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"plaintext": "Year 693 (DCXCIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 693 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
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"plaintext": " Earconwald, bishop of London",
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"plaintext": " Fáelchar ua Máele Ódrain, king of Osraige (Ireland)",
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"plaintext": " Oshere, king of Hwicce (Mercia)",
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"plaintext": " Paul III, patriarch of Constantinople ",
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61503
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| 23,480 | 144 | 1 | 22 | 0 | 0 | 693 | year | []
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36,387 | 1,093,462,452 | 694 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 694 (DCXCIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 694 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
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"plaintext": " The Mardaites raid Muslim-held territories, from their chief stronghold Hagioupolis, in northern Syria (approximate date).",
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19541,
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"plaintext": " November 9 King Ergica of the Visigoths accuses the Jews of aiding the Muslims, and sentences all Jews to slavery.",
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[
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115
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"plaintext": " King Ine of Wessex attacks Kent, and extorts 30,000 pence from its people, in recompense for the murder of King Mul.",
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116
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]
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"plaintext": " King Sæbbi of Essex abdicates the throne, and is succeeded by his sons Sigeheard and Swæfred (approximate date).",
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{
"plaintext": " Asuka, imperial capital of Japan, is abandoned by Empress Jitō. She moves her court to Fujiwara-kyō (Nara Prefecture).",
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6
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33
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[
51,
63
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[
88,
100
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[
102,
117
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Qapaghan Khan (694–716) succeeds his brother Illterish Khan, as ruler of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (Central Asia).",
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102
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[
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116
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Umakai, Japanese statesman (d. 737)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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36080
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"anchor_spans": [
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44,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hammad Ar-Rawiya, Arab scholar (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1575317
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mildthryth, Anglo-Saxon abbess (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
9225247,
1301
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
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25,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clovis IV, King of the Franks (b. 677)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
555204,
36381
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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35,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Coenred, king of Dorset (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12930860,
37589
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
],
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18,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rodoald, duke of Friuli (Italy)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
9200677,
293971,
14532
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
8
],
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18,
24
],
[
26,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Xue Huai-yi, Chinese Buddhist monk",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
14859539,
3267529
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
12
],
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30
]
]
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| [
"694"
]
| 23,483 | 190 | 4 | 44 | 0 | 0 | 694 | year | []
|
36,388 | 1,106,524,095 | 695 | [
{
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"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 695 (DCXCV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 695 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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23,
53
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[
99,
114
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[
207,
218
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[
219,
231
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Maro, Japanese statesman (d. 737)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
13380704,
36080
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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42,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Herlindis of Maaseik, Frankish abbess (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4294803,
1301
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
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32,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kibi no Makibi, Japanese scholar (d. 775)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4242225,
35452
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
38,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad ibn al-Qasim, Umayyad general (d. 715)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
433738,
36237
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
44,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ōtomo no Koshibi, Japanese general (d. 777)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
35454
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"anchor_spans": [
[
40,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emperor Shang of Tang, Chinese ruler (or 698)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
7357013,
36342
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
42,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theophilus of Edessa, Greek astrologer (d. 785)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
5802277,
2122,
35462
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
29,
39
],
[
44,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zayd ibn Ali, Arab imam and grandson of Husayn ibn Ali (d. 740)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
430007,
15240,
35404
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
20,
24
],
[
60,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ado, duke of Friuli (Northern Italy)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
9200796,
293971,
2155325
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
],
[
14,
20
],
[
22,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ansbert of Rouen, Frankish bishop",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4023956,
4092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
28,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chan Imix K'awiil, Mayan ruler (ajaw)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
43010967,
2098401
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
33,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sæbbi, king of Kent (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2687331,
180882
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
16,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen the Persian, chief eunuch and sakellarios of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
60357365
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
}
]
| [
"695"
]
| 23,484 | 182 | 8 | 32 | 0 | 0 | 695 | year | []
|
36,389 | 1,086,656,085 | 696 | [
{
"plaintext": "__NOTOC__",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 696 (DCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday the (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 696 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
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321364,
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"anchor_spans": [
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24,
54
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[
104,
119
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[
212,
223
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[
224,
236
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 8 or 697 Chlodulf, bishop of Metz (or 697)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15864,
36354,
3782407,
5433463,
36354
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
11,
14
],
[
16,
24
],
[
36,
40
],
[
45,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 13 Takechi, Japanese prince",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1129,
9947631
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Domnall Donn, king of Dál Riata (Scotland)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
192957,
43782,
26994
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
23,
32
],
[
34,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vinayaditya, king of Chalukya (India)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4702749,
30874039,
14533
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
22,
30
],
[
32,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Woncheuk, Korean Buddhist monk (b. 613)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
26852332,
297136,
36315
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
18,
26
],
[
36,
39
]
]
}
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| [
"696"
]
| 23,486 | 257 | 3 | 21 | 0 | 0 | 696 | year | []
|
36,390 | 1,086,656,109 | 699 | [
{
"plaintext": "__NOTOC__",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 699 (DCXCIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 699 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
319725,
15651,
1400,
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16
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[
24,
57
],
[
103,
118
],
[
211,
222
],
[
223,
235
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abū Hanīfa, Arab imam and scholar (d. 767)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
419077,
15240,
35427
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
18,
22
],
[
39,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Wei, Chinese poet (d. 759)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
204703,
256577,
35419
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
19,
23
],
[
28,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Niitabe, Japanese princess",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15798567
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ōe, Japanese princess",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15798395
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
3
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Seaxburh of Ely, queen of Kent",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3773569,
180882
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
27,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Werburgh, Anglo-Saxon princess",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
478719
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yuge, Japanese prince",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
30153878
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
}
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| [
"699"
]
| 23,493 | 483 | 6 | 17 | 0 | 0 | 699 | year | []
|
36,391 | 1,086,653,078 | 1153 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1153 (MCLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
321344,
15651
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"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
17
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[
25,
57
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[
103,
118
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17 William IX, count of Poitiers (d. 1156)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1490,
69001,
51489,
36051
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
22
],
[
33,
41
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[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Mohammed Salih, Almohad Sufi leader (d. 1234)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15586281,
28246,
36069
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
29,
33
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aimery of Cyprus (or Amaury), king of Jerusalem (d. 1205)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1872,
16822,
36372
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
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[
39,
48
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[
53,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alexios III (Angelos), Byzantine emperor (d. 1211)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1616,
39997
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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[
46,
50
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]
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{
"plaintext": " Cathal Crobhdearg Ua Conchobair, Irish king (d. 1224)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1616942,
36065
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
32
],
[
49,
53
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]
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{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kanefusa, Japanese nobleman (d. 1217)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14880292,
28978421,
39992
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
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[
32,
40
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[
45,
49
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{
"plaintext": " Harvey I of Léon, Breton nobleman and knight (d. 1203)",
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"plaintext": " Ibn Hammad, Hammadid historian and writer (d. 1230)",
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{
"plaintext": " Kamo no Chōmei, Japanese author and poet (d. 1216)",
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"plaintext": " Marco I Sanudo, duke of the Archipelago (d. 1227)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nerses of Lambron, Armenian archbishop (d. 1198)",
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"plaintext": " Richard de Clare, 3rd Earl of Hertford (d. 1217)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sibylla of Acerra, queen and regent of Sicily (d. 1205)",
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{
"plaintext": " Waleran de Beaumont, 4th Earl of Warwick (d. 1204)",
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{
"plaintext": " William II (the Good), king of Sicily (d. 1189)",
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"plaintext": " January 28 Pelagius of Oviedo, Spanish bishop",
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"plaintext": " February 10 Taira no Tadamori, Japanese samurai (b. 1096)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 16 Piotr Włostowic, Polish nobleman (b. 1080)",
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{
"plaintext": " May 22 Atto of Pistoia, Portuguese bishop (b. 1070)",
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"plaintext": " May 24 David I, king of Scotland (b. 1084)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 12 Roger de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Warwick",
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},
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"plaintext": " June 29 Óláfr Guðrøðarson, king of the Isles",
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{
"plaintext": " July 8 Eugene III, pope of the Catholic Church",
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 16 Bernard de Tremelay, French Grand Master ",
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},
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"plaintext": " August 17 Eustace IV, count of Boulogne (b. 1130)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 20 Bernard of Clairvaux, French abbot (b. 1090)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 3 Henry I, German archbishop (b. 1080)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 14 Henry Murdac, English archbishop",
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},
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"plaintext": " December 16 Ranulf de Gernon, Norman nobleman (b. 1099)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Shahrastani, Persian scholar and historian (b. 1086)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Anna Komnene, Byzantine princess and historian (b. 1083)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gampopa, Tibetan Buddhist monk and teacher (b. 1079) ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shaykh Tabarsi, Persian Shia scholar and writer (b. 1073)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Simon II de Senlis, 4th Earl of Huntingdon (b. 1098)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Walter Espec, Norman nobleman and High Sheriff",
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| [
"1153"
]
| 19,646 | 234 | 33 | 97 | 0 | 0 | 1153 | year | []
|
36,394 | 1,095,215,918 | 1200 | [
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"plaintext": " Spring Boniface I, marquis of Montferrat, sends envoys to Venice, Genoa and other city-states to negotiate a contract for transport to the Levant. Meanwhile, Boniface and various nobles are mustering an expeditionary army (mainly forces from France and the Holy Roman Empire) at Paris. On February 23, Baldwin IX, count of Flanders and his brother Henry of Flanders take the cross at Bruges (modern Belgium), and agree to take part in the Fourth Crusade called by Pope Innocent III (see 1199).",
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"plaintext": " May 22 The Kings John (Lackland) and Philip II (Augustus) sign a peace treaty at Le Goulet, an island in the middle of the Seine River, near Vernon in Normandy. The agreement recognizes John as overlord of most of the English owned lands in France, but John has to give Philip the lands of Norman Vexin and Évreux and a large sum of money (some 20,000 marks) – a \"relief\" payment for recognition of John's sovereignty of Brittany.",
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"plaintext": " August 25 Eager to make peace with Aymer Taillefer, count of Angoulême, John marries his 15-year-old daughter Isabella of Angoulême at Bordeaux. In order to remarry, John needs to abandon his first wife, Isabella of Gloucester. John accomplishes this by arguing that he has failed to get the necessary papal dispensation to marry Isabella of Gloucester.",
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"plaintext": " The rebel leader Ivanko of Bulgaria is captured and executed by the Byzantine general Alexios Palaiologos (son-in-law of Emperor Alexios III Angelos).",
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"plaintext": " November 22 During a tour of the Midlands, John receives homage from William the Lion, king of Scotland, at Lincoln. William is looking to move into the areas of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland. John on the other hand ensures that these areas are controlled by English nobles he can trust.",
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"plaintext": " February 17 Al-Adil I, Ayyubid ruler of Damascus, Jerusalem, and parts of the Jazira takes control of Egypt, and is recognized as sultan of the Ayyubid Empire. During his reign, he promotes trade and good relations with the Crusader States. His son Al-Kamil becomes the effective ruler (viceroy) of Egypt.",
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"plaintext": " Temüjin (or Genghis Khan) manages to unite about half the feuding Mongol clans under his leadership. He delegates authority based on skill and loyalty, rather than tribal affiliation or family. The main rivals of the Mongol confederation are the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, the Tanguts to the south and the Jin Dynasty (or Great Jin) to the east.",
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{
"plaintext": " The University of Paris receives its charter, from Philip II. He issues a diploma \"for the security of the scholars of Paris\", which affirms that students are subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction.",
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"plaintext": " January 19 Dōgen Zenji, founder of the Sōtō Zen school (d. 1253)",
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"plaintext": " March 24 John dal Bastone, Italian monk and preacher (d. 1290)",
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"plaintext": " October 9 Isabel Marshal, English countess and regent (d. 1240)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " October 22 Louis IV (the Saint), landgrave of Thuringia (d. 1227)",
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"plaintext": " Abu Bakr ibn Sayyid al-Nās, Moorish imam and theologian (d. 1261)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Adam Marsh, English Franciscan scholar and theologian (d. 1259)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ahmad al-Badawi, Almohad Sufi scholar, jurist and mystic (d. 1276)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Albertus Magnus, German Dominican friar and bishop (d. 1280)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alix (or Alis), Breton noblewoman (House of Thouars) (d. 1221)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Beatrice of Nazareth, Flemish Cistercian nun and mystic (d. 1268)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Benedict of Poland, Polish Franciscan friar and traveler (d. 1280)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Chen Rong (Ch'en Jung), Chinese painter and politician (d. 1266)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh of Saint-Cher, French Dominican friar and cardinal (d. 1263)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Ingerd Jakobsdatter, Danish noblewoman and landowner (d. 1258)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Irmengard of Baden, German countess (House of Guelf) (d. 1260)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jutta of Kulmsee, German noblewoman, hermit and saint (d. 1260)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Marie of Avesnes, French countess (House of Avesnes) (d. 1241)",
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[
58,
62
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},
{
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49800682,
34999845,
42491
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1,
9
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[
30,
34
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[
55,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matthew Paris, English Benedictine monk and chronicler (d. 1259)",
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142738,
4240
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},
{
