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{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 6, "sc": 2477, "ep": 10, "ec": 552} | 548 | Q19830062 | 6 | 2,477 | 10 | 552 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Earthquake & Geology | earthquakes anymore, because we already had an earthquake"; the previous earthquake to which he referred occurred in 1934. Geology Nepal lies towards the southern limit of the diffuse collisional boundary where the Indian Plate underthrusts the Eurasian Plate, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long Himalayas. Geologically, the Nepal Himalayas are sub-divided into five tectonic zones from north to south and, east to west and almost parallel to sub-parallel. These five distinct morpho-geotectonic zones are: (1) Terai Plain, (2) Sub Himalaya (Shivalik Range), (3) Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and mid valleys), (4) |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 10, "sc": 552, "ep": 10, "ec": 1220} | 548 | Q19830062 | 10 | 552 | 10 | 1,220 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Geology | Higher Himalaya, and (5) Inner Himalaya (Tibetan Tethys). Each of these zones is clearly identified by their morphological, geological, and tectonic features.
The convergence rate between the plates in central Nepal is about 45 mm (1.8 in) per year. The location, magnitude, and focal mechanism of the earthquake suggest that it was caused by a slip along the Main Frontal Thrust.
The earthquake's effects were amplified in Kathmandu as it sits on the Kathmandu Basin, which contains up to 600 m (2,000 ft) of sedimentary rocks, representing the infilling of a lake.
Based on a study published in 2014, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 10, "sc": 1220, "ep": 14, "ec": 106} | 548 | Q19830062 | 10 | 1,220 | 14 | 106 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Geology & Intensity | great earthquake occurs every 750 ± 140 and 870 ± 350 years in the east Nepal region. A study from 2015 found a 700-year delay between earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that because of tectonic stress buildup, the earthquake from 1934 in Nepal and the 2015 quake are connected, following a historic earthquake pattern. A 2016 study on historical great (M ≥ 8) earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to occur in the West China region through the 2020s. Intensity According to the USGS website, the maximum intensity was VIII (Severe). In most of Kathmandu the intensity |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 14, "sc": 106, "ep": 14, "ec": 727} | 548 | Q19830062 | 14 | 106 | 14 | 727 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Intensity | was VI, as evidenced by the numerous undamaged water towers installed on top of undamaged multi story buildings. Tremors were felt in the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Sikkim, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Gujarat, in the National capital region around New Delhi and as far south as Karnataka. Damage was extensive in northern Bihar and minor damage was also reported from parts of Odisha. Shaking was felt in high-rise buildings as far as Kochi in the southern state of Kerala. The intensity in Patna was V (Moderate). The intensity was IV (Light) in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The earthquake |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 14, "sc": 727, "ep": 18, "ec": 420} | 548 | Q19830062 | 14 | 727 | 18 | 420 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Intensity & Aftershocks | was also experienced across southwestern China, ranging from the Tibet Autonomous Region to Chengdu, which is 1,900 km (1,200 mi) away from the epicenter. Tremors were felt in Pakistan and Bhutan. Aftershocks A series of aftershocks began immediately after the mainshock, at intervals of 15–30 minutes, with one aftershock reaching 6.6Mw within 34 minutes of the initial quake. A major aftershock of magnitude 6.9 Mw occurred on 26 April 2015 in the same region at 12:54 NST (07:08 UTC), with an epicenter located about 17 km (11 mi) south of Kodari, Nepal. The aftershock caused fresh avalanches on Mount Everest and was felt in |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 18, "sc": 420, "ep": 18, "ec": 1048} | 548 | Q19830062 | 18 | 420 | 18 | 1,048 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Aftershocks | many places in northern India including Kolkata, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri, and Assam. The aftershock caused a landslide on the Koshi Highway, which blocked the section of the road between Bhedetar and Mulghat.
A model of GeoGateway, based on a United States Geological Survey mechanism of a near-horizontal fault as well as location of aftershocks showed that the fault had an 11° dip towards the north, striking at 295°, 50 km (31 mi) wide, 150 km (93 mi) long, and had a dip slip of 3 m (9.8 ft). The USGS says the aftershock registered at a shallow depth of 10 km (6.2 mi).
As of 24 May 2016, 459 aftershocks had |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 18, "sc": 1048, "ep": 22, "ec": 328} | 548 | Q19830062 | 18 | 1,048 | 22 | 328 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Aftershocks & 12 May 2015 earthquake | occurred with different epicenters and magnitudes equal to or above 4 Mw (out of which 51 aftershocks are equal to or above 5 Mw and 5 aftershocks above 6 Mw) and more than 20,000 aftershocks less than 4 Mw. 12 May 2015 earthquake A second major earthquake occurred on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment magnitude (Mw) of 7.3Mw 18 km (11 mi) southeast of Kodari. The epicenter was near the Chinese border between the capital of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest. It struck at the depth of 18.5 km (11.5 miles). This earthquake occurred along the same fault as the |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 22, "sc": 328, "ep": 26, "ec": 152} | 548 | Q19830062 | 22 | 328 | 26 | 152 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | 12 May 2015 earthquake & Aftermath | original magnitude 7.8 earthquake of 25 April but further to the east. As such, it is considered to be an aftershock of 25 April quake. Tremors were also felt in northern parts of India including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and other North-Indian States. At least 153 died in Nepal as a result of the aftershock and about 2,500 were injured. 62 others died in India, two in Bangladesh, and one in China. Aftermath Disastrous events in very poor and politically paralyzed nations such as Nepal often become a long drawn out chain of events, in that one disaster feeds |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 26, "sc": 152, "ep": 30, "ec": 77} | 548 | Q19830062 | 26 | 152 | 30 | 77 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Aftermath & Avalanches on Mount Everest | into another for years or even decades upon end. The aftereffects from the earthquake had subsequent effects on a myriad of things: human trafficking, labour cost and availability, rental and property cost burdens, urbanization, private and public debt burdens, mental health, politics, tourism, disease, and damage to the healthcare system. A survey some 30 months afterwards found only 12% of the reconstruction money had been distributed, and those without land were locked out of financial support, exacerbating the social divide and feeding marginalization. Avalanches on Mount Everest This earthquake caused avalanches on Mount Everest. At least 19 died, with at |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 30, "sc": 77, "ep": 34, "ec": 576} | 548 | Q19830062 | 30 | 77 | 34 | 576 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Avalanches on Mount Everest & Landslides in the Langtang Valley | least 120 others injured or missing. Landslides in the Langtang Valley In the Langtang valley located in Langtang National Park, 329 people were reported missing after an avalanche hit the village of Ghodatabela and the village of Langtang. The avalanche was estimated to have been two to three kilometres wide. Ghodatabela was an area popular on the Langtang trekking route. The village of Langtang was destroyed by the avalanche. Smaller settlements on the outskirts of Langtang were buried during the earthquake, such as Chyamki, Thangsyap, and Mundu. Twelve locals and two foreigners were believed to have survived. Smaller landslides occurred |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 34, "sc": 576, "ep": 38, "ec": 130} | 548 | Q19830062 | 34 | 576 | 38 | 130 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Landslides in the Langtang Valley & Damage | in the Trishuli River Valley with reports of significant damage at Mailung, Simle, and Archale. On 4 May it was announced that 52 bodies had been found in the Langtang area, of which seven were of foreigners.
According to geological models, the frequency and intensity of future landslides in the Langtang Valley is due to increase in the coming decades. This is attributable directly to the effect of the earthquake, which caused widespread fracturing in the grounds of the Langtang area. Damage Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country, with entire villages flattened, especially those near the |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 38, "sc": 130, "ep": 38, "ec": 806} | 548 | Q19830062 | 38 | 130 | 38 | 806 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Damage | epicenter.
The Tribhuvan International Airport serving Kathmandu was closed immediately after the earthquake, but was re-opened later in the day for relief operations and, later, for some commercial flights. It subsequently shut down operations sporadically due to aftershocks, and on 3 May was closed temporarily to the largest planes for fear of runway damage. During strong aftershocks, the airport opened all boarding-lounge exit doors onto the tarmac, allowing travelers who were waiting post security and immigration to flee to the open spaces of the runway tarmac. Many travelers remained outside as planes were delayed and the airport swelled to capacity. The |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 38, "sc": 806, "ep": 38, "ec": 1456} | 548 | Q19830062 | 38 | 806 | 38 | 1,456 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Damage | airport facilities suffered damage and there was no running water or operating toilets for travelers waiting in the airport lounges. Few airport workers were at their posts; most were killed in the earthquake or had to deal with its aftereffects.
Flights resumed from Pokhara, to the west of the epicentre, on 27 April.
Several of the churches in the Kathmandu valley were destroyed. As Saturday is the principal day of Christian worship in Nepal, 500 people were reported to have died in the collapses.
