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Egypt and weapons of mass destruction
Use of chemical weapons during the Yemeni Civil War
June 8, 1963 against Kawma, a village of about 100 inhabitants in northern Yemen, killing about seven people and damaging the eyes and lungs of twenty-five others. This incident is considered to have been experimental, and the bombs were described as "home-made, amateurish and relatively ineffective". The Egyptian authorities suggested that the reported incidents were probably caused by napalm, not gas. The Israeli Foreign Minister, Golda Meir, suggested in an interview that Nasser would not hesitate to use gas against Israel as well. There were no reports of gas during 1964, and only a few were reported in 1965. The
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Egypt and weapons of mass destruction
Use of chemical weapons during the Yemeni Civil War
reports grew more frequent in late 1966. On December 11, 1966, fifteen gas bombs killed two people and injured thirty-five. On January 5, 1967, the biggest gas attack came against the village of Kitaf, causing 270 casualties, including 140 fatalities. The target may have been Prince Hassan bin Yahya, who had installed his headquarters nearby. The Egyptian government denied using poison gas, and alleged that Britain and the US were using the reports as psychological warfare against Egypt. On February 12, 1967, it said it would welcome a UN investigation. On March 1, U Thant said he was "powerless" to
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Egypt and weapons of mass destruction
Use of chemical weapons during the Yemeni Civil War
deal with the matter. On May 10, the twin villages of Gahar and Gadafa in Wadi Hirran, where Prince Mohamed bin Mohsin was in command, were gas bombed, killing at least seventy-five. The Red Cross was alerted and on June 2, it issued a statement in Geneva expressing concern. The Institute of Forensic Medicine at the University of Berne made a statement, based on a Red Cross report, that the gas was likely to have been halogenous derivatives - phosgene, mustard gas, lewisite, chloride or cyanogen bromide. The gas attacks stopped for three weeks after the Six-Day War of June, but
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Egypt and weapons of mass destruction
Use of chemical weapons during the Yemeni Civil War & Nuclear weapons program
resumed in July, against all parts of royalist Yemen. Casualty estimates vary, and an assumption, considered conservative, is that the mustard and phosgene-filled aerial bombs caused approximately 1,500 fatalities and 1,500 injuries. Nuclear weapons program Egypt is not known to have pursued a dedicated nuclear weapons program since the Egyptian Revolution of 1952. It began its nuclear program in 1954 which expanded to include Russian 2MW nuclear research reactor ETRR-1 that was opened by President Gamal Abdel-Nasser at Inchass in 1961. Further development in its nuclear program was stopped in 1967 after its defeat in the Six Day War. In
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Egypt and weapons of mass destruction
Nuclear weapons program
addition, in 1992 Egypt acquired a more powerful 22MW multi-purpose research reactor ETRR-2 from Argentina. Egypt signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968, which it did not ratify until 1981. It has since 1974 worked to make the Middle East a nuclear weapons free zone. At the time of the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Egypt was reported by Aviation Week to have hosted Soviet crewed and controlled nuclear Scud surface to surface missiles to provide a local nuclear deterrent as part of its preparations to attack nuclear armed Israel.
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Eight Days of Luke
Sunday
Eight Days of Luke Sunday David Allard, an orphan, returns to his hometown of Ashbury from boarding school to discover that his relatives-cum-guardians have nothing arranged for his summer and he will have to endure their mistreatment for his entire holiday. While walking in the garden, in a fit of frustration he makes up words to use as a curse. David's words seem to cause the garden wall to crumble, and to release a boy a year or so older than himself with flame-red hair, who identifies himself as Luke. Happy to have made a new friend, David notices Luke's
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Eight Days of Luke
Sunday & Monday
odd references to being released from his "chains" and "bowls of venom". The two hastily repair the wall, and David notices that Luke's touch seems to burn the bushes growing beside the wall. Luke says ruefully that he "can't bring the dead back to life." Luke also tells David that simply kindling a flame will summon him. Monday When David and his young cousin-by-marriage, Astrid (who seems the best of the awful relatives) are on a shopping expedition the next day, Luke duly appears when David lights a match. Luke ingratiates himself with Astrid, and when a bored
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Eight Days of Luke
Monday
David suggests it would be great if the building across from them caught on fire, the building suddenly does. People are trapped. It is only when David tells Luke that he wants the fire out, and reminds Luke that he cannot bring the dead back to life, that the fire dies down. That evening, David escapes punishment because his uncle is upset that his gardener has found another job over at Thunderly Hill. David notices more odd things about Luke; he can entertain his friend with fiery doodles. Also, when Luke is asleep, he seems ageless, and heals
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Eight Days of Luke
Monday & Tuesday
uncommonly quickly. Tuesday In the morning, the new gardener Mr. Chew arrives. He is very interested in David, and in the place where Luke's release took place. Luke, who has slept over, seems afraid of Chew, castigating himself for his carelessness in scorching the plants. David helps Luke escape the house without Chew noticing, and they play cricket (David's obsession) down the street, where they meet a new friend, Alan. David is unable to escape the house in the afternoon, due to Chew's vigilance. David is sent again to his room without supper, though Astrid secretly brings
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Eight Days of Luke
Tuesday & Wednesday
him food. Wednesday The next morning, a well-dressed man named Mr. Wedding arrives and persuades David's relations to let him take David out for lunch in a car chauffeured by a beautiful lady. He quickly gains David's trust, and David gladly tells him all the things about school he could not tell his relatives. They arrive at a green island, linked to the mainland by a long arching bridge with a rainbow-like effect. While David is served a wonderful lunch, Mr. Wedding begins interrogating David about Luke, and David admits only to releasing Luke while trying to curse.
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Eight Days of Luke
Wednesday
David notices for the first time that Wedding is missing an eye. Wedding tells David that Luke was imprisoned for doing something terrible. He tries frightening David, threatening to keep him captive, promising him a bribe, even shaming him. None of this is successful – David will not betray Luke – and eventually Mr. Wedding returns David home, seeming to admire David for his stubbornness. But first he makes a deal with David: if David can keep Luke free until Sunday, then Luke is safe for good. Mr. Wedding sets a talking raven to watch David, but he is
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Eight Days of Luke
Wednesday & Thursday
able to evade the bird and summon Luke. He tells Luke about the deal, who is confident that they will win against Mr. Wedding. Thursday The next day, David is blocked from leaving the house by two ravens – until he distracts them with a joint of meat while he drives off with Astrid. Luke appears when David strikes a match for Astrid's cigarette, and is suddenly caught by a fair, strong ginger-haired individual. However, after Luke is questioned by the fellow, he is released. It seems the individual, who seems very nice, has lost something.