"plaintext": " Oliver de Termes, French nobleman, advisor and knight (d. 1274)",
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63
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},
{
"plaintext": " Philip I, French prince and nobleman (House of Capet) (d. 1235)",
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63
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rolandino of Padua, Italian professor, jurist and writer (d. 1276)",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rudolf von Ems, German nobleman, knight and poet (d. 1254)",
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3524597,
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1,
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54,
58
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},
{
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1597415,
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1,
21
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54,
58
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ugolino da Gualdo Cattaneo, Italian Augustinian monk (d. 1260)",
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51242757,
5997030
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1,
27
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37,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ulrich von Liechtenstein, German minnesinger and poet (d. 1275)",
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165226,
39985
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1,
25
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34,
45
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59,
63
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William of Saint-Amour, French philosopher and writer (d. 1272)",
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2343791,
39988
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[
1,
23
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[
59,
63
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 13 Otto I, German nobleman (House of Hohenstaufen)",
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5860390,
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1,
11
],
[
13,
19
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[
38,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 14 Odo of Novara, Italian priest and saint (b. 1105)",
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16192,
16096563,
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1,
11
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[
13,
26
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[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 20 Odo of Canterbury, English abbot and theologian",
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16025,
5036348,
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1,
11
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[
13,
30
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[
40,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 6 ",
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11021
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kajiwara Kagesue, Japanese nobleman (b. 1162)",
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7031391,
40012
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[
1,
17
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[
41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kajiwara Kagetoki, Japanese samurai and spy",
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1893205,
28288
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1,
18
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29,
36
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},
{
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2224,
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1,
8
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10,
22
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63
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]
},
{
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1,
9
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11,
17
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57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 25 Nicholas I, German nobleman (House of Mecklenburg) ",
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19354,
37042739,
1866578
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2,
8
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[
10,
20
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[
39,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 16 Li Fengniang (or Cixian), Chinese empress (b. 1144)",
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15947,
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
22
],
[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 26 Raymond of Piacenza (the Palmer), Italian pilgrim",
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15892,
21819438
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 19 Alberic III of Dammartin, French nobleman",
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28147,
31169791
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 Guang Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1147) ",
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2061823,
36049
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
25
],
[
47,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Heinrich Walpot, German Grand Master",
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28202,
1361014
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 25 Conrad of Wittelsbach, German archbishop",
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22333,
7559495
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 16 Hugh of Avalon, French monk and bishop",
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21726,
30865592
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 12 Lochlann of Galloway, Scottish nobleman",
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8633,
2545892
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 14 Han (or Gongshu), Chinese empress (b. 1165)",
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33575352,
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[
1,
12
],
[
14,
17
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adachi Morinaga, Japanese Buddhist warrior monk (b. 1135)",
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352152,
297220,
34985
],
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[
1,
16
],
[
27,
35
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Benedicta Ebbesdotter of Hvide, queen of Sweden (or 1199)",
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5058739,
40062
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[
1,
31
],
[
42,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gilbert Horal, Spanish Grand Master of the Knights Templar",
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1921337,
2000515
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[
1,
14
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24,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Inpumon'in no Tayū, Japanese noblewoman and poet (b. 1130)",
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49832411
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[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joel ben Isaac ha-Levi, German rabbi and Tosafist (b. 1115)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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64175660,
51273,
562063,
36267
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[
1,
23
],
[
32,
37
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[
42,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Wansu, Chinese physician of the Jin Dynasty (b. 1110)",
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55023,
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[
1,
10
],
[
37,
48
],
[
53,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nicholas of Amiens, French theologian and writer (b. 1147)",
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16115083
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[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nigel de Longchamps, English satirist (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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476341,
26791
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[
1,
20
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[
30,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Osbern of Gloucester, English lexicographical writer (b. 1123)",
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9950646,
36045
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[
1,
21
],
[
58,
62
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William FitzRalph, English nobleman and knight (b. 1140)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
44964879,
40078
],
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[
1,
18
],
[
52,
56
]
]
}
]
| [
"1200"
]
| 5,224 | 2,787 | 57 | 202 | 0 | 0 | 1200 | year | []
|
36,395 | 1,100,083,431 | 1180 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 1180 (MCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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17
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[
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[
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115
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 6 Go-Toba, emperor of Japan (d. 1239)",
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195040,
15573,
40069
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1,
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[
11,
18
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[
31,
36
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[
41,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alfonso II (Berenguer), count of Provence (d. 1209)",
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1321511,
48503,
36057
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[
1,
11
],
[
34,
42
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Berengaria (the Great), queen of Castile and León (d. 1246)",
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179431,
4711133,
336544,
42486
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1,
11
],
[
34,
41
],
[
46,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eric X (Knutsson), king of Sweden (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
779477,
5058739
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
28,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fernán Gutiérrez de Castro, Spanish nobleman (d. 1223)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
46477749,
28978421,
36064
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[
1,
27
],
[
37,
45
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gilbert de Clare, English nobleman (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
373687
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[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guala de Roniis, Italian priest and bishop (d. 1244)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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51292199,
42484
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[
1,
16
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48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hawise of Chester, English noblewoman (d. 1143)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
23058159,
35544
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[
1,
18
],
[
43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Abi Tayyi, Syrian historian and poet (d. 1228)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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59357032,
36263
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[
1,
14
],
[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kambar, Indian Hindu poet and writer (d. 1250)",
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731766,
13677,
38708
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[
1,
7
],
[
16,
21
],
[
42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paulus Hungarus, Hungarian theologian (d. 1241)",
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44234058,
42481
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[
1,
16
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43,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philip of Ibelin, Cypriot nobleman and regent (d. 1227)",
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52574488,
35348624,
36262
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[
1,
17
],
[
40,
46
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[
51,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, French troubadour (d. 1207) ",
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8300243,
40000
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[
1,
22
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46,
50
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert de Bingham, bishop of Salisbury (d. 1246)",
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7099447,
1434015
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[
1,
18
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30,
39
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert of Burgate, English nobleman (d. 1220)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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64173458,
36063
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[
1,
18
],
[
41,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Simon of Dammartin, French nobleman (d. 1239)",
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20011513
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[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 23 Eberhard I, count of Berg-Altena (b. 1140)",
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5651338,
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183126,
40078
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1,
11
],
[
13,
23
],
[
34,
38
],
[
39,
45
],
[
50,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 29 Soběslav II, duke of Bohemia (b. 1128)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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15814,
3347601,
424966,
36277
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
24
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[
34,
41
],
[
46,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 6 Teresa Fernández de Traba, queen of León",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11021,
10552457
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[
1,
11
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[
13,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 27 Al-Mustadi, caliph of the Abbasid Caliphate (b. 1142)",
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1091289,
49856,
35053
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
21
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[
37,
54
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[
59,
63
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 20 ",
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15818
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[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Yorimasa, Japanese military leader (b. 1106)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1253395,
42475
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
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[
52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mochihito, Japanese prince and son of Go-Shirakawa",
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195045
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1,
10
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39,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " June 27 Turan-Shah, Ayyubid emir (prince) of Damascus ",
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15801,
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8914
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1,
8
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10,
20
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47,
55
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 1 Stephanie (the Unfortunate), Spanish noblewoman",
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15844,
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1,
7
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[
9,
18
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},
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"plaintext": " August 11 William of Sens (or Guillaume), French architect",
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1170
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1,
10
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[
12,
27
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[
51,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 18 Louis VII (the Younger), king of France (b. 1120)",
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376974,
36272
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1,
13
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[
15,
24
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[
48,
54
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[
59,
63
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Manuel I (Komnenos), Byzantine emperor (b. 1118)",
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28202,
44833,
36270
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
23
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[
58,
62
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},
{
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| 19,702 | 300 | 43 | 93 | 0 | 0 | 1180 | year | []
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36,396 | 1,104,677,875 | 1214 | [
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| 5,358 | 312 | 28 | 88 | 0 | 0 | 1214 | year | []
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36,397 | 1,107,396,995 | 2010s | [
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"plaintext": "On 8 April 2010, the United States and Russia signed a treaty in Prague, Czech Republic agreed to reduce the stockpiles of their nuclear weapons by half. It is meant to replace the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT), which was set to expire. The treaty went into force on 5 February 2011 after it was ratified by both nations.",
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"plaintext": "On 7 July 2017, the United Nations passed the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, the first legally binding international agreement to comprehensively prohibit nuclear weapons, with the goal of leading towards their total elimination. It has been signed by 58 nations.",
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"plaintext": " On 1 February 2019, The US formally suspended the Russo-American Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF), and Russia did the same on the following day in response. The US formally withdrew from the treaty on 2 August 2019.",
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"plaintext": "Along with China, a Vladimir Putin-led Russia also steadily increased its defence spending and continued to modernise its military capabilities throughout the decade, including the development of the T-14 Armata main battle tank and the fifth-generation Sukhoi Su-57 jet fighter. Russia also flexed its power projection capabilities, particularly demonstrated during the 2014 annexation of Crimea and its interventions in eastern Ukraine and the Syrian Civil War; Wagner Group had a significant presence in both conflicts. Russia also notably waged information warfare campaigns against its geopolitical foes, including interfering in the 2016 U.S. elections via hacking and leaking emails of U.S. political party leadership and by spreading disinformation via the Internet Research Agency. Other alleged Russian intelligence operations included the Skripal poisonings and the Montenegrin coup plot, both of which were attributed by some to the Unit 29155 organisation. Collectively, these activities—and the Western-led efforts to combat the influence of Russian oligarchs and political interests—have been referred to as the Second Cold War.",
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"plaintext": "Sitting world leaders such as Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Muammar Gaddafi of Libya, Kim Jong-il of North Korea, Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, Lech Kaczyński of Poland, Islam Karimov of Uzbekistan and Beji Caid Essebsi of Tunisia, all died in office, as did former leaders Fidel Castro, Lee Kuan Yew, Nelson Mandela, Margaret Thatcher, Robert Mugabe, Giulio Andreotti, Francesco Cossiga, Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, Jacques Chirac, Helmut Schmidt, Helmut Kohl, Mohamed Morsi, Ariel Sharon, Shimon Peres, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, Václav Havel, Malcolm Fraser, Bob Hawke, B. J. Habibie, Yasuhiro Nakasone, Alan García, Jorge Rafael Videla, Néstor Kirchner, Fernando de la Rúa, Patricio Aylwin, Itamar Franco, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, Atal Bihari Vajpayee and George H. W. Bush.",
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"plaintext": "Coups d'état against ruling governments during the decade include:",
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"plaintext": "The following tables of events is listed by the region and by chronological order. The prominent political events include, but are not limited to:",
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"plaintext": " 2010 – 2011 – 2012 – 2013 – 2014 – 2015 – 2016 – 2017 – 2018 – 2019",
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"plaintext": "Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:",
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"plaintext": "The 2010s began amidst a global financial crisis that started in the late 2000s. A sovereign-debt crisis in Europe began in early 2010, and the Greek government admitted that it was having difficulties servicing its large sovereign debt. In the summer and fall of 2011, bond yields for Italy and Spain spiked above 6 percent. By 2015 bond rates had returned to normal ranges across Europe, save for Greece, which accepted another, even more stringent bailout package. The size of the European Financial Stability Facility was increased from €440 billion to €2 trillion. Despite the Eurozone debt crisis, the American Dow Jones Industrial Average had its longest stretch of gains since the late 1990s tech boom. However, economic issues, including inflation and an increase in commodity prices, sparked unrest in many lower-income countries. In some countries, particularly those in the Arab world, political unrest evolved into socioeconomic crises, resulting in the Arab Spring.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the global recession, many central banks instituted a zero interest-rate policy, or close to it. Another form of monetary stimulus was that of quantitative easing. The resulting flood of market liquidity caused a rise in asset prices. As a result, for example, United States stock prices reached record highs. Another consequence has been the rise in housing prices in many major world cities. Some of the cities which recorded the most dramatic rises included Sydney, San Francisco, Vancouver, and Auckland.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, China became the second largest global economy, surpassing Japan. Japan also saw a rating downgrade the following year due to debt burden. In August 2011, the S&P downgraded the United States' credit rating from triple AAA to AA-plus following a debt ceiling crisis. Also in 2011, a Gallup poll found that more than half of Americans believed the country was still in a recession. In June 2015, the Shanghai Stock Exchange lost a third of the value of A-shares within one month, an event known as the 2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence. India became the fastest growing major economy of the world in 2015, surpassing China. In 2018, as the U.S. Federal Reserve raised interest rates, fears of a yield curve inversion preceding a potential U.S. recession sent inflation higher in several emerging markets, including Argentina, where interest rates hit 40% and an International Monetary Fund bail out was issued. In 2019, Singapore supplanted the United States as the world's most competitive economy, with the U.S. dropping to third, behind Hong Kong.",