Several temples on Kathmandu Durbar Square, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, collapsed, as did the Dharahara tower, built in |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 38, "sc": 1456, "ep": 38, "ec": 2139} | 548 | Q19830062 | 38 | 1,456 | 38 | 2,139 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Damage | 1832; the collapse of the latter structure killed at least 180 people, Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, previously damaged in an earlier quake, tilted several inches further. The northern side of Janaki Mandir in Janakpur was reported to have been damaged. Several temples, including Kasthamandap, Panchtale temple, the top levels of the nine-story Basantapur Durbar, the Dasa Avtar temple and two dewals located behind the Shiva Parvati temple were demolished by the quake. Some other monuments including the Taleju Bhawani Temple partially collapsed.
The top of the Jaya Bageshwari Temple in Gaushala and some parts of the Pashupatinath Temple, Swyambhunath, Boudhanath Stupa, |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 38, "sc": 2139, "ep": 38, "ec": 2833} | 548 | Q19830062 | 38 | 2,139 | 38 | 2,833 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Damage | Ratna Mandir, inside Rani Pokhari, and Durbar High School have been destroyed.
In Patan, the Char Narayan Mandir, the statue of Yog Narendra Malla, a pati inside Patan Durbar Square, the Taleju Temple, the Hari Shankar, Uma Maheshwar Temple and the Machhindranath Temple in Bungamati were destroyed. In Tripureshwar, the Kal Mochan Ghat, a temple inspired by Mughal architecture, was completely destroyed and the nearby Tripura Sundari also suffered significant damage. In Bhaktapur, several monuments, including the Phasi Deva temple, the Chardham temple and the 17th century Vatsala Durga Temple were fully or partially destroyed.
Outside the Valley, the Manakamana Temple in |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 38, "sc": 2833, "ep": 38, "ec": 3502} | 548 | Q19830062 | 38 | 2,833 | 38 | 3,502 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Damage | Gorkha, the Gorkha Durbar, the Palanchok Bhagwati, in Kabhrepalanchok District, the Rani Mahal in Palpa District, the Churiyamai in Makwanpur District, the Dolakha Bhimsensthan in Dolakha District, and the Nuwakot Durbar suffered varying degrees of damage. Historian Prushottam Lochan Shrestha stated, "We have lost most of the monuments that had been designated as World Heritage Sites in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur District, Nepal. They cannot be restored to their original states." The northeastern parts of India also received major damage. Heavy shocks were felt in the states of Uttrakhand, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and others. Huge damage was caused to |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 38, "sc": 3502, "ep": 42, "ec": 547} | 548 | Q19830062 | 38 | 3,502 | 42 | 547 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Damage & Economic loss | the property and the lives of the people. Economic loss Concern was expressed that harvests could be reduced or lost this season as people affected by the earthquake would have only a short time to plant crops before the onset of the Monsoon rains.
Nepal, with a total Gross Domestic Product of US$19.921 billion (according to a 2012 estimate), is one of Asia's poorest countries, and has little ability to fund a major reconstruction effort on its own. Even before the quake, the Asian Development Bank estimated that it would need to spend about four times more than it currently does annually |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 42, "sc": 547, "ep": 42, "ec": 1161} | 548 | Q19830062 | 42 | 547 | 42 | 1,161 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Economic loss | on infrastructure through to 2020 to attract investment. The U.S. Geological Survey initially estimated economic losses from the tremor at 9 percent to 50 percent of gross domestic product, with a best guess of 35 percent. "It's too hard for now to tell the extent of the damage and the effect on Nepal's GDP", according to Hun Kim, an Asian Development Bank (ADB) official. The ADB said on the 28th that it would provide a US$3 million grant to Nepal for immediate relief efforts, and up to US$200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation.
Rajiv Biswas, an economist at a Colorado-based consultancy, |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 42, "sc": 1161, "ep": 46, "ec": 458} | 548 | Q19830062 | 42 | 1,161 | 46 | 458 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Economic loss & Social effects | said that rebuilding the economy will need international effort over the next few years as it could "easily exceed" USD$5 billion, or about 20 percent of Nepal's gross domestic product. Social effects It was reported that the survivors were preyed upon by human traffickers involved in the supply of girls and women to the brothels of South Asia. These traffickers took advantage of the chaos that resulted from the aftermath of the earthquake. The most affected were women from poor communities who lost their homes.
In response to the unsafe conditions of the temporary campsites, international organizations implemented Safety Committees which were |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 46, "sc": 458, "ep": 50, "ec": 565} | 548 | Q19830062 | 46 | 458 | 50 | 565 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Social effects & Most affected | provided cash grants for necessities like additional toilets and bathrooms. Most affected Single women had very little access to relief, according to a report by the Inter-party Women's Alliance (IPWA). The report also found that violence and rapes against women and minors has increased after the earthquake. Additionally, the earthquake has significantly affected certain groups of people. Tibeto-Burman peoples were hardest hit as they tend to inhabit the higher slopes of mountains as opposed to the central valleys and are less educated and connected. All of these factors make them harder to access. According to a government survey, malnutrition in |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 50, "sc": 565, "ep": 54, "ec": 322} | 548 | Q19830062 | 50 | 565 | 54 | 322 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Most affected & Media coverage | children has worsened considerably some 3 months after the quake, with the most undernourished being Tamang and Chepang peoples. Before the quake, 41 percent of children under five were stunted, 29 percent were underweight and 11 percent were emaciated, according to the World Food Programme. Media coverage On 3 May, the hashtag #GoHomeIndianMedia was trending worldwide on Twitter, condemning news covered by the Indian media as insensitive and inhumane to victims of the tragedy. The people of Nepal acknowledged the aid and effort put by the Indian armed forces, yet, at the same time, accused Indian news networks of carrying |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 54, "sc": 322, "ep": 58, "ec": 315} | 548 | Q19830062 | 54 | 322 | 58 | 315 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Media coverage & Disease | out "a public relations exercise" on behalf of the Indian government, of overemphasizing the role of the Indian Army, and of hogging space on relief planes where aid material or rescue or medical personnel could have been sent instead. Indian users responded with the hashtags #SorryNepal and #DontComeBackIndianMedia. Disease Though a feared mass cholera outbreak failed to materialize (there were sporadic reports), other outbreaks were reported. At least 13 people died of scrub typhus while 240 people were taken ill since the disease was first diagnosed in the country in August 2015 until September 2016. The mental and emotional impact |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 58, "sc": 315, "ep": 62, "ec": 627} | 548 | Q19830062 | 58 | 315 | 62 | 627 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Disease & Rescue and relief | of an earthquake is the other invisible disaster. Rescue and relief About 90% of soldiers from the Nepalese Army were sent to the stricken areas in the aftermath of the earthquake under Operation Sankat Mochan, with volunteers mobilized from other parts of the country. Rainfall and aftershocks were factors complicating the rescue efforts, with potential secondary effects like additional landslides and further building collapses being concerns. Impassable roads and damaged communications infrastructure posed substantial challenges to rescue efforts. Survivors were found up to a week after the earthquake.
As of 1 May international aid agencies like Médecins Sans Frontières and the |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 62, "sc": 627, "ep": 62, "ec": 1263} | 548 | Q19830062 | 62 | 627 | 62 | 1,263 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Rescue and relief | Red Cross were able to start medically evacuating the critically wounded by helicopter from outlying areas, initially cut-off from the capital city, Kathmandu, and treating others in mobile and makeshift facilities. There was concern about epidemics due to the shortage of clean water, the makeshift nature of living conditions and the lack of toilets.
Emergency workers were able to identify four men who had been trapped in rubble, and rescue them, using advanced heartbeat detection. The four men were trapped in up to ten feet of rubble in the village of Chautara, north of Kathmandu. An international team of rescuers from |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 62, "sc": 1263, "ep": 62, "ec": 1992} | 548 | Q19830062 | 62 | 1,263 | 62 | 1,992 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Rescue and relief | several countries using FINDER devices found two sets of men under two different collapsed buildings.
Volunteers used crisis mapping to help plan emergency aid work. Local organization Kathmandu Living Labs helped coordinate local knowledge on the ground and collaborated with international crisis mapping and humanitarian organizations. Public volunteers from around the world participated in crowdmapping and added details into online maps. Information was mapped from data input from social media, satellite pictures and drones of passable roads, collapsed houses, stranded, shelterless and starving people, who needed help, and from messages and contact details of people willing to help. On-site volunteers verified |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 62, "sc": 1992, "ep": 62, "ec": 2675} | 548 | Q19830062 | 62 | 1,992 | 62 | 2,675 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Rescue and relief | these mapping details wherever they could to reduce errors.
Digital mappers, through the Kathmandu Living Labs, were already charting the densely populated Kathmandu Valley, and then focused on earthquake relief. "They were doing an inventory in the poorer communities where they didn't have a very good sense of the quality of buildings," says Cowan, whose students helped add Kathmandu's buildings and roads to OpenStreetMap. First responders, from Nepalese citizens to the Red Cross, the Nepal army and the United Nations used this data. The Nepal earthquake crisis mapping utilized experience gained and lessons learned about planning emergency aid work from earthquakes |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 62, "sc": 2675, "ep": 62, "ec": 3367} | 548 | Q19830062 | 62 | 2,675 | 62 | 3,367 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Rescue and relief | in Haiti and Indonesia.