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Eight Days of Luke
Thursday & Friday
Luke denies any knowledge. David and Luke agree that the best course is for Luke to simply vanish until Monday. Friday But the next day, the Frys from down the street show up, followed shortly by Mr. Chew and Mr Wedding. When a confused Astrid needs a cigarette lit, the inevitable happens – Luke appears and is caught by the group. They begin shouting demands at Luke; Luke denies everything, and David defends him, saying Luke did not act out of revenge, but as a favour for someone now dead. Luke admits that he did help
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Eight Days of Luke
Friday
someone hide something so it might never be found. The crowd is grudgingly convinced that this is true, and Mr. Wedding strikes a new deal with David: since David has no idea what he is looking for, it is possible for him to find it (according to the rules of the charm Luke laid down). If David restores what the ginger-haired fellow lost by Sunday, Luke will remain free, otherwise he will be sent back to prison. Astrid has figured out the puzzle, but Luke warns her not to tell David. David convinces one of the ravens to lead
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Eight Days of Luke
Friday & Saturday through Sunday
them to a house on Wednesday Hill, where David should find "three Knowing Ones under the tree." It is Alan's house, and through a secret door, David and Alan find a huge tree, with three blind crones, sharing an eye among them, washing, spinning, and cutting wool at a well. They refuse to talk until David captures their eye – then they tell David to go to the place (Wallsey) where Mr. Wedding took him and ask the man with the dragon where to look. Saturday through Sunday The next day, Astrid drives David, Alan, and her husband,
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Saturday through Sunday
Cousin Ronald, to Wallsey, which appears very different from when David saw it with Mr. Wedding. David searches the hall, which is filled with strong young men cheating pinball machines, until he finds what he was told to look for—a man with a dragon tattoo. By the rules, the three must run a gauntlet before having their questions answered, which the boys do courageously and Ronald does in a cowardly fashion. The dragon man admits to taking the item they sought as revenge, on behalf of a woman who blamed Mr. Wedding for something that happened. The woman
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Eight Days of Luke
Saturday through Sunday
can be found on Thunderly Hill, where a hospital is now built. David, Luke, Astrid, Ronald, and the ginger-haired fellow all proceed to Thunderly Hill, on the excuse that Ronald's minor injuries should be treated. When David and Luke step inside "Firestone Ward", they find themselves on a grassy hillside that burns but is never consumed. Luke admits that he set the fire, long ago, and it will burn until the end of time. David braves the flames (with Luke doing his best to suppress the fire) and discovers a cairn, on which a hauntingly beautiful lady in armour lies,
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Eight Days of Luke
Saturday through Sunday
not quite dead, but barely breathing. Across her chest rests a stone implement with a too-short handle. When David realises it is a hammer, suddenly everything falls into place and he realises who everyone really is. He returns to Luke, and is told that an entire day has passed – David has been outside time. He restores the hammer to the ginger-haired fellow, who is of course Thor. Mr. Wedding is Woden, chief of the gods. The dragon man is Siegfried, and the lady Brunhilda. Astrid reveals that (no doubt with divine interference) David's other
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Eight Days of Luke
Saturday through Sunday & Reception and reviews
relatives have been exposed as financial frauds, and have fled. Astrid will now be David's guardian. Luke will be around – but at the final battle yet to come, he and Mr. Wedding will be on opposite sides. Reception and reviews Science fiction author Orson Scott Card, reviewing several Diana Wynne Jones reissues in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, wrote Eight Days of Luke takes us into the world of the Nordic gods, as both sides in the intensely amoral struggle prepare for Götterdämmerung. Yet she manages to connect their quarrels and manoeuvres with contemporary life, including
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Eight Days of Luke
Reception and reviews
giving Thor a leather-jacket gang in a pinball arcade and putting one-eyed Wutan in a business suit. And our hero's passage from "real" to fantasy world and back again is as smooth as in the best of contemporary fantasists – Charles de Lint, for instance, or Megan Lindholm, or Lisa Goldstein. Yet Eight Days of Luke bears a 1975 copyright, predating these others by years. (Indeed, I wonder how many of our contemporary fantasists might not have been exposed to Jones in their youth. How strong is her influence? Or is she simply weaving her own thread into the fabric
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Eight Days of Luke
Reception and reviews
of contemporary myth?) Publishers Weekly wrote "Loosely based on Norse mythology, this story is a smooth blend of myth and reality, a task that Jones ( A Tale of Time City ) performs with ease and assurance." Fantasy writer Neil Gaiman, asked whether his 2000 novel American Gods was inspired by Eight Days of Luke, responded "Not exactly, although they bear an odd relationship, like second cousins once removed or something." After coming up with an idea for a story linking Norse gods and the days of the week, he realised "gloomily that I'd managed, working back from first principles, to
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Eight Days of Luke
Reception and reviews
come up with a wonderful structure for a story – but one that Diana had already used... and, with regret, I abandoned it. Or almost. I kept Mr Wednesday, and the day of his meeting, in the back of my head."
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Eilean Mòr, MacCormaig Isles
St Cormac's Cave
Eilean Mòr, MacCormaig Isles St Cormac's Cave St Cormac's Cave is on the south end of the island. The cave is around 3 metres long, 1 metre wide and 2 metres high, and contains two incised crosses on its east wall, dated by their style to around 700 AD. Saint Cormac (or Cormaic, Carmaig, Charmaig) is an obscure figure; he lived at the beginning of the 7th century and he may have been a son of Cormac, King of Leinster. He is the legendary founder of Keills Chapel 3.5 miles to the north on the Scottish mainland, and he is
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Eilean Mòr, MacCormaig Isles
St Cormac's Cave & St Cormac's Chapel
reputed to have used this cave as his hermitage. The rough stone wall in front of the cave may have been a medieval structure to control pilgrim access to the cave. St Cormac's Chapel The chapel is a rectangular building measuring 11.5 x 6 m externally. It was built in the 13th century, and was altered in the 14th century, when John MacDonald, 1st Lord of the Isles had the chancel upgraded. It was converted into a dwelling house around 1700, and used by a tenant of Macneil of Gillchoille, the island’s owner. The chapel was surrounded by a burial
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Eilean Mòr, MacCormaig Isles
St Cormac's Chapel & St Cormac's Cross
ground, now mostly obliterated, but the headless effigy of a medieval cleric can still be seen on the south side of the chancel. St Cormac's Cross Beside the chapel stands St Cormac’s Cross, believed to date from the 10th-century. Legend claims that it stands at the west end of the grave of Saint Cormac. Only the shaft and the lower part of the ringed cross survive. It stands 1.75 metres in visible height, but was originally at least 2.8 metres tall. The east face shows two wrestling beak-headed monsters with tails and prominent genitals, above which is a hooded rider
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Eilean Mòr, MacCormaig Isles
St Cormac's Cross
astride an oversized horse, and then a large monster gripping a snake in its jaws and linked by its tail and crest to a cruciform group of four animals at the top of the shaft. The decoration on the west face is damaged, but two squatting beasts can be seen with interpenetrating necks and large heads. Another cross can be seen on the island's highest point, and is a replica of the late 14th-century cross erected by Mariota de Ros, wife of Donald MacDonald, 2nd Lord of the Isles. The original was removed to the National Museum of Scotland in 1937.