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"plaintext": "Global oil production in 2014 reached a historic peak, reaching 93 million barrels/day. In 2018, partially due to a shale boom, the United States overcame Russia and Saudi Arabia in becoming the world's largest crude oil producer, the first time since 1973. Around the year 2017 is a period seen by some economists as being the new peak of a \"goldilocks economy\". The International Monetary Fund's April 2019 World Economic Outlook stated, \"After peaking at close to 4 percent in 2017, global [economic] growth remained strong, at 3.8 percent in the first half of 2018, but dropped to 3.2 percent in the second half of the year.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, United States President Donald Trump announced he would put into place new tariffs on some Chinese products, starting the 'US-China Trade War', an economic conflict involving the world's two largest economies. Trump said the reasoning for the trade war is to punish China for 'unfair' trade practices, such as the appropriation of jobs and the theft of American intellectual property. China responded with tariffs of its own, and a cycle began, escalating the conflict to the situation faced today. As part of his 'America First' policy, Trump also announced new tariffs were being placed on countries around the world for various products such as steel and aluminium, which has drawn some economic retaliation.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the decade, in North American and some Western European domestic economies, consumer-level purchasing habits had shifted significantly, a partial consequence of the Great Recession's impact on discretionary incomes and a shifting breadwinner model. The so-called \"retail apocalypse\" had commenced as consumers increasingly resorted to online shopping and e-commerce, accelerating the decline of brick-and-mortar retail and the continued decline of indoor shopping malls. The transitioning retail industry and popularity of online shopping facilitated economic phenomena such as bricks and clicks business models, pop-up and non-store retailing, drone delivery services, ghost restaurants, and a quickly maturing online food ordering and delivery service sector. This was only further perpetuated by the rise in cryptocurrency throughout the decade, such as Bitcoin. By May 2018, over 1,800 cryptocurrency specifications existed.",
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"plaintext": "In the same vein as cryptocurrency, the trend towards a cashless society continued as non-cash transactions and digital currency saw an increase in favourability in the 2010s. By 2016, only about 2 percent of the value transacted in Sweden was by cash, and only about 20 percent of retail transactions were in cash. Fewer than half of bank branches in the country conducted cash transactions. A report published during the final year of the decade suggested that the percentage of payments conducted in cash in the United Kingdom had fallen to 34% from 63% ten years earlier. The 2016 United States User Consumer Survey Study claimed that 75 percent of respondents preferred a credit or debit card as their payment method while only 11 percent of respondents preferred cash.",
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"plaintext": "Below are the most significant scientific developments of each year, based on the annual Breakthrough of the Year award of the American Association for the Advancement of Science journal Science.",
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"plaintext": "2012: Discovery of the Higgs boson",
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"plaintext": "2016: The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory makes the first observation of gravitational waves, fulfilling Einstein's prediction",
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"plaintext": "2017: Cosmic convergence: Neutron star merger (GW170817)",
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"plaintext": "2018: Development cell by cell",
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"plaintext": "Robotics, particularly drones like quadcopters, experienced a wide use and application in the 2010s. Autonomous and electric car technology and sales showed considerable growth as well. In addition, sustainable space launch technologies were spearheaded by entrepreneurs like Elon Musk. Video Games began to merge hand in hand with technology as seen in applications like Wii Street U, an app which used Google Street View and the Nintendo Wii U to examine the cities of the world, streets, and addresses on a virtual globe.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, during the Falcon Heavy test flight, the first production car was launched into space. The car was attached to the Falcon Heavy rocket, the most powerful rocket in operation at the time.",
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"plaintext": "Cyber security incidents, such as hacking, leaks or theft of sensitive information, gained increased attention of governments, corporations and individuals.",
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"plaintext": "AIDS, a pandemic responsible for killing over 30 million people since its discovery in the early 1980s, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, became a treatable condition, though by the end of the decade only two cases had been cured. With good treatment patients can generally expect normal lives and lifespans. However, only some 5 million of the 12 million affected people had access to such treatment.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2010s, social changes included increases in life expectancy and falling birth rates leading to larger proportions of the population being elderly. This put pressure on pensions and other social security programs in developed nations. The environment became a topic of greater public concern around the world. Many parts of the world moved towards greater acceptance of LGBT people often including the legalisation of same-sex marriage. The internet took an ever greater role in entertainment, communication, politics and commerce, especially for younger people and those living in wealthier countries. In 2011, the world population reached seven billion people.",
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"plaintext": "Fashion of the 2010s became slimmer-fit and slightly more formal compared to previous decades. In addition, people's handheld devices such as cellphones which came in a variety of colors and cases (as well as things like handheld gaming systems) became more prevalent personal items. The decade was also defined by hipster fashion, athleisure, and a revival of austerity-era and other nostalgic alternative fashion trends (such as 1980s-style neon streetwear and unisex 1990s-style elements influenced by grunge).",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, a subculture of \"e-kids\" came into existence, whom took their style from Japanese street fashion, cosplay, skater aesthetic, and other pieces of pop culture. In contrast to the colorful subculture of \"e-kids\" later in the decade, the early 2010s saw the Emo revival.",
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"plaintext": "Political fashion became a genre of fashion starting around 2016, as people wore hats like MAGA hats (popularized by political outsider, prior TV-star and businessman President Donald Trump), as well as the Pussyhat. These two pieces of fashion wear would be popularized in the 2010s in popular culture on television and further, but would become controversial in their own right.",
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"plaintext": "The decade sparked many smaller fashion movements, notable examples including Cottagecore and Normcore (a notable icon of Normcore in the 2010s was Steve Jobs, whom represented the decade's casual clothing). To a lesser extent, objects like the Fidget spinner, Silly Bandz, and Shutter shades remained popular among youth throughout the decade.",
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"plaintext": "Superhero films became box office leaders, especially with the Marvel Cinematic Universe whose Endgame became the highest-grossing film of all time, grossing over $2.7 billion worldwide, followed by Infinity War, The Avengers and Black Panther. Horror film It, which was based on the novel of the same name by Stephen King, became the highest-grossing horror film of all time. Toy Story 3 became a success and the highest grossing animated film of the early 2010s until Frozen became the highest-grossing animated film of all time worldwide, which was then further beaten by the 2019 remake of The Lion King, while Incredibles 2 became the highest-grossing animated film of all time in North America. Brave became the first film to use the Dolby Atmos sound format. Motion capture grew in terms of its realism and reach, and was seen in movies like Steven Spielberg's Ready Player One, a film which was praised for its visual effects and acting performances, winning several awards. The decade also saw the release of many popular and critically acclaimed films such as The Social Network, Her, 12 Years a Slave, Boyhood, Me and Earl and the Dying Girl, The Edge of Seventeen, The Fault in Our Stars, The Wolf of Wall Street, The Perks of Being a Wallflower, The Grand Budapest Hotel, La La Land, Eighth Grade, Steve Jobs, Lady Bird, Green Book, Moonlight, Get Out, Parasite, Love, Simon, The Irishman, Once Upon a Time in Hollywood, and Uncut Gems.",
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"plaintext": "The video game industry continued to be dominated by Nintendo, Sony, and Microsoft; Minecraft became the best-selling game of all time in 2019. The popularity of video games increased across the world, as the Wii influenced gaming in the early part of the decade, and the Nintendo 3DS provided 3D gaming through autostereoscopy. The successful Nintendo Wii was followed by the Wii U in 2012, a commercial failure. The Nintendo Wii would be responsible for the most critically acclaimed game of the 2010s decade, Super Mario Galaxy 2 (which is also often considered one of the greatest video games of all time by game critics). The Wii (and later to a lesser extent the Wii U) would singlehandedly cause the increased use of motion controls in gaming with its Wii line up of games such as Motion, Wii Fit U, Wii Sports Club, Wii Party and Wii Party U, all released in the 2010s. Motion controls would carry over and advance during the decade with the Nintendo Switch's Joy-Con in 2017, and would form the foundation of 2010's motion-based PlayStation Move and Xbox Kinect, counterparts and competitors to the Wii. The PlayStation 4 and Xbox One released in 2013, and in the United States the PlayStation 4 became the highest-selling console of the decade. The Nintendo Switch launched in 2017 and was responsible for bringing Nintendo's success back, the success of the console initially spawned by the strong sales of both Breath of the Wild and Super Mario Odyssey, as well as titles like ARMS, 1-2-Switch, Super Smash Bros Ultimate, Yoshi's Crafted World, Super Mario Maker 2, Splatoon 2, Luigi's Mansion 3, Mario Kart 8 Deluxe, New Super Mario Bros U Deluxe, among many others. Ports and sequels to Wii U games on the Nintendo Switch sold considerably better than their Wii U counterparts. YouTube became a platform for \"Let's Players\" to upload videos of themselves playing certain games, which led to the popularity of existing games and newer indie games like Cuphead, Undertale, Octodad/ Dadliest Catch, and Five Nights At Freddy's (indie games like Cuphead were lauded for its rubber hose animation style, while Undertale's soundtrack like \"Megalovania\" came to light). \"Let's Players\" were even referenced in greater pop culture such as the 2014 episode Rehash on South Park where gamer Pewdiepie appeared. The use of iPods, tablets, and cell phones became one of the most popular forms of gaming as the decade progressed with the rise of mobile games, expanding the industry's appeal among less traditional markets such as women and older adults. Apps such as Angry Birds, Pokémon Go, Subway Surfers, Doodle Jump, Cut the Rope, Smash Hit, Miitomo, and Candy Crush Saga became hits. (In addition to Super Mario Galaxy 2, it is notable in mentioning that Nintendo Wii released a large group of critically acclaimed games in the early 2010s with popular titles such as Kirby's Epic Yarn, Donkey Kong Country Returns, The Legend of Zelda Skyward Sword, and Sonic Colors).",
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"plaintext": "In the 2010s movies based on video game franchises became popular, grossing more and being talked about in the media and among fans more than ever before. Movies like Ryan Reynold's Detective Pikachu (which starred additional actors like Kathryn Newton as Lucy Stevens and Bill Nighy as Howard Clifford) broke box office records for movies based on game series at the time, while movies like actor Jim Carrey's Sonic The Hedgehog created buzz in the media and on shows like Conan (where the film and its fans were satirized) in 2019 for the movie's depiction of a more realistic looking hedgehog character, which by demand of the fans, was changed into a more cartoon version of the titular character to much like and approval upon the November 2019 trailer and movie's release. Video game themed movies became popular as well, with films such as Ready Player One, Pixels, Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, and Wreck-It Ralph.",
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"plaintext": "The best-selling games of every year were as follows:",
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{
"plaintext": " 2010: Black Ops",
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"plaintext": " 2011: Modern Warfare 3",
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"plaintext": " 2012: Black Ops II",
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"plaintext": " 2013: Grand Theft Auto V",
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"plaintext": " 2014: Advanced Warfare",
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"plaintext": " 2015: Black Ops III",
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"plaintext": " 2016: Infinite Warfare",
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"plaintext": " 2017: WWII",
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"plaintext": " 2018: Red Dead Redemption 2",
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"plaintext": " 2019: Modern Warfare",
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"plaintext": "The best-selling book of the decade was Fifty Shades of Grey, having sold 15.2 million copies in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The following is a list of the 10 best-selling books of the decade. Note that global data is unavailable and this is limited to the United States:",
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"plaintext": " Fifty Shades of Grey – 15.2 million sales",
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"plaintext": " Fifty Shades Darker – 10.4 million sales",
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"plaintext": " Fifty Shades Freed – 9.3 million sales",
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"plaintext": " The Hunger Games – 8.7 million sales",
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"plaintext": " The Help – 8.7 million sales",
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"plaintext": " The Girl on The Train – 8.2 million sales",
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"plaintext": " Gone Girl – 8.1 million sales",
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"plaintext": " The Fault in Our Stars – 8 million sales",
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"plaintext": " The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo – 7.9 million sales",
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"plaintext": " Divergent – 6.6 million sales",
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"plaintext": "The Diary of a Wimpy Kid series also became one of the best-selling book series of all time throughout the 2010s, with installments such as Cabin Fever and The Long Haul winning awards at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards.",
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"plaintext": "Popular athletes of the decade included Cristiano Ronaldo, Lionel Messi, Megan Rapinoe, LeBron James, Tiger Woods, Tom Brady, Floyd Mayweather, Manny Pacquiao, Canelo Álvarez, Serena Williams, Novak Djokovic, Kyle Busch, Conor McGregor, Ronda Rousey, Mike Trout, Michael Phelps, Shaun White, Kelly Slater, Simone Biles, Sidney Crosby and many more.",
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"plaintext": "A doping scandal and investigation that was concluded in 2012 led to former professional road racing cyclist Lance Armstrong being stripped of all seven of his Tour de France titles.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2016, the Chicago Cubs won the World Series for the first time since 1908, over the then-Cleveland Indians. Their win, along with Game 7 and the entire 2016 Series, was heavily noted in the sports and baseball community. It is often considered one of the best World Series ever played, due to the underdog nature of both teams, how close the games were and especially the final game, and how it ultimately ended the over 100-year drought of the Cubs not winning a series.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2018, the final play of an NFL playoffs game between the Minnesota Vikings and the New Orleans Saints, dubbed the \"Minneapolis Miracle\", became the first time in NFL playoffs history where a game ended in a touchdown as time expired, and prompted a change to the NFL's rules as they pertain to extra-point conversion attempts.",
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"plaintext": "As the decade drew to a close, some commentators looked back on it as a politically unstable period. An article in the New York Times stated: \"With the rise of nationalist movements and a backlash against globalisation on both sides of the Atlantic, the liberal post-World War II order – based on economic integration and international institutions – began to unravel.\" It heavily discussed the US presidency of Donald Trump (a reality TV Star and businessman with no political experience at the time of taking office, succeeding Barack Obama) whilst also commenting, \"Echoes of Mr. Trump's nationalist populism can be found in Prime Minister Boris Johnson of Britain's recent electoral victory and the Brexit referendum of 2016, and in the ascent of the far-right President Jair Bolsonaro of Brazil and Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India. Democracy is under threat in Hungary and Poland. Once fringe right-wing parties with openly racist agendas are rebranding themselves in Sweden and Belgium. And far-right groups in Germany and Spain are now the third-largest parties in those nations' parliaments.\" A December 2019 piece in The Guardian argued that the 2010s would be remembered \"as a time of crises\", elaborating \"there have been crises of democracy and the economy; of the climate and poverty; of international relations and national identity; of privacy and technology\". The article also noted that, in Britain, \"politics since 2010 has often been manic. Parties have hastily changed their leaders and policies; sometimes their entire guiding philosophies. Last week's general election was the fourth of the decade; the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s had two apiece.\" Similar trends of political unrest were felt beyond the Western world, as suggested in The Asian Review, which described the 2010s as a \"tumultuous time for Asia, sometimes tragic, sometimes triumphant and never dull\".",
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"plaintext": "List of decades",
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"plaintext": "The following articles contain brief timelines which list the most prominent events of the decade:",
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"plaintext": " Strong, Jason. The 2010s: Looking Back at a Dramatic decade'' (2019)",
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"plaintext": "Literature in 2020s has also increased in popularity in the decade as years flies by. Several and much of these bookstores thrived during the COVID-19 pandemic. Also, many literary works that are published have been influenced by current events including one that happened recently and other books about climate change. Some of these thing will be the same as well. Books published include The Vanishing Half, Leave the World Behind, Transcendent Kingdom, Memorial, and The City We Became. Recent releases on this include How to Prevent the Next Pandemic by Bill Gates and The Candy House. ",
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"plaintext": "List of decades",
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| [
"2020s",
"21st_century",
"Contemporary_history",
"2020s_decade_overviews"
]
| 534,495 | 30,884 | 109 | 477 | 0 | 0 | 2020s | decade (2020–2029) | [
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"2020–2029",
"decade of 2020",
"20's"
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|
36,399 | 1,096,468,394 | 721 | [
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"plaintext": " Yao Chong, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 650)",
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| [
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| 23,541 | 338 | 12 | 39 | 0 | 0 | 721 | year | []
|
36,400 | 1,086,656,282 | 723 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 723 (DCCXXIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 723 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
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| [
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| 23,545 | 277 | 3 | 17 | 0 | 0 | 723 | year | []
|
36,401 | 1,039,851,399 | 725 | [
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1,
25
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[
43,
46
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},
{
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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[
11,
18
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[
28,
32
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]
},
{
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38473852,
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1,
9
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21,
27
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},
{
"plaintext": " Grimoald, duke of Bavaria ",
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"target_page_ids": [
4766128,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
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[
19,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gwylog ap Beli, king of Powys",
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10224888,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
25,
30
