first.”
His ignominious ejection from Air Sports left Bernhard in a very vulnerable position. He belonged to no organization and had no uniform or badge to wear. He knew that the law examinations were made doubly difficult for uncommitted people, and that even if he passed them the political attitude test would eliminate him. So he looked around for a harmless cover. He found it by the grace of the son of the man who owned Bernhard’s favourite Berlin pub.
Young Walter Wunderlich was an idealistic Nazi: there were many such young men who truly believed in the noble aspirations of the party as voiced, but not practised, by Hitler and his lieutenants. Wunderlich was head of the Berlin unit of the Motor SS, which was made up of young men who had their own cars. They put on their uniforms and met once a week for what almost amounted to a sportscar rally. Bernhard and five or six friends in the same boat as he, including the Langenheim brothers from Morocco, went to Wunderlich.
Bernhard knew that a man had to serve in the SS for a year and a half before he was admitted to membership; until then he was on probation. Speaking for all of them, he said, “Look, Walter, you know exactly how we think and what we are. But we need some sort of protection. Will you take us into your motor unit until we finish our studies? Then out we go.”
Is that how you want it?” Walter asked.
“Yes,” said Bernhard. “You know just why we are doing this. Under no circumstances does any of us want to become and SS man by quicker promotion or whatsoever. We’ll come in our motorcars, and we’ll all drive together till we graduate. Then out. That is the understanding.”
Though Walter was a dedicated Nazi, he was a loyal friend ready to stick his neck out to help. “I’ll take you,” he said.
They were issued overcoats, and went to the best tailor in Berlin to have their uniforms specially made. “I must say we looked smart in them,” Bernhard says. “The extent of my services included the weekly rallies and standing guard occasionally, because if you did that you could have a free garage. We had a lot of fun and no trouble.”
At the end of their studies Bernhard’s whole group, with one exception, left the SS and severed all connection with the party. This fellow appeared later in Holland and took advantage of Bernhard’s trusting nature to commit an act of treachery.
By the time Bernhard had graduated he was completely determined to get out of Germany. Von Hindenburg was dead. The last vestige of constitutionalism had disappeared as the office of President of the German Republic was abolished and Hitler named himself Fuhrer. He was now more powerful than any German Emperor had ever been, and more obsessed by lust of conquest than old Frederick Barbarossa.
The Nazi movement had gathered such momentum that Bernhard could see no hope of stopping it short of bloody catastrophe. This is not to say that he foresaw the future clearly in all its Wagnerian tragedy. He did not. But neither did he believe for a moment that the Third Reich would last a thousand years, or fifty for that matter. Even if it did he could not conceive of living in a land of government by terror. And despite the military tradition of his family and h is own creed of loyalty, he had not the conscience to become, as conscription would soon compel him to, part of a military machine dedicated to conquest.
Had he been older and his character more hardened by adversity he might have considered remaining to oppose the regime, hopeless as opposition seemed. Even so, open dissent was impossible, and he had neither the talent nor the taste for conspiracy. In addition, the only organized underground resistance was the Communist Party, which was equally distasteful to him.The only solution was self-exile.
Bernhard did not burn all his bridges immediately. As a first step he got a job in the Paris office of I.G.Farben, the great German chemical combine. Though his training had been in law, he was fascinated by industry and finance, and thought that his talents lay in this direction. Which proved to be the case.
In Paris Bernhard threw all his energy into his new career. He says that he wanted to prove that it was not nepotism that got him the job. But the truth is that by now he was so geared to high-pressure work that he could not have done otherwise. Also, the more he learned about business the more interested he became.
Though his working hours were from 8 am to 7 pm he was among the first to reach the office in the morning and the last to leave at night. In addition he took a course in shorthand and typing in the evening or during his lunch-hour, munching a sandwich while he worked. “They were mad for garlic in that school,” he says. “I have never smelt anything like it. I started eating it in self-defence and learned to like it very much. I still do, though my family is not quite in agreement with me.”
I.G.Farben’s Paris manager, Dr Passarge, soon recognized Bernhard as executive material and sent him on a training course through the various departments. In the sales department he really found his metier. He negotiated several barter deals with French Indo-China - rice for chemicals - and took part in various other selling campaigns. It gave him a chance to use all his talents - financial acuteness, ability to think fast, persuasiveness, and that God-given charm of which he was completely aware. He did so well that Dr Passarge said, “If you don’t do something stupid you’ll be a manager by the time you’re thirty.” A little later he got the same promise in writing.
In Paris Bernhard lived in the luxurious house of his uncle and aunt by marriage, Count and Countess Paul de Kotzebue. The Countess was an American, Allene Tew, whose first husband had been Anson Wood Berther, an executive of General Electric from whom she inherited a fine old-fashioned American fortune. Countess Kotzebue doted on Bernhard, Princess Armgard says, “She spoiled him terribly. All her cars were his to drive. She never refused him anything he asked. His wish was literally her command. The Kotzebues had no children, and she regarded him as a son.”
Bernhard, who always returned affection in full measure, was completely devoted to “Aunt Allene,” and equally willing to gratify her wishes. Count Kotzebue says that many years later, when the Countess was dying at Nice, Bernhard drove all the way from Soestdijk to see her once more. “Though my wife seemed to be unconscious,” he said, “she recognized his horn in the courtyard and said, ‘That’s my Bernilo come to see me.’ ”
It is not to be supposed that the life of a bachelor prince in Paris was a social blank. No matter how hard Bernhard worked he always had energy left for fun. He was invited to a great many parties and went to most of them. He was a great favourite in the embassies, with one exception. “Soon after I began working for I.G.Farben [see note below],” he says, “ the German Ambassador sent a man to ask me if I would join the organization of Germans living abroad. It was, of course, a party organization, so I said, ‘No’. They gave me no further trouble, but I was never invited to the German Embassy.”
However, the Belgian Ambassador, Count van Kerckhoven, was especially friendly. He had been Ambassador to Berlin when Bernhard was a student there and had been “awfully nice” to him. Their friendship continued in Paris. Though Bernhard had only an hour off at noon, the Ambassador often invited him for lunch and arranged things so that the meal was served the moment he arrived and protocol dispensed with, so that he could eat and run back to his job.
At one of these luncheons late in 1935 Bernhard found himself seated next do Dr Loudon, the Dutch Minister to Portugal, whom he also knew quite well. The conversation turned to the Winter Olympics at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, where Bernhard planned to go during his winter holidays. Dr Loudon told him that Queen Wilhelmina and her daughter, Princess Juliana, also planned to go to the Olympics. “They will be staying at Igls, just over the mountain,” he said. “Perhaps you would like to call Her Majesty’s aide-de-camp and arrange to pay them a courtesy visit.”
“Thank you, I believe I will,” Bernhard said. “It might be amusing.”
Preceding extract from:
Hatch, Alden, 'H. R. H. Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands; an authorized biography'.
Subject : Bernhard Leopold, consort of Juliana, Queen of the Netherlands,
Harrap, 1962.
Notes:
A celebration was held at the Petersburg Hotel in 1937 with top Nazis and the IG Farben board and friends to celebrate 'Nazification'.
I.G. Farben paid the SS three marks a day for unskilled concentration camp workers and four marks a day for skilled. For child labour they paid the SS 1.5 marks a day.
Bernhard and IG Farben background explored
Excerpted from the book Murder by Injection by Eustace Mullins, chapter 10: by Eustace Mullins
http://www.goldismoney.info/forums/showthread.php?t=4298&goto=nextoldest
Many American conservatives believe as a matter of faith that the Rockefellers and the Council on Foreign Relations exercise absolute control over the government and the people of United States . This thesis can be accepted as a working formula if one remains conscious of the larger issues . Two writers for whom the present writer has great respect, Dr. Emanuel Josephson and Morris Bealle, insisted on focusing on the Rockefellers and excluding all other aspects of the World Order . This severely limited the effect of their otherwise ground breaking work on the Medical Monopoly.
This writer advanced a contrary view in ``The World Order,'' fixing upon the Rothschild monetary power, which reached a point of world control by 1885, and its London policy group, the Royal Institute of International Affairs, as the policy makers for what has essentially been since 1900, re-established colonial government in the United States. The colonial, or occupation, government, functions primarily through the Council on Foreign Relations, but only as the subsidiary of RIIA and through the Rockefeller Foundation which controls government functions, the educational establishments, the media, the religions and the state legislatures.
It is true that the American colonials have ``free elections,'' in which they have the absolute right to vote for one of two opposing candidates, both of whom have been handpicked and financed by the Rockefeller syndicate. This touching evidence of ``democracy'' serves to convince most Americana that we are indeed a free people. We even have a cracked Liberty Bell in Philadelphia to prove it. American youth have been free since 1900 to be marched off to die in Hegelian wars in which both combatants received their instructions from the World Order. We are free to invest in a stock market in which the daily quantity, price and value of the monetary unit is manipulated and controlled by a Federal Reserve System which is answerable only to the Bank of England. It has maintained its vaunted ``independence'' from our government's control, but this is the only independence it has ever had.
The realization that we do indeed live under the dictates of the ``Rockefeller Syndicate'' can well be the starting point of the long road back of a genuine struggle for American independence. In exposing ``the Rockefellers'' as agents of a foreign power, which is not merely a foreign power, but a genuine world government, we must realize that this is not merely a group dedicated to making money, but a group which is committed to maintaining the power of a colonial form of government over the American people. Thus the ancient calumny of John D. Rockefeller as a man obsessed by greed (a category in which he has plenty of company) obscures the act that from the day the Rothschilds began to finance his march towards a total oil monopoly in the United States from their coffers at the National City Bank of Cleveland, Rockefeller was never an independent power, nor does any department of the Rockefeller Syndicate operate as an independent power. We know that the Cosa Nostra, or Mafia, with which the Syndicate is closely allied, has somewhat autonomous power in the regions which have been assigned to that particular ``family'' by the national directors, but this always implies that that family remains under total control and answerable for everything which occurs in its territory.
Similarly, the Rockefeller Syndicate operates under clearly defined spheres of influence. The ``charitable'' organizations, the business companies, and the policy groups, always meld into a working operation, nor can any department of the Syndicate strike out on its own or formulate an independent policy, no matter what may be its justification.
The Rockefeller Syndicate operates under the control of the world financial structure, which means that on any given day, all of its assets could be rendered close to worthless by adroit financial manipulation. This is the final control, which ensures that no one can quit the organization. Not only would he be stripped of all assets, but he would be under contract for immediate assassination. Our Department of Justice is well aware that the only ``terrorists'' operating in the United States are the agents of the World Order, but they prudently avoid any mention of this fact.
The world financial structure, far from being an unknown or hidden organization, is actually well known and well defined. It consists of the major Swiss Banks; the survivors of the old Venetian-Genoese banking axis; the Big Five of the world grain trade; the British combine, centered in the Bank of England and its chartered merchant banks, functioning trough the Rothschilds and the Oppenheimers and having absolute control over their Canadian colony through the Royal Bank of Canada and the Bank of Montreal, their Canadian lieutenants being the Bronfmans, Belzbergs, and other financial operators; and the colonial banking structure in the United States, controlled by the Bank of England through the Federal Reserve System; the Boston Brahmin families who made their fortunes in the opium trade, including the Delanos and others and the Rockefeller Syndicate, consisting of the Kissinger network headquartered in the Rockefeller Bank, Chase Manhattan Bank, American Express, the present form of the old Rothschild representatives in the United States, which includes Kuhn, Loeb Company and Lehman Brothers.
It is notable that the Rockefeller Syndicate is far down on the list of the world's financial structure. Why then is it of such importance ? Although it is not the crucial factor in financial decision in the Western Hemisphere, it is the actual working control mechanism of the American colony. The Rockefeller family themselves, like the Morgans, Schiffs and Warburgs, have faded into insignificance, but the mechanism created in their name roars along at full power, still maintaining all of he functions for which it was organized. Since he set up the Trilateral Commission, David Rockefeller has functioned as a sort of international courier for the World Order, principally concerned with delivering working instructions to the Communist bloc, either directly, in New York or by traveling to the area. Laurance Rockefeller is active in the operation of the Medical Monopoly, but his principal interests are in operating various vacation spas in tropical areas. They are the two survivors of the ``Fortunate Five,'' the five sons of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and Abby Aldrich. John D.
Rockefeller, Jr. died in an institution in Tucson, Arizona and was hastily cremated. John D. Rockefeller III died in a mysterious accident on a New York Parkway near his home. Nelson Rockefeller, named after his grandfather, died in the arms of a TV journalist; it was later revealed that he had also been in the arms of another TV journalist at the same time; the death was hushed up for many hours. It is generally believed hat he ran afoul of his Colombian drug connection, the disagreement hardly being trivial ; it involved several billion dollars in drug profits which had not been properly apportioned. Winthrop Rockefeller died an alcoholic in the arms of his black boy friend. He had been interviewed on television by Harry Reasoner to explain his hasty move from New York to Arkansas.
Winthrop leered that his black boy friend, an Army sergeant who apparently taught him the mysteries of drill, refused to live in New York. To celebrate this alliance, Winthrop Rockefeller gave magnificently to Negro causes, including the Urban League building on East 48th Street in New York. A plaque on the second floor notes that it was his gift; it might well have stated ``From Hadrian to his Antinous''.
We do not wish to imply that the Rockefellers no longer have influence, but that the major policy dictates of the Rockefeller Syndicate are handed down by other capos, of whom they continue to be a visible force. Through the person of David Rockefeller, the family is sometimes called ``the first family of the Soviet Union.'' Only he and Dr. Armand Hammer, the moving force behind USTEC, have permanent permission to land their private planes at the Moscow Airport. Others would suffer the fate of KAL 007.
Both the Rockefeller family fortune and the considerable portion set aside in the foundations of the Rockefeller Syndicate are effectively insulated against any type of government control . Fortune magazine noted August 4, 1986, that John D. Rockefeller, Jr. had created trusts in 1934 which now amounted to some $2.3 billion; another $200 million had been set aside for the Abby Rockefeller branch. The five sons had trusts which in 1986 amount to $2.1 billion. These trusts had originally amounted to only $50 million each, showing the increase in their assets as well as inflation during the ensuing half century . Fortune estimated the 1986 total Rockefeller wealth as $3.5 billion, of which $900 million was in securities and real estate.
They owned 45% of the Time Life Building; Nelson Rockefeller's International Basic Economy Corporation had been sold to a British company in 1980. For years, the Rockefeller family had deliberately kept the rents low in its major holding, the Rockefeller Center, a $1.6 billion investment yielding an annual return of 1%. This was a convenient maneuver, for tax purposes. Rockefeller Center recently went public issuing stock which was sold to public buyers. The Rockefellers are rumored to be liquidating their investments in the New York area, and reinvesting in the West, particularly in the area around Phoenix, Arizona. It is possible that they know something we don't.
However much of the Rockefeller wealth may be attributed to old John D.'s rapacity and ruthlessness, its origins are indubitably based in his initial financing from the National City Bank of Cleveland, which was identified in Congressional reports as one of the three Rothschild banks in the United States and by his later acceptance of the guidance of Jacob Schiff of Kuhn, Loeb & Company, who had been born in the Rothschild house in Frankfort and was now the principal Rothschild representative (but unknown as such to the public) in the United States.
With the seed money from the National City Bank of Cleveland, old John D. Rockefeller soon laid claim to the title of ``the most ruthless American''.
It is more than likely that it was this quality which persuaded the Rothschilds to back him . Rockefeller realized early in the game that the oil refinery business, which could offer great profits in a short time, also was at the mercy of uncontrolled competition. His solution was a simple one - crush all competition. The famous Rockefeller dedication to total monopoly was simply a business decision. Rockefeller embarked on a campaign of coercing all competing oil refineries out of business. He attacked on a number of fronts, which is also a lesson to all would be entrepreneurs. First, he would send a minion, not known to be working for Rockefeller, with an offer to buy the competing refinery for a low price, but offering cash. If the offer was refused, the competitor would then come under attack from a competing refinery which greatly undercut his price. He might also suffer a sudden strike at his refinery, which would force him to shut down. Control of labor through unions has always been a basic Rockefeller technique. Like the Soviet Union, they seldom have labor trouble. If these techniques failed, Rockefeller would then be saddened by a reluctant decision to use violence; beating the rival workers as they went to and from their jobs, or burning or blowing up the competing refinery.
These techniques convinced the Rothschilds that they had found their man.
They sent their personal representative, Jacob Schiff, to Cleveland to help Rockefeller plan further expansion. At this time, the Rothschilds controlled 95% of all railroad mileage in the United States, through the J.P. Morgan Company and Kuhn Loeb & Company according to official Department of Commerce figures for the year 1895. J.P. Morgan mentions in his Who's Who listing that he controlled 50,000 miles of U.S. railways.
Schiff worked out an elaborate rebate deal for Rockefeller, through a dummy corporation, South Improvement Company. These rebates ensured that no other oil company could survive in competition with the Rockefeller firm. The scheme was later exposed, but by that time Rockefeller had achieved a virtual monopoly of the oil business in the United States. The daughter of one of his victims, Ida Tarbell, whose father was ruined by Rockefeller's criminal operations, wrote the first major expose of the Standard Oil Trust. She was promptly denounced as a ``muckraker'' by the poseur, Theodore Roosevelt, who claimed to be a ``trust buster''. In fact, he ensured the dominance of the Standard Oil Trust and other giant trusts.
During the next half century, John D. Rockefeller was routinely caricatured by socialist propagandists as the epitome of the ruthless capitalist. At the same time, he was the principal financier of the world Communist movement, through a firm called American International Company. Despite the fact that the House of Rothschild had already achieved world control, the sound and fury was directed exclusively against its two principal, representatives, John D. Rockefeller and J.P. Morgan. One of the few revelations of the actual state of affairs appeared in Truth magazine, December 16, 1912, which pointed out that ``Mr. Schiff is head of the great private banking house of Kuhn, Loeb & Company, which represents the Rothschild interests on this side of the Atlantic. He is described as a financial strategist and has been for years the financial minister of the great impersonal power known as Standard Oil.'' Note that this editor did not even mention the name of Rockefeller.
Because of these concealed factors, it was a relatively simple matter for the American public to accept the ``fact'' that the Rockefellers were the preeminent power in this country. This myth was actually clothed in the apparel of power, the Rockefeller Oil Trust becoming the ``military-industrial complex'' which assumed political control of the nation; the Rockefeller Medical Monopoly attained control of the health care of the nation, and the Rockefeller Foundation, a web of affiliated tax exempt creations, effectively controlled the religious and educational life of the nation. The myth succeeded in its goal of camouflaging the hidden rulers, the Rothschilds.
After the present writer had been exposing this charade for some twenty-five years, a new myth began to be noised about in American conservative circles, effectively propagated by active double agents. This myth found a host of eager believers, because it heralded a growing crack in the monolithic power which had been oppressing all the peoples of the world. This new ``revelation'' was that a struggle to the death for world power had developed between the Rockefellers and the Rothschilds. According to this startling development, one faction or the other, depending on which agent you were listening to, had gained control of the Soviet Union and would use its power as the basis for achieving the overthrow of the other faction. The sudden death of several members of the Rockefeller family was cited as ``proof'' that such a struggle was taking place, although no Rothschild is known to have succumbed during this ``war''. This ignored the general understanding that Nelson Rockefeller had been ``eliminated'' as the result of losing deposit slips for several billion dollars of drugs from the Colombian cartel, or that the other Rockefeller deaths showed no trace of a ``Rothschild connection''.
Having maintained extensive files on this situation for several decades, the present writer could not believe anyone could be so misinformed as to think that ``the Rockefellers'' were now trying to seize power from the Rothschilds, at a time when the influence of members of the Rockefeller family was already in great decline, their family finances being handled by J. Richardson Dilworth, their legal affairs being handled by John J.
McCloy, and other faithful retainers; none of these retainers would have been willing to engage in a genuine power struggle, as they were faceless managers who lived only for their weekly paycheck. They had no ambitions of their own. Nevertheless, many hopeful Americans grasped the will-o-the-wisp notion that the Rockefellers were now ``good Americans'' who were willing to risk all to overthrow the Rothschilds. Amazingly enough, this pernicious story persisted for almost a decade before being relegated to the curiosities of history.
Like J.P. Morgan, who had begun his commercial career by selling the U.S. Army some defective guns, the famous fall carbine affair, John D. Rockefeller also was a war profiteer during the Civil War ; he sold unstamped Harkness liquor to Federal troops at a high profit, gaining the initial capital to embark on his drive for monopoly. His interest in the oil business was a natural one; his father, William Rockefeller had been ``in oil'' for years . William Rockefeller had become an oil entrepreneur after salt wells at Tarentum, near Pittsburgh, were discovered in 1842 to be flowing with oil. The owners of the wells, Samuel L. Kier, began to bottle the oil and sell it for medicinal purposes. One of his earliest wholesalers was William Rockefeller. The ``medicine'' was originally labeled ``Kier's Magic Oil''. Rockefeller printed his own labels, using ``Rock Oil'' or ``Seneca Oil,'' Seneca being the name of a well known Indian tribe. Rockefeller achieved his greatest notoriety and his greatest profits by advertising himself as ``William Rockefeller, the Celebrated Cancer Specialist''. It is understandable that his grandsons would become the controlling power behind the scenes of the world's most famous cancer treatment center and would direct government funds and charitable contributions to those areas which only benefit the Medical Monopoly.
William Rockefeller spared no claim in his flamboyant career. He guaranteed ``All Cases of Cancer Cured Unless They Are Too Far Gone.'' Such were the healing powers that he attributed to his magic cancer cure that he vas able to retail it for $25 a bottle, a sum then equivalent to two months' wages.
The ``cure'' consisted of a few well known diuretics, which had been diluted by water. This carnival medicine show barker could hardly have envisioned that his descendants would control the greatest and the most profitable Medical Monopoly in recorded history .=20
As an itinerant ``carnie,'' a traveling carnival peddler, William Rockefeller had chosen a career which interfered with developing a stable family life. His son John rarely saw him, a circumstance which has inspired some psychological analysts a conjecture that the absence of a father figure or parental love may have contributed to John D. Rockefeller's subsequent development as a money mad tyrant who plotted to maim, poison and kill millions of his fellow American during almost century of his monopolistic operations and whose influence, reaching up from the grave, remains the most dire and malignant presence in American life. This may have been a contributing factor - however, it is also possible that he was totally evil.
It has long been a truism that you can find a horse thief or two in any prominent American family. In the Rockefeller family it was more than a truism. William seems to have faithfully followed the precepts of the Will of Canaan throughout his career, ``love robbery, love lechery.'' He fled from a number of indictments for horse stealing, finally disappearing altogether as William Rockefeller and re-emerging as Dr. William Levingston of Philadelphia, a name which he retained for the rest of his life. An investigative reporter at Joseph Pulitzer's New York World received a tip that was followed up. The World then disclosed that William Avery Rockefeller had died May 11, 1906 in Freeport, Illinois, where he was interred in an unmarked grave as Dr. William Levingston.
William Rockefeller's vocation as a medicine man greatly facilitated his preferred profession of horse thief. As one who planned to be in the next county by morning, it was a simple matter to tie a handsome stallion to the back of his wagon and head for the open road. It also played a large part in his vocation as a woman-chaser; he was described as being ``woman-mad''.
He not only concluded several bigamous marriages, but he seems to have had uncontrolled passions. On June 28, 1849, he was indicted for raping a hired girl in Cayuga, New York; he later was found to be residing in Oswego, New York and was forced once again to decamp for parts unknown. He had no difficulty in financing his woman-chasing interests from the sale of his miraculous cancer cure and from another product, his ``Wonder Working Liniment,'' which he offered at only two dollars a bottle. It consisted of crude petroleum from which the lighter oils had been boiled away, leaving a heavy solution of paraffin, lube oil and tar, which comprised the ``liniment.'' William Rockefeller's original miracle oil survived until quite recently as a concoction called Nujol, consisting principally of petroleum and peddled as a laxative. It was well known that Nujol was merely an advertising sobriquet meaning ``new oil,'' as opposed, apparently, to ``old oil''. Sold as an antidote to constipation, it robbed the body of fat-soluble vitamins, it being a well-established medical fact that mineral oil coated the intestine and prevented the absorption of many needed vitamins and other nutritional needs. Its makers added carotene as a sop to the health-conscious, but it was hardly worth the bother. Nujol was manufactured by a subsidiary of Standard Oil of New Jersey, called Stanco, whose only other product, manufactured on the same premises, was the famous insecticide, Flit.
Nujol was hawked from the Senate Office Building in Washington for years during a more liberal interpretation of ``conflict of interest.'' In this case, it was hardly a conflict of interest, because the august peddler, Senator Royal S. Copeland, never had any interests other than serving the Rockefellers. He was a physician whom Rockefeller had appointed as head of the New York State Department of Health and later financed his campaign for the Senate. Copeland's frank display of commercialism amazed even the most blasé Washington reporters. He devoted his Senate career to a daily program advertising Nujol. A microphone was set up in his Senate office each morning, the first order of business being the Nujol program, for which he was paid $75,000 a year, an enormous salary in the 1930s and more than the salary of the President of the United States. Senator Copeland's exploits earned him a number of nicknames on Capitol Hill. He was often called the Senator from the American Medical Association, because of his enthusiastic backing for any program launched by the AMA and Morris Fishbein. More realistically, he was usually referred to as ``the Senator from Standard Oil''. He could be counted on to promote any legislation devised for the greater profit of the Rockefeller monopoly. During congressional debate on the Food and Drug Act in 1938, he came under criticism from Congresswoman Leonor Sullivan, who charged that Senator Copeland, a physician who handled the bill on the Senate floor, frankly acknowledged during the debate that soap was exempted from the law, because the soap manufacturers, who were the nation's largest advertisers, would otherwise join with other big industries to fight the bill. Congresswoman Sullivan complained the ``Soap was officially declared in the law not to be a cosmetic . .. The hair dye manufacturers were given license to market known dangerous products, just so long as they placed a special warning on the label - but what woman in a beauty parlor ever sees the label on the bulk container in which hair dye is shipped ?''
Just as the elder Rockefeller had spent his life in the pursuit of his personal obsession, omen, so his son John was equally obsessed, being money-mad instead of women-mad, totally committed to the pursuit of ever-increasing wealth and power. However, the principal accomplishments of the Rockefeller drive for power, the rebate scheme for monopoly, the chartering of the foundations to gain power over American citizens, the creation of the central bank, the Federal Reserve System, the backing of the World Communist revolution and the creation of the Medical Monopoly, all came from the Rothschilds or from their European employees. We cannot find in the records of John D. Rockefeller that he originated any one of these programs. The concept of the tax exempt charitable foundation originated with the Rothschild minion, George Peabody, in 1865. The Peabody Educational Foundation later became the Rockefeller Foundation. It is unlikely that even the diabolical mind of John D. Rockefeller could have conceived of this devious twist. A social historian has described the major development of the late nineteenth century, when charitable foundations and world Communism became important movements, as one of the more interesting facets of history, perhaps equivalent to the discovery of the wheel. This new discovery was the concept developed by the rats, who after all have rather highly developed intelligences, that they could trap people by baiting traps with little bits of cheese. The history of mankind since then has been the rats catching humans in their traps. Socialism - indeed any government program - is simply the rat baiting the trap with a smidgen of cheese and catching himself a human.
Congressman Wright Putman, chairman of the House Banking and Currency Committee, noted from the floor of Congress that the establishment of the Rockefeller Foundation effectively insulated Standard Oil from competition.
The controlling stock had been removed from market manipulation or possible buy-outs by competitors. It also relieved Standard Oil from most taxation, which then placed a tremendous added burden on individual American taxpayers. Although a Rockefeller relative by marriage, Senator Nelson Aldrich, Republican majority leader in the Senate, had pushed the General Education Board charter through Congress, the Rockefeller Foundation charter proved to be more difficult. Widespread criticism of Rockefeller's monopolistic practices was heard, and his effort to insulate his profits from taxation or takeover was seen for what it was. The charter was finally pushed through in 1913 (the significant Masonic numeral 13 - 1913 was also the year the progressive income tax and of the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act). Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, another senator from Standard Oil (there were quite a few), ramrodded the Congressional approval of the charter. The charter was then signed by John D. Rockefeller, John D.
Rockefeller, Jr., Henry Pratt Judson, president of the Rockefeller established University of Chicago, Simon Flexner, director of the Rockefeller Institute, Starr Jameson, described in Who's Who as ``personal counsel to John D. Rockefeller in his benevolences,'' and Charles W. Eliot, president of Harvard University.
The Rockefeller Oil Monopoly is now 125 years old, yet in 1911, the Supreme Court, bowing to public outrage, had ruled that it had to be broken up. The resulting companies proved to be no problem for the Rockefeller interests.
The family retained a two per cent holding in each of the ``new'' companies, while the Rockefeller foundations took a three per cent stock holding in each company. This gave them a five per cent stock interest in each company ; a one per cent holding in a corporation is usually sufficient to maintain working control.
The involvement of the Rockefellers in promoting the world Communist Revolution also developed from their business interests. There was never any commitment to the Marxist ideology; like anything else, it was there to be used. At the turn of the century Standard Oil was competing fiercely with Royal Dutch Shell for control of the lucrative European market.
Congressional testimony revealed that Rockefeller had sent large sums to Lenin and Trotsky to instigate the Communist Revolution of 1905. His banker, Jacob Schiff, had previously financed the Japanese in their war against Russia and had sent a personal emissary, George Kennan to Russia to spend some twenty years in promoting revolutionary activity against the Czar. When the Czar abdicated, Trotsky was placed on a ship with three hundred Communist revolutionaries from the Lower East Side of New York.
Rockefeller obtained a special passport for Trotsky from Woodrow Wilson and sent Lincoln Steffens with him to make sure he was returned safely to Russia. For traveling expenses, Rockefeller placed a purse containing $10,000 in Trotsky's pocket.
On April 13, 1917, when the ship stopped in Halifax, Canadian Secret Service officers immediately arrested Trotsky and interned him in Nova Scotia. The case became an international cause celebre, as leading government officials from several nations frantically demanded Trotsky's release. The Secret Service had been tipped off that Trotsky was on his way to take Russia out of the war, freeing more German armies to attack Canadian troops on the Western Front. Prime Minister Lloyd George hurriedly cabled orders from London to the Canadian Secret Service to free Trotsky at once--they ignored him. Trotsky was finally freed by the intervention of one of Rockefeller's most faithful stooges, Canadian Minister Mackenzie King, who had long been a ``labor specialist'' for the Rockefellers. King personally obtained Trotsky's release and sent him on his way as the emissary of the Rockefellers, commissioned to win the Bolshevik Revolution.
Thus Dr. Armand Hammer, who loudly proclaims his influence in Russia as the friend of Lenin, has an insignificant claim compared to the role of the Rockefellers in backing world Communism. Although Communism, like other isms, had originated with Marx's association with the House of Rothschild, it enlisted the reverent support of John D. Rockefeller because he saw Communism for what it is, the ultimate monopoly, not only controlling the government, the monetary system and all property, but also a monopoly which, like the corporations it emulates, is self-perpetuating and eternal. It was the logical progression from his Standard Oil monopoly.
An important step on the road to world monopoly was the most far-reaching corporation invented by the Rothschilds. This was the international drug and chemical cartel, I.G. Farben. Called ``a state within a state,'' it was created in 1925 as Interessen Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie Aktien gesellschaft, usually known as I.G. Farben, which simply meant ``The Cartel''. It had originated in 1904, when the six major chemical companies in Germany began negotiations to form the ultimate cartel, merging Badische Anilin, Bayer, Agfa, Hoechst, Weiler-ter-Meer, and Greisheim-Electron. The guiding spirit, as well as the financing, came from the Rothschilds, who were represented by their German banker, Max Warburg, of M.M. Warburg Company, Hamburg. He later headed the German Secret Service during World War I and was personal financial adviser to the Kaiser. When the Kaiser was overthrown, after losing the war, Max Warburg was not exiled with him to Holland, instead he became the financial adviser to the new government.