India decided to donate $1 billion in cash and materials to Nepal. India's External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj said "I am happy to announce Government of India's pledge for Nepal's post-earthquake reconstruction of Nepali Rupees 10,000 crores, equivalent to one billion US dollars, one fourth of it as Grant." The International Conference on Nepal's Reconstruction has been organised by the Nepalese government to raise funds for rebuilding the country.
Reports are also coming in of sub-standard relief materials and inedible food being sent to Nepal by many of the foreign aid agencies.
A United States Marine Corps helicopter crashed on |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 62, "sc": 3367, "ep": 62, "ec": 4080} | 548 | Q19830062 | 62 | 3,367 | 62 | 4,080 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Rescue and relief | 12 May while involved in delivering relief supplies. The Bell UH-1Y Venom crashed at Charikot, roughly 45 miles (72 kilometers) east of Kathmandu. Two Nepalese soldiers and six American Marines died in the crash.
Need-fulfillment application, Getmii, launched a special pilot version in partnership with the Red Cross to double daily blood donors at the Kathmandu donation center using the app.
Imaging technologies such as satellites and smartphones, were instrumental to relief efforts in Nepal. GLIMS, group of volunteer scientists from nine nations, were able to provide rapid, systematic mapping of the damaged area, allowing the investigation of earthquake-induced geo-hazard processes that |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 62, "sc": 4080, "ep": 66, "ec": 604} | 548 | Q19830062 | 62 | 4,080 | 66 | 604 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Rescue and relief & Monuments | provided information to relief and recovery officials on the same timeframe as those operations were occurring. Monuments UNESCO and the Ministry of Culture began strengthening damaged monuments in danger of collapsing before the monsoon season. Subsequent restoration of collapsed structures, including historic houses is planned. Architectural drawings exist that provide plans for reconstruction. According to UNESCO, more than 30 monuments in the Kathmandu Valley collapsed in the quakes, and another 120 incurred partial damage. Repair estimates are $160 million to restore 1,000 damaged and destroyed monasteries, temples, historic houses, and shrines across the country. The destruction is concentrated in the Kathmandu |
{"datasets_id": 548, "wiki_id": "Q19830062", "sp": 66, "sc": 604, "ep": 66, "ec": 1098} | 548 | Q19830062 | 66 | 604 | 66 | 1,098 | April 2015 Nepal earthquake | Monuments | Valley. UNESCO designated seven groups of multi-ethnic monuments clustered in the valley as a single World Heritage Site, including Swayambhu, the Durbar squares of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur, and the Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changu Narayan. Damaged in the quakes were the structures in the three Durbar squares, the temple of Changu Narayan, and the 1655 temple in Sankhu. Drones fly above cultural heritage sites to provide 3D images of the damage to use for planning repairs. |
{"datasets_id": 549, "wiki_id": "Q18352818", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 73} | 549 | Q18352818 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 73 | Apsara International Air | History & Fleet | Apsara International Air History Apsara Air began operations with its inaugural flight on 8 October 2014 between Phnom Penh and Siem Reap. Fleet As of January 2017 Apsara International Air does not operate any aircraft |
{"datasets_id": 550, "wiki_id": "Q21665063", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 574} | 550 | Q21665063 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 574 | Arabella Valpy | Arabella Valpy Arabella Valpy (1833 – 18 January 1910) was one of six children of William Henry Valpy and Caroline Valpy (born Jeffreys), a pioneer family that emigrated from England to Dunedin, New Zealand, in January 1849 aboard the Ajax. Arabella was born in West Bengal, India, where her father was a judge.
Valpy is remembered for inviting General William Booth to New Zealand to introduce The Salvation Army to the colony. She wrote to him in April 1882, including a bank draft for two hundred pounds to cover costs, and in November 1882 two officers were sent to New Zealand |
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{"datasets_id": 550, "wiki_id": "Q21665063", "sp": 4, "sc": 574, "ep": 4, "ec": 1006} | 550 | Q21665063 | 4 | 574 | 4 | 1,006 | Arabella Valpy | to found the Salvation Army.
She established the Band of Hope Coffee Rooms with her sisters Ellen Penelope Jeffreys and Catherine Valpy and also used her own money to hire a building in Dunedin for a Sailors' Coffee Room, which she ran herself.
Valpy supported the passing of the Electoral Act 1893, which extended suffrage to women and signed the petition to Parliament asking for the vote to be extended to women. |
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{"datasets_id": 551, "wiki_id": "Q24572436", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 14, "ec": 38} | 551 | Q24572436 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 38 | Aravind Bellad | Biography & Constituency & Political Party | Aravind Bellad Biography Born on 3 Aug 1969, Arvind is the son of Chandrakant Bellad and Leelavathi C Bellad. The youngest among five children, this product of KE Boards High School and Karnataka Science College Dharwad completed his engineering from SDM College of Engineering, Dharwad. He has also completed his PGDM in Business Management from INSEAD, France. His immediate family consists of his gracious wife Smriti and his two children Agastya and Pracchi. Constituency He represents the Hubli-Dharwad West constituency. Political Party He is from the Bharatiya Janata Party. |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 14} | 552 | Q20446 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 14 | Arc-sur-Tille | Geography & Geology | Arc-sur-Tille Geography Arc-sur-Tille is located approximately 12 kilometres by road east of Dijon by road D70 which continues north-west to Magny-Saint-Medard. The A31 autoroute passes through the west of the commune from north to south with exit 4 in the commune west of the town. The commune can also be accessed from Remilly-sur-Tille in the south by road D34 which continues north to Chateau d'Arcelot. Road D961 also goes east from the village to Étevaux. Apart from the large sized village occupying some 15% of the commune, the rest of the area is almost entirely farmland. Geology The commune is |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 10, "sc": 14, "ep": 18, "ec": 67} | 552 | Q20446 | 10 | 14 | 18 | 67 | Arc-sur-Tille | Geology & Hydrography & History | located on a marshy plain Hydrography The commune is traversed from north to south by the Tille, a tributary of the Saône. It has often flooded in the past, overwhelming and damaging the village and crops.
The Lake of Arc-sur-Tille, west of the town, is a former gravel pit converted since 2002 to create the largest sandy beach in Burgundy. It is very popular in summer with swimmers and it allows many water activities (sailing, canoeing, water skiing and fishing basins reserved). The lake water is of excellent quality. History The Arc-sur-Tille Parish in the 17th century had its name corrupted |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 18, "sc": 67, "ep": 18, "ec": 639} | 552 | Q20446 | 18 | 67 | 18 | 639 | Arc-sur-Tille | History | by the vulgar pronunciation Astille. The village was a bailiwick, revenue office, and storehouse for salt from Dijon. Depends on both the Bishop of Chalon-sur-Saône and the Archdeacon of Oscheret. Three-quarters of the tithe was for the lord and the rest for the priest. It was 11, 12, or 13 bundles of all kinds of grain.
The patron saint of the parish was Saint Martin, Archbishop of Tours, whose principal feast is not on 11 November, the day of his death, but on 4 July, the day of the Translation of his relics; the dedication of the church is celebrated the |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 18, "sc": 639, "ep": 18, "ec": 1211} | 552 | Q20446 | 18 | 639 | 18 | 1,211 | Arc-sur-Tille | History | Sunday before 3 August.
Abbots from the Abbey of Saint-Étienne of Dijon have the right to preach at this church, from Gautier, Bishop of Chalon-sur-Saône who gave this right to them in 1117. Jotsalde or Joussaud, his successor in the bishopric, ratified this in the same year in a full synod of Tournus and it was subsequently confirmed by various popes in 1124, by Callistus II in 1139, by Innocent II, then in 1156, 1185, 1238, 1245 and 1290. This land with full justice rights was raised to a marquisate. The only trade was in coal. It grew wheat, barley, oats |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 18, "sc": 1211, "ep": 18, "ec": 1765} | 552 | Q20446 | 18 | 1,211 | 18 | 1,765 | Arc-sur-Tille | History | and conceau in vineyards and meadows that yielded a very bad hay. The 138 inhabitants were very poor except for three or four. In 1260 Henry de Vergy declared tenure in fief with allegiance to the Duke of Burgundy the fiefs of Bere, Arc-sur-Tille, and Janle. The village was given the name of a local family. Maifroi of Archo gave the enclosed land within the lordship of Arc to the abbot of Saint-Étienne and also gave him the right of heating from the wood in 1115.
It was in the 14th century that the last heir of the lordship, Jehanne d'Arc, |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 18, "sc": 1765, "ep": 18, "ec": 2318} | 552 | Q20446 | 18 | 1,765 | 18 | 2,318 | Arc-sur-Tille | History | took as her husband Eudes de Saulx and thus the land entered the House of Saulx-Tavannes where it still was in the 18th century. The levy cost the States the sum of 45,000 livres in 1614. Before the French Revolution there were four fairs a year: on 4 January, March, May, and September. In 1636 Arc was burned by Matthias Gallas and the castle was plundered and destroyed.