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Adoption & Einstein 2
Einstein (US-CERT program) Adoption Einstein was deployed in 2004 and until 2008 was voluntary. By 2005, three federal agencies participated and funding was available for six additional deployments. By December 2006, eight agencies participated in Einstein and by 2007, DHS itself was adopting the program department-wide. By 2008, Einstein was deployed at fifteen of the nearly six hundred agencies, departments and Web resources in the U.S. government. Einstein 2 During Einstein 1, it was determined that the civilian agencies did not know what their IP space was. This was obviously a security concern. Once it was determined what an Agency's
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Einstein 2
IP looked like, it was immediately clear that the Agency had more IP Gateways than could be reasonably instrumented and protected. This gave birth to the OMB's TIC, Trusted Internet Connections" Initiative. Three constraints on Einstein that the DHS is trying to address are the large number of access points to U.S. agencies, the low number of agencies participating, and the program's "backward-looking architecture". An OMB "Trusted Internet Connections" initiative was expected to reduce the government's 4,300 access points to 50 or fewer by June 2008. After agencies reduced access points by over 60% and requested more than their target,
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Einstein 2
OMB reset their goal to the latter part of 2009 with the number to be determined. A new version of Einstein was planned to "collect network traffic flow data in real time and also analyze the content of some communications, looking for malicious code, for example in e-mail attachments." The expansion is known to be one of at least nine measures to protect federal networks. The new version, called EINSTEIN 2, will have a "system to automatically detect malicious network activity, creating alerts when it is triggered". Einstein 2 will use "the minimal amount" necessary of predefined attack signatures which will
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Einstein 2 & Privacy
come from internal, commercial and public sources. The Einstein 2 sensor monitors each participating agency's Internet access point, "not strictly...limited to" Trusted Internet Connections, using both commercial and government-developed software. Einstein could be enhanced to create an early warning system to predict intrusions. US-CERT may share Einstein 2 information with "federal executive agencies" according to "written standard operating procedures" and only "in a summary form". Because US-CERT has no intelligence or law enforcement mission it will notify and provide contact information to "law enforcement, intelligence, and other agencies" when an event occurs that falls under their responsibility. Privacy In the Privacy
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Privacy
Impact Assessment (PIA) for Einstein 2 published in 2008, DHS gave a general notice to people who use U.S. federal networks. DHS assumes that Internet users do not expect privacy in the "To" and "From" addresses of their email or in the "IP addresses of the websites they visit" because their service providers use that information for routing. DHS also assumes that people have at least a basic understanding of how computers communicate and know the limits of their privacy rights when they choose to access federal networks. The Privacy Act of 1974 does not apply to Einstein 2 data
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Privacy
because its system of records generally does not contain personal information and so is not indexed or queried by the names of individual persons. A PIA for the first version is also available from 2004. DHS is seeking approval for an Einstein 2 retention schedule in which flow records, alerts, and specific network traffic related to an alert may be maintained for up to three years, and if, for example in the case of a false alert, data is deemed unrelated or potentially collected in error, it can be deleted. According to the DHS privacy assessment for US-CERT's 24x7 Incident Handling and
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Privacy
Response Center in 2007, US-CERT data is provided only to those authorized users who "need to know such data for business and security purposes" including security analysts, system administrators and certain DHS contractors. Incident data and contact information are never shared outside of US-CERT and contact information is not analyzed. To secure its data, US-CERT's center began a DHS certification and accreditation process in May 2006 and expected to complete it by the first quarter of fiscal year 2007. As of March 2007, the center had no retention schedule approved by the National Archives and Records Administration and until it
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Einstein (US-CERT program)
Privacy
does, has no "disposition schedule"—its "records must be considered permanent and nothing may be deleted". As of April 2013, DHS still had no retention schedule but was working "with the NPPD records manager to develop disposition schedules". An update was issued in May 2016.
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Elías Piña Province
Location & Origin of name & Geography
Elías Piña Province Location The Elías Piña province has the Dajabón and Santiago Rodríguez provinces to the north, the San Juan province to the east, the Independencia province to the south and the Republic of Haiti to the west. Origin of name Elías Piña was an officer of the Dominican army during the Dominican-Haitian War. He was born in La Margarita, close to Comendador and died in 1845 when he was attacking a fortified position in Bánica. Geography The Cordillera Central ("Central mountain chain") is found in the northern part of the province, and the Sierra de Neiba runs across
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Elías Piña Province
Geography & Climate & Rivers & Economy
the southern half. Between those two mountain ranges, there are several valleys formed by the Artibonite River and its tributaries. Climate The climate of the province is a tropical climate, hot most of the year, but it is cooler on the mountains. Rivers The main river is the Artibonite that, in some places, marks the Dominican-Haitian border. Other rivers are Macasías, Tocino, Joca and Vallecito, all of them tributaries of the Artibonite. Economy As in all border provinces in the Dominican Republic, there is little economic development. The trade with Haiti is important, above all in Comendador. On the mountains,
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Elías Piña Province
Economy
coffee and beans are important products. Potatoes are also produced in the south (Sierra de Neiba).
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El-Ghad Party
Background
El-Ghad Party Background Ayman Nour left the New Wafd Party in 2001, and established El-Ghad. The party was legalized in 2004. After facing president Hosni Mubarak in the 2005 Egyptian presidential election, Nour was sentenced to five years in jail on forgery charges. In 2005, just before Nour being sentenced, the El-Ghad party split in two factions. One was headed by Moussa Moustafa Moussa, the other by Nour's (now former) wife Gameela Ismail. Legal battle ensued between both factions, both claiming legitimacy and simultaneously using the party name and insignia. The final court ruling in May 2011 was in favor of
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El-Ghad Party
Background & Name confusion
Moussa. Ayman Nour hence filed for a new party, Ghad El-Thawra Party or "Revolution's Tomorrow Party", which was approved on 9 October 2011. The removal of Nour from the party leadership by Moussa, and the latter's election to the Egyptian Upper House, have been seen as compliances with the Hosni Mubarak regime. Name confusion Ayman Nour has been tightly associated with both the El-Ghad name and party, even being accused of internal monopoly by other party members. Since both Nour and Moussa factions were using (and still are) the same name and insignia (ex: Ghad El-Thawra website), it was often difficult
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El-Ghad Party
Name confusion
to tell them apart. For instance, Liberal International listed El-Ghad, specifying its leader as Ayman Nour, as an observer member. Many poll and media outlets used the term "El-Ghad" without specifying which party or faction they are referring to, although they often meant the Ayman Nour Ghad El-Thawra faction.