Monarchs may come and go, but the real power remains with the bankers.
While representing Germany at the Paris Peace Conference, Max Warburg spent pleasant hours renewing family ties with his brother, Paul Warburg, who, after drafting the Federal Reserve Act at Jekyl Island, had headed the U.S. banking system during the war. He was in Paris as Woodwow Wilson's financial advisor.
I.G. Farben soon had a net worth of six billion marks, controlling some five hundred firms. Its first president was Professor Carl Bosch. During the period of the Weimar Republic, I.G. officials, seeing the handwriting on the wall, began a close association with Adolf Hitler, supplying much needed funds and political influence. The success of the I.G. Farben cartel had aroused the interest of other industrialists. Henry Ford was favorably impressed and set up a German branch of Ford Motor Company. Forty per cent of the stock was purchased by I.G. Farben. I.G. Farben then established an American subsidiary, called American I.G., in cooperation with Standard Oil of New Jersey . Its directors included Walter Teagle, president of Standard Oil, Paul Warburg of Kuhn Loeb & Company and Edsel Ford, representing the Ford interests. John Foster Dulles, for the law firm, Sullivan and Cromwell, became the attorney for I.G., frequently traveling between New York and Berlin on cartel business. His law partner, Arthur Dean, is now director of the $40 million Teagle Foundation which was set up before Teagle's death. Like other fortunes it had become part of the network. Like John Foster Dulles, Arthur Dean has been a director of American Banknote for many years; this is the firm which supplies the paper for our dollar bills. Dean also has been an active behind the scenes government negotiator, serving as arms negotiator at disarmament conferences. Dean was also a director of Rockefeller's American Ag & Chem Company. He was a director of American Solvay, American Metal and other firms. As attorney for the wealthy Hochschild family, who owned Climax Molybdenum and American Metal, Dean became director of their family foundation, the Hochschild Foundation. Dean is director emeritus of the Council on Foreign Relations, the Asia Foundation, International House, Carnegie Foundation, and the Sloan Kettering Cancer Center.
In 1930, Standard Oil announced that it had purchased an alcohol monopoly in Germany, a deal which had been set up by I.G. Farben. After Hitler came to power, John D. Rockefeller assigned his personal press agent, Ivy Lee, to Hitler to serve as a full- time adviser on the rearmament of Germany, a necessary step for setting up World War II. Standard Oil then built large refineries in Germany for the Nazis and continued to supply them with oil during World War II. In the 1930s Standard Oil was receiving in payment from Germany large shipments of musical instruments and ships which had been built in German yards.
The dreaded Gestapo, the Nazi police force, was actually built from the worldwide intelligence network which I.G. Farben had maintained since its inception. Herman Schmitz, who had succeeded Carl Bosch as head of I.G., has been personal advisor to chancellor Brüning; when Hitler took over, Schmitz then became his most trusted secret counselor. So well concealed was the association that the press had orders never to photograph them together . Schmitz was named an honourary member of the Reichstag, while his assistant, Carl Krauch, became Göring's principal advisor in carrying out the Nazis' Four Year Plan. A business associate, Richard Krebs, later testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee, ``The I.G.
Farbenindustrie, I know from personal experience, was already, in 1934, completely in the hands of the Gestapo.'' This was a misstatement; the I.G. Farben had merely allied itself with the Gestapo.
In 1924 Krupp Industries was in serious financial difficulty; the firm was saved by a $10 million cash loan from Hallgarten & Company and Goldman Sachs, two of Wall Street's best known firms. The planned re-armament of Germany was able to proceed only after Dillon Read floated $100 million of German bonds on Wall Street for that purpose. It was hardly surprising that at the conclusion of the Second World War, General William Draper was appointed Economic Czar of Germany, being named head of the Economic Division of the Allied Military Government. He was a partner of Dillon Read.
In 1939 Frank Howard, a vice-president of Standard Oil visited Germany. He later testified, #147;We did our best to work out complete plans for a modus vivendi which would operate throughout the term of the war, whether we came in or not.'' At this time American I.G. had on its board of directors Charles Mitchell, president of the National City Bank, the Rockefeller bank, Carl Bosch, Paul Warburg, Herman Schmitz and Schmitz' nephew, Max Ilgner.
Although his name is hardly known, Frank Howard was for many years a key figure in Standard Oil operations as director of its research and its international agreements. He also was chairman of the research committee at Sloan Kettering Institute during the 1930s; his appointee at Sloan Kettering, Dusty Rhoads, headed the experimentation in the development of chemotherapy. During the Second World War Rhoads headed the Chemical Warfare Service in Washington at U.S. Army Headquarters. It was Frank Howard who had persuaded both Alfred Sloan and Charles Kettering of General Motors in 1939 to give their fortunes to the Cancer Center, which then took on their names . A member of the wealthy Atherton family, Frank Howard (1891-1964) had married a second time, his second wife being a leading member of the British aristocracy, the Duchess of Leeds. The first Duke of Leeds was titled in 1694, Sir Thomas Osborne, who was one of the key conspirators in the overthrow of King James II and the seizure of the throne of England by William III in 1688. Osborne had made peace with Holland during the reign of King Charles II, and singlehandedly promoted the marriage of Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, to William of Orange in 1677. The Dictionary of National Biography notes that Osborne ``for five years managed the House of Commons by corruption and enriched himself.'' He was impeached by King Charles II for treasonous negotiations with King Louis XIV and imprisoned in the Tower of London from 1678 to 1684. After his release, he again became active in the conspiracy to bring in William of Orange as King of England and secured the crucial province of York for him. William then created him Duke of Leeds. The placing of William on the throne of England made it possible for the conspirators to implement the crucial step in their plans, setting up the Bank of England in 1694. This enabled the Amsterdam bankers to gain control of the wealth of the British Empire. Osborne's biography also notes that he was later accused of Jacobite intrigues and was impeached for receiving a large bribe to procure the charter for the East India Company in 1695, but ``the proceedings were not concluded''. It was further noted that he ``left a large fortune''.
The 11th Duke of Leeds was Minister to Washington from 1931 to 1935, Minister to the Holy See from 1936 to 1947, that is, throughout the Second World War. One branch of the family married into the Delano family, becoming relatives of Franklin Delano Roosevelt . A cousin, Viscount Chandos, was a prominent British official, serving in the War Cabinet under Churchill from 1942 to 1945, later becoming a director of the Rothschild firm, Alliance Assurance, and Imperial Chemical Industries.
Frank Howard was the key official in maintaining relations between Standard Oil and I.G. Farben. He led in the development of synthetic rubber, which was crucial to Germany in the Second World War; he later wrote a book, ``Buna Rubber''. He also was the consultant to the drug firm, Rohm and Haas, representing the Rockefeller connection with that firm. In his later years, he resided in Paris, but continued to maintain his office at 30 Rockefeller Center, New York.
Walter Teagle, the president of Standard Oil, owned 500,000 shares of American I.G., these shares later becoming the basis of the Teagle Foundation. Herman Metz, who was also a director of American I.G., was president of H.A. Metz Company, New York, a drug firm wholly owned by I.G.
Farben of Germany. Francis Garvan, who had served as Alien Property Custodian during the First World War, knew many secrets of I.G. Farben's operations. He was prosecuted in 1929 to force him to remain silent. The action was brought by the Department of Justice through Attorney General Merton Lewis, the former counsel for Bosch Company. John Krim, former counsel for the German Embassy in the United States, testified that Senator John King had been on the payroll of the Hamburg American Line for three years at a salary of fifteen thousand dollars a year; he appointed Otto Kahn as treasurer of his election fund. Homer Cummings, who had been Attorney General for six years, then became counsel for General Aniline and Film at a salary of $100,000 a year. During the Second World War, GAF was supposedly owned by a Swiss firm; it came under considerable suspicion as an ``enemy'' concern and was finally taken over by the United States government. John Foster Dulles had been director of GAF from 1927 to 1934; he was also a director of International Nickel, which was part of the network of I.G. Farben firms. Dulles was related to the Rockefeller family through the Avery connection. He was attorney for the organization of a new investment firm, set up by Avery Rockefeller, in 1936 which was called Schröder-Rockefeller Company. It combined operations of the Schröder Bank, Hitler's personal bank and the Rockefeller interests. Baron Kurt von Schröder was one of Hitler's closest confidantes, and a leading officer of the SS. He was head of the Keppler Associates, which funneled money to the SS for leading German Corporations. Keppler was the official in charge of Industrial Fats during Göring's Four Year Plan, which was launched in 1936.
American I.G. changed its name to General Aniline and Film during the Second World War, but it was still wholly owned by I.G. Chemie of Switzerland, a subsidiary of I.G. Farben of Germany. It was headed by Gadow, brother-in-law of Herman Schmitz. I.G. Farben's international agreements directly affected the U.S. war effort, because they set limits on U.S. supplies of magnesium, synthetic rubber and, crucial medical supplies. The director of I.G. Farben's dyestuffs division, Baron George von Schnitzler, was related to the powerful von Rath family, the J.H. Stein Bankhaus which held Hitler's account and the von Mallinckrodt family, the founders of the drug firm in the United States. Like other I.G. officials, he had become an enthusiastic supporter of the Hitler regime. I.G. Farben gave four and a half million reichsmarks to the Nazi Party in 1933; by 1945, I.G. had given the Party 40 million reichsmarks, a sum which equaled all contributions by I.G. to all other recipients during that period. One scholar of the Nazi era, Anthony Sutton, has focussed heavily on German supporters of Hitler, while ignoring the crucial role played by the Bank of England and its Governor, Sir Montague Norman, in financing the Nazi regime. Sutton's position on this problem may have been influenced by the fact that he is British. In view of the outspoken statements from Adolf Hitler about Jewish influence in Germany, it would be difficult to explain the role of I.G. Farben in the Nazi era. Peter Hayes' definitive study of I.G. Farben shows that in 1933 it had ten Jews on its governing boards. We have previously pointed out that I.G., from its inception was a Rothschild concern, formulated by the House of Rothschild and implemented through its agents, Max Warburg in Germany and Standard Oil in the US.
Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands joined the SS during the early 1930s. He then joined the board of an I.G. subsidiary, Farben Bilder, from which he took the name of his postwar supersecret policy making group, the Bilderbergers. Farben executives played an important role in organizing the Circle of Friends for Heinrich Himmler, although it was initially known as Keppler's Circle of Friends, Keppler being the chairman of an I.G. subsidiary. His nephew, Fritz J. Kranefuss, was the personal assistant to Heinrich Himmler. Of the forty members of the Circle of Friends, which provided ample funds for Himmler, eight were executives of I.G. Farben or of its subsidiaries.
Despite the incredible devastation of most German cities from World War II air bombings, the I.G. Farben building in Frankfort, one of the largest buildings there, miraculously survived intact. A large Rockefeller mansion in Frankfort also was left untouched by the war, despite the saturation bombing. Frankfort was the birthplace of the Rothschild family. It was hardly coincidental that the postwar government of Germany, Allied Military Government, should set up its offices in the magnificent I.G. Farben building. This government was headed by General Lucius Clay, who later became a partner of Lehman Brothers bankers in New York. The Political Division was headed by Robert Murphy, who would preside at the Nüremberg Trials, where he was successful in glossing over the implication of I.G.
Farben officials and Baron Kurt von Schröder. Schröder was held a short time in a detention camp and then set free to return to his banking business. The Economic Division was headed by Lewis Douglas, son of the founder of Memorial Cancer center in New York, president of Mutual Life and director of General Motors. Douglas was slated to become U.S. High Commissioner for Germany, but he agreed to step aside in favor of his brother-in-law, John J. McCloy. By an interesting circumstance, Douglas, McCloy and Chancellor Konrad Adenauer of Germany had all married sisters, the daughters of John Zinsser, a partner of J.P. Morgan Company.
As the world's pre-eminent cartel, I.G. Farben and the drug companies which it controlled in the United States through the Rockefeller interests were responsible for many inexplicable developments in the production and distribution of drugs. From 1908 to 1936 I.G. held back its discovery of sulfanilamide, which would become a potent weapon in the medical arsenal.
In 1920, I.G. had signed working agreements with the important drug firms of Switzerland, Sandoz and Ciba-Geigy. In 1926, I.G. merged with Dynamit-Nobel, the German branch of the dynamite firm, while an English firm took over the English division. I.G. officials then began to negotiate with Standard Oil officials about the prospective manufacture of synthetic coal, which would present a serious threat to Standard Oil's monopoly. A compromise was reached with the establishment of American I.G., in which both firms would play an active role and share in the profits.
Charles Higham's book, ``Trading with the Enemy,'' offers ample documentation of the Rockefeller activities during the Second World War.
While Hitler's bombers were dropping tons of explosives on London, they were paying royalties on every gallon of gasoline they burned to Standard Oil, under existing patent agreements. After World War II, when Queen Elizabeth visited the United States, she stayed in only one private home during her visit, the Kentucky estate of William Irish, of Standard Oil.
Nelson Rockefeller moved to Washington after our involvement in World War II, where Roosevelt named him Coordinator of Inter- American Affairs.
Apparently his principal task was to coordinate the refueling of German ships in South America from Standard Oil tanks. He also used this office to obtain important South American concessions for his private firm, International Basic Economy Corporation, including a corner on the Colombian coffee market. He promptly upped the price, a move which enabled him to buy seven billion dollars worth of real estate in South America and also gave rise to the stereotype of the ``Yanqui imperialismo''. The attack on Vice President Nixon's automobile when he visited South America was explained by American officials as a direct result of the depredations of the Rockefellers, which caused widespread agitation against Americans in Latin America.
After World War II, twenty-four German executives were prosecuted by the victors, all of them connected with I.G. Farben, including eleven officers of I.G. Eight were acquitted, including Max Ilgner, nephew of Herman Schmitz. Schmitz received the most severe sentence, eight years. Ilgner actually received three years, but the time was credited against his time in jail waiting for trial, and he was immediately released. The Judge was C.G. Shake and the prosecuting attorney was Al Minskoff.
The survival of I.G. Farben was headlined by the Wall Street Journal on May 3, 1988 - GERMANY BEATS WORLD IN CHEMICAL SALES. Reporter Thomas F. O'Boyle listed the world's top five chemical companies in 1987 as 1. BASF $25.8 billion dollars. 2. Bayer $23.6 billion dollars. 3. Hoechst $23.5 billion dollars. 4. ICI $20 billion dollars. 5. DuPont $17 billion dollars in chemical sales only.
The first three companies are the firms resulting from the ``dismantling'' of I.G. Farben from 1945 to 1952 by the Allied Military Government, in a process suspiciously similar to the ``dismantling'' of the Standard Oil empire by court edict in 1911. The total sales computed in dollars of the three spin-offs of I.G. Farben, some $72 billion, dwarfs its nearest rivals, ICI and DuPont, who together amount to about half of the Farben empire's dollar sales in 1987. Hoechst bought Celanese corp. in 1987 for $2.72 billion.
O'Boyle notes that ``The Big Three (Farben spin-offs) still behave like a cartel. Each dominates specific areas; head to head competition is limited.
Critics suspect collusion. At the least, there's a cosiness that doesn't exist in the U.S. chemical industry."
After the war, Americans were told they must support an ``altruistic'' plan to rebuild devastated Europe, to be called the Marshall Plan, after Chief of Staff George Marshall, who had been labeled on the floor of the Senate by Senator Joseph McCarthy as ``a living lie''. The Marshall Plan proved to be merely another Rockefeller Plan to loot the American taxpayer. On December 13, 1948, Col. Robert McCormick, editor of the Chicago Tribune, personally denounced Esso's looting of the Marshall Plan in a signed editorial. The Marshall Plan had been rushed through Congress by a powerful and vocal group, headed by Winthrop Aldrich, president of the Chase Manhattan Bank and Nelson Rockefeller's brother-in-law, ably seconded by Nelson Rockefeller and William Clayton, the head of Anderson, Clayton Company. The Marshall Plan proved to be but one of a number of lucrative postwar swindles, which included the Bretton Woods Agreement, United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation and others.
After World War II, the Rockefellers used their war profits to buy a large share of Union Miniere du Haut Katanga, an African copper lode owned by Belgian interest, including the Societe Generale, a Jesuit controlled bank.
Soon after their investment, the Rockefellers launched a bold attempt to seize total control of the mines through sponsoring a local revolution, using as their agent the Grangesberg operation. This enterprise had originally been developed by Sir Ernest Cassel, financial advisor to King Edward VII - Cassel's daughter later married Lord Mountbatten, a member of the British royal family, who was also related to the Rothschilds.
Grangesberg was now headed by Bo Hammarskjold, whose brother, Dag Hammarskjold was then Secretary General of the United Nations - Bo Hammarskjold became a casualty of the Rockefeller revolution when his plane was shot down during hostilities in the Congo. Various stories have since circulated about who killed him and why he was killed. The Rockefeller intervention in the Congo was carried out by their able lieutenants, Dean Rusk and George Ball of the State Department and by Fowler Hamilton.
In the United States, the Rockefeller interests continue to play the major political role. Old John D. Rockefeller's treasurer at Standard Oil, Charles Pratt, bequeathed his New York mansion to the Council on Foreign Relations as its world headquarters. His grandson, George Pratt Shultz, is now Secretary of State. The Rockefellers also wielded a crucial role through their financing of the Trotskyite Communist group in the United States, the League for Industrial Democracy, whose directors include such staunch ``anti-communists'' as Jeane Kirkpatrick and Sidney Hook. The Rockefellers were also active on the ``right-wing'' front through their sponsorship of the John Birch Society. To enable Robert Welch, a 32nd degree Mason, to devote all of his time to the John Birch Society, Nelson Rockefeller purchased his family firm, the Welch Candy Company, from him at a handsome price. Welch chose the principal officers of the John Birch Society from his acquaintances at the Council On Foreign Relations. For years afterwards, American patriots were puzzled by the consistent inability of the John Birch Society to move forward on any of its well-advertised ``anti-Communist'' goals. The fact that the society had been set up at the behest of the backers of the world Communist revolution may have played some role in this development. Other patriots wondered why most American conservative writers, including the present writer, were steadily blacklisted by the John Birch Society for some thirty years.
Despite thousands of requests from would be book buyers, the John Birch Society refused to review or list any of my books. After several decades of futility, the Society was totally discredited by its own record. In a desperate effort to restore its image, William Buckley, the CIA propagandist, launched a ``fierce'' attack against the John Birch Society in the pages of his magazine, the National Review. This free publicity campaign also did little to revive the moribund organization.
The Rockefeller monopoly influence has had its effect on some of New York's largest and wealthiest churches. Trinity Church on Wall Street, whose financial resources had been directed by none other than J.P. Morgan, owns some forty commercial properties in Manhattan and has a stock portfolio of $50 million, which, due to informed investment, actually yields a return of $25 million a year! Only $2.6 million of this income is spent for charitable work. The rector, why receives a salary of $100,000 a year, lives on the fashionable Upper East Side. Trinity's mausoleum sells its spaces at fees starting at $1250 and rising to $20,000 . St. Bartholomew, on Fifth Avenue, has an annual budget of $3.2 million a year of which only $100,000 is spent on charity. Its rector resides in a thirteen room apartment on Park Avenue.
In medicine, the Rockefeller influence remains entrenched in its Medical Monopoly. We have mentioned its control of the cancer industry through the Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. We have listed the directors of the major drug firms, each with its director from Chase Manhattan Bank, the Standard Oil Company or other Rockefeller firms. The American College of Surgeons maintains a monopolistic control of hospitals through the powerful Hospital Survey Committee, with members Winthrop Aldrich and David McAlpine Pyle representing the Rockefeller control.
A medical fraternity known as the ``rich man's club,'' the New York Academy of Medicine, was offered grants for a new building by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Foundation, its subsidiary group. This ``seed money'' was then used to finance a public campaign which brought in funds to erect a new building. For Director of the new facility, the Rockefellers chose Dr. Lindsly Williams, son-in-law of the managing partner of Kidder, Peabody, a firm strongly affiliated with the J.P. Morgan interests (the J.P. Morgan Company had originally been called the Peabody Company).
Williams was married to Grace Kidder Ford. Although Dr. Williams was widely known to be an incompetent physician, his family connections were impeccable. He became a factor in Franklin D. Roosevelt's election campaign when he publicly certified that Roosevelt, a cripple in a wheelchair who suffered from a number of oppressive ailments, was both physically and mentally fit to be the President of United States. Dr. Williams' opinion, published in an article in the widely circulated Collier's Magazine, allayed public doubts about Roosevelt's condition. As a result, Williams was to be offered a newly created post in Roosevelt's cabinet, Secretary of Health. However, it was another thirty years before Health became a cabinet post, due to the politicking of Oscar Ewing.
The Rockefellers had greatly extended their business interests in the impoverished Southern states by establishing the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission. It was headed by Dr. Wickliffe Rose, a longtime Rockefeller henchman whose name appears on the original charter of the Rockefeller Foundation. Despite its philanthropic goals, the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission required financial contributions from each of the eleven Southern states in which it operated, resulting in the creation of State Departments of Health in those states and opening up important new spheres of influence for their Drug Trust. In Tennessee, the Rockefeller representative was a Dr. Olin West, who moved on to Chicago to become the power behind the scenes at the American Medical Association for forty years, as secretary and general manager.
The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research finally dropped the ``Medical Research'' part of its title; its president, Dr. Detlev Bronk, resided in a $600,000 mansion furnished by this charitable operation.
Rockefeller's general Education Board has spent more than $100 million to gain control of the nation's medical schools and turn our physicians to physicians of the allopathic school, dedicated to surgery and the heavy use of drugs. The Board, which had developed from the original Peabody Foundation, also spent some $66 million for Negro education.
One of the most far-reaching consequences of the General Education Board's political philosophy was achieved with a mere six million dollar grant to Columbia University in 1917, to set up the ``progressive'' Lincoln School.
From this school descended the national network of progressive educators and social scientists, whose pernicious influence closely paralleled the goals of the Communist Party, another favorite recipient of the Rockefeller millions . From its outset, the Lincoln School was described frankly as a revolutionary school for the primary and secondary schools of the entire United States. It immediately discarded all theories of education which were based on formal and well-established disciplines, that is, the McGuffey Reader type of education which worked by teaching such subjects as Latin and algebra, thus teaching children to think logically about problems. Rockefeller biographer Jules Abel hails the Lincoln School as ``a beacon light in progressive education ''.
Rockefeller Institute financial fellowships produced many prominent workers in our atomic programs, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer, who was later removed from government laboratories as a suspected Soviet agent. Although most of his friends and associates were known Soviet agents, this was called ``guilt by association.'' The Rockefeller Foundation created a number of spin-off groups, which now plague the nation with a host of ills, one of them being the Social Science Research Council, which single-handedly spawned the nationwide ``poverty industry,'' a business which expends some $130 billion a year of taxpayer funds while grossing some $6 billion income for its practitioners. The money, which would amply feed and house all of the nation's ``poor,'' is dissipated through a vast administrative network which awards generous concessions to a host of parasitic ``consultants''.
Despite years of research, the present writer has been able to merely scratch the surface of the Rockefeller influences listed here. For instance, the huge Burroughs Wellcome drug firm is wholly owned by the ``charitable'' Wellcome Trust. This trust is directed by Lord Oliver Franks, a key member of the London Connection which maintains the United States as a British Colony. Franks was Ambassador to the United States from 1948 to 1952. He is now a director of the Rockefeller Foundation, as its principal representative in England. He also is a director of the Schröder Bank, which handled Hitler's personal bank account, director of the Rhodes Trust in charge of approving Rhodes scholarships, visiting professor at the University of Chicago and chairman of Lloyd's Bank, one of England's Big Five.
Other Rockefeller Foundation spin-offs include the influential Washington think-tank, the Brookings Institution, the National Bureau of Economic Research, whose findings play a critical role in manipulating the stock market; the Public Administration Clearing House, which indoctrinates the nation's municipal employees ; the Council of State Governments, which controls the nation's state legislatures; and the Institute of Pacific Relations, the most notorious Communist front in the United States. The Rockefellers appeared as directors of this group, funneling money to it through their financial advisor, Lewis Lichtenstein Strauss, of Kuhn, Loeb Company.
The Rockefellers have maintained their controlling interest in the Chase Manhattan Bank, owning five per cent of the stock. Through this one asset they control $42.5 billion worth of assets. Chase Manhattan interlocks closely with the Big Four insurance companies, of which three, Metropolitan, Equitable and New York Life had $113 billion in assets in 1969.
With the advent of the Reagan Administration in 1980, the Rockefeller interests sought to obscure their longtime support of world Communism by bringing to Washington a vocally ``anti-Communist'' administration. Reagan was soon wining and dining Soviet premiers as enthusiastically as had his predecessor Jimmy Carter. The Reagan campaign had been managed by two officials of Bechtel Corporation, its president, George Pratt Schultz, a Standard Oil heir, and his counsel, Casper Weinberger. Shultz was named Secretary of State, Weinberger, Secretary of Defense, Bechtel had been financed by the Schröder-Rockefeller Company, the 1936 alliance between the Schröder Bank and the Rockefeller heirs.
The Rockefeller influence also remains preeminent in the monetary field.
Since November, 1910, when Senator Nelson Aldrich chaired the secret conference at Jekyl Island which gave us the Federal Reserve Act, the Rockefellers have kept us within the sphere of the London Connection.
During the Carter Administration, David Rockefeller generously sent his personal assistant, Paul Volcker, to Washington to head the Federal Reserve Board . Reagan finally replaced him in 1987 with Alan Greenspan, a partner of J.P. Morgan Company. Their influence on our banking system has remained constant through many financial coups on their part, one of the most profitable being the confiscation of privately owned gold from American citizens by Roosevelt's edict. Our citizens had to turn over their gold to the privately owned Federal Reserve System. The Constitution permits confiscation for purposes of eminent domain, but prohibits confiscation for private gain. The gold's new owners then had the gold revalued from $20 an ounce to $35, giving them an enormous profit.
In reviewing the all-pervasive influence of the Rockefellers and their foreign controllers, the Rothschilds, in every aspect of American life, the citizen must ask himself, "What can be done?'' Right can prevail only when the citizen actively seeks justice . Justice can prevail only when each citizen realizes that it is his God-given duty to mete out justice. History has documented all of the crimes of the usurpers of our Constitution. We have learned the painful lesson that the Rockefeller monopolists exercise their evil power almost solely through federal and state agents. At this writing, former Congressman Ron Paul is running for the Presidency of the United States on an eminently sensible and practical campaign - abolish the Federal Reserve System - abolish the FBI - abolish the Internal Revenue Service - and abolish the CIA. It has been known for years that 90% of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, ostensibly set up to ``fight crime'' has been to harass and isolate political dissidents.
The criminal syndicalists are now looting the American nation of one trillion dollars each year, of which about one-third, more than three hundred billion dollars per year, represents the profitable depredations of the Drug Trust and its medical subsidiaries . Before a sustained effort to combat these depredations can be mounted, Americans must make every effort to regain their health. As Ezra Pound demanded in one of his famous radio broadcasts, ``Health, dammit !'' America became the greatest and most productive nation in the world because we had the healthiest citizens in the world. When the Rockefeller Syndicate began its takeover of our medical profession in 1910, our citizens went into a sharp decline. Today, we suffer from a host of debilitating ailments, both mental and physical, nearly all of which can be traced directly to the operations of the chemical and drug monopoly and which pose the greatest threat to our continued existence as a nation. Unite now to restore our national health - the result will be the restoration of our national pride, the resumption of our role as the inventors and producers of the modern world, and the custodian of the world's hopes and dreams of liberty and freedom.
Chapter 12
CONCLUSIONS
We have demonstrated with documentary evidence a number of critical associations between Wall Street international bankers and the rise of Hitler and Nazism in Germany.
First: that Wall Street financed the German cartels in the mid-1920s which in turn proceeded to bring Hitler to power.
Second: that the financing for Hitler and his S.S. street thugs came in part from affiliates or subsidiaries of U.S. firms, including Henry Ford in 1922, payments by I.G. Farben and General Electric in 1933, followed by the Standard Oil of New Jersey and I.T.T. subsidiary payments to Heinrich Himmler up to 1944.
Third: that U.S. multi-nationals under the control of Wall Street profited handsomely from Hitler's military construction program in the 1930s and at least until 1942.
Fourth: that these same international bankers used political influence in the U.S. to cover up their wartime collaboration and to do this infiltrated the U.S. Control Commission for Germany.
Our evidence for these four major assertions can be summarised as follows:
In Chapter One we presented evidence that the Dawes and Young plans for German reparations were formulated by Wall Streeters, temporarily wearing the hats of statesmen, and these loans generated a rain of profits for these international bankers. Owen Young of General Electric, Hjalmar Schacht, A. Voegler, and others intimately connected with Hitler's accession to power had earlier been the negotiators for the U.S. and German sides, respectively. Three Wall Street houses - Dillon, Read; Harris, Forbes; and, National City Company - handled three-quarters of the reparations loans used to create the German cartel system, including the dominant I.G. Farben and Vereinigte Stahlwerke, which together produced 95 per cent of the explosives for the Nazi side in World War II.
The central role of I.G. Farben in Hitler's coup d'etat was reviewed in Chapter Two. The directors of American I.G. (Farben) were identified as prominent American businessmen: Walter Teagle, a close Roosevelt associate and backer and an NRA administrator; banker Paul Warburg (his brother Max Warburg was on the board of I.G. Farben in Germany); and Edsel Ford. Farben contributed 400,000 RM directly to Schacht and Hess for use in the crucial 1933 elections and Farben was subsequently in the forefront of military development in Nazi Germany.
A donation of 60,000 RM was made to Hitler by German General Electric (A.E.G.), which had four directors and a 25-30 percent interest held by the U.S. General Electric parent company. This role was described in Chapter Three, and we found that Gerard Swope, an originator of Roosevelt's New Deal (its National Recovery Administration segment), together with Owen Young of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and Clark Minor of International General Electric, were the dominant Wall Streeters in A.E.G. and most significant single influence.
We also found no evidence to indict the German electrical firm Siemens, which was not under Wall Street control. In contrast, there is documentary evidence that both A.E.G. and Osram, the other units of the German electrical industry - both of which had U.S. participation and control - did finance Hitler. In fact, almost all directors of German General Electric were Hitler backers, either directly through A.E.G. or indirectly through other German firms. G.E. rounded out its Hitler support by technical co-operation with Krupp, aimed at restricting U.S. development of tungsten carbide, which worked to the detriment of the U.S. in World War II. We concluded that A.E.G. plants in Germany managed, by a yet unknown manoeuvre, to avoid bombing by the Allies.
An examination of the role of Standard Oil of New Jersey (which was and is controlled by the Rockefeller interests) was undertaken in Chapter Four. Standard Oil apparently did not finance Hitler's accession to power in 1933 (that part of the "myth of Sidney Warburg" is not proven). On the other hand, payments were made up to 1944 by Standard Oil of New Jersey, to develop synthetic gasoline for war purposes on behalf of the Nazis and, through its wholly owned subsidiary, to Heinrich Himmler's S.S. Circle of Friends for political purposes. Standard Oil's role was technical aid to Nazi development of synthetic rubber and gasoline through a U.S. research company under the management control of Standard Oil. The Ethyl Gasoline Company, jointly owned by Standard Oil of New Jersey and General Motors, was instrumental in supplying vital ethyl lead to Nazi Germany - over the written protests of the U.S. War Department - with the clear knowledge that the ethyl lead was for Nazi military purposes.
In Chapter Five we demonstrated that International Telephone and Telegraph Company, one of the more notorious multi-nationals, worked both sides of World War II through Baron Kurt von Schröder, of the Schroder banking group. I.T.T. also held a 28-percent interest in FockeWolfe aircraft, which manufactured excellent German fighter planes. We also found that Texaco (Texas Oil Company) was involved in Nazi endeavours through German attorney Westrick, but dropped its chairman of the board Rieber when these endeavours were publicised.