On 9 February 1650 near Arc there was a battle between the troops of the King, led by the Marquis de Tavannes and the Count, his nephew, who commanded those of the Prince |
{"datasets_id": 552, "wiki_id": "Q20446", "sp": 18, "sc": 2318, "ep": 18, "ec": 2407} | 552 | Q20446 | 18 | 2,318 | 18 | 2,407 | Arc-sur-Tille | History | of Conde, then a prisoner at Le Havre. The King was defeated and lost all his equipment. |
{"datasets_id": 553, "wiki_id": "Q16232553", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 103} | 553 | Q16232553 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 103 | Arceto Clark | Early years & Seattle Seahawks | Arceto Clark Early years Clark was born in Tupelo, Mississippi. A graduate of Shannon High School in Shannon, Mississippi, Clark was selected to play in the Mississippi-Alabama High School All-Star game at the wide receiver position. He was ranked among the top 25 high school recruits in the state of Mississippi by The Clarion-Ledger following the conclusion of his senior season. He was selected as the Class 4A Division 4 Offensive Most Valuable Player in high school. Seattle Seahawks On June 4, 2013, he signed with the Seattle Seahawks as an undrafted free agent. On August 31, 2013, he |
{"datasets_id": 553, "wiki_id": "Q16232553", "sp": 10, "sc": 103, "ep": 18, "ec": 138} | 553 | Q16232553 | 10 | 103 | 18 | 138 | Arceto Clark | Seattle Seahawks & Cleveland Browns & Seattle Seahawks (second stint) | was released by the Seahawks. Cleveland Browns On September 10, 2013, he signed with the Cleveland Browns. Seattle Seahawks (second stint) On October 2, 2013, he re-signed with the Seattle Seahawks to join the practice squad. He was released by the Seahawks on August 30, 2014. |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 648} | 554 | Q6064756 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 648 | Archaeology of Iowa | Archaeology of Iowa The archaeology of Iowa is the study of the buried remains of human culture within the U.S. state of Iowa from the earliest prehistoric through the late historic periods. When the American Indians first arrived in what is now Iowa more than 13,000 years ago, they were hunters and gatherers living in a Pleistocene glacial landscape. By the time European explorers visited Iowa, American Indians were largely settled farmers with complex economic, social, and political systems. This transformation happened gradually. During the Archaic period (10,500–2,800 years ago) American Indians adapted to local environments and ecosystems, slowly becoming |
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{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 4, "sc": 648, "ep": 4, "ec": 1321} | 554 | Q6064756 | 4 | 648 | 4 | 1,321 | Archaeology of Iowa | more sedentary as populations increased. More than 3,000 years ago, during the Late Archaic period, American Indians in Iowa began utilizing domesticated plants. The subsequent Woodland period saw an increase on the reliance on agriculture and social complexity, with increased use of mounds, ceramics, and specialized subsistence. During the Late Prehistoric period (beginning about AD 900) increased use of maize and social changes led to social flourishing and nucleated settlements. The arrival of European trade goods and diseases in the Protohistoric period led to dramatic population shifts and economic and social upheaval, with the arrival of new tribes and early |
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{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 4, "sc": 1321, "ep": 8, "ec": 486} | 554 | Q6064756 | 4 | 1,321 | 8 | 486 | Archaeology of Iowa | Iowa archaeologists | European explorers and traders. During the Historical period European traders and American Indians in Iowa gave way to American settlers and Iowa was transformed into an agricultural state. Iowa archaeologists Archaeologists have studied the prehistory of Iowa since the mid-19th century, when large American Indian mounds were first observed along the Mississippi. Early archaeologists such as S.V. Proudfit and Theodore Lewis documented large sites such as earthworks, mounds, and earthlodges. Truly systematic recording of Iowa sites began with Charles R. Keyes and Ellison Orr’s surveys and excavations beginning in the 1920s. Documenting hundreds of sites, often just before they disappeared |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 8, "sc": 486, "ep": 8, "ec": 1147} | 554 | Q6064756 | 8 | 486 | 8 | 1,147 | Archaeology of Iowa | Iowa archaeologists | under the plow, Keyes’ and Orr’s work led to the formation of the Iowa Archaeological Survey, the Iowa Archeological Society, and the designation of Effigy Mounds National Monument. After their deaths in 1951, the Survey was disbanded, and their efforts were continued by the University of Iowa’s Department of Sociology and Anthropology, which formed the Office of the State Archaeologist (OSA) in 1959. The OSA maintains an extensive list of more than 23,000 recorded archaeological sites in Iowa, and conducts survey and excavation across the state. Other institutions conducting archaeological research in Iowa include the State Historical Society of Iowa, |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 8, "sc": 1147, "ep": 12, "ec": 235} | 554 | Q6064756 | 8 | 1,147 | 12 | 235 | Archaeology of Iowa | Iowa archaeologists & Paleoindian (13,500–10,500 years ago) | the Iowa Archeological Society, the University of Iowa, Iowa State University, Grinnell College, Luther College, and private archaeological firms. Professional archaeologists in Iowa are represented by the Association of Iowa Archaeologists. Iowa archaeology grew dramatically beginning in the 1960s with the introduction of Cultural Resources Management legislation that required archaeological survey and excavation at many federal projects in Iowa. Paleoindian (13,500–10,500 years ago) Paleoindian hunters and gatherers were the first occupants of Iowa, entering the state at the end of the Pleistocene glacial period. At the time the state was covered by tundra, conifer forests, and deciduous forests. Areas immediately |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 12, "sc": 235, "ep": 14, "ec": 22} | 554 | Q6064756 | 12 | 235 | 14 | 22 | Archaeology of Iowa | Paleoindian (13,500–10,500 years ago) & Clovis and other Early Paleoindian | north of Des Moines extending to Minnesota were covered by the receding Des Moines Lobe, a large glacier system. Highly mobile, their sites are scattered across Iowa and are noted for their large stone points. While Paleoindians were traditionally viewed as big game hunters, more recent research suggests much of their subsistence was derived from small game and wild plants. Paleoindian points are found throughout Iowa, but almost no intact Paleoindian sites have been excavated, probably because they were ephemeral and are now either destroyed by plowing or are very deeply buried in river valleys. Clovis and other Early |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 14, "sc": 22, "ep": 16, "ec": 625} | 554 | Q6064756 | 14 | 22 | 16 | 625 | Archaeology of Iowa | Clovis and other Early Paleoindian | Paleoindian The oldest artifacts found in Iowa are Clovis points, large lanceolate points found occasionally in all parts of the state except for the Des Moines Lobe. Possible sources of game were giant Pleistocene megafauna, including mammoth, mastodon, and giant forms of bison, all of which are now extinct. While widespread, only two Clovis sites have been excavated in Iowa. The Rummells-Maske site is a Clovis site in Cedar County; unfortunately, this site was damaged by plowing, although 20 points and point fragments were recovered. The Carlisle Clovis Cache Site in Warren County contained 38 unfinished stone tools that appear |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 16, "sc": 625, "ep": 20, "ec": 246} | 554 | Q6064756 | 16 | 625 | 20 | 246 | Archaeology of Iowa | Clovis and other Early Paleoindian & Dalton and other Late Paleoindian | to date to the Clovis period, but these results have not yet been published.