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El Campo, Texas
Geography & Education & Transportation & Climate
El Campo, Texas Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.5 square miles (19.3 km²), all of it land. Education Education in the city of El Campo is provided by the El Campo Independent School District and a number of private schools. Transportation The Colorado Valley Transit Authority operates bus services within El Campo and to Wharton. El Campo is accessible by road by Texas State Highway 71 and U.S. Route 59. Climate The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters.
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El Campo, Texas
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, El Campo has a humid subtropical climate, Cfa on climate maps.
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Background
El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto Background The Mexican lucha libre or professional wrestling promotion International Wrestling Revolution Group (IWRG; at times referred to as Grupo Internacional Revolución in Mexico) holds almost all of their major wrestling shows in Arena Naucalpan, in Naucalpan, State of Mexico, an arena owned and operated by the Moreno family who also owns and operates IWRG. The most prestigious match type in lucha libre is the Lucha de Apuestas (literally "Bet match") where each competitors "bets" either their wrestling mask or their hair on the outcome of the match. The Lucha de
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Background
Apuestas format was created in 1940, with the first match of its type held on July 14, 1940 where the unmasked Octavio Gaona defeated the masked El Murciélago Enmascarado ("The Masked Bat"), forcing El Murciélago to unmask. Since then the Luchas de Apuestas match has become more important, more prestigious than championship matches with the Lucha de Apuestas matches normally headlining major lucha libre shows. On July 22, 2009 IWRG held their first El Gran Destafio ("The Great Challenge") major show, with the focal point being a Lucha de Apuestas between IWRG regular Dr. Cerebro and Super-X representative and owner Juventud
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Background & Storylines
Guerrera, won by Juventud Guerrera. Four months later IWRG once again used the El Gran Destafio name for a show, this time holding a show called El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto (Spanish for "The Great Women's Challenge – No restrictions, no reprieve") with the focal point being a women's professional wrestling main event. IWRG would use the El Gran Destafio name once more in for a 2011 El Gran Destafio show. Storylines The event featured five professional wrestling matches with different wrestlers involved in pre-existing scripted feuds, plots and storylines. Wrestlers were portrayed as either heels
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Storylines
(referred to as rudos in Mexico, those that portray the "bad guys") or faces (técnicos in Mexico, the "good guy" characters) as they followed a series of tension-building events, which culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. The group known as Revolución Amandra (Atsuko Emoto, Kyoko Kimura and Tomoka Nakagawa) originally formed in NEO Japan Ladies Pro Wrestling and at one point saw Emoto and Kimura win the NEO Tag Team Championship. In October 2009 the Revolucion Amandra travelled to Mexico for a promotional tour working for various Mexican promotions, including IWRG. On October 15 the trio defeated the
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Storylines & Event
team of Mexican wrestlers Flor Metálica, La Diabólica and Josseline during an IWRG show. Following the match Emoto challenged Flor Metálica to a Lucha de Apuestas match, stating that she wanted to demonstrate that Japanese wrestling was better than Mexican. Flor Metálica accepted the match for the following week, leading to the main event of IWRG's El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto show being booked. The match between Atsuko Emoto and Flor Metálica would be the first women's wrestling main event in International Wrestling Revolution Group's history. Event In the opening match IWRG wrestling school trainee Comando
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Event
Negro defeated fellow trainee Halcón 2000 in a Best two-out-of-three-falls match. In the second match, masked wrestler Exodia (son of wrestler Olímpico) defeated La Rata in another match between IWRG wrestling school students. The third match of the night was one of the first matches for a newly formed group known as Los Gringos VIP, as El Gringo Loco and El Hijo del Diablo defeated Péndulo and Star Boy in a best two-out-of-three-falls tag team match. The fourth match of the night was the only traditional lucha libre best two-out-of-three falls six-man tag team match which saw the team of Black
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Event & Aftermath
Terry, Pirata Morgan and Tóxico defeat Brazo de Plata, Chico Che and Mike Segura. For the main event Atsuko Emoto had both members of Revolucion Amandra in her corner while Flor Metálica was back up by then-reigning Distrito Federal Women's Champion La Diabólica. Flor Metálica won the match two falls to one, forcing Emoto to have all her hair shaved off as a result. Aftermath The following week, on October 25, 2009, La Diabólica teamed up with Flor Metálica and Josselin to defeat Revolución Amandra. Afte their victory Flor Metálica challenged La Diabólica to defend her Distrito Federal Women's Championship
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El Gran Desafío Femenil – Sin Empate, Sin Indulto
Aftermath
against her. On November 15, 2009 La Diabólica put the championship on the line, but since the match was held outside of the Mexican Federal District it was billed as the "Metropolitan Women's Championship" instead. La Diabólica retained the championship, defeating Flor Metálica two falls to one.
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Elcho Island
Elcho Island Djuki Mala Dancers
Elcho Island Elcho Island, known to its traditional owners as Galiwin'ku, is an island off the coast of Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia. It is located at the southern end of the Wessel Islands group located in the East Arnhem Region. Galiwin'ku is also the name of the settlement where the island's largest community lives. Elcho island formed part of the traditional lands of the Yan-nhaŋu, according to Norman Tindale. According to J. C. Jennison, the Aboriginal inhabitants were the Dhuwal, who he said called themselves the Kokalango Mala (mala=clan.) Elcho Island Djuki Mala Dancers In 2007 a
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Elcho Island
Elcho Island Djuki Mala Dancers & Discovery of an ancient coin
group of local Elcho Island dancers choreographed and performed a dance routine to Zorba the Greek. The performance was recorded and uploaded to YouTube on 2 November of that year; in six weeks the video received more than 360,000 views, averaging 8,000 a day. Due to this success the group toured parts of Queensland and performed in the Art Gallery of NSW in Sydney in June 2008. They also appeared as the opening act at the Melbourne International Comedy Festival Gala 2009. Discovery of an ancient coin In 2018 a coin, thought to be from the Medieval Kilwa sultanate was
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Elcho Island
Discovery of an ancient coin & Cultural references
found on a beach on Elcho Island by archaeologist and member of the Past Masters, Mike Hermes. Similar coins have been found on Marchinbar Island, also in the Wessel Islands group. Cultural references Elcho Island was the inspiration for the song "My Island Home" originally written by Neil Murray for the Warumpi Band. The song was later covered by Christine Anu and she performed her rendition at the closing ceremony of the Sydney Olympic Games. A memorial ceremony for George Burrarrawanga, one of the founding members of the Warumpi Band, was performed on the island in June 2007.