Henry Ford was an early (1922) Hitler backer and Edsel Ford continued the family tradition in 1942 by encouraging French Ford to profit from arming the German Wehrmacht. Subsequently, these Ford-produced vehicles were used against American soldiers as they landed in France in 1944. For his early recognition of, and timely assistance to, the Nazis, Henry Ford received a Nazi medal in 1938. The records of French Ford suggest Ford Motor received kid glove treatment from the Nazis after 1940.
The provable threads of Hitler financing are drawn together in Chapter Seven and answer with precise names and figures the question, who financed Adolf Hitler? This chapter indicts Wall Street and, incidentally, no one else of consequence in the United States except the Ford family. The Ford family is not normally associated with Wall Street but is certainly a part of the "power elite."
In earlier chapters we cited several Roosevelt associates, including Teagle of Standard Oil, the Warburg family, and Gerard Swope. In Chapter Eight the role of Putze Hanfstaengl, another Roosevelt friend and a participant in the Reichstag fire, is traced. The composition of the Nazi inner circle during World War II, and the financial contributions of Standard Oil of New Jersey and I.T.T. subsidiaries, are traced in Chapter Nine. Documentary proof of these monetary contributions is presented. Kurt von Schroder is identified as the key intermediary in this S.S. "slush fund."
Finally, in Chapter Ten we reviewed a book suppressed in 1934 and the "myth of 'Sidney Warburg.'" The suppressed book accused the Rockefellers, the Warburgs, and the major oil companies of financing Hitler. While the name "Sidney Warburg" was no doubt an invention, the extraordinary fact remains that the argument in the suppressed "Sidney Warburg" Book is remains that the argument in the suppressed "Sidney Warburg" book is remarkably close to the evidence presented now. It also remains a puzzle why James Paul Warburg, fifteen years later, would want to attempt, in a rather transparently slipshod manner, to refute the contents of the "Warburg" book, a book he claims not to have seen. It is perhaps even more of a puzzle why Warburg would choose Nazi von Papen's Memoirs as the vehicle to present his refutation.
Finally, in Chapter Eleven we examined the roles of the Morgan and Chase Banks in World War II, specifically their collaboration with the Nazis in France while a major war was raging.
In other works, as in our two previous examinations of the links between New York international bankers and major historical events, we find a provable pattern of subsidy and political manipulation.
The Pervasive Influence of International Bankers
Looking at the broad array of facts presented in the three volumes of the Wall Street series, we find persistent recurrence of the same names: Own Young, Gerard Swope, Hjalmar Schacht, Bernard Baruch, etc.; the same international banks: J.P. Morgan, Guaranty Trust, Chase Bank; and the same location in New York: usually 120 Broadway.
This group of international bakers backed the Bolshevik Revolution and subsequently profited from the establishment of a Soviet Russia. This group backed Roosevelt and profited from New Deal socialism. This group also backed Hitler and certainly profited from German armament in the 1930s. When Big Business should have been running its business operations at Ford Motor, Standard of New Jersey and so on, we find it actively and deeply involved in political upheavals, war, and revolutions in three major countries.
The version of history presented here is that the financial elite knowingly and with premeditation assisted the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in concert with German bankers. After profiting handsomely from the German hyper-inflationary distress of 1923, and planning to place the German reparations burden onto the backs of American investors, Wall Street found it had brought about the 1929 financial crisis.
Two men were then backed as leaders for major Western countries: Franklin D. Roosevelt in the United States and Adolf Hitler in Germany. The Roosevelt New Deal and Hitler's Four Year Plan had great similarities. The Roosevelt and Hitler plans were plans for fascist take-overs of their respective countries. While Roosevelt's NRA failed, due to then-operating constitutional constraints, Hitler's Plan succeeded.
Why did the Wall Street elite, the international bakers, want Roosevelt and Hitler in power? This is an aspect we have not explored. According to the "myth of 'Sidney Warburg,'" Wall Street wanted a policy of revenge; that is, it wanted war in Europe between France and Germany. We know even from Establishment history that both Hitler and Roosevelt acted out policies leading to war.
The link-ups between persons and events in this three-book series would require another book. But a single example will perhaps indicate the remarkable concentration of power within a relatively few organisations, and the use of this power.
On May 1st, 1918, when the Bolsheviks controlled only a small fraction of Russia (and were to come near to losing even that fraction in the summer of 1918), the American League to Aid and Co-operate with Russia was organised in Washington, D.C. to support the Bolsheviks. This was not a "Hands off Russia" type of committee formed by the Communist Party U.S.A. or its allies. It was a committee created by Wall Street with George P. Whalen of Vacuum Oil Company as Treasurer and Coffin and Oudin of General Electric, along with Thompson of the Federal Reserve System, Willard of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, and assorted socialists.
When we look at the rise of Hitler and Nazism we find Vacuum Oil and General Electric well represented. Ambassador Dodd in Germany was struck by the monetary and technical contribution by the Rockefeller-controlled Vacuum Oil Company in building up military gasoline facilities for the Nazis. The Ambassador tried to warn Roosevelt. Dodd believed, in his apparent naiveté of world affairs, that Roosevelt would intervene, but Roosevelt himself was backed by these same oil interests and Walter Teagle of Standard Oil of New Jersey and the NRA was on the board of Roosevelt's Warm Springs Foundation. So, in but one of may examples, we find the Rockefeller-controlled Vacuum Oil Company prominently assisting in the creation of Bolshevik Russia, the military build-up of Nazi Germany, and backing Roosevelt's New Deal.
Is the United States Ruled by a Dictatorial Elite?
Within the last decade or so, certainly since the 1960s, a steady flow of literature has presented a thesis that the United States is ruled by a self perpetuating and unelected power elite. Even further, most of these books aver that this elite controls, or at the least heavily influences, all foreign and domestic policy decisions, and that no idea becomes respectable or is published in the United States without the tacit approval, or perhaps lack of disapproval, of this elitist circle.
Obviously the very flow of anti-establishment literature by itself testifies that the United States cannot be wholly under the thumb of any single group or elite. On the other hand, antiestablishment literature is not fully recognised or reasonably discussed in academic or media circles. More often than not it consists of a limited edition, privately produced, almost hand-to-hand circulated. There are some exceptions, true, but not enough to dispute the observation that anti-establishment critics do not easily enter normal information/distribution channels.
Whereas in the early and mid-1960s, any concept of rule by a conspiratorial elite, or indeed any kind of elite, was reason enough to dismiss the proponent out of hand as a "nut case," the atmosphere for such concepts has changed radically. The Watergate affair probably added the final touches to a long-developing environment of scepticism and doubt. We are almost at the point where anyone who accepts, for example, the Warren commission report, or believes that the decline and fall of Mr. Nixon did not have some conspiratorial aspects, is suspect. In brief, no one any longer really believes the Establishment information process. And there is a wide variety of alternative presentations of events now available for the curious.
Several hundred books, from the full range of the political and philosophical spectrum, add bits and pieces of evidence, more hypotheses, and more accusations. What was not too long ago a kooky idea, talked about at midnight behind closed doors, in hushed and almost conspiratorial whispers, is now openly debated - not, to be sure, in Establishment newspapers, but certainly on non-network radio talk shows, the underground press, and even from time to time in books from respectable Establishment publishing houses.
So let us ask the question again: Is there an unelected power elite behind the U.S. Government?
A substantive and often-cited source of information is Carroll Quigley, Professor of International Relations at Georgetown University, who in 1966 had published a monumental modern history entitled Tragedy and Hope. Quigley's book is apart from others in this revisionist vein, by virtue of the fact that it was based on a two-year study of the internal documents of one of the power centres. Quigley traces the history of the power elite:
.The powers of financial capitalism had another far reaching aim, nothing less than to create a world system of financial control in private hands able to dominate the political system of each county and the economy of the world as a whole.
Quigley also demonstrates that the Council on Foreign Relation, the National Planning Association, and other groups are "semi-secret" policy-making bodies under the control of this power elite.
In the following tabular presentation we have listed five such revisionist books, including Quigley's. Their essential theses and compatibility with the three volumes of the "Wall Street" series are summarised. It is surprising that in the three major historical events noted, Carroll Quigley is not at all consistent with the "Wall Street" series evidence. Quigley goes a long way to provide evidence for the existence of the power elite, but does not penetrate the operations of the elite.
Possibly, the papers used by Quigley had been vetted, and did not include documentation on elitist manipulation of such events as the Bolshevik Revolution, Hitler's accession to power, and the election of Roosevelt in 1933. More likely, these political manipulations may not be recorded at all in the files of the power groups They may have been unrecorded actions by a small ad hoc segment of the elite. It is noteworthy that the documents used by this author came from government sources, recording the day-to-day actions of Trotsky, Lenin, Roosevelt, Hitler, J.P. Morgan and the various firms and banks involved.
On the other hand, such authors as Jules Archer, Gary Allen, Helen P. Lasell, and William Domhoff, writing from widely different political standpoints, are consistent with the "Wall Street" evidence. These writers present a hypothesised "power elite" has manipulated specific historical events.
Obviously any such exercise of unconstrained and supra-legal power is unconstitutional, even though wrapped in the fabric of law-abiding actions. We can therefore legitimately raise the question of the existence of a subversive force operating to remove constitutionally guaranteed rights.
The New York Elite as a Subversive Force
Twentieth-century history, as recorded in Establishment textbooks and journals, is inaccurate. It is a history which is based solely upon those official documents which various Administrations have seen fit to release for public consumption.
But an accurate history cannot be based on a selective release of documentary archives. Accuracy requires access to all documents. In practice, as previously classified documents in the U.S. State Department files, the British Foreign Office, and German Foreign Ministry archives and other depositories are acquired, a new version of history has emerged, the prevailing Establishment version is seen to be, not only inaccurate, but designed to hide a pervasive fabric of deceit and immoral conduct.
The centre of political power, as authorised by the U.S. Constitution, is with an elected Congress and an elected President, working within the framework and under the constraints of a Constitution, as interpreted by an unbiased Supreme Court. We have in the past assumed that political power is consequently carefully exercised by the Executive and legislative branch, after due deliberation and assessment of the wishes of the electorate. In fact, nothing could be further from this assumption. The electorate has long suspected, but now knows, that political promises are worth nothing. Lies are the order of the day for policy implementors. Wars are started (and stopped) with no shred of coherent explanation. Political words have never matched political deeds. Why not? Apparently because the centre of political power has been elsewhere than with elected and presumably responsive representatives in Washington, and this power elite has its own objectives, which are inconsistent with those of the public at large.
In this three-volume series we have identified for three historical events the seat of political power in the United states - the power behind the scenes, the hidden influence on Washington - as that of the financial establishment in New York: the private international bankers, more specifically the financial houses of J.P. Morgan, the Rockefeller-controlled Chase Manhattan Bank, and in earlier days before amalgamation of their Manhattan Bank with the former Chase Bank), the Warburgs.
The United States has, in spite of the Constitution and its supposed constraints, become a quasi-totalitarian state. While we do not (yet) have the overt trapping of dictatorship, the concentration camps and the knock on the door at midnight, we most certainly do have threats and actions aimed at the survival of non-Establishment critics, use of the Internal Revenue Service to bring dissidents in line, and manipulation of the Constitution by a court system that is politically subservient to the Establishment.
It is in the pecuniary interests of the international bankers to centralise political power - and this centralisation can best be achieve within a collectivist society, such as socialist Russia, national socialist Germany, or a Fabian socialist United States.
There can be no full understanding and appreciation of twentieth-century American politics and foreign policy without the realisation that this financial elite effectively monopolises Washington policy.
In case after case, newly released documentation implicates this elite and confirms this hypothesis. The revisionist versions of the entry of the United States into World Wars I and II, Korea, and Vietnam reveal the influence and objectives of this elite.
For most of the twentieth century the Federal Reserve System, particularly the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (which is outside the control of congress, unaudited and uncontrolled, with the power to print money and crate credit at will), has exercised a virtual monopoly over the direction of the American economy. In foreign affairs the Council on Foreign Relations, superficially an innocent forum for academics, businessmen, and politicians, contains within its shell, perhaps unknown to many of its members, a power centre that unilaterally determines U.S. foreign policy. The major objective of this submerged - and obviously subversive - foreign policy is the acquisition of markets and economic power (profits, if you will), for a small group of giant multi-nationals under the virtual control of a few banking investment houses and controlling families.
Through foundations controlled by this elite, research by compliant and spineless academics, "conservatives" as well as "liberals," has been directed into channels useful for the objectives of the elite essentially to maintain this subversive and unconstitutional power apparatus.
Through publishing houses controlled by this same financial elite unwelcome books have been squashed and useful books promoted; fortunately publishing has few barriers to entry and is almost atomistically competitive. Through control of a dozen or so major newspapers, run by editors who think alike, public information can be almost orchestrated at will. Yesterday, the space program; today, an energy crisis or a campaign for ecology; tomorrow, a war in the Middle East or some other manufactured "crisis."
The total result of this manipulation of society by the Establishment elite has been four major wars in sixty years, a crippling national debt, abandonment of the Constitution, suppression of freedom and opportunity, and creation of a vast credibility gulf between the man in the street and Washington, D.C. While the transparent device of two major parties trumpeting artificial differences, circus-like conventions, and the cliché of "bipartisan foreign policy" no longer carries credibility, and the financial elite itself recognises that its policies lack public acceptance, it is obviously prepared to go it alone without even nominal public support.
In brief, we now have to consider and debate whether this New York-based elitist Establishment is a subversive force operating with deliberation and knowledge to suppress the Constitution and a free society. That will be the task ahead in the next decade.
The slowly Emerging Revisionist truth
The arena for this debate and the basis for our charges of subversion is the evidence provided by the revisionist historian. Slowly, over decades, book by book, almost line by line, the truth of recent history has emerged as documents are released, probed, analysed, and set within a more valid historical framework.
Let us consider a few examples. American entry into World War II was supposedly precipitated, according to the Establishment version, by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Revisionists have established that Franklin D. Roosevelt and General Marshall knew of the impending Japanese attack and did nothing to warn the Pearl Harbour military authorities. The Establishment wanted war with Japan. Subsequently, the Establishment made certain that Congressional investigation of Pearl Harbour would fit the Roosevelt whitewash. In the words of Percy Greaves, chief research expert for the Republican minority on the Joint Congressional Committee investigation Pearl Harbor:
The complete facts will never be known. Most of the so-called investigations have been attempts to suppress, mislead, or confuse those who seek the truth. For the beginning to the end, facts and files have been withheld so as to reveal only those items of information which benefit the administration under investigation. Those seeking the truth are told that other facts or documents cannot be revealed because they are intermingled in personal diaries, pertain to our relations with foreign countries, or are sworn to contain no information of value.
But this was not the first attempt to bring the United States into war, or the last. The Morgan interests, in concert with Winston Churchill, tried to bring the U.S. into World War 1 as early as 1915 and succeeded in doing so in 1917. Colin Thompson's Lusitania implicates President Woodrow Wilson in the sinking of the Lusitania - a horror device to generate a public backlash to draw the United States into war with Germany. Thompson demonstrates that Woodrow Wilson knew four days beforehand that the Lusitania was carrying six-million rounds of ammunition plus explosives, and therefore, "passengers who proposed to sail on that vessel were sailing in violation of statute of this country."
The British Board of Inquiry under Lord Mersey was instructed by the British Government "that it is considered politically expedient the Captain Turner, the master of the Lusitania, be most prominently blamed for the disaster."
In retrospect, given Colin Thompson's evidence, the blame is more fairly to be attributed to President Wilson, "Colonel" House, J.P. Morgan, and Winston Churchill; this conspiratorial elite should have been brought to trial for wilful negligence, if not treason. It is to Lord Mersey's eternal credit that after performing his "duty" under instructions from His Majesty's government, and placing the blame on Captain Turner, he resigned, rejected his fee, and from that date on refused to handle British government commissions. To his friends Lord Mersey would only say about the Lusitania case that it was a "dirty business.
Then in 1933-4 came the attempt by the Morgan firm to install a fascist dictatorship in the United States. In the words of Jules Archer, it was planned to be a Fascist putsch to take over the government and "run it under a dictator on behalf of America's bankers and industrialists." Darlington Butler, who blew the whistle on the Wall Street conspiracy. And once again Congress stands out, particularly Congressmen Dickstein and MacCormack, by its gutless refusal to do no more than conduct a token whitewash investigation.
Since World War II we have seen the Korean War and the Vietnamese War - meaningless, meandering no-win wars costly in dollars and lives, with no other major purpose but o generate multibillion-dollar armaments contracts. Certainly these wars were not fought to restrain communism, because for fifty years the Establishment has been nurturing and subsidising the Soviet Union which supplied armaments to the other sides in both wars - Korea and Vietnam. So our revisionist history will show that the United States directly or indirectly armed both sides in at least Korea and Vietnam.
In the assassination of President Kennedy, to take a domestic example, it is difficult to find anyone who today accepts the finding of the Warren Commission - except perhaps the members of that Commission. Yet key evidence is still hidden from public eyes for 50 to 75 years. The Watergate affair demonstrated even to the man in the street that the White House can be a vicious nest of intrigue and deception.
Of all recent history the story of Operation Keelhaul is perhaps the most disgusting. Operation Keelhaul was the forced repatriation of millions of Russians at the orders of President (then General) Dwight D. Eisenhower, in direct violation of the Geneva Convention of 1929 and the long-standing American tradition of political refuge. Operation Keelhaul, which contravenes all our ideas of elementary decency and individual freedom, was undertaken at the direct orders of General Eisenhower and, we may now presume, was a part of a long-range program of nurturing collectivism, whether it be Soviet communism, Hitler's Nazism, or FDR's New Deal. Yet until recent publication of documentary evidence by Julius Epstein, anyone who dared to suggest Eisenhower would betray millions of innocent individuals for political purposes was viciously and mercilessly attacked.
What this revisionist history really teaches us is that our willingness as individual citizens to surrender political power to an elite has cost the world approximately two-hundred-million persons killed from 1820 to 1975. Add to that untold misery the concentration camps, the political prisoners, the suppression and oppression of those who try to bring the truth to light.
When will it all stop? It will not stop until we act upon one simple axiom: that the power system continues only so long as individuals want it to continue, and it will continue only so long as individuals try to get something for nothing. the day when a majority of individuals declares or acts as if it wants nothing from government, declares it will look after its own welfare and interests, then on that date power elites are doomed. The attraction to "go along" with power elites is the attraction of something for nothing. That is the bait. The Establishment always offers something for nothing, but the something is taken from someone else, as taxes or plunder, and awarded elsewhere in exchange for political support.
Periodic crises and wars are used to whip up support for other plunder-reward cycles which in effect tighten the noose around our individual liberties. And of course we have hordes of academic sponges, amoral businessmen, and just plain hangers-on, to act as non-productive recipients for the plunder.
Stop the circle of plunder and immoral reward and elitist structures collapse. But not until a majority finds the moral courage and the internal fortitude to reject the something-for-nothing con game and replace it by voluntary association, voluntary communes, or local rule and decentralised societies, will the killing and the plunder cease.
AUTHOR :Sutton, Antony C.
TITLE :Wall Street and the rise of Hitler
PLACE :Seal Beach, California
| i don't know |
In what year was Alaska sold to the US? | Why did Russia sell Alaska to the United States? | Russia Beyond The Headlines
Why did Russia sell Alaska to the United States?
April 20, 2014 Georgy Manaev , RBTH
In 1867, Russia sold the territory of Alaska to the U.S. for $7.2 million. A mere 50 years later, the Americans had earned that amount back 100 times over. How could the imperial officials have given up such a choice parcel? RBTH sorts out the muddled story of the sale of Alaska.
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u.s.-russia relations , history , alaska
View of Alaska. Source: Alamy / Legion Media
A petition calling for Russia’s annexation of Alaska that was posted on the White House website gathered more than 35,000 signatures before it was canceled. Many people still think that the Americans either stole Alaska from the Russians or leased it and did not return it. Despite the widespread myths, the deal was an honest one, and both sides had valid reasons to make it.
Alaska before the sale
In the 19th century, Russian Alaska was a center of international trade. In the capital, Novoarkhangelsk (now known as Sitka), merchants traded Chinese fabrics, tea and even ice, which the southern United States needed before the invention of the refrigerator. Ships and factories were built, and coal was mined. People already knew about the numerous gold deposits in the area. Selling this land seemed like madness.
Pilots retrace Alaska-to-Siberia Lend-Lease route
Russian merchants were drawn to Alaska for the walrus ivory (it was as expensive as elephant ivory) and the valuable sea otter fur, which could be procured by trading with the indigenous peoples of the region. Trading was done by the Russian-American Company (RAC), which was started by adventurers — 18th-century Russian businessmen, courageous travelers and entrepreneurs. The company controlled all of Alaska’s mines and minerals, it could independently enter into trade agreements with other countries, and it had its own flag and currency — leather “marks”.
These privileges were granted to the company by the imperial government. The government not only collected massive taxes from the company, it also owned a large part of it — the tsars and their family members were among the RAC’s shareholders.
The Russian Pizarro
The main ruler of the Russian settlements in America was the talented merchant Alexander Baranov.
Alexander Baranov. Source:GettyImages/Fotobank
He built schools and factories, taught the native people to plant rutabaga and potatoes, built fortresses and shipyards, and expanded the sea otter trade. Baranov called himself the “Russian Pizarro” and took a liking to Alaska not only with his purse, but also with his heart — he married the daughter of an Aleut chief.
Under Baranov, the RAC brought in enormous revenue: more than 1,000 percent profit. When an ageing Baranov resigned his duties, he was replaced by the captain lieutenant Hagemeister, who brought with him new employees and shareholders from military circles. Statute now dictated that only naval officers could lead the company. The strongmen quickly appropriated the profitable business, but it was their actions that ruined the company.
Filthy lucre
The new masters set astronomical salaries for themselves — common officers earned 1,500 rubles per year (this was comparable to the salaries of ministers and senators), while the head of the company earned 150,000 rubles. They bought fur from the local population for half price. As a result, over the next 20 years, the Eskimos and Aleuts killed almost all the sea otters, depriving Alaska of its most profitable trade. The native people suffered and staged uprisings that the Russians quashed by firing on the coastal villages from military ships.
The officers began to look for other sources of revenue. Hence the trade in ice and tea began, but the ill-fortuned businessmen could not organize this sensibly either, and lowering their salaries was unthinkable. Consequently, the RAC was transferred to state subsidies — 200,000 rubles per year. But even this did not save the company.
A check in the amount of $7.2 million, for the purchase of Alaska. Source: Getty Images / Fotobank
Then the Crimean War broke out, and Britain, France and Turkey stood against Russia. It became clear that Russia could neither supply nor defend Alaska — the sea routes were controlled by the allies’ ships. Even the prospect of mining gold dimmed. There was a fear that the British might block Alaska, and then Russia would be left with nothing.
Tensions between Moscow and London grew, while relations with the American authorities were warmer than ever. Both sides almost simultaneously came up with the idea of selling Alaska. So Baron Eduard de Stoeckl, Russia’s envoy in Washington, opened talks with U.S. secretary of state William Seward on behalf of the tsar.
The Russian flag refuses to come down
While the bureaucrats were negotiating, public opinion in both countries opposed the deal. “How can we give away land that we have put so much effort and time into developing, land where the telegraph has arrived and where gold mines have been found?” the Russian newspapers wrote. “Why does America need this ‘ice box’ and 50,000 wild Eskimos who drink fish oil for breakfast?” the American press asked indignantly.
U.S. and Russia introduce visa-free travel for Chukotka and Alaska
The press was not alone in this sentiment — Congress also disapproved of the purchase. But on March 30, 1867, in Washington, D.C., the parties signed the agreement to sell 1.5 million hectares of Russian property in America for $7.2 million, or about 2 cents per acre ($4.74/km2) — a purely symbolic sum. At that time, an unproductive plot of land in Siberia with the same surface area could have cost 1,395 times as much on the domestic market.But the situation was critical — the Russians risked not even receiving this.
The official handover of the land occurred in Novoarkhangelsk. The American and Russian soldiers lined up next to the flagpole, from which the Russian flag started its descent to the accompaniment of a canon salute. However, the flag got tangled at the top of the pole. The sailor who climbed up for it threw it down, and it accidentally landed on Russian bayonets. It was a bad omen! Afterward, the Americans started requisitioning the buildings of the town, which was renamed Sitka. Several hundred Russians who decided not to take American citizenship had to evacuate on merchant ships, and they did not reach home until the following year.
The cartographic fall-out over Crimea
A short time passed, and gold started flowing from the “ice box”: The Klondike gold rush started in Alaska, bringing the States hundreds of millions of dollars. Of course it was insulting. But it is impossible to know how relations between the world’s largest powers would have developed if Russia had not escaped in time from the problematic and unprofitable region, which only talented and courageous merchants, but not navy bureaucrats, could extract revenue from.
| one thousand eight hundred and sixty seven |
Abebe Bikila was the only athlete to win the Olympic marathon twice and in successive Olympic games. What country did he represent? | RUSSIA WANTS ALASKA BACK! | Weekly World News
RUSSIA WANTS ALASKA BACK!
MOSCOW – 144 years after selling Alaska to the U.S., Russia wants it back.
MOSCOW – 144 years after selling Alaska to the U.S., Russia wants it back.
March 30 marked 144 years since the day when Russia sold Alaska to the United States for five cents per hectare. The adequate agreement was signed at 4 a.m. by the Russian Ambassador to Washington Eduard Stoeckl.
The government of Alexander II sold the huge territory of over 1.5 square kilometers for $7.2 million, gold (11 million rubles, gold).
Now, Vladmir Putin wants Alaska back and he’s told Pravda that he will make it happen before Obama is out of office.
Back in 1867, many Russians were perplexed as to why the government sold the territory which the people of the country had been developing for 126 years. Many in the country were surprised that the selling price for Alaska was so low.
In America, the deal raised many eyebrows too. They found it hard to understand why the country needed 365 million acres of frozen land. The price for that land was too high, many Americans thought.
William Seward, then-Secretary of State, was conducting negotiations with Russia regarding Alaska. He also signed the sales agreement, and he received most criticism for that. Rumor has it that the senators who approved the ratification of the agreement, were bribed by the Russian ambassador. Indeed, historians say that Stoeckl received $25,000 from Alexander II for his efforts.
If bribes did happen, they were probably the bribes that contributed greatly to the development of the country, Americans historians say. Gold was found on Alaska several years after it was no longer a part of Russia. Oil and gas reserves discovered there were worth hundreds of billions of dollars.
It is worthy of note that the sale of Alaska led to long-term negative consequences for the United States. Indians, Aleuts and Eskimos did not recognize the deal. They were granted US citizenship only in 1924.
The situation changed after the discovery of enormous oil reserves in 1968. Three years later, Washington made a decision worth of Solomon. Alaskan Aborigines received approximately 11 percent of the state territory in their property and a share in oil-mining corporations.
Today, 60 percent of Alaska’s territory is owned by the federal authorities of the United States. Twenty-eight percent is owned by the state itself. One percent of Alaska is in private property. Russia wants it all.
The Russians plan on forcing Americans off their land starting this July.
Russian Empress Ekaterina II sold Alaska to the States. A popular song by Russian band Lube called “Don’t Fool Around, America” from 1989 has the following line: “Ekaterina, you were not right.”
There’s a new popular song in Russia, “We Got Alaska Back!”
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Who was the inventor of the telephone? | History of the Telephone: Service Lines and Switchboards
This model of Bell's first telephone (right) is a duplicate of the instrument through which speech sounds were first transmitted electrically (1875). Alexander Graham Bell
Updated September 08, 2016.
In the 1870s, two inventors, Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell, both independently designed devices that could transmit speech electrically (the telephone). Both men rushed their respective designs to the patent office within hours of each other. Bell patented his telephone first. Gray and Bell entered into a famous legal battle over the invention of the telephone, which Bell won.
Evolution of the Telegraph into the Telephone
The telegraph and telephone are both wire-based electrical systems, and Alexander Graham Bell's success with the telephone came as a direct result of his attempts to improve the telegraph.
When Bell began experimenting with electrical signals, the telegraph had been an established means of communication for some 30 years.
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Profile of Alexander Graham Bell
Although a highly successful system, the telegraph, with its dot-and-dash Morse code, was basically limited to receiving and sending one message at a time. Bell's extensive knowledge of the nature of sound and his understanding of music enabled him to conjecture the possibility of transmitting multiple messages over the same wire at the same time. Although the idea of a multiple telegraph had been in existence for some time, Bell offered his own musical or harmonic approach as a possible practical solution. His "harmonic telegraph" was based on the principle that several notes could be sent simultaneously along the same wire if the notes or signals differed in pitch.
Talk with Electricity
By October 1874, Bell's research had progressed to the extent that he could inform his future father-in-law, Boston attorney Gardiner Greene Hubbard, about the possibility of a multiple telegraph.
Hubbard, who resented the absolute control then exerted by the Western Union Telegraph Company, instantly saw the potential for breaking such a monopoly and gave Bell the financial backing he needed. Bell proceeded with his work on the multiple telegraph, but he did not tell Hubbard that he and Thomas Watson, a young electrician whose services he had enlisted, were also exploring an idea that had occurred to him that summer - that of developing a device that would transmit speech electrically.
While Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson worked on the harmonic telegraph at the insistent urging of Hubbard and other backers, Bell nonetheless met in March 1875 with Joseph Henry , the respected director of the Smithsonian Institution, who listened to Bell's ideas for a telephone and offered encouraging words. Spurred on by Henry's positive opinion, Bell and Watson continued their work. By June 1875 the goal of creating a device that would transmit speech electrically was about to be realized. They had proven that different tones would vary the strength of an electric current in a wire. To achieve success, they, therefore, needed only to build a working transmitter with a membrane capable of varying electronic currents and a receiver that would reproduce these variations in audible frequencies.
First Sounds - Twang
On June 2, 1875, Bell while experimenting with his technique called "harmonic telegraph" discovered he could hear sound over a wire. The sound was that of a twanging clock spring.
Bell's greatest success was achieved on March 10, 1876, which marked not only the birth of the telephone but the death of the multiple telegraph as well. The communications potential contained in his demonstration of being able to "talk with electricity" far outweighed anything that simply increasing the capability of a dot-and-dash system could imply.
First Voice - Mr. Watson ...
Bell's notebook entry of March 10, 1876, describes his successful experiment with the telephone. Speaking through the instrument to his assistant, Thomas A. Watson, in the next room, Bell utters these famous first words, "Mr. Watson -- come here -- I want to see you."
Alexander Graham Bell - Brief Biography
Born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland, Alexander Graham Bell was the son and grandson of authorities in elocution and the correction of speech. Educated to pursue a career in the same specialty, his knowledge of the nature of sound led him not only to teach the deaf, but also to invent the telephone.
More on the Life of Alexander Graham Bell
Alexander Graham Bell - Biography
Other Inventions
Bell's unceasing scientific curiosity led to the invention of the photophone , to significant commercial improvements in Thomas Edison's phonograph, and to development of his own flying machine just six years after the Wright Brothers launched their plane at Kitty Hawk. As President James Garfield lay dying of an assassin's bullet in 1881, Bell hurriedly invented a metal detector in an unsuccessful attempt to locate the fatal slug.
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What is the capital city of Hawaii? | Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone - Mar 07, 1876 - HISTORY.com
This Day in History: 03/07/1876 - Alexander Graham Bell Patents the Telephone
Captain James Cook discovered the Northwest coast of the Americas on this day. He discovered what is now the coast of Oregon, and was the first European to do so. German troops violated the Treaty of Versailles on this day in 1936. Broadway musicals were put on pause for four days during the musician walkout. Also, Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone, or what he called the electric speech machine.
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Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone
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On this day in 1876, 29-year-old Alexander Graham Bell receives a patent for his revolutionary new invention–the telephone.