Other Iowa Early Paleoindian points include Gainey, a point that appears to be intermediate between Clovis and Folsom. Gainey points were also recovered at Rummells-Maske. While Folsom points are found throughout Iowa, especially western Iowa, none have been excavated in a well-preserved site. Dalton and other Late Paleoindian At the beginning of the glacial-free Holocene Epoch, humans in Iowa utilized projectile point found throughout the mid-continent, including Dalton, Fayette, Agate Basin, and Hell Gap. Humans were still highly mobile, and by this time most of the |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 20, "sc": 246, "ep": 28, "ec": 65} | 554 | Q6064756 | 20 | 246 | 28 | 65 | Archaeology of Iowa | Dalton and other Late Paleoindian & Archaic Period & Early Archaic (10,500–7,500 years ago) | Pleistocene megafauna had gone extinct. As with the Early Paleoindian period, no intact Late Paleoindian sites have been excavated in Iowa. Archaic Period The Archaic is the longest period of Iowa prehistory, lasting about 8,000 years. Overall, populations appear to have increased in Iowa during the Archaic, despite a changing climate. During this time American Indians transitioned from highly mobile hunters and gatherers with large ranges towards a focus on local resources and ecosystems. Domesticated plants appeared in Iowa towards the end of the Archaic. Early Archaic (10,500–7,500 years ago) During the Early Archaic period regional variation in point forms |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 28, "sc": 65, "ep": 32, "ec": 176} | 554 | Q6064756 | 28 | 65 | 32 | 176 | Archaeology of Iowa | Early Archaic (10,500–7,500 years ago) & Middle Archaic (7,500–5,000 years ago) | is seen in Iowa, and Indians adapted to more localized forms of hunting and gathering while probably maintaining seasonal movements from camp to camp. Common stone tool types are Corner-notched St. Charles points and Thebes Knives. Soon Hardin and Kirk points appear in Iowa as well. Excavated Early Archaic sites in Iowa include the Soldow Site, Horizons IIIa and II of the Cherokee Sewer Site, and the Simonsen Site. Middle Archaic (7,500–5,000 years ago) Temperatures rose in the mid-continent during the Middle Archaic, a warming trend known as the Hypsithermal. Grasslands expanded east, forests became less common, and many Iowa |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 32, "sc": 176, "ep": 36, "ec": 191} | 554 | Q6064756 | 32 | 176 | 36 | 191 | Archaeology of Iowa | Middle Archaic (7,500–5,000 years ago) & Late Archaic (5,000–2,800 years ago) | lakes shrank or disappeared. Humans responded by diversifying their subsistence strategy: eastern Iowa saw a shift towards river resources, and western Iowa towards Plains resources. Excavated sites in eastern and central Iowa include the Brash Site, the Gast Spring Site, and the Ed’s Meadow Site. Western Iowa sites include the Turin Site, Horizon I of the Cherokee Sewer Site, and the Pony Creek Site. Late Archaic (5,000–2,800 years ago) In the Late Archaic the climate became more similar to modern with the end of the Hypsithermal. The number of Late Archaic Sites increased in Iowa, perhaps reflective of increased populations |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 36, "sc": 191, "ep": 36, "ec": 843} | 554 | Q6064756 | 36 | 191 | 36 | 843 | Archaeology of Iowa | Late Archaic (5,000–2,800 years ago) | allowed by climate change and new subsistence strategies. The Late Archaic sees the first indication of mound building in Iowa, as well as direct evidence of domesticated plants, and large, long-term settlements. The Red Ocher Culture appeared in northeast Iowa, associated with copper artifacts and mound building. Numerous Late Archaic sites have been excavated in eastern Iowa, some showing the gradual adaptation of cultigens, including squash, little barley, marsh elder, and barnyard grass. Sites with evidence for early cultigens in Iowa include the Edgewater Park Site in Coralville, the Gast Spring Site, and the Sand Run Slough West Site. In |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 36, "sc": 843, "ep": 44, "ec": 100} | 554 | Q6064756 | 36 | 843 | 44 | 100 | Archaeology of Iowa | Late Archaic (5,000–2,800 years ago) & Woodland Period & Early Woodland (800 BC–200 BC) | western Iowa, Late Archaic sites are common, however large bison killing or processing sites are less common than before, and there is little evidence for the use of domesticated plants. Woodland Period During the Woodland period, many American Indians in Iowa shifted away from hunting and gathering and used more domesticated plants, although wild food was still important. Ceramics, the bow and arrow, burial mounds, and evidence of political and social hierarchy became common at Woodland sites in Iowa. Early Woodland (800 BC–200 BC) The Early Woodland period saw the introduction of ceramics to Iowa, including Marion Thick and Black |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 44, "sc": 100, "ep": 44, "ec": 762} | 554 | Q6064756 | 44 | 100 | 44 | 762 | Archaeology of Iowa | Early Woodland (800 BC–200 BC) | Sand types. Marion Thick may have originated with the nucleated Late Archaic cultures of the Upper Midwest, and was widespread in distribution. Early Woodland Indians in eastern Iowa built large burial mounds in the Mississippi River region, and participated in long-distance trade of exotic raw material. This long-distance trade may have been the forerunner of the later Havanna-Hopewell trading sphere. In north-central Iowa, Early Woodland peoples appear to have interacted more directly with the Prairie Lakes region of Minnesota. Numerous Early Woodland sites have been excavated in Iowa, including the Gast Spring Site, and many sites which have not been |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 44, "sc": 762, "ep": 48, "ec": 591} | 554 | Q6064756 | 44 | 762 | 48 | 591 | Archaeology of Iowa | Early Woodland (800 BC–200 BC) & Middle Woodland (200 BC–400 AD) | formally published. Middle Woodland (200 BC–400 AD) The Middle Woodland Indians of eastern Iowa participated at the edge of the Havana and Hopewell interaction networks. This cultural connection to the East is seen in the construction of large mounds, earthworks, and the trade of exotic goods over very long distances. There were several large earthwork enclosures in Iowa along the Mississippi that date to the Middle Woodland period, but none in the interior of the state, indicating Iowa is the western edge of Havana-Hopewell influence. The Toolesboro Mound Group in Louisa County included a large octagonal earthen enclosure that covered |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 48, "sc": 591, "ep": 48, "ec": 1243} | 554 | Q6064756 | 48 | 591 | 48 | 1,243 | Archaeology of Iowa | Middle Woodland (200 BC–400 AD) | several acres; earthworks of this style are indicative of the monumental construction once seen in Havana, Illinois along the Illinois River and sites in the Ohio River drainage including Chillicothe and Newark, Ohio. Hopewell trading networks were quite extensive, with obsidian from the Yellowstone area, copper from Lake Superior, and shells from the Gulf Coast appearing in Middle Woodland Iowa sites. Sites in eastern Iowa appeared to nucleate, vacating much of the hinterlands. Western Iowa appears to have been not directly involved in this exchange network, and the Havana-Hopewell flourishing did not extend much above the Kansas City area of |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 48, "sc": 1243, "ep": 52, "ec": 609} | 554 | Q6064756 | 48 | 1,243 | 52 | 609 | Archaeology of Iowa | Middle Woodland (200 BC–400 AD) & Late Woodland (400–1250 AD) | the Missouri River. Late Woodland (400–1250 AD) The Late Woodland Period was once considered to be relatively unimportant and uninteresting compared to earlier and later periods, but recent research shows unexpected cultural complexity. Late Woodland sites are more dispersed than Middle Woodland sites, but they are apparently more numerous. Gone are the complex earthworks and long-distance trade networks, but this does not appear to be a cultural collapse, since Late Woodland sites and artifact types overlap with and transition from Middle Woodland sites. Technical changes of the Late Woodland include the use of true arrow heads, thinner and larger |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 52, "sc": 609, "ep": 52, "ec": 1287} | 554 | Q6064756 | 52 | 609 | 52 | 1,287 | Archaeology of Iowa | Late Woodland (400–1250 AD) | ceramics with less elaborate decorations, and the adaptation of new crops, including maize. Numerous regional variations and phases have been defined in Iowa, based in large extent on differences of ceramic form and decoration. Excavations at Late Woodland sites are common, some of these sites showing surprising complexity. The Gast Farm Site excavations revealed a complex settlement associated with a midden of refuse 100 m in diameter. Large storage and food processing pits, trash middens, and other features were excavated. Occupants utilized acorns, other nuts and fruits, goosefoot, little barley, maygrass, sunflower, fish, birds, deer, muskrat, and turtle. There was |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 52, "sc": 1287, "ep": 56, "ec": 209} | 554 | Q6064756 | 52 | 1,287 | 56 | 209 | Archaeology of Iowa | Late Woodland (400–1250 AD) & Effigy Mounds | little evidence of long-distance trade. The Rainbow and M.A.D. sites provide a glimpse into the Late Archaic of western Iowa. At Rainbow, a large house was excavated, showing evidence of reuse and possible joint occupation by two families. Mound building became more common during the Late Woodland Period, large groups of mounds appeared including the Slinde Mound Group, and the Fish Farm Mound Group. Effigy Mounds The Late Woodland in Iowa is perhaps best known for effigy mounds, large, low mounds shaped like animals such as birds and bears. Effigy mounds are distributed across southern Wisconsin, northern Illinois, and |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 56, "sc": 209, "ep": 60, "ec": 81} | 554 | Q6064756 | 56 | 209 | 60 | 81 | Archaeology of Iowa | Effigy Mounds & Late Prehistoric (900–1600) | northeast Iowa. A large concentration of mounds in several groups is preserved at Effigy Mounds National Monument. Like most mounds in Iowa, excavation reveals that these mounds were commonly used as sacred burial locations but contain few artifacts. Recent ground-penetrating radar survey of selected mounds at Effigy Mounds National Monument reveal that many are badly disturbed, but others appear to be comparatively intact. The