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Eldgjá
History
Eldgjá History It was discovered by Þorvaldur Thoroddsen in 1893. The first documented eruption in 939 was the largest flood basalt in historic time. The areal extent of the lava is around 800 km². An estimated 18 km³ of magma poured out of the earth. Evidence from tree rings from around the Northern Hemisphere indicated that the eruption in 939 caused the summer of 940 to be one of the coolest summers in 1500 years. Summer average temperatures in places as disparate as Central Europe, Scandinavia, Canada, Alaska, and Central Asia were 2°C lower than normal. In March 2018, a team of medieval
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Eldgjá
History
historians and scientists from the University of Cambridge suggested that a famous medieval Icelandic poem, Vǫluspá, estimated to date from 961, was a roughly contemporary chronicle of Eldgjá's eruption in 939. The researchers suggested that the dramatic imagery of Eldgjá's eruption was purposefully invoked in order to accelerate the Christianization of Iceland. There is a waterfall named Ófærufoss within the canyon. A natural bridge across the waterfall vanished in 1993, reportedly due to excess water from melting ice. The northern part of Eldgjá, including Ófærufoss, and surrounding areas, have been a part of Vatnajökull National Park since 2011.
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Electoral district of Western Boroughs
Electoral district of Western Boroughs Western Boroughs was an electoral district for the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales from 1856 to 1859. It included the towns of Bathurst, Carcoar and Kelso, while the surrounding rural areas were in Bathurst (County) and Cook and Westmoreland. It was replaced by Bathurst and Carcoar.
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Electromagnetic diaphragm
Electromagnetic diaphragm An electromagnetic diaphragm is a form of capacitive sensor used on an electronic stethoscope. The diaphragm is coated with a conductive material. A conductive plate is positioned behind and parallel to the diaphragm, so that the two conductive elements form a capacitor. Capacitance is a function of plate area, dielectric properties of the space between the conductors, and the distance between the conductors. It is this latter parameter which is modulated by vibration such that the capacitance varies with the distance between the electromagnetic diaphragm and the plate, forming an acoustic sensor. The electromagnetic diaphragm is a form of
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Q5358080
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Electromagnetic diaphragm
capacitive sensor, and shares properties with condenser microphones. The difference between the electromagnetic diaphragm and a condenser microphone is that a condenser microphone operates on the basis of air transmission, has a very thin membrane instead of a diaphragm, and cannot be placed against a body to sense sounds within the body. The electromagnetic diaphragm for stethoscopes was patented by Clive Smith in 2002 and is used on Thinklabs electronic stethoscopes.
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Electronics Training Program
Background
Electronics Training Program The Electronics Training Program (ETP) was the name commonly used for an unusual, difficult, and selective training activity of the United States Navy during World War II (WWII). The ETP combined college-level classroom instruction with laboratories involving highly complex electronic systems that were classified Secret, resulting in a level of training reported to have been the most intense and difficult ever given to enlisted servicemen. A highly regarded Naval officer noted that the ETP graduates were in the top three to five percent of the Navy's wartime personnel, officers as well as enlisted men. Background As America entered
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Electronics Training Program
Background
WWII, there was a crisis concerning the availability of men qualified to maintain the huge amount of complex electronic equipment being procured for Navy's ships, aircraft, submarines, and shore stations. The Navy had over 200,000 personnel, but only a few hundred were radio technicians, most having obtained their qualification through self-study and on-the job training. Further, only a few had any knowledge of radar, the technology that would be extremely important in the war. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was established in 1923 at Bellevue, District of Columbia. At the urging of Albert H. Taylor, head of the NRL Radio Division,
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Electronics Training Program
Background
an affiliated electronics training operation was added on the campus in 1924. Organizationally under the Training Division of the Bureau of Navigation (BuNav), the Radio Materiel School (RMS) was the Navy's first school in this rapidly developing technology. The Navy's use of radio started in the early 1900s, but equipment using vacuum tubes – and thus the electronics era – came into being around World War I. During its first decade, the RMS gave two six-month classes per year with about 50 men in each; the graduation rate averaged around 70 percent. Admission involved passing a difficult examination. The instructors were
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Electronics Training Program
Background
senior Petty officers or Warrant officers. Lectures on up-to-date topics were often given by scientists and engineers from the NRL. As more electronic equipment was added to the Navy, the RMS increased in size and the curriculum was divided into two parts. A primary element of three months covered the mathematics and basic theory, and a five-month Secondary element included some further theory but centered on laboratory work in hardware. Radar was added to the curriculum in 1940, upgrading the instruction to Secret-level Classified information. Chief Radio Electrician Nelson M. Cooke was responsible for the primary element, and Lieutenant Commander Wallace
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Electronics Training Program
Background
J. Miller was the Officer-in-Charge of the overall RMS. In preparing for war, the BuNav directed that the RMS-Bellevue operation be replicated at a site in the vicinity of San Francisco, California. Miller was responsible for planning the implementation and recommended this to be on Treasure Island in the San Francisco Bay; development of RMS-Treasure Island began at the end of October 1941. This new RMS would accommodate up to 800 personnel in training. In mid-1941, the Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer), in cooperation with the BuNav, began development of the Aviation RMS (ARMS) to train technicians for airborne equipment maintenance. Located on
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Electronics Training Program
Background
the campus of the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, this would accommodate up to 500 students. Sidney R. Stock, previously head of a college program in aviation and radio technology was recruited as a Lieutenant Commander to organize the ARMS. Before it had graduated any students, planning began for transferring the ARMS to a more secure location, Ward Island, near Corpus Christi, Texas. The annual output of operations at RMS-Bellevue, RMS-Treasure Island, and ARMS would be a few thousand, but the BuNav estimated that the wartime requirement would be in the tens of thousands. Further, the depth of capability
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Electronics Training Program
Background & Elements of the ETP
of graduates from the existing instruction was also inadequate. Electronics would have a major role in the next war – which was now inevitable – but equipment, if not maintained, would be worthless. The NRL and the newly formed Radiation Laboratory, as well as a number of industries, were developing electronic systems that were far above the average maintenance capabilities of existing Navy technicians. This was especially true after late 1940, when Great Britain shared its electronic secrets (including the cavity magnetron) during the Tizard Mission. These shortcomings were a crisis that required an immediate solution. Elements of the ETP
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Electronics Training Program
Elements of the ETP