The Scottish-born Bell worked in London with his father, Melville Bell, who developed Visible Speech, a written system used to teach speaking to the deaf. In the 1870s, the Bells moved to Boston, Massachusetts, where the younger Bell found work as a teacher at the Pemberton Avenue School for the Deaf. He later married one of his students, Mabel Hubbard.
While in Boston, Bell became very interested in the possibility of transmitting speech over wires. Samuel F.B. Morse’s invention of the telegraph in 1843 had made nearly instantaneous communication possible between two distant points. The drawback of the telegraph, however, was that it still required hand-delivery of messages between telegraph stations and recipients, and only one message could be transmitted at a time. Bell wanted to improve on this by creating a “harmonic telegraph,” a device that combined aspects of the telegraph and record player to allow individuals to speak to each other from a distance.
With the help of Thomas A. Watson, a Boston machine shop employee, Bell developed a prototype. In this first telephone, sound waves caused an electric current to vary in intensity and frequency, causing a thin, soft iron plate–called the diaphragm–to vibrate. These vibrations were transferred magnetically to another wire connected to a diaphragm in another, distant instrument. When that diaphragm vibrated, the original sound would be replicated in the ear of the receiving instrument. Three days after filing the patent, the telephone carried its first intelligible message–the famous “Mr. Watson, come here, I need you”–from Bell to his assistant.
Bell’s patent filing beat a similar claim by Elisha Gray by only two hours. Not wanting to be shut out of the communications market, Western Union Telegraph Company employed Gray and fellow inventor Thomas A. Edison to develop their own telephone technology. Bell sued, and the case went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, which upheld Bell’s patent rights. In the years to come, the Bell Company withstood repeated legal challenges to emerge as the massive American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) and form the foundation of the modern telecommunications industry.
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What was Mickey Mouse's originally called? | Mortimer Mouse | Disney Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
―Mortimer [src]
Mortimer Mouse is the longtime rival of Mickey Mouse . He is an obnoxious and arrogant rat who openly berates Mickey and tries to steal Minnie Mouse from him.
Mortimer first appeared in the Mickey short Mickey's Rival and has been battling Mickey for Minnie's affections ever since.
Contents
Background
Personality
Mortimer is said to be Minnie's ex-boyfriend and she possibly left him due to his nature. He is very arrogant and rude, the total opposite of his rival. While he claims he loves Minnie very much, he shows to be incredibly selfish as seen in the cartoon, Mickey's Rival , where he leaves Minnie to be attacked by a bull that he provoked. Not only that, he attempts to flirt with any female character on screen which might also indicate the reason the relationship between him and Minnie was abolished. Also, Mortimer can be rather sexist as seen in Mickey's Rival Returns where he feels that Minnie is only a prize to be won.
Interestingly, a different side of Mortimer was showcased in the cartoon, Mickey's Mix-Up , where Mickey accidentally sent a heartwarming fax to Mortimer (which was actually meant for Minnie) having Mortimer believe Mickey wanted to make amends, which he immediately agreed to. This shows that, perhaps, Mortimer does hold a softer side, and wouldn't mind becoming friends with Mickey if the latter also wanted to let bygones be bygones. However, this softer side was never revealed again, due to either Mickey revealing the truth about the mix up, infuriating Mortimer, or more likely because the entire thing was used as a comical gag.
Aside from his cocky and sexist attitude, Mortimer proves to be, time and time again, rather intelligent and crafty. On many occasions, he's managed to manipulate Mickey into a scheme that'd end in the downfall of his relationship with Minnie. For instance, in Big House Mickey , Mortimer managed to fool the town's government into arresting Mickey. In House of Mouse episode, Mickey and the Culture Clash , he manipulated Mickey into believing Minnie desires a more sophisticated boyfriend, resulting in the mouse changing his persona to the point where Minnie believes he's out of her league, leaving her in the hands of Mortimer. Mortimer has one catchphrase, "Ha-cha-cha," which he says in Mickey Mouse Works and House of Mouse . In some of the comics he says it differently; "Hot-Cha-Cha."
Physical appearance
Mortimer is essentially a taller version of Mickey, and seems a bit more human-like. Unlike his rival, Mortimer has whiskers, perhaps referencing how he has a ratlike persona. He has feet the size of Goofy's. Unlike most of the other mouse characters, however, you can see two large teeth close together, like a rat. He is usually wearing jeans and a shirt, but sometimes he also wears a hat.
History
When Walt Disney was in the process of creating Mickey Mouse , he suggested the name of his new character to be Mortimer Mouse. However, his wife, Lillian Disney , felt the name sounded too pompous, and suggested naming him Mickey, instead. Years later, when developing a new short, the name Mortimer was put to use for a new character, an antagonistic rival of Mickey's for Minnie's affections.
Mortimer as he appeared in his animated debut Mickey's Rival.
In his first appearance, Mickey's Rival , Mortimer was driving by and notice Mickey and Minnie as they were having a picnic. Minnie is thrilled to see Mortimer once again. As soon as Mortimer walks up, Mickey already knows he is bad news just as Mortimer does not like Mickey at all so he attempts to humiliate Mickey and when Mickey shows Minnie how upset he is Minnie states that he is just jealous. Mortimer then tries to impress Minnie by annoying a bull that is over a fence. The plan works until the bull finds a way out. Mortimer rushes and drives away in his car and leaves Mickey to rescue Minnie who eventually remembers why she left Mortimer in the first place.
Mortimer only appeared in Mickey's Rival and was never seen in animation again until 2000, when his popularity skyrocketed and landed him roles in several Mickey Mouse related material. Since then, in most of his appearances, Mortimer's voice has been provided by Maurice LaMarche , which is said to be an exaggerated impression of comedian Jon Lovitz .
Appearances
Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas
Mortimer makes a brief appearance in the direct-to-video film Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas . Here, Mortimer is the snooty, profound and wealthy owner of Mortimer's Department Store, and he speaks with a profound tone. His design is noticeably different here; he does not have his buck teeth and is drawn with a mustache instead of his usual whiskers. Minnie Mouse and Daisy Duck are notable employees of the store, and judging by Minnie's low-budget lifestyle, he does not pay well. In Mortimer's brief scene, Minnie hopes to earn the Christmas bonus for her extra hard work, so that she may pay for a wonderful present for Mickey. However, Mortimer only gives her a fruitcake, leaving Minnie without money to buy the gift.
Mickey Mouse Works
Mortimer in Mickey Mouse Works.
In this series, Mortimer returned to animation as a recurring antagonist to Mickey, now drawn to match his redesign in the comic strip (see below). Mortimer's first appearance in the series was the cartoon Mickey's Rival Returns . In this cartoon, Mortimer and Mickey compete with each other in volleyball. The winner gets to ask Minnie on a date. Originally, Mickey refused to accept the idea being that it would be using Minnie as "some kind of trophy", but Mortimer's arrogance and mocking angers Mickey into competing. Mickey wins, but Mortimer reveals the competition prize to Minnie, causing her to believe Mickey thought of her as a prize (when it was really him). Minnie instead leaves with Mortimer but at the date, he begins to harass her for a kiss. Fortunately, she is saved by Mickey who she forgives (despite the fact it wasn't Mickey's fault in the first place) and has a beach dinner with.
In later episodes, Mortimer is Mickey's neighbor and is still competing with Mickey to win Minnie's heart, or simply trying to ruin Mickey's day. He is apparently wealthy, as he is shown to own far more advanced technology than his rival. One of Mortimer's most villainous roles was in the cartoon " Big House Mickey " where he falsely accused Mickey of robbing his house, got Mickey sent to prison, and even lied under oath. Mortimer made a guest appearance in the Pluto segment "Pluto Gets the Paper: Mortimer"; here, he steals the newspaper Pluto was about to get for Mickey, and after a long chase, the dog finally gets back at him by making him bring the paper to Mickey like a dog.
House of Mouse
Mortimer in House of Mouse.
In the television series House of Mouse , Mortimer gets a role as a recurring character. Mortimer appears many times as a guest and tries to trick Mickey and Minnie into breaking up or just flirt with the women. In the series' pilot episode, Mortimer appears briefly, but is seen flirting with Donald Duck 's girlfriend Daisy Duck instead. He would go on try to have both Minnie and Daisy all to himself in later episodes. Mortimer proves to be hated by mostly all of the guests at the club, including villains such as Ursula and Gaston . It is even indicated in the episode " Pete's Christmas Caper " that the cruel Pete might even have a dislike for him.
Whenever he's not flirting with Minnie or Daisy or Clarabelle, Mortimer's seen flirting with dozens of females in the audience, such as Anastasia and Drizella from Cinderella , Laverne from The Hunchback of Notre Dame , or even The Queen of Hearts from Alice in Wonderland .
Mortimer's most prominent appearance in the series is in " The Mouse Who Came to Dinner ", in which he tricks Mickey and friends into believing he is a restaurant critic, and he forces them to treat him like a prince or he will give them a negative review which could close the club. Mortimer is foiled when Lumière is revealed to be the actual critic.
Mickey Mouse Clubhouse
Mortimer has a non-speaking role in " Minnie's Birthday " seen sitting beneath a tree, playing a guitar. In this appearance, Mortimer wears the orange shirt from Mickey Mouse Works with yellow polka dots, blue pants and yellow shoes. He was also seen sleeping and sunbathing on the ground.
Mortimer in "Super Adventure!".
Mortimer makes his only proper appearance on the series in the episode " Super Adventure! " as the main antagonist. Here, he has a supervillain ego named Megamort, who plots to take control over the Clubhouse World by shrinking all the landmarks and storing them within his zeppelin lair. During some time of the plotting, Mortimer forced the humble Pete to act as his minion, ordering him to go around to proceed with his bidding. When the problem reaches Mickey and friends' attention, Ludwig Von Drake creates a machine that transforms the clubhouse gang into a team of superheroes.
Together, they head out and are able to defeat Pete. However, Pete reveals he was forced to fulfill such evil deeds, under the control of "the big boss", who threatened to shrink Pete should he refuse to follow orders. Just then, Megamort arrives and does just that, due to Pete's failure. And with Pete no longer serving him, Megamort goes ahead and wrecks havoc amongst the world himself, leading to everything, including Mickey himself being shrinked and imprisoned. Under their hero egos, Donald, Goofy, Minnie, Daisy, and Pluto travel to Megamort's zeppelin where a battle ensues.
Successfully, they retrieve the shrunken landmarks, but causes Megamort's blimp to go haywire in the process, putting Megamort in great peril. Mickey concocts a plan to successfully save the villainous mouse, and Megamort, being eternally grateful, apologizes and redeems himself, revealing that his true name is Mortimer Mouse, and that he's the Clubhouse's newest neighbor. With his villainy in the past, Mortimer restores the peace in the Clubhouse world and is welcomed by Mickey and the gang into their circle of friends.
Strangely, Mortimer's appearance in "Minnie's Birthday" seems to have been forgotten here, as he was showcased in Super Adventure! as the Clubhouse's new neighbor, as if Mickey and the gang had never known him prior to those events. It could be that Super Adventure! chronologically takes place first, despite having been made years later.
Mickey Mouse
Mortimer puts the moves on Minnie again in Mickey Mouse.
Mortimer returns in Paul Rudish 's Mickey Mouse animated series, once again as Mickey's rival for Minnie's affections. Here, he retains his original design from Mickey's Rival, but has a white face and black button eyes like the other mouse characters. He appears in the episode " No ", where Mickey's inability to say the word "no" is taken advantage of by Mortimer, who asks Mickey to borrow Minnie romantically. Though Mickey isn't able to refuse, Minnie stomps on Mortimer's foot and storms off. Later, a wounded and handicapped Mortimer angrily tells Mickey to keep his girl, believing she isn't worth the stress. In the final scene, Mortimer joins the others in asking Mickey permission to watch TV with him and Mickey responds, "Yes".
Cameos
Mortimer made a cameo appearance in the Minnie's Bow-Toons episode "Slumber Party", when Minnie, Daisy, Clarabelle, Millie, and Melody are watching a scary film on TV.
Printed media
Comics
Mortimer actually seems to originate in comics, as he (in different languages at least) made his first appearance in that medium six years before his animated debut. In this first incarnation, he was called Mr. Slicker and appeared in Floyd Gottfredson 's first full Mickey Mouse newspaper comic serial, Mr. Slicker and the Egg Robbers . When Minnie Mouse's father, Marcus is in danger of losing his ranch eggs, Mr. Slicker offers aid financial return for Minnie's hand in marriage, and Mickey suspects him. In the end, Mickey proves it was Slicker who was behind the thefts.
Around the time the cartoon short Mickey's Rival came out, Gottfredson adapted it into a storyline in the Mickey Mouse Sunday strip, but with a noticeably different plot. Mickey goes over to Minnie's house to visit, only to be greeted by Mortimer, who is also visiting Minnie. After Minnie introduces him to Mickey, Mortimer proceeds to make Mickey look like a fool in front of her. Each day, he keep pulling pranks on Mickey in hopes of getting rid of him. In the end, Mickey got the better of him, and Minnie kicked Mortimer out.
Mortimer is reintroduced as Montmorency Rodent in "Love Trouble".
Five years later, Mortimer returned to the daily comic strip as Montmorency Rodent (surname pronounced "Ro-dawn"), or Monty for short, in Gottfredson's storyline "Love Trouble". Monty claims to be of the Social Elite and, just like in his previous appearance, does everything he can to make Mickey look like a fool in front of Minnie, especially at Patricia Pigg 's party. Eventually, with help from his cousin Madeline, Mickey manages to expose that Monty is really nothing more than a thieving chauffeur in front of the real Social Elite. Although Gottfredson did not use Monty again after this, this version of Mortimer's design would go on to be the default design of the character in later comics, as well as his above-mentioned return to animation.
The character returned again in "The Copper's Catch", published in Walt Disney's Comics and Stories #67, now called Mortimer Rodent, and officially becoming a recurring antagonist to Mickey afterward. In later comic appearances under other writers, Mortimer sometimes teamed up with Mickey's other rivals, such as Pete, Sylvester Shyster , and Muscles McGurk. In some comics, it was shown that Mortimer is rich and lives in a mansion, and he can also fly a plane.
Video games
Mortimer appeared in the GameCube game Disney Sports Soccer , Football and Basketball . He is also in Disney Golf as a secret character.
Mortimer is also featured as a unlockable and playable character in the app game Disney Crossy Road .
Disneyland Resort
Mortimer has not yet made any live appearances in the Disney theme parks. However, a mural with several classic Disney characters during the Disney California Adventure expansion was seen with Mortimer being one of the characters featured. Also at the park, Mortimer's namesake is featured in the shop Mortimer's Market which is located on Buena Vista Street .
Gallery
The Disney Wiki has a collection of images and media related to Mortimer Mouse .
Trivia
Mortimer's name, besides being the original name for Mickey, derives from the name of Disney's former pet mouse of the same name.
Although Mortimer wasn't used that much in the original cartoons, he has been used a lot in the comics particularly the comics from overseas, the most popular ones being Brazil, Italy and France.
Mortimer bears resemblance to an obscure character, Ruffhouse Rat, who is a cousin of Minnie's from an early Mickey Mouse newspaper comic.
In the Berke Breathed strip Bloom County, there is a Mortimer Mouse, who is a stubbly, surly mouse who wears the same outfit as Mickey's, but more disheveled. He is annoyed that he was drafted during the Second World War, during one battle he suffered an injury where a Panzer tank ran over his foot, while at the same time Mickey went on to fame and fortune. This parody was ended after Breathed was threatened with a lawsuit from Disney for unauthorized parody in 1988. Interestingly, Disney had better relations with Berke Breathed twenty years later when they based a film on his children's book Mars Needs Moms .
According to voice actor Maurice LaMarche , his voice of Mortimer is an exaggerated impression of comedian/actor Jon Lovitz .
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What year was the first atomic bomb dropped? | Top 10 facts about Mickey Mouse | Top 10 Facts | Life & Style | Daily Express
TOP 10 FACTS
Top 10 facts about Mickey Mouse
ON May 15, 1928, Mickey Mouse made his first appearance in a cartoon short called Plane Crazy. So the Mouse is 87 years old today.
PUBLISHED: 00:01, Fri, May 15, 2015
GETTY
Mickey Mouse is one of Walt Disney's most famous characters
1. Plane Crazy was a silent cartoon which was given a test screening on that day. It was not well received and failed to find a distributor.
2. It was Mickey’s first sound cartoon, Steamboat Willie, which premiered on November 18, 1928 that shot him to fame, which is why that day is celebrated as the birthday of Mickey and Minnie.
3. Mickey Mouse’s ears are always perfect circles.
4. Walt Disney originally called Mickey “Mortimer Mouse”. His wife persuaded him to change it.
5. The first words Mickey ever spoke in a cartoon were “hot dogs” in The Karnival Kid in 1929.
The woman who voiced Minnie Mouse, Russi Taylor, married the man who voiced Mickey, Wayne Allwine, in 1991.
6. The first recorded use of ‘Mickey Mouse’ to describe something lacking in value was in 1931.
7. Mickey Mouse was the first cartoon to have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
8. The woman who voiced Minnie Mouse, Russi Taylor, married the man who voiced Mickey, Wayne Allwine, in 1991.
9. In France, Mickey Mouse is known as Michel Souris. He is Topolino in Italy, Mikki Mausu in Japan, and Mikki Hirri in Finland.
10. In 1998, Mickey Mouse went on strike at Disneyland Paris over a pay dispute
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Calcium carbonate is better known as what? | Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC)
Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC)
What is PCC — Precipitated Calcium Carbonate?
PCC stands for Precipitated Calcium Carbonate—also known as purified, refined or synthetic calcium carbonate. It has the same chemical formula as other types of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, marble and chalk: CaCO3. The calcium, carbon and oxygen atoms can arrange themselves in three different ways, to form three different calcium carbonate minerals. The most common arrangement for both precipitated and ground calcium carbonates is the hexagonal form known as calcite. A number of different calcite crystal forms are possible: scalenohedral, rhombohedral and prismatic. Less common is aragonite, which has a discrete or clustered needle orthorhombic crystal structure. Rare and generally unstable is the vaterite calcium carbonate mineral.
Calcium carbonates, including PCC, are considered to be non-toxic. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration has Affirmed calcium carbonate to be GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe). As long as the PCC meets certain purity requirements, it can be used as a direct food additive, as a pharmaceutical or as an indirect additive in paper products that come in contact with food. Similar acceptances and approvals exist around the world where PCCs are widely used in these applications. Click on the Contact Us link below to inquire about specific regulations covering the use of PCCs in these health-related uses, or on the MSDS link to download a Material Safety Data Sheet covering a Specialty Minerals Inc.’s (SMI’s) PCC product.
When Did Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) Manufacture Begin?
PCCs have been made commercially for a long time—since 1841. The first producer was the English company, John E. Sturge Ltd., which treated the residual calcium chloride from their potassium chlorate manufacture with soda ash and carbon dioxide to form what they called precipitated chalk. In 1898, a new factory was built in Birmingham using the milk of lime process, which is described in more detail below. This PCC operation is now part of the Performance Minerals group of SMI.
PCC production in the U.S. dates from 1938, when the C.K. Williams Company in Adams, Massachusetts, began to make PCC using the limestone from their adjacent mine. This plant was acquired by Pfizer in 1962, and became part of the Performance Minerals group of SMI on the formation of our parent, Minerals Technologies Inc., in 1992.
How Is Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) Made?
Almost all PCC is made by direct carbonation of hydrated lime, known as the milk of lime process. The milk of lime process is simple in concept:
Mine high purity calcium carbonate rock.
Crush the rocks to the particle size needed for processing – small stones or powder.
Separate some of the impurities from the crushed rock.
Calcine (heat) in a kiln to 1850° F, which takes the calcium carbonate apart, forming lime (CaO) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The carbon dioxide can be captured for reuse. CaCO3 + Heat → CaO + CO2 ↑
Add the lime to water to form calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime or slake).
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Separate out additional impurities from the slaked lime.
Combine the captured carbon dioxide with the slaked lime. Calcium carbonate reforms, and since it is insoluble in water, precipitates out.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O
Separate additional impurities and grit from the PCC slurry.
If the PCC is to be used in a paper mill or shipped to a latex paint plant, the lower solids slurry may be used as is, or processed to bring up the solids level, then tested before transfer or shipment.
If the PCC is to be used as a dry product, the slurry is dewatered, dried, milled, packaged and tested.
While the process is simple on a laboratory scale, making precipitated calcium carbonates commercially on a large scale requires a great deal of process control and process technology to assure the right size, uniformity, shape, surface area and surface chemistry. This body of PCC technology developed by Specialty Minerals Research, is what makes SMI PCCs outstanding in quality and consistency.
What Is Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) Made From?
PCC is generally made from a high purity calcium carbonate rock called limestone. Specialty Minerals Inc. (SMI) uses high quality limestone sources for its PCC products, including some from the SMI limestone mine in Adams, Massachusetts, which has been in operation for more than 150 years.
This limestone deposit is the result of a very thick layer of prehistoric sea animal shells and skeletons being laid down on the ocean floor. These shells and skeletons were largely composed of calcium carbonate. Over a period of five hundred million years this deposit was under high temperature and high pressure, and the deposit changed to a coarsely crystallized limestone. All of the organic matter that was in the deposit was removed by oxidation, a process called diagenesis.
If this kind of geological process continues a very long time, the crystals become very small, forming marble, an extremely hard form of calcium carbonate. If the time, temperature and/or pressures are not great, the seabed only partially metamorphoses, and the result is very soft chalk, such as that forming the White Cliffs of Dover in England. In chalks, remnants of animal shells and skeletons are often still seen.
Why Is All That Processing Done?
Two reasons. First, there are several points in the PCC process where the calcium carbonate can be purified, removing much of the rock from the deposit that is not calcium carbonate—there are always some impurities in any limestone deposit. These include feldspar and other silicaceous minerals, as well as heavy metals.
Second, the PCC process allows SMI to grow crystals of different shapes. The particle formed is dictated by the control of reaction time, temperature, agitation, pressure, rate of carbon dioxide addition, and post-crystallization processing. These shapes—clustered needles, cubes, prisms, rhombohedrons—have different physical properties such as powder density, surface area and oil absorption, which give them outstanding performance in many applications where ground calcium carbonate does not perform as well. Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of some of the these shapes are shown on this page.
The precipitation process also allows the growing of very fine particles, down to nanometers or hundredths of a micron—much finer than can be obtained by just grinding the limestone rock. These ultrafine nano PCCs have special applications where high performance is required. Click here to learn more about nano PCCs, which SMI has been manufacturing for more than 25 years.
What Is Unique About A Precipitated Calcium Carbonate?
The different shapes allow PCC to act as a functional additive in sealants, adhesives, plastics, rubber, inks, paper, pharmaceuticals, nutritional supplements and many other demanding applications. A formulator can choose a shape, and the physical properties that result from that shape, that gives the best performance in the end use.
In the PCC process, products can be made with very small sizes, with high surface areas, high oil absorptions, and/or with different powder bulk densities— from ultra-low to super-high powder densities.
Why Are Some PCCs Coated?
PCCs are often coated with a low percentage (1-3 percent) of a fatty acid, such as stearic acid, or other organic material, for use in non-aqueous systems. These coatings increase the dispersibility of the PCC in the polymer or solvent as well as its compatibility with the polymer or solvent, which in turn maximizes the performance and efficiency of the PCC.
The choice of coating depends on the type of polymer the PCC will be used in and the performance desired. As polymers vary widely in polarity and solubility constants, different organics are chosen to give the best compatibility and/or the best balance of properties.
How Does Precipitated Calcium Carbonate Differ From Ground Calcium Carbonate (GCC)?
In chemical composition, they are the same. PCC is purer than the limestone from which it is made, and is lower in silica and lead.
PCC’s shape and size are different from that of ground calcium carbonate (GCC). Under high magnification, GCC is seen to be irregularly rhombohedral in shape. The PCC crystal shape depends on the product, and the particles are more uniform and regular.
The distribution of particle sizes in a GCC is much broader than for a PCC of the same size—that is, there are many more large particles and many more small particles than in a PCC, and the size of the largest of the particles (the "top size") is much greater for a GCC than for a PCC. The lower top size of a PCC gives better impact resistance in plastics than with a GCC. The narrower particle size distribution allows the generation of high oil absorptions, useful in certain applications.
These differences can be quickly seen in these photos of a PCC and a GCC of the same median particle size, 0.7 microns.
Specialty Minerals Precipitated Calcium Carbonates
SMI is the world’s largest manufacturer of PCCs, with an output of over 4 million tons of PCC each year.
Some of our PCC products for paper and paperboard filling and coating include Opacarb®, Megafil®, and Velacarb® precipitated calcium carbonates.
For food, nutritional supplements, pharmaceutical and personal care products, the series of eight ViCALity® USP/FCC precipitated calcium carbonates and five CalEssence® ultra low lead PCCs are manufactured in Adams, Massachusetts, in the U.S. Five SturcalTM and Calopake® EP PCC healthcare grades are manufactured in Birmingham, U.K.
A wide variety of polymeric and water-based industrial products use Albacar®, Albaglos®, Super-Pflex®, and Tuffgard® PCCs, as well as the nano PCCs, Ultra-Pflex®, Multifex-MM® and a series of Thixo-Carb® PCCs, which come from Adams, Massachusetts, in the U.S. The Calopake® PCC and Calofort® nano PCCs come from SMI’s Birmingham plant.
| Chalk |
Who plays Harry Potter in the Harry Potter films? | Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC)
Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC)
What is PCC — Precipitated Calcium Carbonate?
PCC stands for Precipitated Calcium Carbonate—also known as purified, refined or synthetic calcium carbonate. It has the same chemical formula as other types of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, marble and chalk: CaCO3. The calcium, carbon and oxygen atoms can arrange themselves in three different ways, to form three different calcium carbonate minerals. The most common arrangement for both precipitated and ground calcium carbonates is the hexagonal form known as calcite. A number of different calcite crystal forms are possible: scalenohedral, rhombohedral and prismatic. Less common is aragonite, which has a discrete or clustered needle orthorhombic crystal structure. Rare and generally unstable is the vaterite calcium carbonate mineral.
Calcium carbonates, including PCC, are considered to be non-toxic. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration has Affirmed calcium carbonate to be GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe). As long as the PCC meets certain purity requirements, it can be used as a direct food additive, as a pharmaceutical or as an indirect additive in paper products that come in contact with food. Similar acceptances and approvals exist around the world where PCCs are widely used in these applications. Click on the Contact Us link below to inquire about specific regulations covering the use of PCCs in these health-related uses, or on the MSDS link to download a Material Safety Data Sheet covering a Specialty Minerals Inc.’s (SMI’s) PCC product.
When Did Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) Manufacture Begin?
PCCs have been made commercially for a long time—since 1841. The first producer was the English company, John E. Sturge Ltd., which treated the residual calcium chloride from their potassium chlorate manufacture with soda ash and carbon dioxide to form what they called precipitated chalk. In 1898, a new factory was built in Birmingham using the milk of lime process, which is described in more detail below. This PCC operation is now part of the Performance Minerals group of SMI.
PCC production in the U.S. dates from 1938, when the C.K. Williams Company in Adams, Massachusetts, began to make PCC using the limestone from their adjacent mine. This plant was acquired by Pfizer in 1962, and became part of the Performance Minerals group of SMI on the formation of our parent, Minerals Technologies Inc., in 1992.
How Is Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) Made?
Almost all PCC is made by direct carbonation of hydrated lime, known as the milk of lime process. The milk of lime process is simple in concept:
Mine high purity calcium carbonate rock.
Crush the rocks to the particle size needed for processing – small stones or powder.
Separate some of the impurities from the crushed rock.
Calcine (heat) in a kiln to 1850° F, which takes the calcium carbonate apart, forming lime (CaO) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The carbon dioxide can be captured for reuse. CaCO3 + Heat → CaO + CO2 ↑
Add the lime to water to form calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime or slake).
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Separate out additional impurities from the slaked lime.
Combine the captured carbon dioxide with the slaked lime. Calcium carbonate reforms, and since it is insoluble in water, precipitates out.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 ↓ + H2O
Separate additional impurities and grit from the PCC slurry.
If the PCC is to be used in a paper mill or shipped to a latex paint plant, the lower solids slurry may be used as is, or processed to bring up the solids level, then tested before transfer or shipment.
If the PCC is to be used as a dry product, the slurry is dewatered, dried, milled, packaged and tested.
While the process is simple on a laboratory scale, making precipitated calcium carbonates commercially on a large scale requires a great deal of process control and process technology to assure the right size, uniformity, shape, surface area and surface chemistry. This body of PCC technology developed by Specialty Minerals Research, is what makes SMI PCCs outstanding in quality and consistency.
What Is Precipitated Calcium Carbonate (PCC) Made From?
PCC is generally made from a high purity calcium carbonate rock called limestone. Specialty Minerals Inc. (SMI) uses high quality limestone sources for its PCC products, including some from the SMI limestone mine in Adams, Massachusetts, which has been in operation for more than 150 years.
This limestone deposit is the result of a very thick layer of prehistoric sea animal shells and skeletons being laid down on the ocean floor. These shells and skeletons were largely composed of calcium carbonate. Over a period of five hundred million years this deposit was under high temperature and high pressure, and the deposit changed to a coarsely crystallized limestone. All of the organic matter that was in the deposit was removed by oxidation, a process called diagenesis.
If this kind of geological process continues a very long time, the crystals become very small, forming marble, an extremely hard form of calcium carbonate. If the time, temperature and/or pressures are not great, the seabed only partially metamorphoses, and the result is very soft chalk, such as that forming the White Cliffs of Dover in England. In chalks, remnants of animal shells and skeletons are often still seen.
Why Is All That Processing Done?
Two reasons. First, there are several points in the PCC process where the calcium carbonate can be purified, removing much of the rock from the deposit that is not calcium carbonate—there are always some impurities in any limestone deposit. These include feldspar and other silicaceous minerals, as well as heavy metals.
Second, the PCC process allows SMI to grow crystals of different shapes. The particle formed is dictated by the control of reaction time, temperature, agitation, pressure, rate of carbon dioxide addition, and post-crystallization processing. These shapes—clustered needles, cubes, prisms, rhombohedrons—have different physical properties such as powder density, surface area and oil absorption, which give them outstanding performance in many applications where ground calcium carbonate does not perform as well. Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of some of the these shapes are shown on this page.
The precipitation process also allows the growing of very fine particles, down to nanometers or hundredths of a micron—much finer than can be obtained by just grinding the limestone rock. These ultrafine nano PCCs have special applications where high performance is required. Click here to learn more about nano PCCs, which SMI has been manufacturing for more than 25 years.
What Is Unique About A Precipitated Calcium Carbonate?
The different shapes allow PCC to act as a functional additive in sealants, adhesives, plastics, rubber, inks, paper, pharmaceuticals, nutritional supplements and many other demanding applications. A formulator can choose a shape, and the physical properties that result from that shape, that gives the best performance in the end use.
In the PCC process, products can be made with very small sizes, with high surface areas, high oil absorptions, and/or with different powder bulk densities— from ultra-low to super-high powder densities.
Why Are Some PCCs Coated?
PCCs are often coated with a low percentage (1-3 percent) of a fatty acid, such as stearic acid, or other organic material, for use in non-aqueous systems. These coatings increase the dispersibility of the PCC in the polymer or solvent as well as its compatibility with the polymer or solvent, which in turn maximizes the performance and efficiency of the PCC.
The choice of coating depends on the type of polymer the PCC will be used in and the performance desired. As polymers vary widely in polarity and solubility constants, different organics are chosen to give the best compatibility and/or the best balance of properties.
How Does Precipitated Calcium Carbonate Differ From Ground Calcium Carbonate (GCC)?
In chemical composition, they are the same. PCC is purer than the limestone from which it is made, and is lower in silica and lead.