Folkert Mound Group in central Iowa contains an enigmatic cruciform mound that may or may not be astronomically aligned. Late Prehistoric (900–1600) Maize appears to have been the catalyst for change in the Late Prehistoric period |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 60, "sc": 81, "ep": 64, "ec": 48} | 554 | Q6064756 | 60 | 81 | 64 | 48 | Archaeology of Iowa | Late Prehistoric (900–1600) & Great Oasis (ca. 900–1100) | in Iowa. While maize had been a minor crop in the Woodland Period, many archaeologists believe new varieties of maize were introduced to the region that produced higher yields, allowing for a population boom. This increase in population, combined with the potential for surplus and growing tensions over control of territory, appears to have led to large nucleated settlements throughout the eastern U.S. Although this manifested itself earliest along the Mississippi south of Iowa, the earliest Late Prehistoric cultures appeared in the western part of the state. Great Oasis (ca. 900–1100) Great Oasis sites appeared in the Missouri River |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 64, "sc": 48, "ep": 64, "ec": 752} | 554 | Q6064756 | 64 | 48 | 64 | 752 | Archaeology of Iowa | Great Oasis (ca. 900–1100) | drainage, and have attributes of both Late Woodland and Late Prehistoric cultures. Great Oasis cultures extended through the eastern Plains from Iowa to South Dakota. Developing independently from the eastern Mississippian cultures, Great Oasis sites display large sites along major stream terraces, increased reliance on agriculture combined with hunting and gathering, substantial pit earth lodges, and a transition from Late Woodland to Late Prehistoric ceramic forms. Overall, Great Oasis appears to have been a regional adaptation of new forms of farming and settlement patterns, including seasonal occupation of different ecological zones, that includes aspects of Late Woodland and the subsequent |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 64, "sc": 752, "ep": 68, "ec": 612} | 554 | Q6064756 | 64 | 752 | 68 | 612 | Archaeology of Iowa | Great Oasis (ca. 900–1100) & Mill Creek and Glenwood (1100–1300) | Middle Missouri Tradition. Mill Creek and Glenwood (1100–1300) In northwestern Iowa, Great Oasis underwent dramatic changes as Mill Creek sites appeared. While Mill Creek has many stylistic similarities with Great Oasis and some Mill Creek sites contain Great Oasis ceramic forms, Mill Creek sites are substantially different. Mill Creek sites became nucleated, often fortified, had a much higher dependence on maize and bison hunting, show substantial evidence of long-distance trade, and appear to have been occupied year-round. The Phipps and Chan-Ya-Ta sites are classic examples. Glenwood culture sites in southwest Iowa near the Missouri River appear to be unrelated to |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 68, "sc": 612, "ep": 72, "ec": 268} | 554 | Q6064756 | 68 | 612 | 72 | 268 | Archaeology of Iowa | Mill Creek and Glenwood (1100–1300) & Oneota (1250–1700) | the earlier Great Oasis sites, and are notable for their large earthlodge sites. Glenwood sites appear to have been more oriented in lifeways and trade with the Central Plains Tradition cultures to the west than with the Mississippian cultures to the southeast. Around 1300 AD Mill Creek and Glenwood sites in Iowa disappeared, replaced by the rapidly spreading Oneota cultures. Oneota (1250–1700) Very large Mississippian centers appeared around AD 1000, with enormous earthen pyramids, palisades, and extreme social hierarchy. The earliest large Mississippian center was Cahokia, east of St. Louis. Cahokia appears to have dominated trade in the upper Mississippi, |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 72, "sc": 268, "ep": 72, "ec": 918} | 554 | Q6064756 | 72 | 268 | 72 | 918 | Archaeology of Iowa | Oneota (1250–1700) | with satellite or closely aligned settlements as far as Aztalan in Wisconsin. In Iowa, there is little evidence of Mississippian occupation, and the Late Woodland lasts longer in the east than in the west. This is puzzling, given the proximity to Mississippian cultures; it is possible that the nearby presence of the large, hierarchal Mississippian trading network inhibited local development. After the decline of the Cahokia network after AD 1250 the local Late Woodland populations expanded in complexity, developing large nucleated villages and their own trading network, known as Oneota. Oneota, named by Charles Keyes for a river in northeast |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 72, "sc": 918, "ep": 72, "ec": 1555} | 554 | Q6064756 | 72 | 918 | 72 | 1,555 | Archaeology of Iowa | Oneota (1250–1700) | Iowa, was a large cultural manifestation that covered the Upper Midwest at the edge of the Mississippian cultures. Oneota sites are easily identifiable by the globular, shell-tempered pots, which typically have strap handles and incised designs. Pots of this kind were well designed for the cooking of porridge and foods made from the various cultivated foods of the area. Important Oneota sites in Iowa include Kingston, Mckinney, Christenson, Blood Run, Hartley Fort, the Lane Enclosure, three sites in downtown Des Moines, and sites along the Upper Iowa River, including several large earthwork enclosures. After the decline of the |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 72, "sc": 1555, "ep": 76, "ec": 385} | 554 | Q6064756 | 72 | 1,555 | 76 | 385 | Archaeology of Iowa | Oneota (1250–1700) & Protohistoric (1600–1800) | Mill Creek and Glenwood cultures in western Iowa, Oneota cultures appeared across the state. It is widely accepted that the Oneota were the ancestors of modern American Indian tribes associated with Iowa, including the Ioway, Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Otoe, Missouria, and Omaha. Protohistoric (1600–1800) Protohistoric refers to the period when American Indians were exposed to European trade items and large population shifts occurred because of introduced European diseases and warfare, but there is very little direct written documentation. Explorers such as Marquette and Joliet occasionally documented American Indians along the Mississippi in Iowa, but it was not until the early 19th |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 76, "sc": 385, "ep": 80, "ec": 192} | 554 | Q6064756 | 76 | 385 | 80 | 192 | Archaeology of Iowa | Protohistoric (1600–1800) & Historical (1800–present) | century that regular written accounts of American Indians in Iowa became common. American Indians in the early Protohistoric period continued many aspects of Oneota culture, but soon almost all indigenous technology disappeared, including ceramics and stone tool production. It was during this period that the Meskwaki (Fox) and Sauk appeared in eastern Iowa, displaced from their homelands in the east. Important protohistoric sites include Milford; Blood Run; Gillett Grove; and Iowaville. Historical (1800–present) The earliest European forts and settlements were established by traders beginning in the 1680s. Almost none of these ephemeral early historical sites have been located archaeologically. Julien |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 80, "sc": 192, "ep": 80, "ec": 886} | 554 | Q6064756 | 80 | 192 | 80 | 886 | Archaeology of Iowa | Historical (1800–present) | Dubuque’s Mines of Spain settlement and adjacent Meskwaki village occupied in the late 18th century and early 19th century, has been the subject of numerous archaeological surveys. Fort Madison (1808–1813), the first American settlement and the first American fort in Iowa, was partially excavated in 1965. American settlement began in earnest in the 1830s, and the official removal of American Indians from Iowa was completed by 1852. Several of these historical sites have been excavated, including Gilbert’s Trading Post. and Fort Atkinson. Archaeologists have also studied historical American settlements, including excavations at the Plum Grove Historic House, the Buxton African-American |
{"datasets_id": 554, "wiki_id": "Q6064756", "sp": 80, "sc": 886, "ep": 80, "ec": 932} | 554 | Q6064756 | 80 | 886 | 80 | 932 | Archaeology of Iowa | Historical (1800–present) | community, and the Bowen’s Prairie community. |
{"datasets_id": 555, "wiki_id": "Q2692553", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 4, "ec": 659} | 555 | Q2692553 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 659 | Archbishop of Cologne | Archbishop of Cologne The Archbishop of Cologne is an archbishop representing the Archdiocese of Cologne of the Catholic Church in western North Rhine-Westphalia and northern Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany and was ex officio one of the electors of the Holy Roman Empire, the Elector of Cologne, from 1356 to 1801.
Since the early days of the Catholic Church, there have been ninety-four bishops and archbishops of Cologne. Seven of these ninety-four retired by resignation, including four resignations which were in response to impeachment. Eight of the bishops and archbishops were coadjutor bishops before they took office. Seven individuals were appointed as coadjutors |
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{"datasets_id": 555, "wiki_id": "Q2692553", "sp": 4, "sc": 659, "ep": 4, "ec": 1001} | 555 | Q2692553 | 4 | 659 | 4 | 1,001 | Archbishop of Cologne | freely by the Pope. One of the ninety-four moved to the Curia, where he became a cardinal. Additionally, six of the archbishops of Cologne were chairmen of the German Bishops' Conference.
Currently, Rainer Maria Cardinal Woelki is the Archbishop of Cologne, since his 2014 transfer from Berlin, where he had been Cardinal Archbishop. |
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{"datasets_id": 556, "wiki_id": "Q956763", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 644} | 556 | Q956763 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 644 | Archduchess Hermine of Austria | Biography | Archduchess Hermine of Austria Biography Hermine was the daughter of Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary and Princess Hermine of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym. Her mother died shortly after giving birth to her and her twin brother, Archduke Stephen, Palatine of Hungary. She was brought up by her stepmother, Duchess Maria Dorothea of Württemberg. She spent much of her childhood in Buda and at the family estate in Alcsútdoboz and received an excellent education.Contemporaries described Archduchess Hermine as a comely, kind and modest. However, she was a slim young woman, frail body, and prone to diseases.