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},
{
"plaintext": " Nothhelm, king of Sussex",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2256453,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
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[
19,
25
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ruben of Dairinis, Irish scholar",
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| [
"725"
]
| 23,552 | 216 | 2 | 21 | 0 | 0 | 725 | year | []
|
36,402 | 1,096,363,020 | 726 | [
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43,
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},
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"plaintext": " Council of Manzikert in Armenian and West Syriac churches",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Grifo, Frankish duke and son of Charles Martel (d. 753)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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58255,
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35415
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[
1,
6
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[
17,
21
],
[
33,
47
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[
52,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paulinus II, patriarch of Aquileia (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
5150695,
4566147
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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[
27,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 22 Itzamnaaj K'awiil, a Maya ruler of Dos Pilas",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22571,
21033001,
12125838,
88145
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
30
],
[
34,
38
],
[
48,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi, Muslim governor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
10114404
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marcello Tegalliano, doge of Venice",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5624923,
5208920,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
22,
26
],
[
30,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oda of Scotland, Christian saint (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2265525,
28436
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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[
28,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Smbat VI, Armenian prince",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
29679654
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tobias, bishop of Rochester",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1920120,
1435254
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[
1,
7
],
[
19,
28
]
]
}
]
| [
"726"
]
| 23,555 | 231 | 3 | 27 | 0 | 0 | 726 | year | []
|
36,403 | 1,105,373,285 | 728 | [
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 728 (DCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 728 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
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[
103,
118
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[
211,
222
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[
223,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Ubaidah, Muslim scholar of Arabic philology (d. 825)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1525397,
23193,
35888
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
39,
48
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[
53,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Du Huangchang, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (or 729)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20935961,
43455,
36404
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
34,
46
],
[
51,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Domnall mac Cellaig, king of Connacht (Ireland)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15667195,
74200,
147575
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
30,
38
],
[
40,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dúnchad mac Murchado, king of Leinster (Ireland) ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16252683,
74203
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
31,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hasan al-Basri, Arab theologian",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
30864655,
30503
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
22,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ine, king of Wessex (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
145855,
33658
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
],
[
14,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jarir ibn Atiyah, Arab poet and satirist",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
772826,
25353172,
26791
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
24,
28
],
[
33,
41
]
]
}
]
| [
"728"
]
| 23,560 | 249 | 3 | 23 | 0 | 0 | 728 | year | []
|
36,404 | 1,105,157,088 | 729 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 729 (DCCXXIX) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 729 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
321295,
15651,
1400,
442948
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"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
17
],
[
25,
57
],
[
65,
80
],
[
173,
184
],
[
185,
197
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Du Huangchang, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (or 728)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
20935961,
43455,
36403
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
34,
46
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[
51,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Huaiguang, general of the Tang Dynasty (d. 785)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19654789,
35462
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
47,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 9 Osric, king of Northumbria",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19524,
4250839,
36717
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
8,
13
],
[
23,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ecgberht of Ripon, bishop of Lindisfarne (b. 639)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1018251,
18454,
35388
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
30,
41
],
[
46,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nagaya, Japanese prince and politician (b. 684)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1969796,
36235
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
44,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shen Quanqi, Chinese poet and official (b. 650)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12685071,
256577,
36322
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
22,
26
],
[
44,
47
]
]
}
]
| [
"729"
]
| 23,561 | 228 | 5 | 21 | 0 | 0 | 729 | year | []
|
36,405 | 1,086,656,312 | 730 | [
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"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": "Year 730 (DCCXXX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 730 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
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24,
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[
100,
115
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[
208,
219
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[
220,
232
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Rabi' ibn Yunus, Arab minister (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
35097531
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Autpert Ambrose, Frankish Benedictine monk (d. 784)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1714,
4240,
35461
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
27,
38
],
[
48,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Beatus of Liébana, monk and theologian (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1071347,
30503
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
29,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jia Dan, general of the Tang Dynasty (d. 805)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15905310,
43455,
35337
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
25,
37
],
[
42,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Offa, king of Mercia (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
47037,
38769
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
15,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tarasios, patriarch of Constantinople (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
416074,
61503
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
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[
11,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Xiaozhong, general of the Tang Dynasty (d. 791)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
19790360,
35467
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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[
50,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 9 Al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah, Arab general",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8589,
2239356
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Corbinian, Frankish bishop (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1905964,
4092
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
21,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh of Champagne, grandson of Pepin of Herstal",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3684139,
62546
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
32,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " K'inich Ahkal Mo' Naab III, Maya ruler of Palenque",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
642617,
18449273,
75773
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
],
[
29,
33
],
[
43,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lantfrid, duke of Alamannia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3283855,
1055700
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
19,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter, duke of Cantabria",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5222781,
8155921
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
16,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Selbach mac Ferchair, king of Dál Riata",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
190864,
43782
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
31,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tiberius Petasius, Byzantine usurper",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
25652021,
4276586
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
30,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yuwen Rong, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (or 731)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2443553,
10556774,
34941
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
43
],
[
48,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Yue, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 663)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2465001,
36333
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
47,
50
]
]
}
]
| [
"730"
]
| 23,563 | 222 | 8 | 42 | 0 | 0 | 730 | year | []
|
36,406 | 1,086,656,343 | 734 | [
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"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 734 (DCCXXXIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 734 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
168855,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
18
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[
26,
56
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[
102,
117
],
[
210,
221
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[
222,
234
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kurajimaro, Japanese politician (d. 775)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
32503045,
35452
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
49,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Khurshid II, ruler (ispahbadh) of Tabaristan (d. 761)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
37562192,
2919507,
12689405,
35421
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
21,
30
],
[
35,
45
],
[
50,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 30 Tatwine, Mercian archbishop of Canterbury (b. c.670?)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15911,
2133309,
38769,
2345
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
17
],
[
19,
25
],
[
27,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bilge Khagan, ruler (khagan) of the Second Turkic Khaganate (b. 683/4)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3827,
533383,
31494739
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
22,
28
],
[
37,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bilihildis, Frankish noblewoman and abbess",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
44076017,
2462183
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bubo, Duke of the Frisians",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16589447
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Approximate date Caintigern, Irish-born hermit",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
13993704,
271054
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"anchor_spans": [
[
19,
29
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[
42,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, ruler (ajaw) of Tikal",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2443144,
2098401,
156278
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
30,
34
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[
39,
44
]
]
}
]
| [
"734"
]
| 23,573 | 174 | 6 | 26 | 0 | 0 | 734 | year | []
|
36,407 | 1,096,213,640 | 735 | [
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"plaintext": "__NOTOC__",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 735 (DCCXXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The denomination 735 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
321295,
15651,
1400,
442948
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"plaintext": " Plato of Sakkoudion, Byzantine abbot (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Cellach mac Fáelchair, king of Osraige (Ireland)",
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"plaintext": " Eudes, duke of Aquitaine (approximate date)",
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| [
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| 23,576 | 207 | 6 | 38 | 0 | 0 | 735 | year | []
|
36,408 | 1,105,411,517 | 736 | [
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"plaintext": " Battle of Nîmes: The Franks under Charles Martel fail to capture Narbonne but devastate most of the other settlements, including Nîmes, Agde, Béziers and Maguelonne, which Martel views as potential strongholds of the Umayyads.",
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"plaintext": " Hugbert, duke of Bavaria",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Muiredach mac Ainbcellaig, king of Dál Riata",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yamabe no Akahito, Japanese poet ",
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| [
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| 23,581 | 200 | 0 | 77 | 0 | 0 | 736 | year | []
|
36,409 | 1,105,777,471 | 738 | [
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"plaintext": " Chengguan, Chinese Buddhist monk (d. 839)",
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"plaintext": " January 26 John of Dailam, Syrian monk (b. 660)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 3 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, Mayan ruler (ajaw)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Áed mac Colggen, king of the Uí Cheinnselaig (Ireland)",
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"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": " Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri, Arab governor",
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{
"plaintext": " Dluthach mac Fithcheallach, king of Uí Maine (Ireland)",
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"plaintext": " Fáelán mac Murchado, king of Leinster",
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"plaintext": " Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, Arab general ",
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"plaintext": " Suluk, Turkic ruler (khagan) of the Turgesh",
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"plaintext": " Swæfberht, king of Essex ",
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"plaintext": " In the fiction of H. P. Lovecraft, Abd Al Azred, Muslim-kafir scholar and scientist, is killed in Damascus city market. His treatise on religion, the Al-Azif, is published soon thereafter.",
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| [
"738"
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| 23,585 | 323 | 6 | 35 | 0 | 0 | 738 | year | []
|
36,410 | 1,105,469,743 | 739 | [
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"plaintext": " Yuan Zi, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (d. 818)",
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"plaintext": " Aldwulf, Anglo-Saxon bishop",
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"plaintext": " Engelmund, Anglo-Saxon missionary",
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"plaintext": " Favila, king of Asturias (Spain)",
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"plaintext": " Nothhelm, Anglo-Saxon bishop",
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"plaintext": " Pemmo, duke of Friuli (Italy)",
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"plaintext": " Willibrord, Anglo-Saxon bishop",
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| 23,588 | 251 | 2 | 22 | 0 | 0 | 739 | year | []
|
36,411 | 1,069,926,007 | 200s_BC_(decade) | [
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"plaintext": "This article concerns the 200 BC decade, that lasted from 209 BC to 200 BC.",
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| [
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| 45,643 | 193 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 200s BC | decade | []
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36,412 | 1,094,470,890 | 1210s | [
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"plaintext": "The 1210s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1210, and ended on December 31, 1219.",
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| 81,250 | 311 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1210s | decade | []
|
36,413 | 1,106,453,016 | 881 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 881 (DCCCLXXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar.",
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[
10,
19
],
[
27,
57
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[
65,
80
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Conrad I, king of the East Frankish Kingdom (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
344866,
1722738
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[
1,
9
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[
23,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh of Arles, king of Italy and Lower Burgundy (or 880)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1379414,
6006557,
1992429,
47400
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[
1,
14
],
[
24,
29
],
[
34,
48
],
[
53,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Churang, Chinese general (d. 943)",
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42667637,
36208
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[
1,
12
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[
34,
37
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 7 Anspert, archbishop of Milan",
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39766401,
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
20
],
[
36,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bárid mac Ímair, king of Dublin",
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44467221,
1450475
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[
1,
16
],
[
26,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cui Hang, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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27737327,
10556774
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " David I, prince of Iberia (Georgia)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3292483,
14625802,
48768
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
20,
26
],
[
28,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gabriel, prince of Kakheti (Georgia)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12010674,
12906504
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
20,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guaifer, duke of Benevento",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5971532,
1273903
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
18,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John I, Frankish abbot (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28252130,
1143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
18,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Ye, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27292848
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lu Guimeng, Chinese poet",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1563685,
256577
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
21,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odo I, bishop of Beauvais",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
41484101,
2215807
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
18,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Orso I, doge of Venice",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
6046288,
613492
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
17,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Radi Abdullah, Muslim tenth Imam",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11548652,
37664199
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
29,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Zhifang, Chinese general",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
26027147
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
}
]
| [
"881"
]
| 30,382 | 133 | 5 | 37 | 0 | 0 | 881 | year | []
|
36,414 | 1,027,894,721 | 876 | [
{
"plaintext": "__NOTOC__",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Year 876 (DCCCLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
311406,
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[
10,
19
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[
27,
55
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[
101,
116
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eutychius, patriarch of Alexandria (d. 940)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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6330034,
8158009,
52586
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1,
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[
40,
43
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},
{
"plaintext": " Henry the Fowler, king of Germany (d. 936)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
13957,
3190225,
52450
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[
1,
17
],
[
27,
34
],
[
39,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John of Rila, Bulgarian hermit (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
3539686,
271054
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
25,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lu Wenji, Chinese chancellor (d. 951)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
41964973,
10556774,
51105
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