Other than the designation “Radio (or Electronics) Technician Training,” no official name appears on records for the overall program; however, Electronics Training Program (ETP) was the commonly used name. Official records sometimes show different names for the two levels of schools: Elementary Electricity & Radio Materiel (EE&RM) rather than Primary, and Advanced Radio Materiel (ARM) rather than Secondary. Since there was little “elementary” content in the EE&RM curriculum, these initials were usually taken to mean Electrical Engineering & Radio Materiel. As the local aspects of the ETM unfolded, the effort was designated Naval Training Schools-Radio Chicago, an official Navy unit commanded
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Electronics Training Program
Elements of the ETP & Radio Chicago
by Eddy. In a little more than two years after returning to active duty, Eddy was promoted to the rank of captain. Radio Chicago When fully operational, Radio Chicago had three major functions: conducting a prototype primary school, grading and maintaining records of Eddy Tests, and handling four Pre-Radio Schools in the Chicago area. It began with offices on the top floor of the State-Lake Theater Building at 190 North State Street, Chicago, then expanded to also occupy all four floors of a nearby building at 64 North State Street. Other functions included operating a teacher training school, building visual
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Electronics Training Program
Radio Chicago & Prototype primary school
aids for classrooms, providing first-level medical services for the thousands of Chicago students and staff, and handling a reception and entertainment center where well-known musician Alvino Rey conducted the Radio Chicago Orchestra. Prototype primary school In the approved plan, Eddy would offer a developmental-prototype primary school with classrooms and laboratories in the experimental television facilities at 190 North State Street. Archibald H. Brolly, chief engineer of W9XBK and graduate of the University of California, Harvard, and MIT, led in developing the initial curriculum and served as the lead instructor. The first class was mainly composed of experienced electrician mates from
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Electronics Training Program
Prototype primary school & Eddy Test
the fleet and ham radio operators who had recently enlisted as petty-officer radiomen. A main purpose of the prototype school was to ensure that the curriculum in college-operated schools was appropriate preparation for Navy-operated secondary schools. It was intended that the prototype school would be unnecessary after graduating a few classes, but the importance of this activity became such that it continued for the life of the ETP. Initially, all of the instructors were from the W9XBK engineering staff; later, Navy and Marine instructors were added. Eddy Test The Eddy Test was certainly the most widely recognized element of the ETP.
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Electronics Training Program
Eddy Test
Many resumes and biographies of men who were in the WWII Navy make reference to having passed or failed the Eddy Test. This was the commonly used name for the Radio Technician Selection Test (RTST, NavPers 16578), the first version of which was prepared under Eddy's leadership in January 1942. In an article, published after the war in the journal American Psychologist, the following justification was noted for the difficulty of the test: In such an extensive training program as that for radio technicians which demands a high degree of concentration and ability, the Navy could ill afford to spend several
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Electronics Training Program
Eddy Test
months training men who, because of lack of ability, were unable to complete the training. The Eddy Test was given to men in high schools, colleges, and recruiting centers. It was also given to men entering the Navy or already in the fleet when they scored high on the Otis Higher Examination. There was a firm pass-fail criteria for grading the Eddy Test, and a second chance was not allowed; therefore, it was necessary to have a central point for both grading and recording the test results. This was done by a team of WAVES at Radio Chicago. The content of
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Electronics Training Program
Eddy Test & Primary school
the Eddy Test was tightly controlled – no public available copies are known to exist. An estimated 500,000 or more persons took the test during WWII. Primary school As the ETP was being planned by the ad hoc committee, a primary school patterned after the Primary Segment at NRL-Bellevue was considered; Cooke, who had been a key figure in the NRL activity, was the major proponent of this option. Other committee members felt that students for the secondary school should be recruited from persons who had already completed a degree, or at least had two years of study in electrical
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Electronics Training Program
Primary school & Advanced Radio Materiel
engineering, and could bypass the Primary altogether. A compromise was reached by Eddy's proposing a primary school taught in electrical engineering schools and compressing the major topics of the first two years of a normal curriculum into three months. Eddy would lead a prototype primary school (previously described as a part or Radio Chicago) that would ensure the curriculum in college-operated schools to be appropriate preparation for Navy-operated secondary school. The top-performing Navy graduates of primary school usually received a promotion to petty-officer 3rd class radio technician. Advanced Radio Materiel While mainly intended for Navy enlisted men, the ARM schools
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Electronics Training Program
Advanced Radio Materiel
also had students from the Marine Corps and Coast Guard, a few civilians (mainly NRL employees), some military men from Great Britain and its Commonwealth Nations, and, occasionally, a company of Navy commissioned officers, including WAVES. When commissioned officers were in a course taught by an enlisted man, the Officer-in-Charge initiated the instruction by stating that the instructor had the authority of a superior officer. The basic curriculum of the ARM secondary school was carefully coordinated for uniformity, but some differences existed in the specific hardware studied at the three bases. The eight-hour school day consisted of about equal time in
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Electronics Training Program
Advanced Radio Materiel
classrooms and laboratories, with lectures dominating in the beginning months and becoming more “hands-on” later. BuPers convened a conference on the ETP in December 1943, at which time the secondary school was increased from 5 months to 24 weeks with new topics added (especially sonar). (This same conference defined Pre-Radio to be 4 weeks and Primary to be 12 weeks.) The ARM secondary school began with a brief review of electronic components, circuits, and basic laboratory instruments. As the courses evolved, they eventually included the following topics: high-frequency and ultra-high-frequency receiver and transmitter principles; coaxial cable, waveguides, antenna arrays, and
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Electronics Training Program
Advanced Radio Materiel & ARM Bellevue
beam forming; synchros and plan position indicators; radio direction-finding; pulse-generation and wave-shaping methods; basic radar theory; microwave theory and cavity magnetrons; radar jamming and countermeasures; identification friend or foe techniques; long-range navigation and hyperbolic navigation techniques; and sonar theory and underwater acoustics. Laboratories included the use of all types of electronic test equipment. Operational measurements and repair methods involved HF and VHF communication receivers and transmitters, air-search and fire-control radars, low-frequency LORAN receivers and transmitters, and sonar systems. Considerable time, particularly in the later months, was devoted to trouble-shooting. ARM Bellevue The RMS facilities on the NRL campus had been considerably
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Electronics Training Program
ARM Bellevue