PCC’s shape and size are different from that of ground calcium carbonate (GCC). Under high magnification, GCC is seen to be irregularly rhombohedral in shape. The PCC crystal shape depends on the product, and the particles are more uniform and regular.
The distribution of particle sizes in a GCC is much broader than for a PCC of the same size—that is, there are many more large particles and many more small particles than in a PCC, and the size of the largest of the particles (the "top size") is much greater for a GCC than for a PCC. The lower top size of a PCC gives better impact resistance in plastics than with a GCC. The narrower particle size distribution allows the generation of high oil absorptions, useful in certain applications.
These differences can be quickly seen in these photos of a PCC and a GCC of the same median particle size, 0.7 microns.
Specialty Minerals Precipitated Calcium Carbonates
SMI is the world’s largest manufacturer of PCCs, with an output of over 4 million tons of PCC each year.
Some of our PCC products for paper and paperboard filling and coating include Opacarb®, Megafil®, and Velacarb® precipitated calcium carbonates.
For food, nutritional supplements, pharmaceutical and personal care products, the series of eight ViCALity® USP/FCC precipitated calcium carbonates and five CalEssence® ultra low lead PCCs are manufactured in Adams, Massachusetts, in the U.S. Five SturcalTM and Calopake® EP PCC healthcare grades are manufactured in Birmingham, U.K.
A wide variety of polymeric and water-based industrial products use Albacar®, Albaglos®, Super-Pflex®, and Tuffgard® PCCs, as well as the nano PCCs, Ultra-Pflex®, Multifex-MM® and a series of Thixo-Carb® PCCs, which come from Adams, Massachusetts, in the U.S. The Calopake® PCC and Calofort® nano PCCs come from SMI’s Birmingham plant.
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In what country did the Olympic Games originate? | Origin and History of the Olympic Games | Go for the Gold Student Activity | Scholastic.com
Origin and History of the Olympic Games
Origin and History of the Olympic Games
From Grolier Online’s New Book of Knowledge
The Rise of the Games
The Olympic Games originated long ago in ancient Greece. Exactly when the Games were first held and what circumstances led to their creation is uncertain. We do know, however, that the Games were a direct outgrowth of the values and beliefs of Greek society. The Greeks idealized physical fitness and mental discipline, and they believed that excellence in those areas honored Zeus, the greatest of all their gods.
One legend about the origin of the Olympic Games revolves around Zeus. It was said Zeus once fought his father, Kronos, for control of the world. They battled atop a mountain that overlooked a valley in southwestern Greece. After Zeus defeated his father, a temple and immense statue were built in the valley below to honor him. This valley was called Olympia, and soon religious festivals developed there as people came to worship Zeus and to approach as nearly as possible his great strength. It is believed that these religious festivals eventually led to the famed Games of the Olympics.
Although we do not know just when the Games were first played, the earliest recorded Olympic competition occurred in 776 B.C. It had only one event, the one-stade (approximately 630-foot or 192-meter) race, which was won by a cook named Coroebus. This was the start of the first Olympiad, the four-year period by which the Greeks recorded their history.
Athletic competition became so important to the Greeks that the Olympic festivals were a peaceful influence on the warlike city-states. Sparta was famous for the strict military training of its citizens. But it would wait until the Games were over before sending fighters into battle. Other cities followed this example.
For the first 13 Olympic Games, the only event was the one-stade run. But over the years, new sports were added to the Games. The hoplitodrome, for instance, was a footrace the athletes ran wearing full armor. The pentathlon, in which the athletes competed in five events (jumping, javelin, sprint, discus, and wrestling) was added to the Games in 708 B.C. The pancration was introduced in 648 B.C. This brutal sport had no rules and combined boxing and wrestling. A winner was named only when one man raised his hand in defeat or lay unconscious on the ground.
In addition to the pre-existing religious shrines and altars, a vast complex of buildings and structures was constructed at Olympia to accommodate the growing number of sports and athletes. Chariot races, first run in 680 B.C. , were held in the hippodrome. Boxers and wrestlers trained in the Palaestra, which was adjacent to the gymnasium. The Leonidaion housed the athletes.
Generally, only freeborn men and boys could take part in the Olympic Games (servants and slaves were allowed to participate only in the horse races). Women were forbidden, on penalty of death, even to see the Games. In 396 B.C. , however, a woman from Rhodes successfully defied the death penalty. When her husband died, she continued the training of their son, a boxer. She attended the Games disguised as a man and was not recognized until she shouted with joy over her son's victory. Her life was spared because of the special circumstances and the fact that her father and brothers had been Olympians.
At first, the Games were strictly for Greek citizens. Eventually, however, athletes from all over the Roman Empire (which covered the entire Mediterranean region) were permitted to participate.
All athletes were required to take an oath that they would observe all the rules and standards. In spite of the luxurious facilities offered to athletes, all had to remain amateurs. That is, they had to pay their own expenses, and they could receive no monetary awards.
Winners of the Games were crowned with wreaths of olive leaves and hailed as heroes. They were showered with material gifts, and sometimes a special entrance was cut in the wall surrounding their home city just for them to pass through — a symbol that the people of the city felt well protected with an Olympic champion living among them.
Perhaps the greatest athlete of the ancient Games was Milo of Croton, a wrestler who lived in the 500's B.C. He won the wrestling crown six times, and he was said to be so powerful that he could carry a full-grown bull on his shoulders.
The ancient Olympic Games also honored, and inspired, artists. The poet Pindar wrote many odes in praise of the Games' winners. The Olympic buildings were prime examples of the beauty of Greek architecture, and the remains of Zeus' great statue bear the signature of the famous Athenian sculptor and architect Phidias. Like the athletic champions, artistic champions were awarded olive wreaths and great acclaim.
The Decline of the Games
After Rome conquered Greece in the 100's B.C. , Olympic standards began to decline. Competition for the common good was ignored by the glory hunters, who were willing to use any trick or deceit to win. For instance, in A.D. 67 the emperor Nero brought his own cheering section and competed in events himself. Even though he fell from his chariot during the race, he was named the champion. In A.D. 394 the Roman emperor Theodosius I, a Christian who considered the Games a pagan festival, ordered them stopped.
Olympia then began to crumble. The great statue of Zeus was taken away to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in a fire. In 426, Roman emperor Theodosius II ordered all the temples destroyed. Earthquakes later helped finish what human hands had started, as well as flooding caused by a change in the course of the river that flowed through Olympia. The once-great city was eventually buried.
In 1829, German archaeologists began uncovering Olympia. Today, the site of the ancient Olympic Games is only a shadow of its former glory. Many of the building foundations remain, but few walls and pillars still stand, and the stadium where footraces were held long ago is now just a broad stretch of barren ground.
Pen and ink drawing of Procession of Athletes
(Photo: © Library of Congress/Alfred Laurens Brennan)
Vocabulary
Accommodate: to provide or do a favor for
Archaeologist: person who studies past human life and culture by finding and looking at remains like graves, buildings, and pottery.
Defy: to oppose or challenge
Freeborn: born free and not as a slave
Idealize: to regard something as absolute perfection
Immense: huge
Wreath: a ring of flowers or leaves which can be worn on the head or hung as decoration
| Greece |
Which country gave the Statue of Liberty to the USA? | The History of the Olympic Games | Scholastic
The History of the Olympic Games
Compare the ancient Olympics to the modern games. Plus, learn how money, politics, and performance-enhancing drugs have become major influences, often causing controversy.
Grades
6–8, 9–12
The Olympic Games are an international sports festival that began in ancient Greece. The original Greek games were staged every fourth year for several hundred years, until they were abolished in the early Christian era. The revival of the Olympic Games took place in 1896, and since then they have been staged every fourth year, except during World War I and World War II (1916, 1940, 1944).
Perhaps the basic difference between the ancient and modern Olympics is that the former was the ancient Greeks' way of saluting their gods, whereas the modern Games are a manner of saluting the athletic talents of citizens of all nations. The original Olympics featured competition in music, oratory, and theater performances as well. The modern Games have a more expansive athletic agenda, and for 2 and a half weeks they are supposed to replace the rancor of international conflict with friendly competition. In recent times, however, that lofty ideal has not always been attained.
The Ancient Olympics
The earliest reliable date that recorded history gives for the first Olympics is 776 B.C., although virtually all historians presume that the Games began well before then.
It is certain that during the midsummer of 776 B.C. a festival was held at Olympia on the highly civilized eastern coast of the Peloponnesian peninsula. That festival remained a regularly scheduled event, taking place during the pre-Christian golden age of Greece. As a testimony to the religious nature of the Games (which were held in honor of Zeus, the most important god in the ancient Greek pantheon), all wars would cease during the contests. According to the earliest records, only one athletic event was held in the ancient Olympics — a footrace of about 183 m (200 yd), or the length of the stadium. A cook, Coroibus of Elis, was the first recorded winner. The first few Olympics had only local appeal and were limited to one race on one day; only men were allowed to compete or attend. A second race — twice the length of the stadium — was added in the 14th Olympics, and a still longer race was added to the next competition, four years later.
When the powerful, warlike Spartans began to compete, they influenced the agenda. The 18th Olympiad included wrestling and a pentathlon consisting of running, jumping, spear throwing (the javelin), discus throwing, and wrestling. Boxing was added at the 23rd Olympiad, and the Games continued to expand, with the addition of chariot racing and other sports. In the 37th Olympiad (632 B.C.) the format was extended to five days of competition.
The growth of the Games fostered "professionalism" among the competitors, and the Olympic ideals waned as royalty began to compete for personal gain, particularly in the chariot events. Human beings were being glorified as well as the gods; many winners erected statues to deify themselves. In A.D. 394 the Games were officially ended by the Roman emperor Theodosius I, who felt that they had pagan connotations.
The Modern Olympics
The revival of the Olympic Games in 1896, unlike the original Games, has a clear, concise history. Pierre de Coubertin (1863–1937), a young French nobleman, felt that he could institute an educational program in France that approximated the ancient Greek notion of a balanced development of mind and body. The Greeks themselves had tried to revive the Olympics by holding local athletic games in Athens during the 1800s, but without lasting success. It was Baron de Coubertin's determination and organizational genius, however, that gave impetus to the modern Olympic movement. In 1892 he addressed a meeting of the Union des Sports Athlétiques in Paris. Despite meager response he persisted, and an international sports congress eventually convened on June 16, 1894. With delegates from Belgium, England, France, Greece, Italy, Russia, Spain, Sweden, and the United States in attendance, he advocated the revival of the Olympic Games. He found ready and unanimous support from the nine countries. De Coubertin had initially planned to hold the Olympic Games in France, but the representatives convinced him that Greece was the appropriate country to host the first modern Olympics. The council did agree that the Olympics would move every four years to other great cities of the world.
Thirteen countries competed at the Athens Games in 1896. Nine sports were on the agenda: cycling, fencing, gymnastics, lawn tennis, shooting, swimming, track and field, weight lifting, and wrestling. The 14-man U.S. team dominated the track and field events, taking first place in 9 of the 12 events. The Games were a success, and a second Olympiad, to be held in France, was scheduled. Olympic Games were held in 1900 and 1904, and by 1908 the number of competitors more than quadrupled the number at Athens — from 311 to 2,082.
Beginning in 1924, a Winter Olympics was included — to be held at a separate cold-weather sports site in the same year as the Summer Games — the first held at Chamonix, France. In 1980 about 1,600 athletes from 38 nations competed at Lake Placid, N.Y., in a program that included Alpine and Nordic skiing, biathlon, ice hockey, figure skating and speed skating, bobsled, and luge.
But the Summer Games, with its wide array of events, are still the focal point of the modern Olympics. Among the standard events are basketball, boxing, canoeing and kayaking, cycling, equestrian arts, fencing, field hockey, gymnastics, modern pentathlon, rowing, shooting, soccer, swimming and diving, tennis, track and field, volleyball, water polo, weight lifting, wrestling (freestyle and Greco-Roman), and yachting. New sports are added to the roster at every Olympic Games; among the more prominent are baseball, martial arts, and most recently triathlon, which was first contested at the 2000 Games. The Games are governed by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), whose headquarters is in Lausanne, Switzerland.
The Summer and Winter Games were traditionally held in the same year, but because of the increasing size of both Olympics, the Winter Games were shifted to a different schedule after 1992. They were held in Lillehammer, Norway in 1994, in Nagano, Japan in 1998, in Salt Lake City, Utah in 2002, in Turin, Italy in 2006, and in 2010, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Politics and the Olympics
The ideology of nationalism, which swept the world during the early 20th century, left its mark on the Olympics. Athletic nationalism was brought to a peak by Nazi Germany, which staged the 1936 Games in Berlin and used the Olympics to propagandize its cause. The Germans built a powerful team through nationalized training and scientific advances and dominated the Games in terms of medals won.
The political overtones of the Olympics did not lessen with the fall of Nazi Germany. In 1956, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon boycotted the Melbourne Games to protest the Anglo-French seizure of the Suez Canal, and the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland boycotted as well to protest the USSR's invasion of Hungary. In Mexico City in 1968, two African American runners used the victory pedestal to protest U.S. racial policies. In the Munich Olympics in 1972, 11 Israeli athletes were massacred by Palestinian terrorists. And in 1976 in Montreal, 33 African nations, to be represented by about 400 athletes, boycotted the Games to protest South Africa's apartheid policies.
The most serious disruptions to the modern Olympics, however, occurred in 1980 and 1984. In 1980, under strong pressure from the Carter administration, the U.S. Olympic Committee voted to boycott the Summer Games in Moscow to protest the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. About 40 nations followed suit, including West Germany, China, and Japan, depriving the Soviets of their chief athletic competition and raising doubts about the future of the Olympic movement. Although the 1984 Winter Games, in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, proceeded without boycotts, the Summer Games, in Los Angeles, were undercut by an Eastern-bloc boycott led by the USSR. Fear of an openly hostile environment in Los Angeles was cited by the Soviet Olympic Committee as the reason for nonparticipation, but most commentators believed the reasons to be political: the poor state of recent U.S.-Soviet relations, revenge for the U.S. boycott in 1980, and possible embarrassment to the Soviets on worldwide television caused by planned anti-Soviet demonstrations and defections of Eastern-bloc athletes. The popularity and financial success of the 1984 Los Angeles Games were, however, greater than anticipated.
In 1988 the Winter Games — in Calgary, Alberta, Canada — went on without incident. At the Summer Games, in Seoul, South Korea, only six nations (including Cuba and North Korea) boycotted, and the focus returned to the athletes.The 1992 Winter and Summer Games (in Albertville, France, and Barcelona, Spain, respectively) were the first Olympics without the Eastern-bloc sports machine, were the last for the "Unified Teams" from the former USSR, and marked the return of South Africa to Olympic competition. The 1996 Summer Games, in Atlanta, Ga., were the largest ever; they were marred by a bombing that took the lives of two people. The 1994 and 1998 Winter Games transpired without incident. The 2000 Summer Games were held in Sydney, Australia, to great acclaim. In Sydney, politics took a back seat to the competition, although North and South Korea were temporarily reunited as their athletes marched as one country in the opening ceremonies. Athens, Greece — site of the first modern Olympics — was the site of the Summer Games in 2004. Though it has potential for political controversies due to its rapid modernization and its communist state-Beijing, China was selected for the 2008 Summer Games.
Money and the Olympics
The biggest influence on the modern Olympic Games is money. Commercialism exists side by side with the outstanding athleticism and the spirit of friendship imbuing competitors from around the world. Since the 1984 Games in Los Angeles, it has become clear that a city hosting the Games can anticipate a financial windfall, as spectators and sponsors converge for the event. Because of the tremendous potential for profit, the process of selecting host cities has become politicized, and there is a large potential for corruption. In fact, a scandal erupted in late 1998, when it was found that promoters involved with Salt Lake City's (winning) bid for the 2002 Winter Games had bribed IOC members, who were forced to resign; the Nagano and Sydney bids were also under suspicion of bribery.
Athletes, too, especially in the "glamour sports" such as gymnastics, ice skating, or track and field, can reap tremendous financial gains for winning performances, through product endorsements and personal appearances. Originally, Olympic athletes were expected to remain strictly amateurs and not earn money even for endorsing products. However, by the last decades of the 20th century, professionalism among competitors received official acceptance, as the IOC finally recognized that many world-class athletes were already functioning as professionals. At the elite level of competition in many Olympic sports, the athlete must devote him- or herself entirely to the sport, all but precluding the holding of a full-time job.
The end of amateurism began in 1960s in the Communist countries, where top athletes were supported by the state, but were officially considered amateurs. To counter this, in the 1970s and 1980s athletes in non-Communist countries sought out corporate sponsors, in effect becoming "employees" of the sponsor. By the late 1980s, restrictions were eased on athletes earning prize money at their sports, and professional athletes were permitted to represent their countries at the Olympics. This now includes the star athletes who play in the American professional leagues, such as the U.S. basketball "Dream Team" of National Basketball Association superstars who dominated the 1992 Olympic competition. In addition, with IOC rules concerning amateurism vacated, many medal-winning contestants have cashed in on their Olympic fame with product endorsements or performance tours.
Performance-Enhancing Drugs
Winning medals at the Olympic Games has always been considered the most prestigious mark of an athlete, and a source of glory for the athlete's country. This has led to the use of performance-enhancing drugs by athletes, intentionally or otherwise, despite the health risks to the athlete and IOC rules prohibiting the use of these substances. The types of drugs banned include stimulants (which can be found in common cold and cough medications; caffeine is also banned), narcotics, anabolic steroids, diuretics, certain hormones (such as human growth hormone), and in some sports, beta blockers. The testing of athletes for drug use began for the Olympics in 1968, at the Mexico City Games, but did not become widespread until the 1972 Games. Over the years, as drugs such as human growth hormone have been developed, tests have been added for newer drugs.
With such great rewards at stake, there are athletes and even national sports programs willing to use performance-enhancing drugs despite the risks to future health and the disgrace of getting caught. The best-known example of drug use is the East German sports federation, which had a systematic program for giving its athletes steroids from 1974 to 1989. During that time East German women suddenly dominated events such as swimming, winning medals in 11 of 13 events both in 1976 and 1980. Other swimmers suspected that the East German women were using steroids, because the drugs affected their physical appearance, but the team was never caught. After the reunification of Germany, the East German sports federation's records were opened and the program was exposed. In 2000 the former head of the federation and the doctor who developed and administered the drug plan were convicted of systematic and overall doping. The former athletes maintain that they never knew they were taking steroids, claiming that they were told that the various medications were vitamins. As drug testing procedures have improved, more athletes have been caught. In Seoul there was suspicion of widespread use of performance-enhancing drugs after Canadian sprinter Ben Johnson tested positive; he was stripped of his gold medal. In the mid-1990s, China's female swimmers and runners quickly rose to the top of elite competition, arousing suspicions of drug use; by the late 1990s many were caught through more diligent drug testing.
The IOC publicly decries the use of performance-enhancing drugs. However, it is commonly believed that even with out-of-competition testing, the drugs and masking agents available to athletes is far ahead of the tests used to detect these substances. A study released in September 2000 that was financed by the U.S. government accused the IOC of permitting drug use to persist in order to maintain the mystique of the Olympics and record-breaking performances. The IOC formed the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in late 1999 to test athletes at the upcoming Olympics and to increase drug testing standards, but how effective WADA will be in the long run is not yet known.
Jim Benagh
Bibliography: Finding, John E., and Pelle, Kimberly D., Historical Dictionary of the Modern Olympic Movement (1996); Greenberg, Stan, Guinness Book of Olympic Records (1992); Guttmann, Allen, The Olympics (1992); Henry, Bill, et al., An Approved History of the Olympic Games (1984); Hill, Christopher, Olympic Politics: Athens to Atlanta, 1896–1996, 2d ed. (1997); Swaddling, Judith, The Ancient Olympic Games, 2d ed. (2000); Wallechinsky, David, The Complete Book of the Summer Olympics: Sydney 2000 Edition (2000); Young, David C., The Modern Olympics: A Struggle for Revival (1996).
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What is the strongest muscle in the human body? | What is the strongest muscle in the human body? (Everyday Mysteries: Fun Science Facts from the Library of Congress)
What is the strongest muscle in the human body?
There is no one answer for this question since there are different ways to measure strength. There is absolute strength (maximum force),
dynamic strength (repeated motions), elastic strength (exert force quickly), and strength endurance (withstand fatigue).
There are three types of muscles in the human body: cardiac, smooth and skeletal.
Cardiac muscle makes up the wall of the heart and is responsible for the forceful contraction of the heart. Smooth muscles make up the walls of the intestine, the uterus, blood vessels, and internal muscles of the eye. Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones and in some areas the skin (muscles in our face). Contraction of the skeletal muscles helps limbs and other body parts move.
Most sources state that there are over 650 named skeletal muscles in the human body, although some figures go up to as many as 840. The dissension comes from those that count the muscles within a complex muscle. For example the biceps brachii is a complex muscle that has two heads and two different origins however, they insert on the radial tuberosity. Do you count this as one muscle or two?
Although most individuals have the same general set of muscles, there is some variability from one person to another. Generally, smooth muscles are not included with this total since most of these muscles are at cellular level and number in the billions. In terms of a cardiac muscle, we only have one of those- the heart.
Muscles are given Latin names according to location, relative size, shape, action, origin/insertion, and/or number of origins. For example the flexor hallicis longus muscle is the long muscle that bends the big toe:
Flexor = A muscle that flexes a joint
Hallicis = great toe
Longus = Long
The following are muscles that have been deemed the strongest based on various definitions of strength (listed in alphabetical order):
External Muscles of the Eye
The muscles of the eye are constantly moving to readjust the positions of the eye. When the head is in motion, the external muscles are constantly adjusting the position of the eye to maintain a steady fixation point. However, the external muscles of the eye are subject to fatigue. In an hour of reading a book the eyes make nearly 10,000 coordinated movements.
Gluteus Maximus
The gluteus maximus is the largest muscle in the human body. It is large and powerful because it has the job of keeping the trunk of the body in an erect posture. It is the chief antigravity muscle that aids in walking up stairs.
Heart
The hardest working muscle is the heart. It pumps out 2 ounces (71 grams) of blood at every heartbeat. Daily the heart pumps at least 2,500 gallons (9,450 liters) of blood. The heart has the ability to beat over 3 billion times in a person’s life.
Masseter
The strongest muscle based on its weight is the masseter. With all muscles of the jaw working together it can close the teeth with a force as great as 55 pounds (25 kilograms) on the incisors or 200 pounds (90.7 kilograms) on the molars.
Muscles of the Uterus
The uterus sits in the lower pelvic region. Its muscles are deemed strong because they contract to push a baby through the birth canal. The pituitary gland secretes the hormone oxytocin, which stimulates the contractions.
Soleus
The muscle that can pull with the greatest force is the soleus. It is found below the gastrocnemius (calf muscle). The soleus is very important for walking, running, and dancing. It is considered a very powerful muscle along with calf muscles because it pulls against the force of gravity to keep the body upright.
Tongue
The tongue is a tough worker. It is made up of groups of muscles and like the heart it is always working. It helps in the mixing process of foods. It binds and contorts itself to form letters. The tongue contains linguinal tonsils that filter out germs. Even when a person sleeps, the tongue is constantly pushing saliva down the throat.
Related Web Sites
American Medical Association Atlas of the Body: The Muscle - Drawings of the major muscle groups from various views. Back View Front View Side View
| Tongue |
An Ostrich can live up to 75 years. True or false? | Fact or Fiction?: The Tongue Is the Strongest Muscle in the Body - Scientific American
Scientific American
Fact or Fiction?: The Tongue Is the Strongest Muscle in the Body
Is this agile appendage as brawny as people believe?
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It can bend, it can twist, it can suck, it can cup. The tongue is an essential, often playful part of human anatomy. Many of us grew up believing the assertion that the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body. But is it really?
The short answer is no. But the explanation is not as straightforward as you’d think. We asked a few tongue experts (yes they do exist) why the myth has been so easy to swallow.
Maureen Stone, of the University of Maryland School of Dentistry, speculates that the myth of the tongue’s strength arose from its amazing stamina even in precision tasks like eating and speaking. “When’s the last time your tongue was tired?” she asks. “If you don’t have any disorders, the answer is probably never.” Stone says the tongue’s tenacity springs from the way it is built—with lots of similar bits of muscle that can each perform the same task. “It doesn’t fatigue,” she says, “because there’s a lot of redundancy in the muscle architecture. You simply activate different muscle fibers and get the same result.”
Stephen Tasko, a speech scientist at Western Michigan University, says that the question of whether the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body is itself misinformed. The soft patty of flesh we call the tongue is not just one muscle, it’s a conglomeration of eight separate muscles. Unlike other muscles, such as the bicep, tongue muscles don’t develop around a supporting bone. Rather, they intertwine to create a flexible matrix, forming what is called a muscular hydrostat; this structure is similar to an octopus’s tentacles or an elephant’s trunk.
Four muscles in the matrix, called the extrinsic muscles, anchor the tongue to structures in the head and neck. One muscle holds on to the base of the skull, another connects to a bone in the throat, there is a muscle that grabs on to the lower jaw and another wrapped around the palate. These propel the tongue from side to side, front to back and up and down.
The rest of the muscles make up the tongue’s body. They’re what give it the ability to contort into endless arrays of shapes and postures. They allow it to lengthen, shorten, curl, flatten and round, and they provide shape to assist in speaking, eating and swallowing.
Because the tongue is all muscle and no bone, it is very supple, boasting a huge range of motion and shape while preserving its volume. “It’s kind of like a water balloon,” says Tasko. “If you deform it in one place, it’s going to pop out in other spots.” Tasko believes the myth of extraordinary strength has persisted because of the tongue’s tireless flexibility. "We all know that you can do all kinds of gymnastics with your tongue,” he says, “because it always seems to be going, and it's highly agile.” He adds: “I think maybe those are construed as having something to do with strength."
By sticking a pliable air-filled bulb into a subject’s mouth, scientists can measure the maximal pressure the tongue can exert on an object. This device, called an Iowa oral performance instrument, is placed on the tongue and subjects are asked to push it toward the roofs of their mouths as hard as they can. Scientists also use this bulb to measure endurance, or how long the tongue can hold a certain posture. Such measurements have given the lie to the myth, because you’re not really measuring muscles but muscle systems. But what, then, is the strongest muscle system in the body? The answer turns out to be complicated and depends on how muscular strength is defined—but no matter, the tongue doesn’t win under any criteria.
There are lots of ways to measure strength. One is brute force, in which case biggest is best. All skeletal muscles are bundles of many individual fibers that contain small force generating structures called sarcomeres. “Generally speaking, more muscle tissue means a larger total number of sarcomeres, which means greater maximum force generation,” Tasko says. That means the largest muscles—the quadriceps on the front of your thighs and the gluteus maximus on your rear—produce the most force.
Muscle size and raw force aren’t everything though. Muscles work by pulling on bones, which act as levers that convert muscular contractions (small but powerful movements) into large motions—think: curling a dumbbell. Your bicep pulls on the bones in your forearm to lift the dumbbell. Because your forearm is long and the bicep pulls on it right near the elbow, says Khalil Iskarous, a linguist at the University of Southern California, the bicep has to pull with a lot of force to move your hand up to your shoulder. Your jawbone, in contrast, is a much shorter lever. Because of this, the masseter, the main muscle in your jaw, is also a contender for strongest muscle in the body.
Or maybe it’s not about force at all, but rather about overall work done in the course of a lifetime. By that measure, the hardest working muscle in your body is the one that’s pump-pump-pumping 24/7 to keep your blood flowing round and round, including to all the other muscles: your heart.
The tongue may not be as strong as the glutes, jaw or heart but strengthening it may still be useful. Tasko says there is some evidence suggesting that strengthening exercises may benefit people who have trouble swallowing, such as those recovering from stroke. Some speculate that strengthening the tongue may even improve speaking abilities or help treat speech pathologies. Tasko warns, however, that these assertions are controversial and need further testing.
But one thing’s certain: the tongue is definitely not the strongest muscle in the body. Maybe people continue to believe in its power simply because the tongue is weird; it’s literally inside your face, and people like superlatives. “People want to attach some kind of ‘est’ to it,” Iskarous says. “‘Strongest’ or this or that—and that’s maybe what stuck.”
| i don't know |
Who wrote the book 'Black Beauty? | Amazon.com: Anna Sewell: The Woman Who Wrote Black Beauty (9780752442822): Susan Chitty: Books
3.0 out of 5 stars Spinster Pens Blockbuster
By Yenta Knows on January 25, 2009
If you loved horses as a child, you probably read Black Beauty. Here's the story of the author, Anna Sewell, the strait-laced spinster who lived with her dominating mother all her life, suffered from a mysterious illness that prevented her from walking more than a few steps, and rarely left her house except to engage in the "good works" (teaching Sunday School, visiting the sick) that were proper for Victorian Quakers.
Not much of a life, huh? Yet you can't help admiring Anna Sewell, who, confined to an invalid's couch, penned this vividly seen, intensely felt story of a horse who begins as equine nobility, falls to the lowest rungs of horse society, but gains a distinctly un-modern happy ending where "my troubles are all over and I am at home".
I could take Susan Chitty to task for including distracting details that she learned but that we don't need to. I could wish Ms. Chitty had explained the copyright issues, supplied more literary analysis, included a few maps, and given more historical context (What is a "Band of Mercy"?).
But I would rather thank her for illuminating the life of a plain living woman whose only publication, the sixth most read book in English, improved the lives of thousands of horses and originated a new literary genre, the animal story.
| Anna Sewell |
In which town would you find the English entrance to the 'Channel Tunnel (Eurotunnel)? | Black Beauty: From the Horse's Mouth!
There are numerous editions of this book. The one I am reviewing is the hardcopy, wonderfully illustrated by Scott McKowen, and is the unabridged version.
Well, first of all get the Kleenex ready, this is a real weepy.
I grew up with this book because as a child I lived close to where the author, Anna Sewell, lived, and where she wrote Black Beauty. As a young girl I carried the book around with me, often certain I saw the horse in the distance, galloping across the fields.
Every girl will devour this book, especially if she is a horse lover.
Black Beauty is an ebony horse who has a varied life from growing up as a colt on a farm in England, to pulling cabs in London. The story is told in the first person and from Black Beauty’s point of view.
Considering Anna Sewell wrote this book in 1877, the idea of a story about a talking horse in those days was unheard of and quite daring for an author.
But this is no Mister Ed story. Anna Sewell originally wrote it for adults who worked with horses, with the aim of teaching workers about animal welfare.
However, the book became a children’s classic, with over 50 million copies sold.
Each chapter is reasonably short, and deals with an incident in Beauty’s life. There is a sharp contrast from the idealistic farm life to the harshness of pulling a cab in the busy streets of Victorian London.
The story relates the cruel treatment of horses at that time, which was what the writer was attempting to convey.
Black Beauty started his working life as a carriage horse for a wealthy family, but after an accident he is no longer felt worthy or suitable. There follows an array of various owners and circumstances, some kind and some cruel. Throughout his trials, Beauty tries his best to please his owners but often this is not recognised and at times what he sees and how he is treated is heart breaking.
There are a variety of other horses that have all suffered greatly at the hands of man.
One of the aspects I always look for in animal stories are the allegorical references, and Anna Sewell does not disappoint here. This is not just about how man treats animals, but it is about treating each other with kindness and respect.
Anna Sewell died shortly after Black Beauty became successful, although I doubt she would have envisaged it would become such a classic.
Suitable for age 9-12 years, adults will love this book too, if they can bear the emotion.
Read more of Jane's reviews .
Webmaster's note: I'm providing the first chapter of Black Beauty for you below, straight from the horse's mouth!
Black Beauty
by Anna Sewell
Chapter 1: My Early Home
The first place that I can well remember was a large pleasant meadow with a pond of clear water in it. Some shady trees leaned over it, and rushes and water-lilies grew at the deep end. Over the hedge on one side we looked into a plowed field, and on the other we looked over a gate at our master's house, which stood by the roadside; at the top of the meadow was a grove of fir trees, and at the bottom a running brook overhung by a steep bank.