19,
29
],
[
34,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toda, queen of Pamplona (d. 958)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
3314088,
693507,
49145
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[
1,
5
],
[
16,
24
],
[
29,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 31 Hemma of Altdorf, Frankish queen",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15793,
9897563
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 28 Louis the German, king of the East Frankish Kingdom",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1781,
47153,
1722738
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
28
],
[
42,
63
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bagrat I, prince of Iberia (Georgia)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3291188,
14625802,
48768
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
21,
27
],
[
29,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bodo, Frankish deacon",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2814526,
55314
],
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[
1,
5
],
[
16,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Conrad I, Frankish nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12010471,
28978421
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
20,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Conrad II, Frankish nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12010495
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Domagoj, duke (knyaz) of Croatia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4396199,
465784,
36684742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
16,
21
],
[
26,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Donatus of Fiesole, Irish bishop",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5087430,
4092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
27,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gurvand, duke ('king') of Brittany",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
633123,
286865
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
27,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Heiric of Auxerre, Frankish theologian and writer (b. 841)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
9166528,
30503,
35769
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
29,
39
],
[
55,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hessel Hermana, Frisian governor (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
18952534
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pascweten, duke ('king') of Brittany",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
633120
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pyinbya, king of Burma (b. 817)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
25160898,
19457,
35094
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
18,
23
],
[
28,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Raganar, Frankish nobleman",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
50746161
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wulfad, Frankish archbishop",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
40652305,
48557
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
18,
28
]
]
}
]
| [
"876"
]
| 23,815 | 452 | 9 | 48 | 0 | 0 | 876 | year | []
|
36,415 | 1,106,724,397 | 949 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 949 (CMXLIX) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
168880,
15651
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"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
16
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[
24,
54
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[
100,
115
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Nagatō, Japanese bureaucrat and poet (d. 1009)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14984365,
774012,
35908
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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[
45,
49
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gebhard of Constance, German bishop (d. 995)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14897067,
36170
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
41,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Máel Sechnaill mac Domnaill, High King of Ireland (d. 1022)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
7075822,
841919,
38731
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
],
[
30,
50
],
[
55,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mathilde, German abbess and granddaughter of Otto I (d. 1011)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
41779072,
1301,
25605367,
36283
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
18,
24
],
[
46,
52
],
[
57,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ranna, Kannada poet (India) (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2698188,
14533
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
22,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Symeon (the New Theologian), Byzantine monk and poet (d. 1022)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2802890
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Uma no Naishi, Japanese nobleman and waka poet (d. 1011)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
48923721,
28978421,
34999845,
36283
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
25,
33
],
[
38,
42
],
[
52,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 1 Godfrey, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15856,
42735495
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 17 Li Shouzhen, Chinese general and governor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1490,
44722347
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 14 Fujiwara no Tadahira, Japanese statesman and regent (b. 880)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27947,
2491652,
35348624,
47400
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[
1,
13
],
[
15,
35
],
[
60,
66
],
[
71,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September/October Abdallah ibn al-Mustakfi, Abbasid caliph (b. 905)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1091253,
50805
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"anchor_spans": [
[
20,
44
],
[
65,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December Imad al-Dawla, founder of the Buyid dynasty (Iran)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2874059,
577287
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"anchor_spans": [
[
11,
24
],
[
41,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 2 Odo of Wetterau, German nobleman ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8356,
42702697
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 10 Herman I, duke of Swabia",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8714,
4790517,
3196657
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
22
],
[
32,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "date unknown",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "An, Chinese imperial consort (Five Dynasties)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
42291079,
58079
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
2
],
[
30,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Eadric, ealdorman of Wessex (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
46246728,
33658
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
6
],
[
21,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Jeongjong, king of Goryeo (Korea) (b. 923)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4956834,
188435,
36421
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
9
],
[
19,
25
],
[
38,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Miroslav (or Miroslaus), king of Croatia",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3512419,
2582233
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
],
[
33,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Xiao Han, general of the Khitan Liao dynasty",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52335237,
15684439,
23508247
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
8
],
[
25,
31
],
[
32,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Yunmen Wenyan, Chinese Zen Buddhist monk",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
799898,
30153241,
226808
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
13
],
[
23,
26
],
[
27,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Zhao Tingyin, general of Later Shu (b. 883)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
41609343,
1904986,
52448
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"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
],
[
25,
34
],
[
39,
42
]
]
}
]
| [
"949"
]
| 24,352 | 177 | 16 | 57 | 0 | 0 | 949 | year | []
|
36,416 | 1,106,457,604 | 884 | [
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"plaintext": "__NOTOC__",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Year 884 (DCCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
321387,
15651
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10,
20
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28,
59
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[
105,
120
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Burchard II, duke of Swabia (or 883)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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4855672,
3196657,
52448
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[
1,
12
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[
22,
28
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[
33,
36
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kong Xun, Chinese general and governor (d. 931)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
34707740,
36418
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
44,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Yanhan, Chinese official and chancellor (d. 941)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
42535612,
10556774,
52584
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[
1,
13
],
[
36,
46
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[
51,
54
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 6 Hasan ibn Zayd, Muslim emir of Tabaristan",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15986,
38315814,
178427,
12689405
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
26
],
[
35,
39
],
[
43,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 10 Ahmad ibn Tulun, Governor of Egypt and founder of the Tulunid dynasty (b. 835)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19629,
4882592,
35896
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[
1,
7
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[
9,
24
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[
83,
86
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 15 Marinus I, pope of the Catholic Church",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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19674,
23956,
606848
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
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[
9,
18
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[
32,
47
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{
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},
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"plaintext": " September Buran bint al-Hasan ibn Sahl, Abbasid consort (b. 807)",
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47
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
25
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[
39,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Abbas ibn Ahmad ibn Tulun, Tulunid prince and usurper",
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1,
29
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Colcu mac Connacan, Irish abbot and historian ",
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[
1,
19
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[
27,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dawud al-Zahiri, Muslim scholar (or 883)",
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165511,
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[
1,
16
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[
25,
32
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[
37,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Empress Cao (Huang Chao's wife)",
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Domnall mac Muirecáin, king of Leinster",
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18830866,
74203
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[
1,
22
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[
32,
40
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},
{
"plaintext": " Li Changyan, Chinese warlord and governor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
29303987,
198683
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[
1,
12
],
[
22,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shang Rang, Chinese rebel leader (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27935339
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Duo, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27264239
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[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhou Ji, Chinese warlord (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28988091
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
}
]
| [
"884"
]
| 23,895 | 225 | 16 | 49 | 0 | 0 | 884 | year | []
|
36,417 | 1,086,657,484 | 887 | [
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{
"plaintext": "Year 887 (DCCCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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{
"plaintext": " Frederuna, queen of the West Frankish Kingdom (d. 917)",
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"plaintext": " Qian Yuanguan, king of Wuyue (Ten Kingdoms) (d. 941)",
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[
31,
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " Song Qiqiu, chief strategist of Southern Tang (d. 959)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 11 Boso of Provence, Frankish nobleman",
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},
{
"plaintext": " April 6 Pei Che, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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},
{
"plaintext": " July 6 Wang Chongrong, Chinese warlord",
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},
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"plaintext": " August 26 Kōkō, emperor of Japan (b. 830)",
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16
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[
29,
34
],
[
39,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 18 Pietro I Candiano, doge of Venice",
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 24 Gao Pian, general of the Tang Dynasty",
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[
1,
13
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[
15,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abbas ibn Firnas, Muslim physician and inventor (b. 810)",
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[
1,
17
],
[
26,
35
],
[
40,
48
],
[
53,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Majah, Muslim hadith compiler (or 889)",
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13749,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
19,
25
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[
39,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jeonggang, king of Silla (modern Korea) ",
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324217,
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[
1,
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20,
25
],
[
34,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Xiao Gou, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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27778648
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yantou Quanhuo, Chinese Chan master (b. 828)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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34044035,
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[
1,
15
],
[
25,
29
],
[
41,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zheng Changtu, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27898705
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhu Mei, Chinese warlord (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27909443
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[
1,
8
]
]
}
]
| [
"887"
]
| 25,010 | 301 | 15 | 48 | 0 | 0 | 887 | year | []
|
36,418 | 1,106,666,263 | 931 | [
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},
{
"plaintext": " March 28 Liu Chengyou, emperor of Later Han (d. 951)",
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11822800,
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},
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28147,
3447461,
23508247,
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15,
22
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[
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51
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[
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59
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},
{
"plaintext": " Adelaide, empress regent of the Holy Roman Empire (d. 999)",
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13277,
35913
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},
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"plaintext": " Boris II, ruler (tsar) of the Bulgarian Empire (d. 977)",
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9
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[
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cao Bin, general of the Song Dynasty (d. 999)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fu (the Elder), empress consort of Later Zhou (d. 956)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Li Congyi (Prince of Xu), prince of Later Tang (d. 947)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Liutgard of Saxony, duchess consort of Lorraine (d. 953)",
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1,
19
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48
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56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Taksony, Grand Prince of Hungary (approximate date)",
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14987556,
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26,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yang Guangmei, Chinese general (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " January 27 Ruotger, archbishop of Trier",
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48863093,
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1,
11
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13,
20
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[
36,
41
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},
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"plaintext": " April 4 Kong Xun, Chinese governor (b. 884)",
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34707740,
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[
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18
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 29 Jimeno Garcés, king of Pamplona",
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2483845,
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"plaintext": " June 25 An Chonghui, general of Later Tang",
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15799,
22870764
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
21
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani, Persian religious leader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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48980560
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[
1,
23
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},
{
"plaintext": " Asfar ibn Shiruya, Iranian military leader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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53718284
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[
1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bard Boinne, Irish poet and Chief Ollam",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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27397261,
338104,
27308370
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1,
12
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[
20,
24
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[
29,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Béatrice of Vermandois, Frankish queen ",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gausbert, count of Empúries and Roussillon",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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1100177,
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1,
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20,
28
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33,
43
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gu Quanwu, general of the Tang Dynasty (b. 864)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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43455,
35761
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1,
10
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27,
39
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44,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Harald I, king of Norway (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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56251,
47392864
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[
1,
9
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19,
25
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hrotheweard (or Lodeward), archbishop of York ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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3358055,
2321009
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[
1,
12
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[
42,
46
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Masarra, Muslim ascetic and scholar (b. 883)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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7227242,
83484,
52448
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[
1,
12
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[
21,
28
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[
45,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Christopher Lekapenos, Byzantine co-emperor",
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28583021
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[
1,
22
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},
{
"plaintext": " Robert II, bishop of Tours (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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16856096,
69706
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[
1,
10
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[
22,
27
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rollo, Viking leader and count (approximate date) ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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42518
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
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},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen VII, pope of the Catholic Church",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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24338,
606848
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[
1,
12
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26,
41