expanded in the years immediately preceding the war; by early 1941, the entering class had increased to 135 men. After the start of the war and the initiation of the ETP, a new class began every two months. In August 1942, Wallace Miller was increased in rank to commander, and made officer-in-charge. At the same time, Nelson Cooke was commissioned a Lieutenant (jg) and named officer-in-charge of the remaining primary school. When the primary school at Bellevue was transferred to the College of the Ozarks in January 1944, Cooke was increased in rank to Lieutenant (later Lieutenant Commander) and named
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1,656
Q5358487
36
666
38
19
Electronics Training Program
ARM Bellevue & ARM Treasure Island
the executive officer of ARM Bellevue. The student complement increased to about 1,200 men, mainly Navy but with about 15 percent Marines. The course length eventually increased to 28 weeks with a new class every two weeks, resulting in a peak in 1945 of close to 2,400 men attending. At the end of 1946, ARM Bellevue closed with the training being taken up at Great Lakes; this marked the end of the Radio Materiel School that had operated for 22 years. Since the start of WWII and the ETP, the school had graduated an estimated 8,000 men. ARM Treasure Island
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1,656
Q5358487
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40
624
Electronics Training Program
ARM Treasure Island
In October 1941, BuNav authorized a school to be established on Treasure Island, the site of the 1939–1940 Golden Gate International Exposition. The curriculum basically replicated that existing at RMS-Bellevue, but with a much larger student body. When the ETP was formed the following January, this became the ARM Treasure Island, and for a brief period included a primary school. Commander Harry F. Breckel was the first commanding officer (he was promoted to the rank of Captain in early 1944). The first class of 566 students was about 25 percent Hams, entering as Radioman Petty Officer Second Class. Special placement
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1,656
Q5358487
40
624
44
137
Electronics Training Program
ARM Treasure Island & ARM Navy Pier
examinations divided the class into different levels, allowing the first graduation in only a few months; many of the early graduates immediately became instructors. The radar laboratories were on close by, highly secure Yerba Buena Island, and ARM Treasure Island had the lead in developing sonar lectures and laboratories. This school graduated about 10,000 technicians under the wartime curriculum, the last in June 1946. It remained a peacetime Navy advanced electronics “C” School until 1996. ARM Navy Pier Originally opened in 1916 as a shipping and recreational facility, Navy Pier in Chicago extended 3,300 feet into Lake Michigan. In August
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1,656
Q5358487
44
137
44
753
Electronics Training Program
ARM Navy Pier
1941, Navy Pier was taken over and converted to a major Naval Training School. It was renovated to accommodate a large number of service personnel, primarily for mechanical ratings. Near the end of 1943, BuPers directed that most of this be converted to a fourth secondary school. After extensive renovations, including building 100 new classrooms, the first class began in early June 1944. Captain Edwin A. Wolleson was the commanding officer, and Commander Charles C. Caveny served as the educational officer. Two new classes started weekly, each with up to 120 students; this gave a complement of near 6,000 men,
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1,656
Q5358487
44
753
48
333
Electronics Training Program
ARM Navy Pier & NATTC Ward Island
making it the largest school in the ETP. ARM Navy Pier closed in mid-1946. An estimated 18,000 men completed secondary school at Navy Pier, a significant portion of whom came to the school directly from the fleet, rather than through primary school. NATTC Ward Island When the ETP was being developed, the BuAer agreed that the Aviation RMS just getting underway in Annapolis, Maryland, would be moved to a more secure and larger facility. Ward Island, a small, uninhabited island a short distance from the newly opened Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, was selected. In a crash effort, the facilities
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1,656
Q5358487
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333
48
1,003
Electronics Training Program
NATTC Ward Island
were ready for the first class at the beginning of July 1942. Commander (later Captain) George K. Stoddard had been brought from retirement to oversee the Ward Island development, and then remained as the commanding officer. Lieutenant Commander Stock, who had started the school in Annapolis, served as the initial superintendent of training. In September, the school was designated the Naval Air Technical Training Center Ward Island (NATTC Ward Island), serving as the aviation secondary school in the ETP. Initially, Navy enlisted graduates received a petty-officer rating of aviation radio technician (ART); this was changed to aviation electronics technician mate
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1,656
Q5358487
48
1,003
48
1,582
Electronics Training Program
NATTC Ward Island
(AETM) in 1945. Within a short time after opening, a new class of 200 trainees arrived every two weeks. Initially 20 weeks in length, the course increased to 24 weeks in early 1943, then to 28 weeks and a new class each week by mid-1944. In July 1943, cognizance of this school was moved from the BuAer to BuPers. The official name of the school was changed to Airborne Electronics Maintenance in May 1944.A course for supply officers was started during 1943, and a similar course for WAVES followed. In addition to Navy and Marine enlisted men, there were students from
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1,656
Q5358487
48
1,582
48
2,182
Electronics Training Program
NATTC Ward Island
the U.S. Coast Guard, the Royal Air Force, the Canadian Royal Air Force, and some from Australia and Brazil. The number of students peaked during 1944 at about 3,100. The curriculum at Ward Island had many of the same topics at the three ARM secondary schools, but with a number of notable differences. The Navy's airborne equipment was physically much smaller than shipboard and land-based electronics, and had to use the power generated by the carrying vehicle. Also, it was often designed to be operated by either the aircraft pilot or a crew member who had other primary duties; thus, it
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1,656
Q5358487
48
2,182
48
2,896
Electronics Training Program
NATTC Ward Island
was necessarily easier to adjust – often including automatic tuning; therefore, lecture instruction included topics to support these requirements. Most airborne radios operated in VHF bands, and the associated antennas and their placement were important topics. Microwave radar, which required less physical space than its VHF predecessor, soon became the dominant feature in airborne applications; this required considerable attention be given to dish antennas and their mechanical drives. Sonar was not included, but there was more attention given to recognition (IFF), direction-finding, and LORAN radio-navigation systems. There were also special courses on subjects such as the Norden bombsight, the magnetic
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1,656
Q5358487
48
2,896
52
57
Electronics Training Program
NATTC Ward Island & Related schools
anomaly detector (MAD), and the Target Drone Denny (TDD-1). One of the laboratories was in a hangar that contained several aircraft for ground-testing of electronic equipment. NATTC Ward Island also had a small fleet of aircraft of various types that operated from nearby NAS Corpus Christi; every student was required to have flight time in operating the on-board equipment. During the war years, an estimated 10,000 persons received ETP training at NATTC Ward Island. In addition, a similar number were involved in refresher and special courses, and in training of non-U.S. military personnel. Related schools Several other advanced schools for electronic maintenance
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1,656
Q5358487
52
57
52
713
Electronics Training Program
Related schools
were operated by the Navy during WWII. For graduates of the ARM secondary schools who volunteered for submarine service, there was advanced maintenance training in radar, sonar, and other electronic equipment at the Submarine School, Submarine Base, New London, Connecticut. The New London school also had courses for Officers; this training activity was initially started by Lieutenant William C. Eddy in the early 1930s. For upgrading technicians already in fleet service, there were radar schools at the Naval Air Station, San Diego, California, and the Naval Operating Base, Norfolk, Virginia. The San Diego school was the Airborne Radar School, Fleet