While I was young I lived upon my mother's milk, as I could not eat grass. In the daytime I ran by her side, and at night I lay down close by her. When it was hot we used to stand by the pond in the shade of the trees, and when it was cold we had a nice warm shed near the grove.
As soon as I was old enough to eat grass my mother used to go out to work in the daytime, and come back in the evening.
There were six young colts in the meadow besides me; they were older than I was; some were nearly as large as grown-up horses. I used to run with them, and had great fun; we used to gallop all together round and round the field as hard as we could go. Sometimes we had rather rough play, for they would frequently bite and kick as well as gallop.
One day, when there was a good deal of kicking, my mother whinnied to me to come to her, and then she said:
"I wish you to pay attention to what I am going to say to you. The colts who live here are very good colts, but they are cart-horse colts, and of course they have not learned manners. You have been well-bred and well-born; your father has a great name in these parts, and your grandfather won the cup two years at the Newmarket races; your grandmother had the sweetest temper of any horse I ever knew, and I think you have never seen me kick or bite. I hope you will grow up gentle and good, and never learn bad ways; do your work with a good will, lift your feet up well when you trot, and never bite or kick even in play."
I have never forgotten my mother's advice; I knew she was a wise old horse, and our master thought a great deal of her. Her name was Duchess, but he often called her Pet.
Our master was a good, kind man. He gave us good food, good lodging, and kind words; he spoke as kindly to us as he did to his little children. We were all fond of him, and my mother loved him very much. When she saw him at the gate she would neigh with joy, and trot up to him. He would pat and stroke her and say, "Well, old Pet, and how is your little Darkie?" I was a dull black, so he called me Darkie; then he would give me a piece of bread, which was very good, and sometimes he brought a carrot for my mother. All the horses would come to him, but I think we were his favorites. My mother always took him to the town on a market day in a light gig.
There was a plowboy, Dick, who sometimes came into our field to pluck blackberries from the hedge. When he had eaten all he wanted he would have what he called fun with the colts, throwing stones and sticks at them to make them gallop. We did not much mind him, for we could gallop off; but sometimes a stone would hit and hurt us.
One day he was at this game, and did not know that the master was in the next field; but he was there, watching what was going on; over the hedge he jumped in a snap, and catching Dick by the arm, he gave him such a box on the ear as made him roar with the pain and surprise. As soon as we saw the master we trotted up nearer to see what went on.
"Bad boy!" he said, "bad boy! to chase the colts. This is not the first time, nor the second, but it shall be the last. There—take your money and go home; I shall not want you on my farm again." So we never saw Dick any more. Old Daniel, the man who looked after the horses, was just as gentle as our master, so we were well off.
End of Black Beauty, chapter one
| i don't know |
In what year did Queen Elizabeth II Become Queen? | Queen Elizabeth II becomes longest-reigning UK monarch - BBC News
Queen Elizabeth II becomes longest-reigning UK monarch
9 September 2015
Close share panel
Media caption"A long life can pass by many milestones - my own is no exception"
The Queen has thanked well-wishers at home and overseas for their "touching messages of kindness" as she becomes Britain's longest-reigning monarch.
Speaking in the Scottish Borders, the 89-year-old monarch said the title was "not one to which I have ever aspired".
At 17:30 BST she had reigned for 23,226 days, 16 hours and approximately 30 minutes - surpassing the reign of her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria.
David Cameron said the service the Queen had given was "truly humbling".
Dressed in turquoise with her trusty black handbag at her side, the Queen spoke briefly to the gathered crowds earlier.
"Inevitably a long life can pass by many milestones - my own is no exception - but I thank you all and the many others at home and overseas for your touching messages of great kindness," she said.
In the day's main events:
The Queen and Prince Philip travelled by steam train from Edinburgh to Tweedbank, where she formally opened the new £294m Scottish Borders Railway
They were accompanied by Scotland's First Minister Nicola Sturgeon, who praised the Queen's "dedication, wisdom and exemplary sense of public service"
In London, a flotilla of historic vessels, leisure cruisers and passenger boats took part in a procession along the Thames and HMS Belfast sounded a four-gun salute
The exact moment the Queen became the longest-reigning sovereign is unknown. Her father, George VI, passed away in the early hours of 6 February 1952, but his time of death is not known.
Her Majesty's Milestone
Image copyright Buckingham Palace
Image caption Newly released official photographs show the Queen with her official red box, containing the day's policy papers, cabinet documents, Foreign Office papers and other letters
World leaders the Queen has outlasted
Business in the Commons was postponed for half an hour so that MPs, led by Mr Cameron, could pay tribute to the Queen.
The prime minster said she had been a "rock of stability" in an era when so much had changed, and her reign had been the "golden thread running through three post-war generations".
He said it was "typical of the Queen's selfless sense of service" that she thought today should be a normal day.
Acting Labour leader Harriet Harman said it was "no exaggeration" to say the Queen was "admired by billions of people all around the world".
Ministers are to present the Queen with a bound copy of cabinet papers from the meeting in 1952 when Sir Winston Churchill's government approved the content of her first Queen's Speech.
In the House of Lords, leader Baroness Stowell said the Queen had served the country with "unerring grace, dignity and decency", adding: "And long may she continue to do so".
Image copyright Reuters
Analysis: BBC royal correspondent Peter Hunt
There have been glowing tributes and much talk about the significance of this moment. No such words were uttered by the subject of all the attention.
She undertook a run-of-the-mill engagement on a far from run-of-the-mill day. And in her brief remarks - her lengthy reign hasn't lessened her aversion to making speeches - she displayed some classic British understatement.
Overtaking her great-great-grandmother wasn't something she'd ever aspired to, she said. She was simply the beneficiary of a long life.
In Scotland - and indeed in other parts of the United Kingdom - that life and her reign have been celebrated very publicly.
Privately, later, the Queen will mark the moment she enters the record books. Prince Philip will be with her - her husband of 67 years has been the one constant in a reign of sometimes dizzying change.
Image copyright PA
Image caption In London, a flotilla of vessels, including Havengore and Gloriana, took part in a procession along the Thames
Image copyright PA
Image caption Meanwhile, in Edinburgh, the Royal Party were welcomed by a traditional pipe band
Image copyright AFP
Image caption The Queen and the Duke stopped off at Newtongrange station where she unveiled a plaque
Image copyright PA
Image caption Children from Busy Bees Nursery turned out to see the Queen in Tweedbank
Buckingham Palace has released two official photographs to mark the occasion, taken by Mary McCartney in the Queen's private audience room.
This is where she holds weekly audiences with prime ministers of the day, and receives visiting heads of state and government.
The Queen is taking her traditional summer break at this time of year at her private Scottish home, Balmoral.
The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge are in Scotland on holiday and are expected to have dinner with the Queen at Balmoral later.
Queens of the modern age
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Elizabeth II has reigned for 63 years and seven months, beating Queen Victoria's record
Victoria became queen at 18, while Elizabeth was 25
Elizabeth II rides in the same coach as Victoria did for the annual State Opening of Parliament
Both queens were shot at by lone gunmen while out riding near Buckingham Palace
Elizabeth loves the private royal estate at Balmoral, which was bought by Victoria
Victoria ruled over an empire of 400 million people. Elizabeth is head of state for 138 million people
Queen Victoria became queen at the age of 18 and ruled for 63 years, seven months and two days.
Queen Elizabeth's reign has included 12 prime ministers, two more than served under Victoria.
Media captionDuke of York: "From her perspective it is business as usual"
One of those prime ministers, Conservative Sir John Major, rejected any suggestion the Queen had been too passive as head of state: "The monarchy wouldn't be as popular if they were part of politics - they're above and beyond it.
"But when the Queen meets her prime minister she has the opportunity to question, to ask, to counsel. Nobody knows and no prime minister is going to tell you exactly what happens at those meetings. So those who say she's been too passive, how can they possibly know?"
'Genuinely exceptional'
The Queen is Head of the Commonwealth and sovereign of 15 Commonwealth realms in addition to the UK, and the organisation's Secretary-General, Kamalesh Sharma, sent his congratulations.
"As a symbol of continuity during decades of unprecedented change, and by drawing our people together in their rich diversity, Her Majesty has embodied all that is best in the Commonwealth," he said.
"With vision and dedication her example has encouraged successive generations of leaders and citizens to embrace the promise of the future."
Media captionGraham Smith: "I don't think that keeping a job for life, for life, is something to get excited about"
Anti-monarchist group Republic said the Queen's long reign was a reason for reform not celebration.
Chief executive Graham Smith said: "It is now time for the country to look to the future and to choose a successor through free and fair elections, someone who can genuinely represent the nation."
| february 1952 |
Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip are both the great-great grandchildren of whom? | Queen Elizabeth II becomes longest-reigning UK monarch - BBC News
Queen Elizabeth II becomes longest-reigning UK monarch
9 September 2015
Close share panel
Media caption"A long life can pass by many milestones - my own is no exception"
The Queen has thanked well-wishers at home and overseas for their "touching messages of kindness" as she becomes Britain's longest-reigning monarch.
Speaking in the Scottish Borders, the 89-year-old monarch said the title was "not one to which I have ever aspired".
At 17:30 BST she had reigned for 23,226 days, 16 hours and approximately 30 minutes - surpassing the reign of her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria.
David Cameron said the service the Queen had given was "truly humbling".
Dressed in turquoise with her trusty black handbag at her side, the Queen spoke briefly to the gathered crowds earlier.
"Inevitably a long life can pass by many milestones - my own is no exception - but I thank you all and the many others at home and overseas for your touching messages of great kindness," she said.
In the day's main events:
The Queen and Prince Philip travelled by steam train from Edinburgh to Tweedbank, where she formally opened the new £294m Scottish Borders Railway
They were accompanied by Scotland's First Minister Nicola Sturgeon, who praised the Queen's "dedication, wisdom and exemplary sense of public service"
In London, a flotilla of historic vessels, leisure cruisers and passenger boats took part in a procession along the Thames and HMS Belfast sounded a four-gun salute
The exact moment the Queen became the longest-reigning sovereign is unknown. Her father, George VI, passed away in the early hours of 6 February 1952, but his time of death is not known.
Her Majesty's Milestone
Image copyright Buckingham Palace
Image caption Newly released official photographs show the Queen with her official red box, containing the day's policy papers, cabinet documents, Foreign Office papers and other letters
World leaders the Queen has outlasted
Business in the Commons was postponed for half an hour so that MPs, led by Mr Cameron, could pay tribute to the Queen.
The prime minster said she had been a "rock of stability" in an era when so much had changed, and her reign had been the "golden thread running through three post-war generations".
He said it was "typical of the Queen's selfless sense of service" that she thought today should be a normal day.
Acting Labour leader Harriet Harman said it was "no exaggeration" to say the Queen was "admired by billions of people all around the world".
Ministers are to present the Queen with a bound copy of cabinet papers from the meeting in 1952 when Sir Winston Churchill's government approved the content of her first Queen's Speech.
In the House of Lords, leader Baroness Stowell said the Queen had served the country with "unerring grace, dignity and decency", adding: "And long may she continue to do so".
Image copyright Reuters
Analysis: BBC royal correspondent Peter Hunt
There have been glowing tributes and much talk about the significance of this moment. No such words were uttered by the subject of all the attention.
She undertook a run-of-the-mill engagement on a far from run-of-the-mill day. And in her brief remarks - her lengthy reign hasn't lessened her aversion to making speeches - she displayed some classic British understatement.
Overtaking her great-great-grandmother wasn't something she'd ever aspired to, she said. She was simply the beneficiary of a long life.
In Scotland - and indeed in other parts of the United Kingdom - that life and her reign have been celebrated very publicly.
Privately, later, the Queen will mark the moment she enters the record books. Prince Philip will be with her - her husband of 67 years has been the one constant in a reign of sometimes dizzying change.
Image copyright PA
Image caption In London, a flotilla of vessels, including Havengore and Gloriana, took part in a procession along the Thames
Image copyright PA
Image caption Meanwhile, in Edinburgh, the Royal Party were welcomed by a traditional pipe band
Image copyright AFP
Image caption The Queen and the Duke stopped off at Newtongrange station where she unveiled a plaque
Image copyright PA
Image caption Children from Busy Bees Nursery turned out to see the Queen in Tweedbank
Buckingham Palace has released two official photographs to mark the occasion, taken by Mary McCartney in the Queen's private audience room.
This is where she holds weekly audiences with prime ministers of the day, and receives visiting heads of state and government.
The Queen is taking her traditional summer break at this time of year at her private Scottish home, Balmoral.
The Duke and Duchess of Cambridge are in Scotland on holiday and are expected to have dinner with the Queen at Balmoral later.
Queens of the modern age
Image copyright Getty Images
Image caption Elizabeth II has reigned for 63 years and seven months, beating Queen Victoria's record
Victoria became queen at 18, while Elizabeth was 25
Elizabeth II rides in the same coach as Victoria did for the annual State Opening of Parliament
Both queens were shot at by lone gunmen while out riding near Buckingham Palace
Elizabeth loves the private royal estate at Balmoral, which was bought by Victoria
Victoria ruled over an empire of 400 million people. Elizabeth is head of state for 138 million people
Queen Victoria became queen at the age of 18 and ruled for 63 years, seven months and two days.
Queen Elizabeth's reign has included 12 prime ministers, two more than served under Victoria.
Media captionDuke of York: "From her perspective it is business as usual"
One of those prime ministers, Conservative Sir John Major, rejected any suggestion the Queen had been too passive as head of state: "The monarchy wouldn't be as popular if they were part of politics - they're above and beyond it.
"But when the Queen meets her prime minister she has the opportunity to question, to ask, to counsel. Nobody knows and no prime minister is going to tell you exactly what happens at those meetings. So those who say she's been too passive, how can they possibly know?"
'Genuinely exceptional'
The Queen is Head of the Commonwealth and sovereign of 15 Commonwealth realms in addition to the UK, and the organisation's Secretary-General, Kamalesh Sharma, sent his congratulations.
"As a symbol of continuity during decades of unprecedented change, and by drawing our people together in their rich diversity, Her Majesty has embodied all that is best in the Commonwealth," he said.
"With vision and dedication her example has encouraged successive generations of leaders and citizens to embrace the promise of the future."
Media captionGraham Smith: "I don't think that keeping a job for life, for life, is something to get excited about"
Anti-monarchist group Republic said the Queen's long reign was a reason for reform not celebration.
Chief executive Graham Smith said: "It is now time for the country to look to the future and to choose a successor through free and fair elections, someone who can genuinely represent the nation."
| i don't know |
Queen Elizabeth II is reigning queen and head of how many sovereign states? | Feature: Queen Elizabeth's 16 Countries - Political Geography Now
Tuesday, June 5, 2012
Feature: Queen Elizabeth's 16 Countries
Update 2016-06-10: Queen Elizabeth II is now celebrating her 90th birthday . The below article is still just as accurate as when we first published it four years ago.
As Britain wraps up celebrations for the queen's Diamond Jubilee (the 60th anniversary of her coronation), you may have heard it mentioned that Elizabeth II is not just the Queen of England and the U.K., but of 15 other independent countries as well. This article maps, lists, and explains the situation of those countries.
Map of the Commonwealth realms - independent countries which share the British monarchy. Current realms in dark blue, former realms in light blue. By Evan Centanni, modified from public domain Wikipedia map ( source ).
Which countries share the Queen?
Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II is the official head of state for 16 different independent countries, known as the "Commonwealth realms" - a smaller club than the Commonwealth of Nations , many of whose members are now queenless republics. The current Commonwealth realms, in order of independence, are:
Personal flag of Queen Elizabeth II ( source ) License: CC BY-SA .
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Just as the sun never sets in the British Empire, the monarchy never set in the realms - each one inherits the queen's role from its time as a former British colony (with the exception of northern Papua New Guinea, which passed directly from German to Australian control before uniting with the British south in independence).
Sixteen countries - is that all?
Although the independent realms total 16, the number of "countries" with Elizabeth II as their queen actually increases to 19 when including the four "home nations" that make up the U.K.: England, Scotland , Wales, and Northern Ireland. But that's not all - as if 16 realms weren't enough for one woman, the Queen of England also reigns over three Crown Dependencies (Guernsey and Jersey in the Channel Islands, plus the Isle of Man) and the 14 British Overseas Territories , all of which are dependent on the U.K., but aren't considered part of the kingdom itself. And interestingly, the Realm of New Zealand includes two associated states, the Cook Islands and Niue, which could remain royal subjects even if New Zealand itself were to fire the queen from its government.
Entire reign of Queen Elizabeth II (1952-2012). Current in red, former in blue (dark = sovereign realm; light = territory or dependency). Click to enlarge. Excludes Antarctic claims. By Evan Centanni, from public domain map ( source ).
Historically, there are about 20 more countries which were Commonwealth realms during parts of the last Century, but have since abandoned the monarchy to become republics. Still, the current list is longer than it used to be - at the time of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation in 1952, there were only seven realms: the U.K., Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).
How can countries share the same monarch and still be sovereign states?
Every one of the Commonwealth realms is a fully-fledged independent country and a member of the U.N., despite sharing the same queen. So how does that work? Each country has separately and independently designated Elizabeth II (and her royal line) as its head of state, and the British parliament has no authority whatsoever over the governments of any of the other realms. In a certain legal sense, these 16 countries just happen to have chosen the same family to form their monarchy.
To show this independence, each realm calls the queen by its own national title - she is not only the the Queen of England, but the Queen of Australia, the Queen of Canada, the Queen of the Bahamas, etc. As for Her Majesty, she's been said to be "equally at home in all of her realms". But since she has only has one physical body, she still mainly lives in the oldest realm: the U.K. In her other countries, she's represented on an everyday basis by appointed viceroys (the highest-level viceroys are called governors-general).
But if they're all controlled by the same person, isn't that like being one country?
Flag of Elizabeth II, Queen of Barbados. See all flags of Elizabeth II . By Barryob ( source ). License: CC BY-SA .
Unlike in medieval personal unions , where a single monarch had power over two or more countries, the queen has next to no power in her modern realms. Although there are some decision-making powers ceremonially assigned to her, for the most part she can now only exercise them if asked to by the country's government. Since modern constitutional monarchies require the royal family to stay out of politics, the queen serves as a symbol of a loyalty to one's nation that transcends political differences.
Still, this must create some awkward situations now and then, right?
Absolutely - since the queen mainly acts only on the "advice" of her countries' governments, she officially takes both sides whenever two realms disagree, and has also been found engaging in trade competition with herself. She may also be simultaneously neutral and at war when one realm is involved in an international conflict and others are not; in extreme cases, the monarch of the Commonwealth realms may even declare war against him or herself, as happened in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 (during the reign of King George VI).
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Nell Gwynn was mistress to which King? | Queen of Canada
HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH II
QUEEN OF CANADA
HM Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada
Wearing Her Canadian Orders
"Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom, Canada and Her other Realms and Territories, Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith."
Click here to hear the Royal Anthem from the Canada.ca
HM The Queen of Canada
HRH The Prince of Wales
LONG TO REIGN OVER US
60 YEARS AND COUNTING!
Since the 17th century, only three other Sovereigns have reigned over Canada for more than half a century: They were Louis XIV of France for 72 years (1643-1715), George III of Great Britain for 60years (1760-1820) and his grand-daughter Queen Victoria for 64 years (1837-1901). Before her Coronation she assumed the separate title "Queen of Canada" by Act of her Canadian Parliament. This new royal style and title was proclaimed at Ottawa 29 May 1953.
THE ROYAL STANDARD
The Royal Standard is the official flag of Her Majesty The Queen in her capacity as Sovereign of Canada.
The flag is split into four quadrants. The first quadrant represents England and contains three gold lions passant on a red field; the second quadrant represents Scotland and contains a red lion rampant on a gold field; the third quadrant represents Ireland and contains the gold harp of Ireland on a blue field; the fourth quadrant represents France and has three fleurs de lis on a blue field. The lower third of the flag contains red maple leaves of Canada on a white field.
A blue disc containing the crowned letter 'E' (for 'Elizabeth'), encircled by a wreath of gold roses, is superimposed over the coat of arms.
In Flag protocol, the Royal Standard is supreme. It must only be flown from buildings where the Queen is present. It flies above the Maple Leaf, Standards of other Royal Family members, and other provincial flags. It never flies at half mast.
HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN IS HEAD OF STATE OF...
Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada, Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands,
St. Kitts - Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Tuvalu and the United Kingdom
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MONARCHY IN CANADA
Canadians have lived with royalty ever since Henry IV, King of France, commissioned Pierre Du Gus de Monts as his viceroy and lieutenant-general in Acadie (or Acadia), the name given in the 16th century to lands now forming New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and parts of Quebec and Maine. This was in 1604. The treaty of 1763 saw a changeover from a French monarch to a British monarch.
The question is sometimes raised today why French Canada should feel any loyalty to a British sovereign. One must remember that our monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is a direct descendant of Louis IX of France. He in turn was also the ancestor of Henry IV, the sovereign who first claimed Acadie. It must be remembered also, that the majority of French Canadians in Lower Canada (Quebec) voted for the confederation of 1867. Quebec has been the keystone for most of the majority governments in Ottawa and has given several prime ministers to head federal regimes.
Queen Elizabeth II is Queen of Canada, monarch of all Canadians, and she is Queen by the will of the people.
DEFENDER OF THE FAITH
Although the Queen's Canadian title includes "Defender of the Faith," neither the Queen, the governor general, nor any lieutenant-governor has any religious role in Canada. There have been no established churches in Canada since before confederation in 1867. This is one of the key differences from the Queen's role in the United Kingdom where she is Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
THE CROWN AND OUR FIRST NATIONS
Canada's First Nations view their treaties as being agreements directly between them and the Crown, not with the ever-changing government. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 by King George III made clear that the First Nations were autonomous political units and affirmed their title to lands. It remains an important document, mentioned in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, outlining the Canadian Crown's responsibility to protect First Nations' territories and maintain the bilateral "nation-to-nation" relationship.
THE CROWN AND OUR CANADIAN FORCES
The Crown retains a prominent place within the Canadian Forces. The Constitution Act, 1867 states that the Command-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is vested in the Queen. However, the 1905 Militia Act changed references to the Office of the Governor General to become the Office of the Governor General and Commander-in-Chief of the Militia; the title and its duties being held and performed by the Governor General on behalf of the Sovereign. The Letters Patent of 1947 further reinforce this position.
The Sovereign's position and role in the military is reflected by Canadian naval vessels bearing the prefix Her Majesty's Canadian Ship (HMCS) (subsequently His Majesty's Canadian Ship during the reign of a king), and all members of the armed forces must swear allegiance to the Queen and her heirs and successors.
HER MAJESTY QUEEN ELIZABETH II
The Queen was born in London on 21 April 1926, the first child of The Duke and Duchess of York, subsequently King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. Five weeks later she was christened Elizabeth Alexandra Mary in the chapel at Buckingham Palace.
She married His Royal Highness The Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh on 20 November 1947 in Westminster Abbey. Upon the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952, she ascended to the throne and was crowned Queen Elizabeth II on 2 June 1953 in Westminster Abbey.
HM Queen Elizabeth II and HRH Prince Philip have four children; Prince Charles, The Prince of Wales; Princess Anne, The Princess Royal; Prince Andrew, The Duke of York; Prince Edward, The Earl of Wessex. They have eight grand-children.
The Prince of Wales' Personal Canadian Flag
The flag of the Prince of Wales bears a blue roundel within a wreath of golden maple leaves for Canada. The centre features the badge commonly known as the Prince of Wales’ feathers used by the heir apparent to the reigning monarch. Near the top of the flag is the traditional heraldic mark of an eldest male child, the three-point white label.
Note that where the Governor General is in attendance, as the representative of the Queen of Canada, the Vice Regal Standard has precedence over the standard of The Prince of Wales and The Duke of Cambridge.
SUCCESSION TO THE THRONE
Until 2013, succession to the throne was by male-preference primogeniture and governed by the provisions of the Act of Settlement and the English Bill of Rights. The Succession to the Throne Act, 2013, passed by the Parliament of Canada, changed the rules of succession to the first born child, rather than the first born male child. These documents are a part of Canadian constitutional law. Canada's rules of succession are identical to those of the United Kingdom by the Statute of Westminster.
The term heir apparent refers to someone who is first in the order of succession to a throne and who cannot lose this status by the birth of any other person. An Heir Apparent differs from an Heir Presumptive in that, although an Heir Presumptive may inherit the throne upon the death of the monarch, the status of the Heir Presumptive as first-in-line could be overturned by the birth of another person of superior legal status who would at the moment they were born become the Heir Apparent or the new Heir Presumptive. In effect an Heir Presumptive is the de facto or stand-by first-in-line until someone with a superior legal status in the order of succession, the Heir Apparent or a new Heir Presumptive, is born.
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Who was the first Tudor King? | King Henry VII of England (1457-1509) [Henry of Lancaster; Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond]
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KING HENRY VII, of England, was the first of the Tudor dynasty. His claim to the throne was through his mother, Margaret Beaufort , from John of Gaunt and Catherine Swynford, whose issue born before their marriage had been legitimated by parliament. This, of course, was only Lancastrian claim, never valid, even as such, till the direct male line of John of Gaunt had become extinct. By his father, Edmund of Hadham , the genealogists traced his pedigree to Cadwallader, but this only endeared him to the Welsh when he had actually become king. His grandfather, Owen Tudor , however, had married Catherine , the widow of Henry V and daughter to Charles VI of France. Their son Edmund , being half brother of Henry VI , was created by that King Earl of Richmond, and having married Margaret Beaufort , only daughter of John, Duke of Somerset , died more than two months before their only child, Henry, was born in Pembroke Castle in January 1457.
The fatherless child had sore trials. Edward IV won the crown when Henry was four years old, and while Wales partly held out against the conqueror, he was carried for safety from one castle to another. Then for a time he was made a prisoner; but ultimately he was taken abroad by his uncle Jasper Tudor , who found refuge in Brittany. At one time the duke of Brittany was nearly induced to surrender him to Edward IV; but he remained safe in the duchy till the cruelties of Richard III drove more and more Englishmen abroad to join him. An invasion of England was planned in 1483 in concert with the Duke of Buckingham 's rising; but stormy weather at sea and an inundation in the Severn defeated the two movements.
A second expedition, two years later, aided this time by France, was more successful. Henry landed at Milford Haven among his Welsh allies and defeated Richard at the battle of Bosworth (August 22, 1485). He was crowned at Westminster on the 30th of October following. Then, in fulfilment of pledges by which he had procured the adhesion of many Yorkist supporters, he was married at Westminster to Elizabeth (1465-1503), eldest daughter and heiress of Edward IV (Jan. 18, 1486), whose two brothers had both been murdered by Richard III. Thus the Red and White Roses were united and the pretexts for civil war done away with.
Nevertheless, Henry's reign was much disturbed by a succession of Yorkist conspiracies and pretenders. Of the two most notable impostors, the first, Lambert Simnel , personated the Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clarence , a youth of seventeen whom Henry had at his accession taken care to imprison in the Tower. Simnel, who was but a boy, was taken over to Ireland to perform his part, and the farce was wonderfully successful. He was crowned as Edward VI in Christchurch Cathedral, Dublin, and received the allegiance of every one — bishops, nobles and judges, alike with others. From Ireland, accompanied by some bands of German mercenaries procured for him in the Low Countries, he invaded England; but the rising was put down at Stoke near Newark in Nottinghamshire, and, Simnel being captured, the king made him a menial of his kitchen.
This movement had been greatly assisted by Margaret, duchess dowager, of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV, who could not endure to see the House of York supplanted by that of Tudor. The second pretender, Perkin Warbeck , was also much indebted to her support; but he seems to have entered on his career at first without it. And his story, which was more prolonged, had to do with the attitude of many countries towards England. Anxious as Henry was to avoid being involved in foreign wars, it was not many years before he was committed to a war with France, partly by his desire of an alliance with Spain, and partly by the indignation of his own subjects at the way in which the French were undermining the independence of Brittany. Henry gave Brittany defensive aid; but after the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII of France, he felt bound to fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the German king Maximilian , by an invasion of France in 1492. His allies, however, were not equally scrupulous or equally able to fulfil their obligations to him; and after besieging Boulogne for some little time, he received very advantageous offers from the French king and made peace with him.
Now Perkin Warbeck had first appeared in Ireland in 1491, and had somehow been persuaded there to personate Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the two princes murdered in the Tower, pretending that he had escaped, though his brother had been killed. Charles VIII, then expecting war with England, called him to France, recognized his pretensions and gave him a retinue; but after the peace he dismissed him. Then Margaret of Burgundy received him as her nephew, and Maximilian , now estranged from Henry, recognized him as king of England. With a fleet given him by Maximilian he attempted to land at Deal, but sailed away to Ireland and, not succeeding very well there either, sailed farther to Scotland, where James IV received him with open arms, married him to an earl's daughter and made a brief and futile invasion of England along with him. But in 1497 he thought best to dismiss him, and Perkin, after attempting something again in Ireland, landed in Cornwall with a small body of men.
Already Cornwall had risen in insurrection that year, not liking the taxation imposed for the purpose of repelling the Scotch invasion. A host of the country people, led first by a blacksmith, but afterwards by a nobleman, marched up towards London and were only defeated at Blackheath . But the Cornishmen were quite ready for another revolt, and indeed had invited Perkin to their shores. He had little fight in him, however, and after a futile siege of Exeter and an advance to Taunton he stole away and took sanctuary at Beaulieu in Hampshire. But, being assured of his life, he surrendered, was brought to London, and was only executed two years later, when, being imprisoned near the Earl of Warwick in the Tower, he inveigled that simple-minded youth into a project of escape. For this Warwick, too, was tried, condemned and executed — no doubt to deliver Henry from repeated conspiracies in his favour.
Henry had by this time several children, of whom the eldest, Arthur , had been proposed in infancy for a bridegroom to Catherine , daughter of Ferdinand of Aragon . The match had always been kept in view, but its completion depended greatly on the assurance Ferdinand and Isabella could feel of Henry's secure position upon the throne. At last Catherine was brought to England and was married to Prince Arthur at St Paul's on the 14th of November 1501. The lad was just over fifteen and the co-habitation of the couple was wisely delayed; but he died on the 2nd of April following. Another match was presently proposed for Catherine with the king's second son, Henry , which only took effect when the latter had become king himself [cf. Henry VIII ]. Meanwhile Henry's eldest daughter Margaret was married to James IV of Scotland — a match distinctly intended to promote international peace, and make possible that ultimate union which actually resulted from it. The espousals had taken place at Richmond in 1502, and the marriage was celebrated in Scotland the year after.
In the interval between these two events Henry lost his queen, who died on the 11th of February 1503, and during the remainder of his reign he made proposals in various quarters for a second marriage — proposals in which political objects were always the chief consideration; but none of them led to any result. In his latter years he became unpopular from the extortions practised by his two instruments, Empson and Dudley, under the authority of antiquated statutes. From the beginning of his reign he had been accumulating money, mainly for his own security against intrigues and conspiracies, and avarice had grown upon him with success. He died in April 1509, undoubtedly the richest prince in Christendom. He was not a niggard, however, in his expenditure. Before his death he had finished the hospital of the Savoy and made provision for the magnificent chapel at Westminster which bears his name. His money-getting was but part of his statesmanship, and for his statesmanship his country owes him not a little gratitude. He not only terminated a disastrous civil war and brought under control the spirit of ancient feudalism, but with a clear survey of the conditions of foreign powers he secured England in almost uninterrupted peace while he developed her commerce, strengthened her slender navy and built, apparently for the first time, a naval dock at Portsmouth.
| Henry VII |
Who was the first Hanoverian king? | BBC - iWonder - How the Tudor dynasty shaped modern Britain
How the Tudor dynasty shaped modern Britain
1485
1603End of the Tudor dynasty
Building the house of Tudor
The Tudor era saw unprecedented upheaval in England. Between them the five Tudor kings and queens introduced huge changes that are still with us today.