Hermine was Princess-Abbess of the Theresian Royal and Imperial |
{"datasets_id": 556, "wiki_id": "Q956763", "sp": 6, "sc": 644, "ep": 6, "ec": 746} | 556 | Q956763 | 6 | 644 | 6 | 746 | Archduchess Hermine of Austria | Biography | Ladies Chapter of the Castle of Prague (1835-1842), and she died 13 February 1842 in Vienna, Austria. |
{"datasets_id": 557, "wiki_id": "Q4785948", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 10, "ec": 120} | 557 | Q4785948 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 120 | Archer Denness | Personal life & Military career | Archer Denness Personal life Denness was born 26 December 1914 in Fremantle, Western Australia. He married Jessie Elma Brown on 23 November 1946 at Orange, New South Wales. She was born 12 August 1916, Gunnedah or Coonabarabran, New South Wales and was an Army Nurse during the Second World War. The couple had three children, (Helen, Ian and Janice), and 11 grandchildren. Archer died in Temora, New South Wales on 12 September 1997, and Jessie on 13 April 2006. Military career Following the outbreak of the Second World War Denness enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force in 1940, listing |
{"datasets_id": 557, "wiki_id": "Q4785948", "sp": 10, "sc": 120, "ep": 10, "ec": 750} | 557 | Q4785948 | 10 | 120 | 10 | 750 | Archer Denness | Military career | his pre-service occupation as a butcher. In 1941, after undertaking officer training, he was commissioned with the rank of lieutenant and assigned to the 2/32nd Battalion, of the 9th Division, serving with them during the North African campaign and then later in New Guinea after they were brought back to fight against the Japanese. In 1944 he received a Mentioned in Despatches for his service while deployed.
Following the end of the war, Denness transferred to the 66th Battalion and deployed to Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force, where he commanded the battalion's 'B' Company, carrying out |
{"datasets_id": 557, "wiki_id": "Q4785948", "sp": 10, "sc": 750, "ep": 10, "ec": 1353} | 557 | Q4785948 | 10 | 750 | 10 | 1,353 | Archer Denness | Military career | a number of operations including a search raid on the village of Kinoe where Denness' company discovered a contraband smuggling vessel. In 1948, however, he returned to Australia and after being discharged on 26 May, he was placed on the Reserve of Officers list.
Following the outbreak of the Korean War, Denness returned to the active list and was assigned to the 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment. While in command of 'C' Company he took part in the Battle of Yongju in Korea, for which he was later awarded the Military Cross. In July 1951, Denness briefly commanded 3RAR between the |
{"datasets_id": 557, "wiki_id": "Q4785948", "sp": 10, "sc": 1353, "ep": 14, "ec": 493} | 557 | Q4785948 | 10 | 1,353 | 14 | 493 | Archer Denness | Military career & Military Cross citation | departure of Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Ferguson and the arrival of the new commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Frank Hassett.
He retired in 1960. Military Cross citation DENNESS, Archer Patterson, Captain (2/400335),
3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment, 1950
On 22 October 1950, Captain Denness commanded C Company which was the advance guard during a drive north from Yongu in North Korea to link with elements of 11 US Airborne Division some three miles to the north. On reaching a position approximately one mile from the Airborne Division, his company came under heavy rifle and machine-gun fire from a wooded ridge to his front |
{"datasets_id": 557, "wiki_id": "Q4785948", "sp": 14, "sc": 493, "ep": 14, "ec": 1129} | 557 | Q4785948 | 14 | 493 | 14 | 1,129 | Archer Denness | Military Cross citation | and right flank. Captain Denness quickly organised an attack on the position. As this attack was about to be launched, his company came under more machine-gun fire and rifle fire from approximately forty enemy entrenched in an orchard to his left flank. Despite heavy fire from three sides, Captain Denness resolutely pressed home his original attack, accounting for seventy-five enemy dead. As the attack progressed, his company came under further heavy fire from a position 400 yards to the north. Again Captain Denness quickly launched an attack, killing forty enemy soldiers. During this engagement, which lasted for two hours, his |
{"datasets_id": 557, "wiki_id": "Q4785948", "sp": 14, "sc": 1129, "ep": 14, "ec": 1656} | 557 | Q4785948 | 14 | 1,129 | 14 | 1,656 | Archer Denness | Military Cross citation | company killed 130 enemy for the loss of three wounded. Captain Denness's task was the more difficult as the proximity of elements of 11 US Airborne Division precluded the use of artillery or mortar fire. Throughout this bitter engagement, Captain Denness was constantly under heavy fire and showed little regard for his personal safety. His calm, resolute action was an inspiration to the entire company and ensured an early junction with the forward elements of 11 US Airborne Division who were in desperate need of support. |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 2, "sc": 0, "ep": 6, "ec": 620} | 558 | Q134676 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 620 | Archosauromorpha | History and definition | Archosauromorpha History and definition The term Archosauromorpha was first used by Friedrich von Huene in 1946 to refer to reptiles more closely related to archosaurs than to lepidosaurs. However, there was little consensus on ancient reptile relationships prior to the late 20th century, so the term Archosauromorpha was seldom used until many years after its creation.
The advent of cladistics helped to sort out at least some of the relationships within Reptilia, and it became clear that there was a split between the archosaur lineage and the lepidosaur lineage somewhere within the Permian, with certain reptiles clearly closer to archosaurs and |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 6, "sc": 620, "ep": 6, "ec": 1389} | 558 | Q134676 | 6 | 620 | 6 | 1,389 | Archosauromorpha | History and definition | others allied with lepidosaurs. Jacques Gauthier reused the term Archosauromorpha for the archosaur lineage at the 1982 annual meeting of the American Society of Zoologists, and later used it within his 1984 Ph.D. thesis. Archosauromorpha, as formulated by Gauthier, included four main groups of reptiles: Rhynchosauria, "Prolacertiformes", "Trilophosauria", and Archosauria (now equivalent to the group Archosauriformes). Cladistic analyses created during the 1980s by Gauthier, Michael J. Benton, and Susan E. Evans implemented Gauthier's classification scheme within large studies of reptile relations.
Michel Laurin (1991) defined Archosauromorpha as the clade containing the most recent common ancestor of Prolacerta, Trilophosaurus, Hyperodapedon and all |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 6, "sc": 1389, "ep": 10, "ec": 78} | 558 | Q134676 | 6 | 1,389 | 10 | 78 | Archosauromorpha | History and definition & Unambiguous members | of its descendants. David Dilkes (1998) formulated a more inclusive (and currently more popular) definition of Archosauromorpha, defining it as the clade containing Protorosaurus and all other saurians that are more closely related to Protorosaurus than to Lepidosauria.
In 2016, Martin Ezcurra named a subgroup of Archosauromorpha, Crocopoda ("crocodile feet"). Crocopoda is defined as all archosauromorphs more closely related to allokotosaurs (specifically Azendohsaurus and Trilophosaurus), rhynchosaurs (specifically Rhynchosaurus), or archosauriforms (specifically Proterosuchus) rather than Protorosaurus or tanystropheids (specifically Tanystropheus). This group roughly corresponds to Laurin's definition of Archosauromorpha. Unambiguous members Since the seminal studies of the 1980s, Archosauromorpha has consistently been |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 10, "sc": 78, "ep": 10, "ec": 848} | 558 | Q134676 | 10 | 78 | 10 | 848 | Archosauromorpha | Unambiguous members | found to contain four specific reptile groups, although the definitions and validity of the groups themselves have been questioned. The least controversial group is Rhynchosauria ("beak reptiles"), a monophyletic clade of stocky herbivores. Many rhynchosaurs had highly modified skulls, with beak-like premaxillary bones and wide heads.
Another group of archosauromorphs has traditionally been represented by Trilophosaurus, an unusual iguana-like herbivorous reptile quite different from the rhynchosaurs. Gauthier used the name "Trilophosauria" for this group, but a 2015 study offered an alternative name. This study found that Azendohsauridae, Triassic reptiles previously mistaken for "prosauropod" dinosaurs, were in fact close relatives of Trilophosaurus |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 10, "sc": 848, "ep": 10, "ec": 1558} | 558 | Q134676 | 10 | 848 | 10 | 1,558 | Archosauromorpha | Unambiguous members | and the rest of Trilophosauridae. Trilophosaurids and azendohsaurids are now united under the group Allokotosauria ("strange reptiles").
These two groups did not survive the end of the Triassic period, but the most famous group of archosauromorphs not only survived, but have continued to diversify and dominate beyond the Triassic-Jurassic extinction. These were the Archosauriformes, a diverse assortment of animals including the famous dinosaurs and pterosaurs. Two subclades of Archosauriformes survive to the present day: the semiaquatic crocodilians and the last of the feathered dinosaurs: birds. Gauthier used the name Archosauria to refer to what is now called the Archosauriformes; in modern |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 10, "sc": 1558, "ep": 10, "ec": 2316} | 558 | Q134676 | 10 | 1,558 | 10 | 2,316 | Archosauromorpha | Unambiguous members | studies, the name Archosauria has a more restricted definition that only includes the ancestors of crocodilians (i.e. Pseudosuchia) and birds (i.e. Avemetatarsalia).