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Yanbing, prince of Min (Ten Kingdoms)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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41102205,
1904010,
58079
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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[
25,
28
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[
30,
42
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| [
"931"
]
| 24,789 | 269 | 17 | 73 | 0 | 0 | 931 | year | []
|
36,419 | 1,086,657,564 | 897 | [
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70839,
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1904893,
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31340806,
198683
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40
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17,
21
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26,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ermengard of Italy, queen and regent of Provence",
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48503
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"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Sukeyo, Japanese aristocrat (b. 847)",
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1,
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40
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48
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},
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"plaintext": " Guy IV, duke of Spoleto",
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"plaintext": " Heahstan, bishop of London",
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"plaintext": " Jinseong, queen of Silla (Korea)",
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1,
9
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[
20,
25
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[
27,
32
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Zi ('Prince of Tong'), prince of the Tang Dynasty",
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1,
6
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41,
53
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mashdotz I, Armenian monk and catholicos (or 898)",
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961557,
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1,
11
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31,
41
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[
46,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Yoshiari, Japanese official (b. 845)",
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35770
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[
1,
21
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[
45,
48
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen VI, pope of the Catholic Church",
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24337,
606848
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[
1,
11
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[
25,
40
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},
{
"plaintext": " Theodore II, pope of the Catholic Church (b. 840)",
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24592,
35107
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[
1,
12
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[
46,
49
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wilfred the Hairy, Frankish nobleman",
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[
1,
18
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[
29,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ya'qubi, Muslim geographer (or 898)",
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2570741,
74847
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[
1,
8
],
[
17,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhaozhou, Chinese Zen Buddhist master (b. 778)",
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528423,
30153241,
226808,
35455
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[
1,
9
],
[
19,
22
],
[
23,
31
],
[
43,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhu Xuan, Chinese warlord and governor (jiedushi)",
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1251366
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[
1,
9
],
[
41,
49
]
]
}
]
| [
"897"
]
| 30,468 | 267 | 11 | 52 | 0 | 0 | 897 | year | []
|
36,420 | 1,106,665,925 | 930 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 930 (CMXXX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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10,
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53
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[
99,
114
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alferius, Italian abbot and saint (d. 1050)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Boleslaus II, duke of Bohemia (d. 999)",
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424966,
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38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gisulf I, prince of Salerno (d. 977)",
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6101862,
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1,
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21,
28
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33,
36
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Herbert of Wetterau, German nobleman (d. 992)",
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1,
20
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29,
37
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[
42,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lambert of Chalon, Frankish nobleman (d. 978) ",
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"section_name": "Births",
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31859853,
49374
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[
1,
18
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45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liudolf, duke of Swabia (approximate date) (d. 957)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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3196657,
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1,
8
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[
18,
24
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[
48,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mieszko I, prince of Poland (approximate date) (d. 992)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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20597,
45367947,
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1,
10
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[
22,
28
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[
52,
55
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nikon the Metanoeite, Byzantine monk (d. 998)",
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1,
21
],
[
33,
37
],
[
42,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odo I, German nobleman (approximate date) (d. 993)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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11660206,
40022
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[
1,
6
],
[
47,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ya'qub ibn Killis, Fatimid vizier (d. 991)",
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242409,
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1,
18
],
[
28,
34
],
[
39,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Mi, Chinese Ci lyric poet (d. unknown)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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51072212,
653342,
256577
],
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1,
9
],
[
19,
21
],
[
28,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 31 Liu Hua, princess of Southern Han (b. 896)",
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38488364,
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[
1,
7
],
[
9,
16
],
[
30,
42
],
[
47,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 19 Xiao Qing, chancellor of Later Liang (b. 862) ",
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
19
],
[
35,
46
],
[
51,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 20 Hucbald, Frankish monk and music theorist",
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15818,
1569866,
54783
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1,
8
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[
10,
17
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[
37,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 26 Li Qi, chancellor of Later Liang (b. 871)",
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22403,
38834369,
36348
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
18
],
[
50,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 19 Yan Keqiu, Chinese chief strategist",
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21574,
34619757
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 2 Ma Yin, Chinese warlord and king (b. 853)",
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2833928,
198683,
35917
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
19
],
[
29,
36
],
[
50,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amoghavarsha II, ruler of Rashtrakuta (India)",
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3099417,
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[
1,
16
],
[
27,
38
],
[
40,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " García II Sánchez, duke of Gascony (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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7104452,
7985859
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[
1,
18
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[
28,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sharwin II, ruler of the Bavand Dynasty (Iran)",
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10637665,
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1,
11
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[
26,
40
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[
42,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Xia Luqi, general of Later Tang (b. 882)",
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735501,
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[
1,
9
],
[
22,
32
],
[
37,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abū Kāmil Shujāʿ ibn Aslam, Egyptian mathematician (b. )",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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2479369
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Óengus mac Óengusa, Irish poet and Chief Ollam of Ireland",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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27396957,
27308370
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
36,
58
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]
}
]
| [
"930"
]
| 23,409 | 230 | 16 | 68 | 0 | 0 | 930 | year | [
"930 AD"
]
|
36,421 | 1,086,657,754 | 923 | [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Year 923 (CMXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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119
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},
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"plaintext": " September 7 Suzaku, emperor of Japan (d. 952)",
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1,
12
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14,
20
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[
33,
38
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[
43,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī, Muslim intellectual (d. 1023)",
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227107,
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1,
22
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[
31,
43
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Shaykh al-Saduq, Muslim scholar (approximate date)",
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1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eadred (or Edred), king of England (d. 955)",
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1,
7
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[
28,
35
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[
40,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Nakafumi, Japanese waka poet (d. 992)",
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9253928,
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1,
21
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32,
36
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[
46,
49
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jeongjong, king of Goryeo (Korea) (d. 949)",
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1,
10
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[
20,
26
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[
28,
33
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[
39,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Honggao, Chinese chancellor (d. 943)",
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36208
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1,
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37,
40
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},
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"plaintext": " June 15 Robert I, king of the West Frankish Kingdom (b. 860)",
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125686,
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1,
8
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[
10,
18
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[
32,
53
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[
58,
61
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},
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"plaintext": " August 2 Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury (or 914)",
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3413193,
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1,
9
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[
11,
19
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[
35,
45
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[
50,
53
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},
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"plaintext": " August 27 Ageltrude, queen of Italy and Holy Roman Empress ",
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6940676,
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13277
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1,
10
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[
12,
21
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[
32,
37
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[
42,
60
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},
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"plaintext": " October 8 Pilgrim I, archbishop of Salzburg ",
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41245492,
255366
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1,
10
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[
12,
21
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[
37,
45
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},
{
"plaintext": " November 20",
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21575
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[
1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jing Xiang, Chinese strategist",
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779652
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[
1,
11
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[
21,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Zhen, official of Later Liang",
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33954091,
680703
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[
1,
8
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[
22,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Bakr al-Khallal, Muslim scholar and jurist (b. 848)",
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39827654,
35772
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[
1,
20
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[
52,
55
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},
{
"plaintext": " Adarnase IV, prince of Iberia/Kartli (Georgia)",
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14625802,
1004391,
48768
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1,
12
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[
24,
30
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[
31,
37
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[
39,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Badr al-Hammami (the Elder), Abbasid general",
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49091351
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[
1,
16
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gurgen I, prince of Tao-Klarjeti (Georgia)",
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41364716,
581599
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[
1,
9
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[
21,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harshavarman I, king of Angkor (Cambodia)",
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89811,
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1,
15
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25,
31
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33,
41
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Khuzaymah, Muslim hadith and scholar (b. 837)",
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13749,
35910
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1,
14
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23,
29
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49
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{
"plaintext": " Ma Chuo, general and official of Wuyue (or 922)",
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1631479,
42531
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1,
8
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[
34,
39
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[
44,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Persian scholar (b. 839)",
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344687,
35912
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1,
29
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54
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"plaintext": " Reccared, Galician clergyman (b. 885)",
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35703
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1,
9
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20,
26
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34,
37
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"plaintext": " Ricwin (or Ricuin), Frankish nobleman ",
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28978421
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1,
7
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30,
38
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{
"plaintext": " Walter (or Vaulter), archbishop of Sens",
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"plaintext": " Zhu Youzhen, emperor of Later Liang (b. 888)",
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| [
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| 30,108 | 382 | 24 | 75 | 0 | 0 | 923 | year | []
|
36,422 | 1,101,447,412 | 952 | [
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"plaintext": " Summer Kalbid forces under Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi (an aristocratic member of the ruling Fatimid Caliphate) sail from Sicily and invade Byzantine Calabria. He attacks several towns, including Gerace and Cassono.",
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"plaintext": " Adelaide of Aquitaine, French queen consort (or 945)",
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"plaintext": " Fakhr al-Dawla, emir of Gurgan and Tabaristan (d. 997)",
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"plaintext": " June 15 Murong Yanchao, Chinese general",
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20
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33,
38
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[
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46
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"plaintext": " September 10 Gao Xingzhou, Chinese general (b. 885)",
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13
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15,
27
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"plaintext": " December 17 Hugh the Black, duke of Burgundy",
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"target_page_ids": [
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46
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},
{
"plaintext": "date unknown",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Alan II (Wrybeard), duke of Brittany ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Constantine II, king of Alba (Scotland)",
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1,
15
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29
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},
{
"plaintext": " Li Jianxun, Chinese official and chancellor",
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"target_page_ids": [
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10556774
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1,
11
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mansur ibn Qara-Tegin, Samanid governor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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| [
"952"
]
| 30,175 | 202 | 12 | 62 | 0 | 0 | 952 | year | []
|
36,423 | 1,086,657,779 | 926 | [
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},
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"plaintext": " July 14 Murakami, emperor of Japan (d. 967)",
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[
31,
36
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[
41,
44
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gao Huaide, Chinese general (approximate date)",
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1,
11
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},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Jun, emperor of Northern Han (d. 968)",
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1,
8
],
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21,
33
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[
38,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ordoño III, king of León (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
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336544
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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21,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ordoño IV, king of León (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
3328182
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[
1,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phạm Thị Trân, Vietnamese opera singer and Mandarin (d. 976)",
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36439
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1,
14
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},
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"plaintext": " January 8 Athelm, archbishop of Canterbury",
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154538,
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10
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12,
18
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44
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},
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"plaintext": " March 9 Zhu Youqian, Chinese warlord",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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34031587,
198683