The years between the crowning of Henry VII in 1485 and the death of Elizabeth I in 1603 saw the old religious order swept away, the establishment of the American colonies, the foundation of the Royal Navy and the power of Europe challenged.
1485
Henry VII seizes the throne
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Thomas Penn reveals how the first Tudor monarch rose to power. Clip from Winter King (BBC Two, 2013).
Henry Tudor is crowned King of England on the battlefield at Bosworth after his army defeats and kills Richard III.
Henry VII presents himself as the unifier of the warring Lancaster and York dynasties – symbolised by his adoption of the red and white Tudor Rose. His reign brings 85 years of civil war to an end. He marries Elizabeth, daughter of the Yorkist king Edward IV. Within a year they have a son, Arthur, later followed by another, Henry.
Henry VIII is crowned king
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David Dimbleby explains the character of Henry VIII's reign. Clip from Seven Ages of Britain (BBC One, 2010).
The 17-year-old Henry succeeds to the throne on the death of his father, Henry VII. His older brother Arthur had died seven years earlier.
The Pope gives a special dispensation for the young king to marry his late brother’s wife Catherine of Aragon. Three years later Henry invades France in pursuit of an ancient claim to the throne. He is aided and abetted by his advisor Thomas Wolsey, who he appoints Lord Chancellor in 1514.
The heavens laugh, the earth exults... Our King does not desire gold or gems or precious metals, but virtue, glory and immortality.
Courtier William Blount on Henry's accession, 1509
1512
The Royal Mail is founded
Bridgeman
Church of England is created
Getty
Title page of the Great Bible. Henry VIII authorised it to be the first English Bible for public use in 1539.
Henry requests an annulment of his marriage with Catherine from the Pope in order to marry Anne Boleyn. The request is refused.
In response, Henry breaks from the authority of the Pope and is declared head of the English Church by Parliament. To cancel out the power of the Catholic church in England, he dissolves over 800 monasteries and transfers their wealth and lands transferred to the crown. Years of discord between Protestants and Catholics follow.
Mary Rose sinks but Royal Navy flourishes
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David Dimbleby explains how Henry VIII founded the Royal Navy. Clip from Seven Ages of Britain (BBC One, 2010).
Henry VIII is keen to build up his fledgling navy from the 15 ships he inherits. By 1540 the navy has 45.
He also builds the first naval dock at Portsmouth and establishes the Navy Board to run the service. Many of the ships, like Henry's flagship the Mary Rose, are fitted with the latest guns. Henry's ships can now now stand up against those of the French and Spanish navies. In 1545, the Mary Rose sinks while leading an attack against a French invasion fleet.
The wind caught her sails so strongly as to heel her over, and plunge her open gun ports beneath the water, which flooded and sank her.
Attributed to Francis van der Delft, Ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire
1547
England becomes Protestant under Edward VI
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Simon Schama describes how the reformation was brought in during Edward VI's reign. Clip from A History of Britain by Simon Schama (BBC Two, 2000).
Henry dies and his son Edward, aged nine, becomes king. Edward's uncle Edward Seymour seizes power by establishing himself as protector.
In order to make England a truly Protestant state, the Book of Common Prayer is introduced and religious imagery in churches is destroyed. Seymour is arrested and later executed after he fails to solve England's near bankruptcy. The king dies aged fifteen, never ruling in his own right. The cause of his death is not certain.
Elizabeth I’s long reign begins
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Simon Schama describes Elizabeth I's tolerant approach to religion. Clip from A History of Britain by Simon Schama (BBC Two, 2000).
When Mary dies, her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, becomes queen.
Elizabeth returns England to Protestantism, but she does not enforce strict religious conformity and declares she does not want to 'make windows into men's souls'. Elizabeth chooses never to marry as she wants England free from the influence of foreign princes and the dissent and infighting a marriage to a fellow countryman might bring.
...this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a Queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin.
Queen Elizabeth I to Parliament, 1559
1571
Royal Exchange sees trade flourish
Mary Evans
The first Royal Exchange at Cornhill, City of London.
Sir Thomas Gresham, known as the father of English banking, sets up the Royal Exchange – the first purpose-built centre for trading stocks in London.
However stock brokers are not allowed inside the building because of their rude manners, instead they operate from nearby coffee houses. Gresham helps persuade Elizabeth I's parliament to legalise money-lending, which allows the Crown to raise loans from home rather than abroad. Over time London takes over from Antwerp as the financial capital of Europe.
Spymaster ensnares Mary, Queen of Scots
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Neil Oliver describes how Mary Queen of Scots was involved in plotting Elizabeth I's downfall. Clip from A History of Scotland (BBC Two, 2008).
Queen Elizabeth I faces numerous plots against her and pays Sir Francis Walsingham to set up a European network of spies across Europe.
He establishes England's first counter-intelligence network and a London school that teaches cipher breaking and forgery. Elizabeth's Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scots is in exile in England and poses a threat to Elizabeth. Mary is put under house arrest. Walsingham is convinced she is plotting against the queen and implicates her in a plan to depose Elizabeth. Mary is executed a year later.
Myself with ten gentlemen and a hundred of our followers will undertake the delivery of your royal person from the hands of your enemies.
Letter from plotter Anthony Babington to Mary Queen of Scots
1588
Defeat of Spanish Armada inspires England
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Dan Snow describes how the English sent fire ships to disrupt the Spanish Armada. Clip from Battlefield Britain (BBC Two, 2004).
Philip II of Spain launches a great fleet of ships, known as the Spanish Armada, to overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholicism to England.
The Armada of 130 ships sails up the English channel towards the Spanish Netherlands to pick up troops for the invasion. However, they are engaged by the Royal Navy and driven to the North Sea by strong winds. Only around half of them make it back to Spain. The English celebrate their victory with a medal inscribed with the words 'God Blew and they were Scattered'.
I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too.
Elizabeth I, addressing troops at Tilbury, July 1588
1601
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In which palace was Robert the Bruce crowned in 1306? | 1306 - Robert Bruce crowned at Scone
1306 - Robert Bruce crowned at Scone
The Bruce Women and the Coronation
Bruce had himself crowned King of Scotland and went into open rebellion against the ailing Edward I. Some of his strongest and bravest supporters were women, such as Christiana, Lady of the Isles, who supplied him with galleys and troops, and the more famous Isabel, Countess of Buchan, who stole away from her pro-English husband in order to crown him. Isabel and the women of Bruce's family suffered terrible fates when they were captured by Edward's forces. He ordered the most active of the women to be confined in wooden cages on the tops of towers, exposed to the elements with only a little privy to which to retreat, yet their fate was better than that of the men who fell into his hands and whom he ordered to be hung, drawn and quartered.
Here is Walter of Guisborough's account of Bruce's coronation and what followed.
At the beginning of AD 1306, the aforesaid Robert de Bruce, on the day of the Annunciation to the Blessed Mary, had himself crowned as King of Scotland at Scone, in the presence and with the agreement of four bishops, five earls and the people of the land. And the wife of the Earl of Buchan, who was the daughter of the Earl of Fife, to whom by hereditary right it belonged to place the crown on the head of the new king, secretly withdrew from her lord, bringing her lord's war-horses which he had sent home, so that she might exercise that office. This angered her lord, who had stood forth in loyalty to the King of England, and since she had been captured in the same year, he wished to kill her, but the King forbade him and ordered her to be placed upon the wall [the top of a tower] of the castle of Berwick, secured in a wooden cage, so that she could be seen and recognised by those passing by. And she remained many days, thus enclosed and on a strict regimen. And the King sent two bishops, namely those of Glasgow and St Andrews in Scotland, together with the Abbot of Scone, since they had been captured the same year, into England to different castles and they remained closely confined until the death of the King. And so once he had heard and learnt of the coronation of the new king, the lord the King of England, on the feast of Pentecost, sent forward with an armed band, some of his soldiers, namely the Lord Henry de Percy, the Lord Aylmer de Valence and the Lord Robert Clifford to oppose the new king and hunt him down . . .
And the new king fled and they pursued him as far as the isle of Kintyre, and they besieged the castle of that place, believing that he had withdrawn into the same place, but he had gone away into the furthest isles of that region. And when the castle had been taken by storm, they found one of the new king's brothers, namely the Lord Neil de Bruce, with the new queen and many others. Taking them with them as far as Berwick in the presence there of the justices of the Lord, the King of England, who by the King's command had assembled in that place, the men were judicially condemned, hanged, drawn and beheaded. And because the new queen was a daughter of the Earl of Ulster, he at the beginning of the war waged by his son-in-law, the Lord Robert de Bruce (lest the lord the King of England should suspect him of any evil against him), sent his two sons to the King to be held fast at the King's good will to excuse himself because he had always shown himself loyal to him. Also on account of one word which she had said to her husband when at his coronation he was speaking to her and said, 'Rejoice now, my wife, because you have been made a Queen and I a King,' she is said to have replied to him, 'I am afraid my Lord that we have been made King and Queen, as boys are made in summer games.' Therefore for those two causes the King sent her with her household to stay at her manor of Brustewych and ordered her to be maintained with honour. [As to] the earl of Atholl, who had fled from that castle and after some interval had been captured, although the Queen of England and many nobles asked the King on his behalf for his life, especially because he was a near relative to the lord the King of England, the King ordered that he should be brought to London and hanged higher than the rest. And because he who had been a prominent blood relation was found to be a traitor, the King ordered him to be beheaded and burned after his hanging, which was done. As to Christopher Seton, who had married the new king's sister, Mary [in fact Christian] by name, although he was English, when he was taken in the castle of Lochdore [Lochdoon Castle] and afterwards his wife and many others, the King ordered that he be taken to Dumfries, where he had killed a soldier, and there to be drawn, hanged and beheaded. His two brothers and others who all agreed to and were present at the death of the lord John Comyn had a similar sentence and this from the King's special command. However, the King placed Christopher's wife in the monastery of Thyxsel, in Lindesay [Sixhills, Lincolnshire], and he placed the new king's daughter in the monastery of Watthon [Watton, Yorkshire].
Translated by J. Russell, Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough, ed. H. Rothwell, Camden Society, 1957.
| Scone |
What was the name of the Royal yacht which was de-commissioned in 1997? | de Bruce of Scotland - Clifton's Collectibles Genealogy
, whose descendants held lands in England as Lords of Skelton, until extinction 1271.
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Gisborough Priory is a ruined former Augustinian priory in the town of Guisborough, now in the borough of Redcar and Cleveland and the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire, England. It was founded in 1119 as the Priory of St. Mary by Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale
Robert de Brus 2nd Lord of Annandale,"the Cadet", flourished 1138, died in 1194. He was the son of Robert de Brus 1st Lord of Annandale. His wife was Eufemia de Aumale, daughter of Ingleram de Aumale, born 1111 in Aumale, Seine-Maritime, France and was the son of Stephen Count of Aumale, born before 1070 and died 1127. Stephen's wife was Hawise de Mortimer in 1138, b: about 1083 in Herfordshire, England. Robert's father, (the 1st Lord of Annandale) renounced his allegiance to David I when he invaded England before the
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Battle of the Standard to support his niece Matilda's claim to the English throne against that of King Stephen . Robert II. Robert de Brus 2nd (the son) remained loyal to David and took over his father's holdings in Scotland. Robert was buried at Gisborough Priory in the North Riding, Yorkshire, England, a monastery founded by his father Robert I de Brus.
Robert de Brus and Eufemia de Aumale, had five children:
Robert III de Brus died circa 1191 was the oldest son of Robert de Brus, 2nd Lord of Annandale and predeceased his father did not inherit the lordship of Annandale, which passed to his brother, William de Brus, 3rd Lord. He married in 1183, Isabella Mac William (Isib�al inghean Uilleim), illegitimate daughter of King William I of Scotland through the latter's liaison with a daughter of Robert Avenel lord of Eskdale. There were no children.
William de Brus, 3rd Lord of Annandale, who died 16 July 1212.
Bernard
Agatha
Euphemia
William de Brus 3rd Lord of Annandale, was born about 1103 in Annandale, Dumfrieshire, Scotland , and died 16 July 1212, in Annandale, Dumfrieshire, Scotland. He was the second eldest son of Robert de Brus 2nd Lord of Annandale and Euphemia de Aumale.
3
William de Brus possessed large estates in the north of England. He obtained from King John, the grant of a weekly market at Hartlepool, and granted lands to the canons of Gisburn.Very little else is known about William's activities He married Beatrice de Teyden, the daughter of Paulinus de Teyden and Beatrice de Evermure. The couple had two sons:
Robert de Brus 4th Lord of Annandale born about 1195
William de Brus
Robert de Brewes 4th Lord of Annandale born Annandale, Dumfrieshire, Scotland about 1195 6 and died between 1226-1233 1226 in Stilton, Huntingtonshire, England. He married Lady Isabella of Huntingdon
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Robert de Brewes 4th Lord of Annandale was buried in Gisborough Priory or in Saltre Abbey, near Stilton, Gloucestershire.
The couple had three children:
Bernard Bruce, Lord of Connington and Exton, died circa 5 August 1266
Beatrice de Brewes, married Hugh de Neville
, died before July 1273
Sir Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, born 1210, died 31 March 1295
Sir Robert de Brus 5th Lord of Annandale, born about 1210 and died 31 March 1295 in Lochmaben Castle, was the son of Robert de Brus 4th Lord of Annandale and Lady Isabella of Huntingdon. Robert de Brus 5th Lord of Annandale married first, Isabella de Clare, daughter of , Gilbert de Clare, 4th Earl of Gloucester and Lady Isabella Marshal, on 12 May 1240. Secondly, he married, he married Christina de Ireby, daughter of Sir William de Ireby and Christian de Hodeholme, on 3 May 1273 at Hoddam, in Glasgow, Lanarkshire, Scotland.
The death of Alexander III of Scotland in 1286 without a male heir, the throne of Scotland had become the possession of the three-year old Margaret, Maid of Norway, the granddaughter of the King. In 1290 the Guardians of Scotland, who had been appointed to govern the realm during the young Queen's minority, drew up the Treaty of Birgham, a marriage contract between Margaret and the then five-year old Edward of Caernarvon, the heir to the English throne. The treaty, amongst other points, contained the provision that although any offspring of this marriage would be heir to the crowns of both England and Scotland, the latter kingdom should be "separate, apart and free in itself without subjection to the English Kingdom".The intent, clearly, was to keep Scotland as an independent entity. In early October the young Queen died in Orkney on her way to Scotland, leaving Scotland without an undisputed successor to the throne.
After 8 this extinction of the senior line of the Scottish royal house (the line of William I of Scotland) David of Huntingdon's descendants were the primary candidates for the throne. The two most notable claimants to the throne, John Balliol and Robert (de Brus the 5th) himself represented descent through David's daughters Margaret and Isobel respectively. To avoid the catastrophe of open warfare between the Bruce and Balliol, the Guardians and other Scots magnates asked Edward I to intervene. Edward I gave judgment on the Scottish case on November 17, 1292 in favour of John Balliol, with his son Edward becoming heir designate. This decision had the support of the majority of Scots nobles and magnates, even a number of those appointed by Bruce as auditors. Of special note was the support of John II Comyn, another competitor and head of the most powerful baronial family in Scotland, who was married to Balliol's sister, Eleanor.
So, John Balliol became King of Scotland, reigning from 17 November 1292 – 10 July 1296. But, that was not the end of the story. This is a preamble to what happens as time moves on.
Sir Robert de Brus died at Lochmaben Castle and was buried at Guisborough Priory on 17 April 1295.
They had a son,
Robert de Brus 6th Lord of Annandale, born in Writtle, Chelmsford, Essex, England.
Robert de Brus 6th Lord of Annandale
4
, born in Writtie, Chelmsford, Essex, England was the son of Robert de Brus 5th Lord of Annandale and Isabella of Gloucester and Hertford. Robert de Brus 6th Lord of Annandale He married, first, Margaret, Countess of Carrick, daughter of Neil, 2nd Earl of Carrick and Margaret Stewart, in 1271 at Turnberry Castle, Turnberry, Ayrshire, Scotland, without Royal consent, and so she had to pay a heavy fine. He married, secondly, Alianore___
9
after 1292. He succeeded to the title of Lord of Annandale before 4 July 1295. He fought in the Battle of Dunbar on 28 April 1296, with King Edward I. He was created 1st Lord Brus [England by writ] on 15 March 1297. He died before 4 April 1304 and was buried at Abbey of Holm Cultram.
The children of Robert de Brus 6th Lord of Annandal and Margaret, Countess of Carrick were:
Edward de Bruce, 1st Earl and last of Carrick died 14 October 1318
Sir Thomas Bruce died 9 February 1307
Alexander Bruce died 9 February 1307
Neil Bruce died circa September 1306
Lady Mary Bruce died before 22 September 1323
Lady Christina Bruce died 1356/57
Margaret Bruce
Matilda Bruce died between 1323 - 1329
Robert I Bruce, King of Scotland born 11 July 1274, died 7 June 1329
Isabella Bruce born circa 1275 died 1358
Robert the Bruce King of Scots
Robert the Bruce King of Scots
,
Children of Robert I Bruce, King of Scotland
Sir Neil of Carrick died 17 October 1346
Walter of Odistoun
Robert Bruce, Baron of Liddesdale born between 1302 - 1314, died 12 August 1332
Elizabeth Bruce born before 1327
Children of Robert I Bruce, King of Scotland and Lady Elizabeth de Burgh
David II Bruce, King of Scotland b. 5 Mar 1323/24, d. 22 Feb 1370/71
Margaret Bruce born before 1327, died bet 30 Mar 1346 - 9 Nov 1347
Matilda Bruce born b 1327, d. 20 Jul 1353
John Bruce b Oct 1327
Child of Robert Bruce I, King of Scotland and Isabella, Lady of Mar
Marjorie Bruce, born December 1296 and died 2 March 1316. She married Robert Stewart 6th High Steward of Scotland . Her son succeeded his childless uncle David II of Scotland in 1371 as King Robert II. Her descendants include the House of Stuart and all their successors on the throne of Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Her mother, Isabella, a nineteen-year-old noblewoman from the Clan Mar, died soon after giving birth to her. Her father was then the Earl of Carrick, and her mother died the Countess of Carrick; she never became Queen. Marjorie was named after her father's mother, Marjorie, Countess of Carrick.
According to legend, her parents had been very much in love, and Robert the Bruce did not remarry until Marjorie was six years old. In 1302, a courtier named Elizabeth de Burgh became her stepmother.
On 27 March 1306, her father was crowned King of Scots at Scone, Perthshire, and Marjorie, then nine years old, became a Princess of Scotland.
David II, King of Scotland
David II Bruce, King of Scotland 11 was born on 5 March 1323/24 at Dunfermline Palace, Dunfermline, Fife, Scotland, the son of Robert I Bruce, King of Scotland and Lady Elizabeth de Burgh. He married, first, Joanna 'of the Tower' Plantagenet, daughter of Edward II, King of England and Isabelle de France, on 17 July 1328 at Berwick-upon-Tweed, Northumberland, England. He married, secondly, Margaret Drummond, daughter of Sir Malcolm Drummond, 10th Thane of Lennox and Margaret de Graham, on 20 February 1363/64 at Inchmurdach Manor, Fife, Scotland. He and Margaret Drummond were divorced circa 20 March 1370.
He was crowned King of Scotland on 24 November 1331 at Scone Abbey, Scone, Perthshire, Scotland. He was deposed as King of Scotland in August 1332. He gained the title of King David II of Scotland in December 1332. He was deposed as King of Scotland in 1333. He gained the title of King David II of Scotland in 1336. In 1346 he attempted to invade England whilst Edward III was preoccupied with France and Phillip IV. Following a battle and rout at Neville's Cross near Durham, David was captured by the English on 17 October 1346, and held captive until the Treaty of Berwick was signed in October 1357.
He died unexpectedly on 22 February 1370/71 at age 46 at Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh, Midlothian, Scotland, without issue. He was buried at Holyrood Abbey, Edinburgh, Midlothian, Scotland. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stewart , the first Stewart King of Scotland. Robert, the hereditary High Steward of Scotland and grandson of Robert Bruce, is crowned. See Robert Stewart.
Marjorie Bruce married Walter Stewart 6th High Steward of Scotland for more information about this family.
Sources and footnotes
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During 1951, who did the English football team beat 17 - 0? | England Football Online - Trivia
Trivia
We've collected these pieces of trivia from various sources over the years and we've tried to verify them where possible. But if you know better or more, please let us know.
Players
Age Youngest player
Theo Walcott , Arsenal, replaced Rooney as England's youngest ever player on 30 May 2006 when he came on as a 65th minute substitute against Hungary at Old Trafford, Manchester. Walcott was 17 years and 75 days old.
Wayne Rooney , Everton, was 17 years and 111 days old when he played against Australia on 12 February 2003. Rooney had finally ended a 124 year record, displacing James Prinsep of Clapham Rovers, who was only 17 years and 253 days old when he played against Scotland on 5 April 1879.
Rooney is the youngest player to start for England, when he did so against Turkey on 2 April 2003. He was 17 years and 160 days.
Age Oldest player to appear
Stanley Matthews, 42 years and 103 days old, against Denmark, 15 May 1957.
Alec Morten has a disputed date of birth. He was 68 years old at the time of his death on 24 February 1900. Meaning he was born in either 1831 or 1832, making him 41 or 42 on 8 March 1873 against Scotland.
Age Oldest player to make his debut
Alec Morten has a disputed date of birth. He was 68 years old at the time of his death on 24 February 1900. Meaning he was born in either 1831 or 1832, making him 41 or 42 on 8 March 1873 against Scotland, one non-specific source says 41 years and 114 days old. Either way - the oldest debutant.
Leslie Compton was 38 years and 65 days old, in a 4-2 victory over Wales in Sunderland, November 15, 1950
Age Oldest opposition player
Billy Meredith, 45 years and 229 days old, for Wales, 15 March 1920.
Age Youngest opposition player
Sam Johnston, was 15 years and 154 days old, for Ireland, 18 February 1881.
If the source is correct, then Jaroslav Jirkovský was 16 years and 242 days when he played for the Slavia Praha side that represented Bohemia against England on 13 June 1908.
The modern-day record lay with Salomon Olembe, who was 16 years and 342 days old, when playing for Cameroon on 15 November 1997.
Blendi Nallbani, most definitely the youngest opposition goalkeeper at 17 years and 331 days, for Albania, 26 April 1989.
Age Youngest player to score
Wayne Rooney , Everton, was 17 years and 317 days old when he scored in the 53rd minute against Macedonia on 6 September 2003.
Age Youngest opposition player to score
Wi llie Gibson , 17 years and 153 days old when he scored in a late Ireland equaliser, on 3 March 1894. It was the first time Ireland avoided defeat at the hands of England, albeit, some match reports say the ball went through the side.
Jean Capelle, at 17 years and 202 days, scored for Belgium against England on 16 May 1931 in Brussels.
Age Youngest debutant to score
Marcus Rashford, Manchester United, having played just eighteen first team matches for his club, scored 138 seconds into his debut against Australia, 27 May 2016, at The Stadium of Light, Sunderland. He was 18 years and 209 days old. Beating the previous record held by T ommy Lawton , Everton, was 19 years and 16 days old when he scored a penalty against Wales on 22 October 1938.
Age Youngest player to score a penalty
T ommy Lawton , Everton, was 19 years and 16 days old when he scored a penalty on his debut against Wales on 22 October 1938.
Age Oldest player to score
Stanley Matthews was 41 years and 248 days old when he scored for England in the 2nd minute against Northern Ireland on 10 October 1956.
Age Oldest debutant to score
Jimmy Moore was 34 years and 11 days old when he scored for England against Sweden on 21 May 1923.
Bill Nicholson is the oldest post-war scoring debutant. He was 32 years and 113 days when he scored against Portugal on 19 May 1951.
Age Youngest Captain
Bobby Moore was 22 years and 47 days when he captained England to a 4-2 win against Czechoslovakia in Bratislava on May 29, 1963.
Tinsley Lindley was 22 years and 100 days old when he captained England against Wales in February 1888.
After Bobby Moore, Michael Owen was 22 years and 125 days old when he captained England against Paraguay on 17 April 2002.
Sol Campbell is by far the youngest Black Captain, he was 23 years and 254 days old when he led England out against Belgium, 29 May 1998.
Gerry Francis was 23 years old and 272 days old when he captained England against Switzerland on 3 September 1975.
Steven Gerrard was 23 years old and 307 days old when he took the armband for the first time in England's match against Sweden on 31 March 2004.
Wayne Rooney was 24 years and 22 days old when he captained England for the first time against Brazil in Qatar on 14 November 2009.
Billy Wright was 24 years and 228 days when he gained the first of his ninety captaincies.
Age Youngest Opposition Captain
Olphie Stanfield, when he was only five days into his twentieth year, led his Ireland side out against England on 2 March 1889.
James Fitzpatrick captained Ireland on his debut on 7 March 1896, he was 20 years old and 79 days.
Aaron Ramsey, is most certainly the youngest post-war captain when he did so for Wales against England on 26 March 2011. He was 20 years and 90 days old, when Wales manager Gary Speed choose him to be the new national side's captain.
Andreas Ivanschitz was 20 years and 325 days old when he captained Austria against England on 4 September 2005.
Age Oldest Captain
in the third place play-off of the 1990 World Cup.
Age Youngest player to play at a World Cup final tournament
Michael Owen was 18 years and 183 days old when he made a substitute appearance against
Tunisia
in Marseille in the 1998 World Cup. He started the final group match against Colombia in Lens, aged 18 years and 194 days.
Age Youngest player to score at a World Cup final tournament
Michael Owen was 18 years and 190 days old when he scored against Romania in Toulouse in the 1998 World Cup. He broke the record set by Jimmy Greaves in the 1962 World Cup.
Age Oldest player to score at a World Cup final tournament
Tom Finney was 36 years old and 64 days old when he scored in the opening World Cup Finals match in 1958, against the USSR on 8 June 1958. He already held the record, aged 32 years old and 82 days when he scored England's final goal of the 1954 tournament against Uruguay on 26 June 1954.
Wilf Mannion, the scorer of England's second ever World Cup goal, was 32 years and 40 days old when he scored against Chile in the Maracana, on 25 June 1950. Ivor Broadis was 31 years and 181 days old when scored twice against Belgium on 17 June 1954. Jimmy Mullen was 31 years and 165 days old when he scored three days later against Switzerland. David Beckham, when he scored his free-kick against Ecuador, on 25 June 2006, was 31 years and 54 days. Matthew Upson, four years later, against Germany on 27 June 2010, was also 31 years old, and 68 days. Steven Gerrard had only just turned 30 years old when he scored against the USA at the beginning of the 2010 tournament.
Age Youngest goalkeeper to play at a World Cup final tournament
P aul Robinson was 26 years and 238 days old when he played against Paraguay in Frankfurt in the 2006 World Cup.
Age Youngest player on a World Cup final tournament squad
Theo Walcott , 2006 World Cup finals, at the time of the first match, Walcott was 17 years and 87 days old.
Age Oldest player to play at a World Cup final tournament
Peter Shilton was 40 years and 293 days old when he played against
Italy
, as captain, in the third place play-off of the 1990 World Cup.
Age Oldest player on a World Cup final tournament squad
Peter Shilton, 1990 World Cup finals, at the time of the first match, Shilton was 40 years and 267 days old.
Age Youngest player to play at a European Championship final tournament
Marcus Rashford was a 73rd minute subsitute against Wales, the second group match of Euro 2016 in France, he was 18 years and 229 days, taking five days off the record previously held by Wayne Rooney , who was 18 years and 234 days old when he played against France in Portugal in the 2004 European Championship Finals.
Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain had become the third eighteen year old to appear for England in a major tournament, following Rooney and previous to that, Michael Owen in the 1998 World Cup Finals, when he played against France in Donetsk in the 2012 European Championship Finals. He was 18 years and 301 days.
Age Youngest player to score at a European Championship final tournament
Wayne Rooney was 18 years and 237 days old when he scored twice against Switzerland in Portugal in the 2004 European Championship Finals.
Age Youngest goalkeeper to play at a European Championship final tournament
Joe Hart was 25 years and 53 days old when he played against France in Donetsk in the 2012 European Championship Finals.
Age Youngest player on a European Championship final tournament squad
Marcus Rashford, who at the time of the first match in the 2016 European Championship Finals, against Russia, was 18 years and 224 days, to beat the previous record by ten days, held by Wayne Rooney , who during the 2004 European Championship Finals, at the time of the first match, was 18 years and 234 days.
Age Oldest player to play at a European Championship final tournament
Peter Shilton was 38 years and 272 days old when he played against Netherlands in
Düsseldorf
during Euro 88. It was his one hundredth cap.
Age Oldest player to score at a European Championship final tournament
Trevor Brooking was 31 years and 260 days old when he scored against Spain in Napoli during Euro 80, on 22 June 1980. Bryan Robson was 31 years and 156 days old when he scored Netherlands during the unsuccessful Euro 1988 tournament.
Age Oldest player on a European Championship final tournament squad
Peter Shilton, 1988 European Championship finals, at the time of the first match, Shilton was 38 years and 8 months old.
Jermain Defoe, 7 goals scored whilst a substitute, between 2007 and 2012.
Peter Crouch scored his fifth substitute goal against France, November 2010.
Substitute Most goals scored for England by substitutes
Three, twice. Firstly in the City of Manchester Stadium, Manchester in a FA Summer Tournament match against Iceland, on 5 June 2004. Darius Vassell, twice, and Wayne Bridge scored after coming on as substitutes. Then, in San Marino Stadium, Serravalle, on 5 September 2015, Theo Walcott (twice) and Harry Kane, after alos coming on as substitutes.
Substitute Most substitutes scoring against England
Three, in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 17 August 2005. Three Danish substitutes, Dennis Rommedahl, Michael Gravgaard and Søren Larsen all scored in the 4-1 friendly demolition of England.
Substitute Most substitutions in a match
All by Sven-Goran Eriksson
BME Black and Minority Ethnic players
Viv Anderson was the first BME player to appear for England. His first cap came in the 1-0 victory against Czechoslovakia at Wembley on 29 November 1978, when he played for Nottingham Forest. He later earned caps while playing for Arsenal and Manchester United. Although he was a member of both the 1982 and 1986 World Cup squads, his only appearance in the finals of a major tournament came in the 2-1 victory over Spain in the European Championship finals of 1980 in Italy. Altogether he made 30 England appearances spread over a 10-season international career that came to a close in the 1-1 Rous Cup draw with Colombia at Wembley on May 24, 1988. Recently he served as assistant manager at Middlesbrough under his former England teammate and captain Bryan Robson, Anderson was awarded an MBE in the Queen's New Year's Honours List published 31 December 1999.
Laurie Cunningham made his England debut later the same season in the goalless draw with Wales at Wembley on 23 May 1979.
Cyrille Regis first appeared for England as a substitute in the 4-0 victory over Northern Ireland at Wembley on 23 February 1982.
Luther Blissett got his first cap as a substitute in the 2-1 loss to West Germany at Wembley on 13 October 1982.
Clubs Players from Clubs in the Second Level Division
Plenty of Second Level players have played for
England
. In the last 20 years, the following have all achieved this feat: Gary Pallister (Middlesbrough), Steve Bull (Wolverhampton Wanderers), David Hirst (Sheffield Wednesday), Earl Barrett (Oldham Athletic), Stuart Pearce (Nottingham Forest), Paul Merson and Paul Gascoigne (both Middlesbrough), Michael Gray and Kevin Phillips (both Sunderland), Richard Wright (Ipswich Town), David James (West Ham United), David Nugent (Preston North End), Jay Bothroyd (Cardiff City), Rob Green (West Ham United), Jack Butland (Birmingham City), Wilfried Zaha (Crystal Palace) and Tom Heaton (Burnley). All of these, with the exception of Bull, James, Nugent and Butland played for clubs which were promoted at the end of the relevant season.