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1,656
Q5358487
52
713
52
1,366
Electronics Training Program
Related schools
Air West Coast. Two schools were at Norfolk: the Radar Materiel School on the Main Base, and the Fleet Service School at nearby Virginia Beach, Virginia. At Pearl Harbor Naval Base, there was a Fleet Service School that gave a three-month radar maintenance course. The Radar School for Navy Officers was at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). For persons holding an electrical engineering degree, this school gave two months of classroom instruction, followed by three months of laboratory work on hardware. For other non-EE persons, there was a five-month Pre-Radar School at Harvard University; this had a curriculum very similar
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1,656
Q5358487
52
1,366
56
447
Electronics Training Program
Related schools & ETP Closure
to the ETP Pre-Radar and primary schools. The first published book on radar was prepared by the staff of the MIT Radar School. ETP Closure Shortly after the victory in Europe on 8 May 1945 (V-E Day), the remaining college-based primary schools were closed, as well as the Navy-Operated school at the College of the Ozarks. With the surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945 (V-J Day), the entire ETP began a transition to peacetime, regular Navy operation. By the end of the year, Radio Chicago was closed; this included the State-Street primary school and all of Pre-Radio Schools (review
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1,656
Q5358487
56
447
56
1,065
Electronics Training Program
ETP Closure
topics and the slide-rule were added to the curriculum of the remaining primary schools). The primary school at Gulfport closed in March 1946, and the base was decommissioned. Del Monte, the last stand-alone primary school, continued until June 1947. In June 1946, ARM Navy Pier was also transferred to Great Lakes, and ARM Bellevue followed at the end of the year. These were combined and eventually evolved into an Electronics Technician “A” School. ARM Treasure Island, fed by students from Great Lakes and, for a while, from Del Monte, continued as a secondary school; this later evolved into an Advanced
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1,656
Q5358487
56
1,065
56
1,737
Electronics Training Program
ETP Closure
Electronics “C” School. In mid-1946, NAATC Ward Island added its own primary school; then in October 1947, all of the activities were transferred to NATTC Memphis (actually at Millington, Tennessee) and Ward Island was decommissioned. Captain Eddy received a Legion of Merit in December 1945, recognizing his contributions in the “recruiting, selection, and training of radio technicians.” In the citation, it is noted that through 1945, some 30,000 technicians completed the full Electronic Training Program. The Eddy Test (RTST 16578) continued to be used by the Navy for several years in the selection of trainees for electronics schools. In 1951, the
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1,656
Q5358487
56
1,737
56
2,036
Electronics Training Program
ETP Closure
Bureau of Naval Personnel contracted with Columbia University to develop a new Electronic Technician Selection Test (ETST). This was specified to be “somewhat less difficult than the RTST, with a maximum discrimination at or near the seventy-fifth percentage of the general high school population.”
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1,657
Q534928
2
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8
456
Electrostriction
Explanation
Electrostriction Electrostriction (cf. magnetostriction) is a property of all electrical non-conductors, or dielectrics, that causes them to change their shape under the application of an electric field. Explanation Electrostriction is a property of all dielectric materials, and is caused by displacement of ions in the crystal lattice upon being exposed to an external electric field. Positive ions will be displaced in the direction of the field, while negative ions will be displaced in the opposite direction. This displacement will accumulate throughout the bulk material and result in an overall strain (elongation) in the direction of the field. The thickness will
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1,657
Q534928
8
456
8
1,172
Electrostriction
Explanation
be reduced in the orthogonal directions characterized by Poisson's ratio. All insulating materials consisting of more than one type of atom will be ionic to some extent due to the difference of electronegativity of the atoms, and therefore exhibit electrostriction. The resulting strain (ratio of deformation to the original dimension) is proportional to the square of the polarization. Reversal of the electric field does not reverse the direction of the deformation. More formally, the electrostriction coefficient is a fourth rank tensor (), relating the second-order strain tensor () and the first-order electric polarization density (). The related piezoelectric effect occurs only in a
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1,657
Q534928
8
1,172
12
347
Electrostriction
Explanation & Magnitude of effect
particular class of dielectrics. Electrostriction applies to all crystal symmetries, while the piezoelectric effect only applies to the 20 piezoelectric point groups. Electrostriction is a quadratic effect, unlike piezoelectricity, which is a linear effect. Magnitude of effect Electrostriction can produce a strain of 0.1% at a field strength of 2 million volts per meter (2 MV/m) for the material called PMN-15 (TRS website listed in the references below). The effect appears to be quadratic at low field strengths (up to 0.3 MV/m) and roughly linear after that, up to a maximum field strength of 4 MV/m. Therefore, devices
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1,657
Q534928
12
347
12
553
Electrostriction
Magnitude of effect
made of such materials are normally operated around a bias voltage in order to behave nearly linearly. This will probably cause deformations to lead to a change of electric charge, but this is unconfirmed.
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1,658
Q5358935
2
0
8
132
Elements of national security
Choice of elements
Elements of national security National security has a number of component elements which, when individually satisfied, provide a nation with security of its values, interests and freedom to choose policy. These are listed differently by various authorities. Besides the military aspect of security, the aspects of politics, society, environment, energy and natural resources, and, economics are commonly listed. The elements of national security correlate closely to the concept of the elements of national power. Choice of elements As in the case of national power, the military aspect of security is an important, but not the sole, component of national security.
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1,658
Q5358935
8
132
12
366
Elements of national security
Choice of elements & Romm
To be truly secure, a nation needs other forms of security. Authorities differ in their choice of nation security elements. Romm Joseph J. Romm, an American physicist, climate change and energy security expert, in his 1993 book Defining national security: the nonmilitary aspects takes Ullman's 1983 definition of threat as a starting point and lists security from narcotic cartels, economic security, environmental security and energy security as the non-military elements of national security.
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1,659
Q770920
2
0
4
623
Eleonora Vallone
Eleonora Vallone Eleonora Vallone (born 1 February 1955) is an Italian actress, model and TV-personality. Born in Rome, the daughter of actors Raf Vallone and Elena Varzi, she made her film debut in 1979 in the "poliziottesco" Gardenia, and later starred in several genre films, also in the more ambitious Alberto Bevilacqua drama film Le rose di Danzica. In 1981 she hosted the Sanremo Music Festival alongside Claudio Cecchetto. In the same years she appeared nude in several men's magazines such as Playmen and the Italian edition of Playboy. A pioneer and teacher of water gymnastics, Eleonora Vallone founded the first