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1,
8
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10,
21
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31,
38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 29 Burchard II, duke of Swabia",
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9
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11,
22
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38
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 15 Zhuang Zong, emperor of Later Tang (b. 885)",
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35703
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20
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33,
43
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[
48,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 26 Yuan Xingqin, Chinese general",
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19648,
37904763
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[
1,
7
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9,
21
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 28 ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19672
],
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[
1,
7
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kong Qian, official of Later Tang",
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38006208
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1,
10
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Jiji, prince of Later Tang",
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8
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},
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"plaintext": " September 6 Abaoji (Taizu), emperor of the Khitan Empire",
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2590230,
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1,
12
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14,
20
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[
45,
58
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},
{
"plaintext": " December 12, William II, duke of Aquitaine",
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544539,
46378
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1,
12
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[
14,
24
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[
34,
43
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Khaqani, Abbasid vizier (or 927)",
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1,
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43,
49
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54,
57
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alogobotur, Bulgarian nobleman (approximate date)",
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14937706,
28978421
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1,
11
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23,
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},
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"plaintext": " Ero Fernández, Galician magnate (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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39177706,
416853
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[
1,
14
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[
25,
32
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},
{
"plaintext": " Guo Chongtao, general of Later Tang",
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1,
13
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},
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"plaintext": " Jin Feishan, empress of Former Shu",
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38002440,
2833674
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[
1,
12
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[
25,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kang Yanxiao, Chinese general",
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[
1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Liu, empress and wife of Zhuang Zong",
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[
1,
4
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pelagius of Córdoba, Christian martyr",
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4685911,
48588
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1,
20
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32,
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37952418,
35701
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[
1,
13
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[
41,
44
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},
{
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273424
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1,
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19,
28
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},
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"plaintext": " Xu, empress dowager of Former Shu",
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29411740
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
3
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},
{
"plaintext": " Zhang Quanyi, Chinese warlord (b. 852)",
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31175959,
35916
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35,
38
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| [
"926"
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| 24,369 | 140 | 17 | 61 | 0 | 0 | 926 | year | []
|
36,424 | 1,090,163,867 | 870 | [
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42100
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235054,
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1,
8
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30,
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50,
53
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544536,
546092
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1133095
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[
1,
7
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1,
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276571
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1,
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36258
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37
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106534
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3307561,
3409591
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[
1,
7
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18,
27
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1,
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10556774,
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},
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[
1,
21
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44,
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},
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"plaintext": " Caesar of Naples (\"the Brave\"), Italian admiral",
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1,
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17,
23
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[
36,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " He Quanhao, general of the Tang Dynasty (b. 839)",
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1,
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28,
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45,
48
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},
{
"plaintext": " Neot, English monk and saint (approximate date)",
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419369,
28436
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rastislav, ruler (knyaz) of Great Moravia",
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1,
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19,
24
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29,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ratramnus, Frankish monk and abbot (approximate date)",
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145848,
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[
1,
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30,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wen Tingyun, Chinese poet and lyricist (b. 812)",
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[
22,
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[
31,
39
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[
44,
47
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}
]
| [
"870"
]
| 23,629 | 413 | 29 | 83 | 0 | 0 | 870 | year | []
|
36,425 | 1,106,407,887 | 873 | [
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"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Sadakata, Japanese poet (d. 932)",
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"plaintext": " July 8 Gunther, archbishop of Cologne",
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},
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"plaintext": " August 1 Thachulf, duke of Thuringia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " August 15 Yi Zong, emperor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 833)",
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},
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Du Cong, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 794)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ecgberht I, king of Northumbria",
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"plaintext": " Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Muslim scholar and physician (b. 809)",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ivar the Boneless, Viking leader (approximate date)",
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1,
18
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},
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"plaintext": " John III, Syriac Orthodox patriarch of Antioch",
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219283,
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11,
26
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40,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kang Chengxun, general of the Tang Dynasty ",
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[
1,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lethlobar mac Loingsig, king of Ulaid (Ireland)",
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1085270,
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[
1,
23
],
[
33,
38
],
[
40,
47
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Malik ibn Tawk, Muslim governor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
50491258
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Muhammad ibn Ali al-Armani, Muslim general",
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48972483
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rodrigo, Asturian nobleman",
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5289570,
28978421
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1,
8
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19,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rodulf Haraldsson, Viking leader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
16734275
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shinshō, Japanese Buddhist monk (b. 797)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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297220,
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[
1,
8
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[
19,
27
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[
37,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vímara Peres, Asturian nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1827396
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[
1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wei Baoheng, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27240100
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[
1,
12
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]
| [
"873"
]
| 30,369 | 321 | 11 | 59 | 0 | 0 | 873 | year | []
|
36,426 | 1,106,410,868 | 874 | [
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{
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},
{
"plaintext": " May 10 Meng Zhixiang, general of Later Tang (d. 934)",
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735501
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},
{
"plaintext": " Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, Muslim scholar (d. 936)",
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1866960
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1,
24
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},
{
"plaintext": " Edward the Elder, king of Wessex (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
10209822,
33658
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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27,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Constantine II, king of Scotland (approximate date)",
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7235,
23248387
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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25,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Yin, governor (jiedushi) of Southern Han (d. 911)",
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20,
28
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[
33,
45
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[
50,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lothar II, Frankish nobleman (d. 929)",
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28978421
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21,
29
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ota, Frankish queen and Holy Roman Empress (approximate date)",
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9877812,
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},
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"plaintext": " Wang Shifan, Chinese warlord (d. 908)",
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"plaintext": " January 4 Hasan al-Askari, 11th Shia Imam (b. 846)",
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34,
43
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},
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"plaintext": " August 15 Altfrid, bishop of Hildesheim",
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14226504,
2695663
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12,
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31,
41
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},
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"plaintext": " December 16 Ado, archbishop of Vienne ",
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878024,
5786002
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14,
17
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33,
39
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},
{
"plaintext": " Amlaíb Conung, Viking leader (approximate date)",
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7209296
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1,
14
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},
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"plaintext": " Bayazid Bastami, Persian Sufi (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
1394652,
28246
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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[
26,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Han Yunzhong, general of the Tang dynasty (b. 814)",
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27034902,
43455
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[
1,
13
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30,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Zhan, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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27232073,
10556774
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1,
9
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11,
41
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lu Yan, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (b. 829)",
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27191750
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1,
7
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},
{
"plaintext": " Pei Tan, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27611291
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[
1,
8
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Salomon, duke ('king') of Brittany",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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633117,
286865
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
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27,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Unruoch III, margrave of Friuli",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
8434275,
9015256
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[
1,
12
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26,
32
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yahya II, Muslim sultan",
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7276587,
64647
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
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[
18,
24
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]
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| [
"874"
]
| 23,843 | 259 | 13 | 41 | 0 | 0 | 874 | year | []
|
36,427 | 1,027,896,356 | 877 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 877 (DCCCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"plaintext": " January 31 Wang Kon, founder of Goryeo (d. 943)",
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1,
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15,
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54,
57
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ælfthryth, English princess and countess of Flanders (d. 929)",
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1,
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45,
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58,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fujiwara no Kanesuke, Japanese nobleman (d. 933)",
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1,
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32,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Liu, Chinese empress of Qi (d. 943)",
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1,
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1,
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22,
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34,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pi Guangye, Chinese chancellor (d. 943)",
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1,
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},
{
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1,
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23,
32
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37,
40
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Rong, Chinese warlord (d. 921)",
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1,
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32,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 5 Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, Abbasid vizier ",
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1,
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11,
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 6 Charles the Bald, Holy Roman emperor (b. 823)",
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1,
10
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12,
28
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56
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 23 Ignatius, patriarch of Constantinople ",
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1,
11
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13,
21
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23,
50
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andrew the Scot, Irish archdeacon (approximate date) ",
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[
1,
16
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24,
34
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bernard II, Frankish nobleman (approximate date) ",
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Carloman, Frankish abbot (approximate date) ",
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[
1,
9
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20,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Constantine I, king of Alba (Scotland)",
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30865599,
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[
1,
14
],
[
24,
28
],
[
30,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Engelram, Frankish chamberlain ",
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[
1,
9
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[
20,
31
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gérard II, Frankish nobleman (or 879)",
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[
1,
10
],
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34,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Halfdan Ragnarsson, Viking leader and 'king' of Northumbria",
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1064114,
266015
],
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[
1,
19
],
[
49,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jayavarman III, king of the Khmer Empire (Cambodia)",
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222431,
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[
1,
15
],
[
29,
41
],
[
43,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johannes Scotus Eriugena, Irish theologian (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1082384,
30503
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[
1,
25
],
[
33,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Musa ibn Bugha al-Kabir, Abbasid general",
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[
1,
24
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ōe no Otondo, Japanese scholar (b. 811)",
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47800382,
35326
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[
1,
13
],
[
36,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Savaric I, bishop of Mondoñedo (b. 866)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
24867842,
35928
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
36,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Ying, Chinese rebel leader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
28385284
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
}
]
| [
"877"
]
| 23,905 | 210 | 15 | 62 | 0 | 0 | 877 | year | []
|
36,428 | 1,086,657,414 | 878 | [
{
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},
{
"plaintext": "Year 878 (DCCCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Bardas Phokas (the Elder), Byzantine general (d. 968)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ermentrude, daughter of Louis the Stammerer (or 875)",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Krishna II, king of Rashtrakuta (India) (d. 914)",
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3099417,
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1,
11
],
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21,
32
],
[
34,
39
],
[
45,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Miró II, Frankish nobleman (approximate date)",
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34025449,
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[
1,
8
],
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19,
27
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Odo of Cluny, Frankish abbot (approximate date)",
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634919,