Clubs Players from Clubs Outside the Two Top Divisions
Jack Fort (Millwall, 1921), Ernie Simms (Luton Town, 1921), Fred Titmuss and Bill Rawlings (both Southampton, 1922), Seth Plum and Harold Miller (both Charlton Athletic, 1923), Tommy Cook (Brighton & Hove Albion, 1925), Len Graham and Fred Fox (both Millwall, 1925), George Armitage (Charlton Athletic, 1925), Dick Hill (Millwall, 1926), Len Oliver and Albert Barrett (both Fulham, 1929), Joe Payne (Luton Town, 1937), Tommy Lawton (Notts County, 1947), Reg Matthews (Coventry City, 1956), Johnny Byrne (Crystal Palace, 1961), Peter Taylor (Crystal Palace, 1976) and Steve Bull (Wolverhampton Wanderers, 1989).
Clubs Players from Clubs Outside England (31)
Joe Baker (Hibernian, 1959), Gerry Hitchens (Inter Milan, 1962), Kevin Keegan (Hamburg, 1977), David Watson (Werder Bremen, 1979), Tony Woodcock (FC Cologne, 1980), Laurie Cunningham (Real Madrid, 1980), Trevor Francis (Sampdoria, 1982), Luther Blissett (AC Milan, 1983), Ray Wilkins (AC Milan, 1984),
Mark Hateley (
AC Milan, 1984, Monaco, 1987, Rangers, 1992),
Terry Butcher and Chris Woods (Rangers, 1986), Gordon Cowans (Bari, 1986), Gary Lineker (Barcelona, 1986), Glenn Hoddle (Monaco, 1987),
Gary Stevens (
Tallest player
Both Peter Crouch and Fraser Forster stood at a proud 6ft. 7in..
Zat Knight stood at 6ft. 6in., and was England's tallest player for 45 minutes against USA, 28 May 2005. Crouch debuted in the next match against Colombia, 31 May 2005.
"At 6ft 6in 'Fatty' is the tallest footballer to have represented England. Although regarded as a freak show by many, Foulke was agile for his size and an expert penalty stopper. In the early 1900s, keepers didn't have to stay on the line for penalties, so as a kick was taken Foulke and his enormous bulk charged towards the penalty spot, putting opponents off." Fat Sportsmen, The Observer Sport Monthly, 6 January 2002.
It must be noted that Foulke standing at 6'6 is without source. Whereas most official sources attribute him less standing at 6ft. 4in..
Billy Gunn (1884) and Joe Corrigan (1976-82) both stood at 6ft. 4ins.
Characteristics
Managers
Players who played under most managers/coaches
Gareth Barry had played under eight managers. Beginning in 2000, Kevin Keegan, Howard Wilkinson, Peter Taylor, Sven-Göran Eriksson, Steve McClaren, Fabio Capello, Stuart Pearce and Roy Hodgson.
Managers
Most managers per appearance
Andrew Cole earned his first four caps under four different managers for an average of one manager per appearance. Cole made his debut against Uruguay under Terry Venables in 1995, appeared next against Italy under Glenn Hoddle at the Tournoi de France in 1997, made his third appearance against France under caretaker Howard Wilkinson in 1999 and finally earned his fourth cap against Poland under new manager Kevin Keegan in his first starting appearance a few weeks later.
Team
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Trivia
We've collected these pieces of trivia from various sources over the years and we've tried to verify them where possible. But if you know better or more, please let us know.
Players
Age Youngest player
Theo Walcott , Arsenal, replaced Rooney as England's youngest ever player on 30 May 2006 when he came on as a 65th minute substitute against Hungary at Old Trafford, Manchester. Walcott was 17 years and 75 days old.
Wayne Rooney , Everton, was 17 years and 111 days old when he played against Australia on 12 February 2003. Rooney had finally ended a 124 year record, displacing James Prinsep of Clapham Rovers, who was only 17 years and 253 days old when he played against Scotland on 5 April 1879.
Rooney is the youngest player to start for England, when he did so against Turkey on 2 April 2003. He was 17 years and 160 days.
Age Oldest player to appear
Stanley Matthews, 42 years and 103 days old, against Denmark, 15 May 1957.
Alec Morten has a disputed date of birth. He was 68 years old at the time of his death on 24 February 1900. Meaning he was born in either 1831 or 1832, making him 41 or 42 on 8 March 1873 against Scotland.
Age Oldest player to make his debut
Alec Morten has a disputed date of birth. He was 68 years old at the time of his death on 24 February 1900. Meaning he was born in either 1831 or 1832, making him 41 or 42 on 8 March 1873 against Scotland, one non-specific source says 41 years and 114 days old. Either way - the oldest debutant.
Leslie Compton was 38 years and 65 days old, in a 4-2 victory over Wales in Sunderland, November 15, 1950
Age Oldest opposition player
Billy Meredith, 45 years and 229 days old, for Wales, 15 March 1920.
Age Youngest opposition player
Sam Johnston, was 15 years and 154 days old, for Ireland, 18 February 1881.
If the source is correct, then Jaroslav Jirkovský was 16 years and 242 days when he played for the Slavia Praha side that represented Bohemia against England on 13 June 1908.
The modern-day record lay with Salomon Olembe, who was 16 years and 342 days old, when playing for Cameroon on 15 November 1997.
Blendi Nallbani, most definitely the youngest opposition goalkeeper at 17 years and 331 days, for Albania, 26 April 1989.
Age Youngest player to score
Wayne Rooney , Everton, was 17 years and 317 days old when he scored in the 53rd minute against Macedonia on 6 September 2003.
Age Youngest opposition player to score
Wi llie Gibson , 17 years and 153 days old when he scored in a late Ireland equaliser, on 3 March 1894. It was the first time Ireland avoided defeat at the hands of England, albeit, some match reports say the ball went through the side.
Jean Capelle, at 17 years and 202 days, scored for Belgium against England on 16 May 1931 in Brussels.
Age Youngest debutant to score
Marcus Rashford, Manchester United, having played just eighteen first team matches for his club, scored 138 seconds into his debut against Australia, 27 May 2016, at The Stadium of Light, Sunderland. He was 18 years and 209 days old. Beating the previous record held by T ommy Lawton , Everton, was 19 years and 16 days old when he scored a penalty against Wales on 22 October 1938.
Age Youngest player to score a penalty
T ommy Lawton , Everton, was 19 years and 16 days old when he scored a penalty on his debut against Wales on 22 October 1938.
Age Oldest player to score
Stanley Matthews was 41 years and 248 days old when he scored for England in the 2nd minute against Northern Ireland on 10 October 1956.
Age Oldest debutant to score
Jimmy Moore was 34 years and 11 days old when he scored for England against Sweden on 21 May 1923.
Bill Nicholson is the oldest post-war scoring debutant. He was 32 years and 113 days when he scored against Portugal on 19 May 1951.
Age Youngest Captain
Bobby Moore was 22 years and 47 days when he captained England to a 4-2 win against Czechoslovakia in Bratislava on May 29, 1963.
Tinsley Lindley was 22 years and 100 days old when he captained England against Wales in February 1888.
After Bobby Moore, Michael Owen was 22 years and 125 days old when he captained England against Paraguay on 17 April 2002.
Sol Campbell is by far the youngest Black Captain, he was 23 years and 254 days old when he led England out against Belgium, 29 May 1998.
Gerry Francis was 23 years old and 272 days old when he captained England against Switzerland on 3 September 1975.
Steven Gerrard was 23 years old and 307 days old when he took the armband for the first time in England's match against Sweden on 31 March 2004.
Wayne Rooney was 24 years and 22 days old when he captained England for the first time against Brazil in Qatar on 14 November 2009.
Billy Wright was 24 years and 228 days when he gained the first of his ninety captaincies.
Age Youngest Opposition Captain
Olphie Stanfield, when he was only five days into his twentieth year, led his Ireland side out against England on 2 March 1889.
James Fitzpatrick captained Ireland on his debut on 7 March 1896, he was 20 years old and 79 days.
Aaron Ramsey, is most certainly the youngest post-war captain when he did so for Wales against England on 26 March 2011. He was 20 years and 90 days old, when Wales manager Gary Speed choose him to be the new national side's captain.
Andreas Ivanschitz was 20 years and 325 days old when he captained Austria against England on 4 September 2005.
Age Oldest Captain
in the third place play-off of the 1990 World Cup.
Age Youngest player to play at a World Cup final tournament
Michael Owen was 18 years and 183 days old when he made a substitute appearance against
Tunisia
in Marseille in the 1998 World Cup. He started the final group match against Colombia in Lens, aged 18 years and 194 days.
Age Youngest player to score at a World Cup final tournament
Michael Owen was 18 years and 190 days old when he scored against Romania in Toulouse in the 1998 World Cup. He broke the record set by Jimmy Greaves in the 1962 World Cup.
Age Oldest player to score at a World Cup final tournament
Tom Finney was 36 years old and 64 days old when he scored in the opening World Cup Finals match in 1958, against the USSR on 8 June 1958. He already held the record, aged 32 years old and 82 days when he scored England's final goal of the 1954 tournament against Uruguay on 26 June 1954.
Wilf Mannion, the scorer of England's second ever World Cup goal, was 32 years and 40 days old when he scored against Chile in the Maracana, on 25 June 1950. Ivor Broadis was 31 years and 181 days old when scored twice against Belgium on 17 June 1954. Jimmy Mullen was 31 years and 165 days old when he scored three days later against Switzerland. David Beckham, when he scored his free-kick against Ecuador, on 25 June 2006, was 31 years and 54 days. Matthew Upson, four years later, against Germany on 27 June 2010, was also 31 years old, and 68 days. Steven Gerrard had only just turned 30 years old when he scored against the USA at the beginning of the 2010 tournament.
Age Youngest goalkeeper to play at a World Cup final tournament
P aul Robinson was 26 years and 238 days old when he played against Paraguay in Frankfurt in the 2006 World Cup.
Age Youngest player on a World Cup final tournament squad
Theo Walcott , 2006 World Cup finals, at the time of the first match, Walcott was 17 years and 87 days old.
Age Oldest player to play at a World Cup final tournament
Peter Shilton was 40 years and 293 days old when he played against
Italy
, as captain, in the third place play-off of the 1990 World Cup.
Age Oldest player on a World Cup final tournament squad
Peter Shilton, 1990 World Cup finals, at the time of the first match, Shilton was 40 years and 267 days old.
Age Youngest player to play at a European Championship final tournament
Marcus Rashford was a 73rd minute subsitute against Wales, the second group match of Euro 2016 in France, he was 18 years and 229 days, taking five days off the record previously held by Wayne Rooney , who was 18 years and 234 days old when he played against France in Portugal in the 2004 European Championship Finals.
Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain had become the third eighteen year old to appear for England in a major tournament, following Rooney and previous to that, Michael Owen in the 1998 World Cup Finals, when he played against France in Donetsk in the 2012 European Championship Finals. He was 18 years and 301 days.
Age Youngest player to score at a European Championship final tournament
Wayne Rooney was 18 years and 237 days old when he scored twice against Switzerland in Portugal in the 2004 European Championship Finals.
Age Youngest goalkeeper to play at a European Championship final tournament
Joe Hart was 25 years and 53 days old when he played against France in Donetsk in the 2012 European Championship Finals.
Age Youngest player on a European Championship final tournament squad
Marcus Rashford, who at the time of the first match in the 2016 European Championship Finals, against Russia, was 18 years and 224 days, to beat the previous record by ten days, held by Wayne Rooney , who during the 2004 European Championship Finals, at the time of the first match, was 18 years and 234 days.
Age Oldest player to play at a European Championship final tournament
Peter Shilton was 38 years and 272 days old when he played against Netherlands in
Düsseldorf
during Euro 88. It was his one hundredth cap.
Age Oldest player to score at a European Championship final tournament
Trevor Brooking was 31 years and 260 days old when he scored against Spain in Napoli during Euro 80, on 22 June 1980. Bryan Robson was 31 years and 156 days old when he scored Netherlands during the unsuccessful Euro 1988 tournament.
Age Oldest player on a European Championship final tournament squad
Peter Shilton, 1988 European Championship finals, at the time of the first match, Shilton was 38 years and 8 months old.
Jermain Defoe, 7 goals scored whilst a substitute, between 2007 and 2012.
Peter Crouch scored his fifth substitute goal against France, November 2010.
Substitute Most goals scored for England by substitutes
Three, twice. Firstly in the City of Manchester Stadium, Manchester in a FA Summer Tournament match against Iceland, on 5 June 2004. Darius Vassell, twice, and Wayne Bridge scored after coming on as substitutes. Then, in San Marino Stadium, Serravalle, on 5 September 2015, Theo Walcott (twice) and Harry Kane, after alos coming on as substitutes.
Substitute Most substitutes scoring against England
Three, in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 17 August 2005. Three Danish substitutes, Dennis Rommedahl, Michael Gravgaard and Søren Larsen all scored in the 4-1 friendly demolition of England.
Substitute Most substitutions in a match
All by Sven-Goran Eriksson
BME Black and Minority Ethnic players
Viv Anderson was the first BME player to appear for England. His first cap came in the 1-0 victory against Czechoslovakia at Wembley on 29 November 1978, when he played for Nottingham Forest. He later earned caps while playing for Arsenal and Manchester United. Although he was a member of both the 1982 and 1986 World Cup squads, his only appearance in the finals of a major tournament came in the 2-1 victory over Spain in the European Championship finals of 1980 in Italy. Altogether he made 30 England appearances spread over a 10-season international career that came to a close in the 1-1 Rous Cup draw with Colombia at Wembley on May 24, 1988. Recently he served as assistant manager at Middlesbrough under his former England teammate and captain Bryan Robson, Anderson was awarded an MBE in the Queen's New Year's Honours List published 31 December 1999.
Laurie Cunningham made his England debut later the same season in the goalless draw with Wales at Wembley on 23 May 1979.
Cyrille Regis first appeared for England as a substitute in the 4-0 victory over Northern Ireland at Wembley on 23 February 1982.
Luther Blissett got his first cap as a substitute in the 2-1 loss to West Germany at Wembley on 13 October 1982.
Clubs Players from Clubs in the Second Level Division
Plenty of Second Level players have played for
England
. In the last 20 years, the following have all achieved this feat: Gary Pallister (Middlesbrough), Steve Bull (Wolverhampton Wanderers), David Hirst (Sheffield Wednesday), Earl Barrett (Oldham Athletic), Stuart Pearce (Nottingham Forest), Paul Merson and Paul Gascoigne (both Middlesbrough), Michael Gray and Kevin Phillips (both Sunderland), Richard Wright (Ipswich Town), David James (West Ham United), David Nugent (Preston North End), Jay Bothroyd (Cardiff City), Rob Green (West Ham United), Jack Butland (Birmingham City), Wilfried Zaha (Crystal Palace) and Tom Heaton (Burnley). All of these, with the exception of Bull, James, Nugent and Butland played for clubs which were promoted at the end of the relevant season.
Clubs Players from Clubs Outside the Two Top Divisions
Jack Fort (Millwall, 1921), Ernie Simms (Luton Town, 1921), Fred Titmuss and Bill Rawlings (both Southampton, 1922), Seth Plum and Harold Miller (both Charlton Athletic, 1923), Tommy Cook (Brighton & Hove Albion, 1925), Len Graham and Fred Fox (both Millwall, 1925), George Armitage (Charlton Athletic, 1925), Dick Hill (Millwall, 1926), Len Oliver and Albert Barrett (both Fulham, 1929), Joe Payne (Luton Town, 1937), Tommy Lawton (Notts County, 1947), Reg Matthews (Coventry City, 1956), Johnny Byrne (Crystal Palace, 1961), Peter Taylor (Crystal Palace, 1976) and Steve Bull (Wolverhampton Wanderers, 1989).
Clubs Players from Clubs Outside England (31)
Joe Baker (Hibernian, 1959), Gerry Hitchens (Inter Milan, 1962), Kevin Keegan (Hamburg, 1977), David Watson (Werder Bremen, 1979), Tony Woodcock (FC Cologne, 1980), Laurie Cunningham (Real Madrid, 1980), Trevor Francis (Sampdoria, 1982), Luther Blissett (AC Milan, 1983), Ray Wilkins (AC Milan, 1984),
Mark Hateley (
AC Milan, 1984, Monaco, 1987, Rangers, 1992),
Terry Butcher and Chris Woods (Rangers, 1986), Gordon Cowans (Bari, 1986), Gary Lineker (Barcelona, 1986), Glenn Hoddle (Monaco, 1987),
Gary Stevens (
Tallest player
Both Peter Crouch and Fraser Forster stood at a proud 6ft. 7in..
Zat Knight stood at 6ft. 6in., and was England's tallest player for 45 minutes against USA, 28 May 2005. Crouch debuted in the next match against Colombia, 31 May 2005.
"At 6ft 6in 'Fatty' is the tallest footballer to have represented England. Although regarded as a freak show by many, Foulke was agile for his size and an expert penalty stopper. In the early 1900s, keepers didn't have to stay on the line for penalties, so as a kick was taken Foulke and his enormous bulk charged towards the penalty spot, putting opponents off." Fat Sportsmen, The Observer Sport Monthly, 6 January 2002.
It must be noted that Foulke standing at 6'6 is without source. Whereas most official sources attribute him less standing at 6ft. 4in..
Billy Gunn (1884) and Joe Corrigan (1976-82) both stood at 6ft. 4ins.
Characteristics
Managers
Players who played under most managers/coaches
Gareth Barry had played under eight managers. Beginning in 2000, Kevin Keegan, Howard Wilkinson, Peter Taylor, Sven-Göran Eriksson, Steve McClaren, Fabio Capello, Stuart Pearce and Roy Hodgson.
Managers
Most managers per appearance
Andrew Cole earned his first four caps under four different managers for an average of one manager per appearance. Cole made his debut against Uruguay under Terry Venables in 1995, appeared next against Italy under Glenn Hoddle at the Tournoi de France in 1997, made his third appearance against France under caretaker Howard Wilkinson in 1999 and finally earned his fourth cap against Poland under new manager Kevin Keegan in his first starting appearance a few weeks later.
Team
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Who played the leading role in the 1982 film 'Gandhi'? | Gandhi (1982) - Cast & Crew, Ratings, Awards
Cast & Crew
Gandhi (1982) Biography | PG | 3 hours and 8 minutes | November 30, 1982 (USA)
Be the first to review
+3
Director: Richard Attenborough
Writer: John Briley
This acclaimed biographical drama presents major events in the life of Mohandas Gandhi (Ben Kingsley), the beloved Indian leader who stood against British rule over his country. Dedicated to the concept of nonviolent resistance, Gandhi is initially dismissed by English officials, including the influential Lord Irwin (John Gielgud), but eventually he and his cause become internationally renowned, and his gatherings of passive protest move India towards independence.
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| Ben Kingsley |
Who was the last Viceroy of India prior to India gaining independence? | Ben Kingsley Gandhi (1982) DVDRip (SiRiUs sHaRe) Torrent Downloads - download free torrents!
Ian Charleson ... Rev. Charlie Andrews
Athol Fugard ... Gen. Jan Christiaan Smuts
Günther Maria Halmer ... Dr. Herman Kallenbach (as Gunter Maria Halmer)
Saeed Jaffrey ... Sardar Valabhhai Patel
Geraldine James ... Meerabahen
Alyque Padamsee ... Mohammed Ali Jinnah
Amrish Puri ... Khan
Roshan Seth ... Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
Director: Richard Attenborough
Nominated for 11 Oscars, won 8 Oscars for: Best Actor in a Leading Role, Best Art Direction-Set Decoration, Best Cinematography, Best Costume Design, Best Director, Best Film Editing, Best Picture, Best Writing )Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen)
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083987/
Codecs: DivX 3 / MP3
"The object of this massive tribute died as he had always lived, without wealth, without property, without official title or office. Mahatma Gandhi was not the commander of armies, nor the ruler of vast lands. He could not boast any scientific achievement or artistic gift. Yet men, governments, dignitaries from all over the world, have joined hands today to pay homage to the little brown man in the loin cloth, who led his country to freedom."
This quote is from the funeral scene in the 1982 film "Gandhi". Richard Attenborough directed this massive epic about the man that freed India. The film opens with Gandhi's assassination. The next scene, his funeral, is one of the greatest scenes in cinematic history. Attenborough managed to recreate Gandhi's funeral on January 31st, 1981, the 33rd anniversary of the actual funeral. It is estimated that nearly 400,000 people were on hand to be a part of the filming the recreation. This film was made before CGI (computer generated images), so the funeral scene is probably the last live action crowd of that magnitude that will ever be filmed.
Mahatma Gandhi's message of non-violent resistance is delivered in an interesting and enthralling body of art. This film has made and will make millions of people aware of the little brown man that took on the British Empire and won. "Gandhi" serves both as entertainment and an important historical record of one of the most important figures in history.
Ben Kingsley played Gandhi. He was the perfect for the role. He resembled the real Gandhi. He was young enough to portray Gandhi as a young man. He is a British actor that nailed the British influenced Indian accent. He is a wonderful actor that was patient and humble with such an important part. And he was a relatively unknown actor at the time, so the "big-time actor" persona did not get in the way of viewing the film. He did win both the Academy Award and Golden Globe for best actor, for this role, which I agree he deserved. He became Gandhi.
The cinematography was outstanding. Attenborough filmed "Gandhi" on location in India. The scenes of India are spectacular, and India is very much another character in the film. This film is as much about India itself as it is about Gandhi. Attenborough shows the audience the people of India from its countryside to the vast city of Calcutta. It is suggested by Kingsley, on the DVD, that Attenborough had a difficult time with the elite class in India at the time of filming. They were against the making of such a film by an Englishman. Undeterred by their negative thinking, he persevered to enlist thousands of Indians to help make this film. Every crowd scene, he used real Indians from the area. Attenborough also won both the Academy Award and Golden Globe for best direction.
This movie is a must see for everyone. It should be required viewing in high schools, as part of History class. The fight against prejudice will forever be relevant. It is also a beautiful work of art. This movie is not tainted by the embellishment of Hollywood (see "Pearl Harbor" for that). Of course, it would have been hard to screw up a movie about such a great man.
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Here indeed is one of the great films of the 20th Century about one of the greatest men of the 20th Century. Ben Kingsley's interpretation of the Mahatma must go down in history as one of the most perfect cinema rôles ever carried out. Throughout the long film you forget you are watching an actor playing the part of a great man in history: you are watching the real Gandhi. A gigantic performance indeed. Richard Attenborough's patient and perfect directing added all the superlatives possible to make a crowning achievement, transporting biographic films into another dimension.
It is all there: from the most intimate and poignant portrait to the incredible crowd scenes, beautifully captured in the most painstaking photography. You do not just watch the scenes unfold – you live them, you feel them, so captivating they are; and Ravi Shankar's music tugs at you, spellbinds you, forces you into sympathy, admiration and so many other feelings.
Enthralling: how such a cinematographic work of art can reach such proportions is truly amazing; this film is nothing less than a miracle. During 1971 I travelled a good bit around India; I constantly had to apologise to energetic Indians who approached me on the subject of the British Raj. I had not even been born. But as a young and unappointed ambassador, I felt it my duty to bow my head in that country which is a microcosm of the whole planet. Thanks to this film, `Gandhi', Attenborough and Kingsley have said just about all there was to say.
* London, so of course it was a coincidence, and not a cute reference by the filmmakers. When Gandhi (played by Ben Kingsley) travels to London, he stays at Kingsley Hall.
* 300,000 extras appeared in the funeral sequence. About 200,000 were volunteers and 94,560 were paid a small fee (under contract). The sequence was filmed on 31st Jan 1981, the 33rd anniversary of Gandhi's funeral. 11 crews shot over 20,000 feet of film, which was pared down to 125 seconds in the final release.
* Both Alec Guinness and Anthony Hopkins were originally considered for the role.
* Ben Kingsley looked so much like Gandhi, many natives thought him to be Gandhi's ghost.
* In John Ratzenberger's brief scene, his voice is dubbed.
* Richard Attenborough and his wife Sheila Sim owned a share of the rights in Britain's longest-running play "The Mousetrap" which they sold to fund the production of this movie.
* John Hurt and Tom Courtenay were among the actors approached by Richard Attenborough about playing the lead role. Ben Kingsley was recommended for the role by Harold Pinter, who had seen him in a play; Pinter made the suggestion to Sam Spiegel, an associate of Attenborough's.
* Ben Kingsley's (born Krishna Bhanji) paternal family was from the Indian state of Gujarat, the same state Mahatma Gandhi was from.
* It was Michael Attenborough, Richard Attenborough's son, who recommended Ben Kingsley to his father.
* Trevor Howard shot his cameo as Judge Broomfield in two days.
* The Ian Charleson part was first intended for 'Michael Denison'
* Richard Attenborough first offered Candice Bergen her cameo role in 1966.
* The last film of John Boxer.
* Last film of Sir John Clements.
* Dustin Hoffman was interested in playing Gandhi, but was offered Tootsie (1982).
* For the funeral scene, advertisements calling for 400,000 extras were either distributed in pamphlets and by newspapers in Delhi. Extras were not allowed to wear anything other than white and as part of security measures, turnstiles were built at selected entry points for crowd control. The crew bought any clothing that was not white.
* No studio was interested in financing the film. Richard Attenborough cited that most of the financing were solicited from:
1. Joseph E. Levine whom agreed to finance in exchange of Attenborough directing A Bridge Too Far and Magic.
2. The sale of the ownership share of The Mousetrap
3. Jake Eberts, a friend of Attenborough. The remaining of the money were solicited from major companies in England minus the BBC.
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In what year did Ankara become capital of Turkey? | Capital of Turkey | Article about capital of Turkey by The Free Dictionary
Capital of Turkey | Article about capital of Turkey by The Free Dictionary
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/capital+of+Turkey
Related to capital of Turkey: capital of Switzerland , Constantinople , Ottoman Empire
Ankara
(ăng`kərə, Turk. äng`kärä), city (1990 pop. 2,533,209), capital of Turkey and Ankara prov., W central Turkey, at an elevation of c.3,000 ft (910 m). Turkey's largest city after İstanbul Ankara is primarily an administrative city, but it is also an important commercial, industrial, and cultural center. Grains, vegetables, and fruit are grown nearby. Manufactures include food products, wine, farm machinery, iron and steel, textiles, and cement. Angoran goats bred there are famous for the mohair made from their coats. Tourism is increasingly important, and the service sector is expanding.
Known in ancient times as Ancyra and later as Angora, the city was an important commercial center at least as early as Hittite times (18th cent. B.C.). in the 1st cent. A.D. it became the capital of a Roman province. It flourished under Augustus; in the ruins of a marble temple dating from his reign (31 B.C.–A.D. 14) was found the Monumentum Ancyranum, a set of inscribed tablets valuable as a record of Augustan history. The city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in the mid-14th cent., and in 1402 Timur defeated and captured Sultan Beyazid I there.
In the late 19th cent. Ankara declined and by the early 20th cent. was a small town known only for the production of mohair. In 1920, Kemal Atatürk made the city the seat of his Turkish nationalist government with a commitment to modernization. In 1923 it replaced İstanbul as the capital of all Turkey, partly to break with tradition and partly to take advantage of its central location. The city grew rapidly from the 1920s; in the 1960s its population almost doubled.
There are few historic remains. Ankara's leading modern monument is the Atatürk mausoleum, completed in 1953. The huge Kocatepe Mosque opened in 1987. The city has numerous museums, including the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, and is the seat of the Ankara, Hacettepe, and Middle East Technical universities.
Ankara
(formerly called Angora, ancient Ancyra), capital of Turkey, administrative center of Ankara wilaya. Located on the central Anatolian Plateau at an elevation of 891 m, at the confluence of the Cubuk and Ankara rivers (of the Sakarya River basin).
The climate is continental. Average temperatures range from -0.7°C in January to 23.2°C in July, and the annual precipitation is 340 mm. The population was 1,200,000 in 1970, second to Istanbul. From 30,000 in 1920, Ankara grew to 75,000 in 1927,157,000in 1940,650,000 in 1960, and 902,000 in 1965. Ankara is the political, economic, and cultural center of the country. Macadam roads connect Ankara with the provincial centers, and rail lines lead to the coasts of the Black Sea (at Zonguldak and at Samsun), the Bosporus (at Istanbul), the Sea of Marmara (at Izmit), the Aegean Sea (at Izmir), the Mediterranean Sea (at Mersin and Iskenderun), and the Soviet-Turkish border. The Esenboga airport is close to Ankara.
The municipal meclis (assembly, elected by the citizens for four years) is the governing body of Ankara. Its chairman is appointed by the minister of internal affairs and is approved by the president. Each city district of Ankara also has an elective municipal meclis.
The town was founded in the seventh century
B.C
. by the Phrygian king Midas. In ancient times and in the Middle Ages it was an important center for caravan trade in Anatolia. In the 14th century Ankara was conquered by the Ottoman Turks. On July 28 (or July 20), 1402, the battle between Tamerlane and Bayazid I took place near Ankara. After the 1864 province reform Ankara became the center of the wilaya of Anatolia. From the end of 1919, Ankara was the center of the national liberation movement of 1918–22. It was the residence of the Committee of Representatives and, from Apr. 23, 1920, of the Great National Assembly of Turkey and the government established by it. On Oct. 13, 1923, Ankara was made the capital of Turkey, and on Oct. 29, 1923, the capital of the Turkish Republic.
Ankara has aircraft, small arms, and other munitions factories; a tractor assembly plant; manufacturers of rubber products; small steel mills and machine shops; and cement, glass, woodworking, textile (wool), leather, and food and food-flavoring (such as flour, sugar, and meat) industries. Handicrafts are produced, particularly carpets. Ankara is a large trade center, chiefly for mohair (the wool of Angora goats), grain, and livestock.
In the old section of Ankara, with its narrow, winding streets, are its architectural monuments: the Temple of Augustus and Rome (second century
B.C
. [?]); ruins of the public baths (end of the second century or beginning of the third century); a sepulcher with frescoes (fourth century); the Citadel; 12th- to 15th-century mosques of Alaeddin, Ars-lanhane, Ahi Elvan, and others; and the great covered bazaar (between 1464 and 1471), which now houses the Archaeological Museum. Since 1920 (mainly in the 1950’s and 1960’s) a modern city, including multistory buildings, private dwellings, and an abundance of greenery, has been undergoing development through proper planning to the south of the old city. The presidential palace, the theater, and the Atatürk Mausoleum (finished in 1953, architects E. Onat and A. Arad) have been constructed. There are universities, a conservatory, six theaters (including operatic-dramatic, children’s, and chamber theaters), the Archaeological and Ethnographical Museums, and the National Library.
REFERENCE
| 1923 |
In what year did RAF hero Douglas Bader lose his legs? | Why is Istanbul not the Capital of Turkey? - Quora
Quora
Updated Feb 16, 2015
After the disastrous Ottoman defeat in World War I, while the imperial capital Istanbul and all the major port cities were under Allied occupation, the founding fathers of the Turkish Republic convened in the dusty central Anatolian town of Ankara to organize a national resistance movement against the invading forces. They even set up their own parliament there, with representatives from all over the country, against strict orders from the sultan. Once the Turkish War of Independence was won in 1923 and the borders were secure, the leader of the national movement, Mustafa Kemal (later Ataturk ), saw no need to move the parliament to the newly liberated Istanbul, and declared Ankara the new capital instead. This was also in line with his reformist agenda and his wish to cut Turkey's ties with her imperial past. Ankara's relative safety, due to its distance from the coasts, may also have played a role. After the sultanate was abolished as part of Mustafa Kemal's reforms, and the Ottoman dynasty was exiled to Europe, Istanbul lost all of its political power, but it very much remains the country's cultural and economic powerhouse to this day.
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