The final unambiguous members of Archosauromorpha represent the most controversial group. These were the first archosauromorphs to appear, and can be characterized by their long necks, sprawling posture, and carnivorous habits. One name for the group, Protorosauria, is named after Protorosaurus, the oldest archosauromorph known from good remains. Another name, Prolacertiformes, is in reference to a different member, Prolacerta. Protorosauria/Prolacertiformes has had a complicated history, and many taxa have entered and left the group as paleontologists discover and re-evaluate |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 10, "sc": 2316, "ep": 10, "ec": 3030} | 558 | Q134676 | 10 | 2,316 | 10 | 3,030 | Archosauromorpha | Unambiguous members | reptiles of the Triassic. By far the most famous of these are tanystropheids such as Tanystropheus, known for having necks longer than their entire body. Other notable genera include Boreopricea, Pamelaria, and Macrocnemus, as well as strange gliding reptiles such as Sharovipteryx and Mecistotrachelos. A landmark 1998 study by David Dilkes completely deconstructed the concept of Prolacertiformes as a traditional monophyletic group (i.e. one whose members have a single common ancestor). He argued that Prolacerta was much closer to Archosauriformes than to other "prolacertiforms", invalidating the name. Likewise, Pamelaria is now considered an allokotosaur, Macrocnemus is a tanystropheid, and Protorosaurus |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 10, "sc": 3030, "ep": 14, "ec": 460} | 558 | Q134676 | 10 | 3,030 | 14 | 460 | Archosauromorpha | Unambiguous members & Disputed members | may be too basal ("primitive") to form a clade with any of its supposed close relatives. As such, this final group of Archosauromorpha is generally considered paraphyletic or polyphyletic, and few modern studies use it. Disputed members Apart from these four groups, Archosauromorpha is sometimes considered to encompass several additional groups of reptiles. One of the most common additions is Choristodera, a group of semiaquatic reptiles with mysterious origins. Although choristodere fossils are only known from the Jurassic through the Miocene, it is theorized that they first appeared during the Permian alongside the earliest archosauromorphs. Choristoderes share numerous otherwise unique |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 14, "sc": 460, "ep": 14, "ec": 1181} | 558 | Q134676 | 14 | 460 | 14 | 1,181 | Archosauromorpha | Disputed members | traits with archosauromorphs, but they share an equal or greater number of unique traits with lepidosauromorphs as well, so there is still some debate over their inclusion within either group. The chameleon- or tamandua-like drepanosaurs are also semi-regularly placed within Archosauromorpha, although some studies have considered them to be part of a much more basal lineage of reptiles. The aquatic thalattosaurs and gliding kuehneosaurids are also irregularly considered archosauromorphs.
Genetic studies have found evidence that modern testudines (turtles and tortoises) are more closely related to crocodilians than to lizards. If this evidence is accurate, then turtles are part of basal Archosauromorpha. |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 14, "sc": 1181, "ep": 18, "ec": 163} | 558 | Q134676 | 14 | 1,181 | 18 | 163 | Archosauromorpha | Disputed members & Anatomy | Likewise, extinct turtle relatives known as Pantestudines would also fall within Archosauromorpha. Some geneticists have proposed a name to refer to reptiles within the group formed by relatives of turtles and archosaurs. This name is the clade Archelosauria. Since Pantestudines may encompass the entire aquatic reptile order Sauropterygia, this means that Archosauromorpha (as Archelosauria) may be a much wider group than commonly believed. However, anatomical data disagrees with this genetic evidence, instead placing Pantestudines within Lepidosauromorpha. Anatomy Although the most diverse clade of living archosauromorphs are birds, early members of the group were evidently reptilian, superficially similar to modern lizards. |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 18, "sc": 163, "ep": 18, "ec": 944} | 558 | Q134676 | 18 | 163 | 18 | 944 | Archosauromorpha | Anatomy | When archosauromorphs first appeared in the fossil record in the Permian, they were represented by long-necked, lightly-built sprawling reptiles with moderately long, tapering snouts.This body plan, similar to that of modern monitor lizards, is also shared by Triassic archosauromorphs such as tanystropheids and Prolacerta. Other early groups such as trilohpsaurids, azendohsaurids, and rhynchosaurs deviate from this body plan by evolving into stockier forms with semi-erect postures and higher metabolisms. The archosauriforms went to further extremes of diversity, encompassing giant sauropod dinosaurs, flying pterosaurs and birds, semiaquatic crocodilians, phytosaurs, and proterochampsians, and apex predators such as erythrosuchids, pseudosuchians, and theropod dinosaurs. |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 18, "sc": 944, "ep": 22, "ec": 519} | 558 | Q134676 | 18 | 944 | 22 | 519 | Archosauromorpha | Anatomy & Skull | Despite the staggering diversity of archosauromorphs, they can still be united as a clade thanks to several subtle skeletal features. Skull Most archosauromorphs more "advanced" than Protorosaurus possessed an adaptation of the premaxilla (tooth-bearing bone at the tip of the snout) known as a posterodorsal or postnarial process. This was a rear-facing branch of bone that stretched up below and behind the external nares (nostril holes) to contact the nasal bones on the upper edge of the snout. A few advanced archosauriforms reacquired the plesiomorphic ("primitive") state present in other reptiles, that being a short or absent posterodorsal process of |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 22, "sc": 519, "ep": 22, "ec": 1215} | 558 | Q134676 | 22 | 519 | 22 | 1,215 | Archosauromorpha | Skull | the premaxilla, with the rear edge of the nares formed primarily by the maxilla bones instead. As for the nares themselves, they were generally large and oval-shaped, positioned high and close to the midline of the skull.
Many early archosauromorphs, including Protorosaurus, tanystropheids, Trilophosaurus, and derived rhynchosaurs, have a blade-like sagittal crest on the parietal bones at the rear part of the skull roof, between a pair of holes known as the supratemporal (or upper temporal) fenestrae. However, in other allokotosaurs, the basal rhynchosaur Mesosuchus, and more crownward archosauromorphs, the sagittal crest is weakly differentiated, although the inner edge of each |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 22, "sc": 1215, "ep": 22, "ec": 1908} | 558 | Q134676 | 22 | 1,215 | 22 | 1,908 | Archosauromorpha | Skull | supratemporal fenestra still possessed a depressed basin of bone known as a supratemporal fossa. Ezcurra (2016) argued that presence of supratemporal fossae and an absence or poor development of the sagittal crest could be used to characterize Crocopoda. He also noted that in almost all early archosauromorphs (and some choristoderes), the parietal bones have an additional lowered area which extends transversely (from left to right) behind the supratemporal fenestrae and sagittal crest (when applicable).
The lower temporal fenestra is not fully enclosed in early archosauromorphs (and choristoderes) due to alterations to the structure of the quadratojugal bone at the rear lower |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 22, "sc": 1908, "ep": 22, "ec": 2527} | 558 | Q134676 | 22 | 1,908 | 22 | 2,527 | Archosauromorpha | Skull | corner of the skull. This bone is roughly L-shaped in these taxa, with a tall dorsal process (vertical branch), a short anterior process (forward branch), and a tiny or absent posterior process (rear branch). The bones surrounding the quadratojugal also reconfigure to offset the changes to the quadratojugal. For example, the lower branch of the squamosal bone is shortened to offset the tall dorsal process of quadratojugal which connects to it. On the other hand, the rear branch jugal bone lengthens to fill some of the space left by the shortening of the anterior process of the quadratojugal. In archosauriforms, |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 22, "sc": 2527, "ep": 26, "ec": 468} | 558 | Q134676 | 22 | 2,527 | 26 | 468 | Archosauromorpha | Skull & Vertebrae | the jugal even re-encloses the lower temporal fenestra. The stapes are long, thin, and solid, without a perforating hole (stapedial foramen) present in the more robust stapes of other reptiles. Vertebrae In conjunction with their long, S-shaped necks, early archosauromorphs had several adaptations of the cervical (neck) vertebrae, and usually the first few dorsal (back) vertebrae as well. The centrum (main body) of each vertebra is parallelogram-shaped, with a front surface typically positioned higher than the rear surface. The transverse processes (rib facets) of these vertebrae extend outwards to a greater extent than in other early reptiles. In many long-necked |
{"datasets_id": 558, "wiki_id": "Q134676", "sp": 26, "sc": 468, "ep": 26, "ec": 1206} | 558 | Q134676 | 26 | 468 | 26 | 1,206 | Archosauromorpha | Vertebrae | archosauromorphs, the rib facets are slanted, connecting to cervical ribs that are often long, thin, and dichocephalous (two-headed).
Thin, plate-like ridges known as laminae develop to connect the vertebral components, sloping down from the elongated transverse processes to the centra. Laminae are practically unique to archosauromorphs, being present even in the earliest Permian genera such as Aenigmastropheus and Eorasaurus. However, they are also known to occur in the bizarre semiaquatic reptile Helveticosaurus, as well as the biarmosuchian synapsid Hipposaurus. In all adult archosauromorphs with the exception of Aenigmastropheus, the vertebrae lack notochordal canals, holes which perforate the centra. This also sets |
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