1143
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
24,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Zur'a al-Razi, Muslim scholar",
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39038658
],
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[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Áed I, king of Alba (Scotland)",
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30865599,
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[
1,
6
],
[
16,
20
],
[
22,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adelchis, prince of Benevento",
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5409344,
1273903
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[
1,
9
],
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21,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amoghavarsha I, king of Rashtrakuta (b. 800)",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
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41,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Anastasius, antipope of Rome (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1045422,
25458
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
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25,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gauzfrid, Frankish nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
9401101
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Iljko, duke (knyaz) of Croatia ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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22224082,
465784,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
14,
19
],
[
24,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rhodri the Great, king of Wales",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
85968,
69894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
27,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Run, king of Strathclyde (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4835497,
68767
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
],
[
14,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ubba Ragnarsson, Viking chieftain",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4841908
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Xianzhi, Chinese rebel leader",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27555396
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
}
]
| [
"878"
]
| 23,910 | 428 | 11 | 36 | 0 | 0 | 878 | year | []
|
36,429 | 1,027,896,885 | 879 | [
{
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Year 879 (DCCCLXXIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
"section_idx": 0,
"section_name": "Introduction",
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[
10,
19
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27,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 10 King Louis the Stammerer dies at Compiègne, after a reign of 18 months. He is succeeded by his two sons, Louis III and Carloman II. They are crowned at Ferrières Abbey, and rule the West Frankish Kingdom together as joint-kings.",
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[
16,
35
],
[
44,
53
],
[
116,
125
],
[
130,
141
],
[
163,
178
],
[
193,
214
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baldwin I (\"Iron Arm\") dies, after 15 years as margrave of Flanders. He is buried in the Abbey of Saint Bertin (near Saint-Omer), and is succeeded by his son Baldwin II.",
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],
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60,
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],
[
90,
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[
118,
128
],
[
159,
169
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Oleg, brother-in-law of the Varangian ruler Rurik, is entrusted to take care of his kingdom Novgorod after his death. He becomes regent of his son Igor.",
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],
[
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[
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136
],
[
148,
152
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " King Charles the Fat becomes ruler of the Kingdom of Italy, after the abdication of his brother Carloman of Bavaria, who has been incapacitated by a stroke.",
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6,
21
],
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150,
156
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " King Alfred the Great establishes a series of fortified villages (or burhs) to protect Wessex against Viking raids. He creates a standing army to defend the strategic ports, and builds a network of well-maintained army roads (known as herepaths).",
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88,
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[
103,
109
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[
130,
143
],
[
236,
244
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Viking leader Guthrum becomes 'king' of East Anglia. A Viking fleet sails up the River Thames, and builds a camp at Fulham (near London) to prepare for an invasion of France.",
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82,
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],
[
117,
123
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[
130,
136
],
[
168,
174
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zanj Rebellion: The Abbasid Caliphate concentrates its efforts against the Zanj rebels in Mesopotamia. The Abbasid general Al-Mu'tadid leads an expeditionary force (10,000 men) to suppress the revolt. This marks the turning-point of the war.",
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1,
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],
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21,
38
],
[
76,
80
],
[
91,
102
],
[
124,
135
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Guangzhou Massacre: The Chinese rebel leader Huang Chao besieges the seaport in Guangzhou, and slaughters many of its inhabitants and foreign merchants. According to sources, the death toll ranges from 120,000 to 200,000 foreigners.",
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"section_name": "Events",
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20810
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1,
19
],
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46,
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81,
90
],
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143,
151
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Fourth Council of Constantinople: Emperor Basil I calls for a synod, and reinstates Photius I as patriarch of Constantinople.",
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11644,
73828,
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1,
33
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[
43,
50
],
[
63,
68
],
[
85,
94
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[
98,
125
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 7 Pope John VIII recognizes the Duchy of Croatia, under Duke (knyaz) Branimir, as an independent state.",
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1,
7
],
[
9,
23
],
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39,
55
],
[
69,
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],
[
76,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wilfred the Hairy, count of Barcelona, founds the Benedictine monastery at Ripoll, in Catalonia (Spain).",
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": "</onlyinclude>",
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"section_name": "Events",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 17 Charles the Simple, king of the West Frankish Kingdom (d. 929)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
27993,
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1,
13
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15,
33
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47,
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73,
76
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},
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"plaintext": " October 19 Yingtian, empress of the Khitan Liao Dynasty (d. 953)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
22568,
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1,
11
],
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13,
21
],
[
38,
44
],
[
45,
57
],
[
62,
65
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 10 Louis the Stammerer, king of the West Frankish Kingdom (b. 846)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2564,
23815052,
35771
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
9
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[
11,
30
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70,
73
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 18 Seishi, empress of Japan (b. 810)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1826,
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15573,
35332
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
9
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[
11,
17
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30,
35
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[
40,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " June 5 Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, founder of the Saffarid Dynasty (b. 840)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15820,
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[
1,
7
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9,
28
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45,
61
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[
66,
69
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"plaintext": " Ceolwulf II, king of Mercia (approximate date)",
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"plaintext": " Suppo II, duke of Spoleto (approximate date)",
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| [
"879"
]
| 25,001 | 258 | 14 | 114 | 0 | 0 | 879 | year | [
"879 CE"
]
|
36,430 | 1,094,470,638 | 1370s | [
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"plaintext": "The 1370s was a decade of the Julian Calendar which began on January 1, 1370, and ended on December 31, 1379.",
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| [
"1370s"
]
| 72,323 | 433 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1370s | decade | []
|
36,431 | 1,094,470,698 | 1340s | [
{
"plaintext": "The 1340s were a Julian calendar decade in the 14th century, in the midst of a period in world history often referred to as the Late Middle Ages in the Old World and the pre-Columbian era in the New World.",
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"plaintext": "In Asia, the successors of the old Mongol Empire were in a state of gradual decline. The Ilkhanate had already fragmented into several political territories and factions struggling to place their puppet leaders over the shell of an old state; the Chagatai Khanate was undermined by religious unrest and fell to rebellion. The Black Plague swept through the Kipchak Khanate in 1346, and also affected the Genoese colonies under Mongol siege, thence spreading into Europe. The Yuan dynasty in China was struck by a series of disasters, including frequent flooding, widespread banditry, fires in urban areas, declining grain harvest, increased civil unrest and local rebellion – the seeds of resistance that would lead to its downfall. Southeast Asia remained free from Mongol power, with several small kingdoms struggling for survival.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, the decade continued the period of gradual economic decline, often mistitled the \"depression\" of the 1340s. This followed the end of the Medieval Warm Period and the start of the Little Ice Age in the 1300s, and affected most of Western Europe, with the exception of a few Italian city-states. The state increasingly interfered in the social and economic life of the decade, while Europe entered a period which saw almost continuous war for the next century. The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) between France and England continued, and Edward III of England led an invasion resulting in notable victories at the Battles of Sluys and Crécy in 1340 and 1346 respectively. The medieval crusading spirit continued in Spain, with a Castilian victory at the Battle of Río Salado and the recommencement of the Reconquista in 1340; and in the Baltic, with King Magnus II of Sweden's Northern Crusades against Novgorod in 1347–1348. In the east, the Byzantine Empire, then under the Palaiologoi, saw the start of the disastrous Byzantine civil war of 1341–47. Meanwhile, a crisis of confidence in the Florentine banks caused many of them to collapse between 1341 and 1346. The Black Plague which struck Europe in 1348 wiped out a full third of the population by the end of the decade.",
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"plaintext": "In Africa, the two great empires were the Christian Ethiopian Empire in the east and the Muslim Mali Empire in the west. Amda Seyon I, who had brought Ethiopia to its height, was succeeded in 1344 by Newaya Krestos, who continued to foster trade in East Africa. Mansa Suleyman assumed office in the Mali Empire in 1341, and similarly took steep measures to reform Mali's finances. Songhai, which had emerged in this decade, was conquered by Mali for the time being.",
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"plaintext": "In the Americas, cities of the Mississippian culture such as Cahokia, Kincaid and Moundville went into an accelerated state of decline in this decade. Factors such as depletion of resources, climatic change, war, disease, social unrest and declining political and economic power have been suggested, although the sites were not fully abandoned until the 15th century. Central America saw the decayed Maya civilization ruled from their capital Mayapan in the Yucatán Peninsula, while the Mexicas from their capital city of Tenochtitlan were on the rise.",
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"plaintext": " 1343 – Geoffrey Chaucer",
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"plaintext": "In the Kipchak Khanate, Özbeg Khan of the Golden Horde died in 1341, ending what Muslim chroniclers considered a golden age. His elder son Tinibeg ruled for a year or two, before being dethroned and killed at the hands of his younger brother Janibeg in 1342. Janibeg's fifteen-year reign was notable for the appearance and rapid transmission of the Black Plague along the trade routes from inner Asia in this decade. The nation \"struggled into new life\" after the plague had passed in the following decade.",
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"plaintext": "The Chagatai Khanate was being split by religious dissensions between the traditionalist Mongol adherents of the Yasa and the Mongol and Turkish converts to Islam. The eastern half of Chagatai seceded under the conservative Mongol element when Tughluk Temür seized power in Moghulistan around 1345. The Khanate continued in Transoxiana, but the Chatagai khans became the puppets of the now enthusiastically Muslim Turkish amirs, and the amir Kazghan overthrew the Khan Kazan in 1347.",
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{
"plaintext": "In the Persian Ilkhanate, the Mongol House of Hülegü had been extinguished in the male line with the death of Il-Khan Abu Sa'id in 1335, . As JJ Saunders wrote, \"A crowd of competitors for the vacant throne started up, but of some history has scarcely condescended to record their names, much less their actions, and an interval of more than thirty years was filled with confused political struggles\". Numerous claimants were set up in the 1330s; by 1339, the two rivals were Jahan Temür set up by Shaik Hasan-i Buzurg, and Suleiman Khan supported by Shaik Hasan-i Kuchak. In June 1340, the two Hasans and their rival khans met in battle on the Jaghatu; \"Hasan-i Buzurg was defeated and fled to Baghdad, where he deposed Jahan-Temür and himself assumed sovereignty as the founder of the Jalayir dynasty\". The deposition of Jahan-Temür can be regarded as the final dissolution of the Ilkhanate. Although his rival retained nominal power among the Chobanids for another year or two, he in turn was deposed by Hasan-i Kuchak's brother and similarly disappears into obscurity. \"So insignificant had these figureheads become\", according to JA Boyle, \"that we are not even informed as to the time and manner of their death\". Suleiman was replaced as puppet by Anushirvan, \"in whose name his Chobanid masters continued to strike coin until 1353\".",
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951,
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},
{
"plaintext": "In China, the Mongol Yuan dynasty was in a gradual state of decline, due to complex and longstanding problems such as the \"endemic tensions among its ruling elites\". Toghon Temür had been installed as emperor at age thirteen in 1333, and was to reign as the last Yuan emperor until 1368. In March 1340, the Yuan chancellor, Bayan of the Merkid, was removed in a carefully orchestrated coup, and replaced by his nephew Toqto'a. In Bayan's overthrow by the younger generation, the movement to restore the status quo from reign of Kublai Khan effectively died. Bayan's purges were called off; his supporters dismissed; positions he had closed to the Chinese were reopened; the meritocratic system of examinations for official service was restored. By this time, Temür had just begun to participate in the formal functions of state, and assisted in the \"anti-Bayan coup\": he issued a posthumous denunciation of his uncle Tugh Temür; he exiled the grand empress dowager Budashiri and his cousin El Tegüs; and entrusted the upbringing of his infant son Ayushiridara to Toghto's household.",
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"plaintext": "Toghto's first term exhibited a fresh new spirit which took a predominantly centralist approach to political solutions. He directed an unsuccessful project to connect the imperial capital to the sea and the Shansi foothills by water; he was more successful in his attempt to organise funds for the completion of the official histories of the Liao, Qin and Song dynasties. In June 1344, however, he tendered his resignation following a series of local rebellions that had broken out against the Yuan in scattered areas of China.",
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"plaintext": "Toghto's replacement as chancellor was Berke Bukha, an effective provincial administrator who took the opposite, decentralised approach to Toghto. Bukha had learned firsthand from the great Hangchow fire of 1341 that central regulations had to be violated to provide immediate and effective relief. Accordingly, he promoted able men to local positions and gave them discretionary authority to handle relief and other problems. Similarly, he granted local military garrisons blanket authorisation to prevent the spread of banditry. In 1345, Bukha's administration sent out twelve investigation teams to visit each part of China, correct abuses, and \"create benefits and remove harms\" for the people.",
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"plaintext": "Bukha's approach failed to arrest the mounting troubles of Yuan China in the 1340s, however. The central government was faced with chronic revenue shortfalls. Maritime grain shipments — vital for the inhabitants of the imperial capital — had seriously declined from a peak of 3.34 million bushels in 1329 to 2.6 million in 1342. From 1348 on, they continued only when permitted by a major piratical operation led by Fang Kuo-chen and his brothers, which the authorities were unable to suppress. Additionally, the Yellow River was repeatedly swelled by long rains, breaching its dykes and flooding the surrounding areas. When the river finally began shifting its course, it caused \"widespread havoc and ruin\". In 1349, the emperor recalled Toghto to office for a second term. With high enthusiasm and strong belief from his partisans that the problems were soluble, he began a radical process of recentralisation and heavy restriction of regional and local initiative in the following decade.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Founding of the Bahmani Kingdom in central India",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Wars between the Muslims of the north and the Hindus of the Vijayanagara Empire in India",
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " In 1341, the Sultan of Delhi chose Ibn Battuta to lead a diplomatic mission to China. Ibn Battuta travels throughout Asia",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Turkish attacks on the Aegean, Bulgaria, and the Byzantine Empire",
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"section_name": "Asia",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Pope Benedict XII had despatched the Italian Franciscan John of Marignolli in 1339, who travelled safely through the Yuan territories of Kipchack and Chagatai Khanate during the Pax Mongolica and reached the imperial capital of Ta-tu in 1342. He was received in an audience with Toghon Temür, to whom he presented some large European horses — their bulk, according to JJ Saunders, \"surprised Chinese and Mongols alike, accustomed as they were to the small, wiry animals of the steppes\". Marignolli stayed in China for five years, departing by ship in 1347 and returning to Avignon in 1353.",
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},
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"plaintext": " The poet Zhang Xian wrote the Iron Cannon Affair in 1341, detailing the destructive use of gunpowder and the cannon.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, the decade continued the period of gradual economic decline, which followed the end of the Medieval Warm Period and the start of the Little Ice Age in the 1300s. This secular decline, often mistitled a \"depression\", affected most of Western Europe, with the exception of a few Italian city-states. It was the result of factors which had begun earlier in the century, the main cause being the breaking of the balance between Church and state. The more dominant state increasingly interfered in the social and economic life of late medieval Europe, imposing detrimental taxation and regulation. King Edward III of England faced a brief standoff with some dissident barons in 1341 — one of only two such isolated standoffs in his popular reign. Meanwhile, the role of the Parliament of England became more defined, with the House of Commons regularly petitioning Edward from about 1343 onward.",
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832,
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},
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"plaintext": "Europe entered a period which saw almost continuous war for the next century. Fighting took place in the Duchy of Brittany, \"a country well suited to guerilla warfare\", from 1342 to 1365 in the Breton War of Succession. The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) between France and England continued, and Edward III led an invasion resulting in a number of victories. One of the earlier English victories was at the naval Battle of Sluys in 1340, which annihilated the French fleet and gave the English control of the English Channel for several years. The initial campaigns were frustrating and expensive, so Edward altered his strategy to use English armies that were lightly supported but prepared to forage off the land. It successfully established English control over Brittany in 1342. Further armies were sent to Brittany and Gascony in 1345, and Edward himself crossed the Channel in 1346 with 10,000 men — an enormous army by contemporary standards. They plundered Caen, an important town in Normandy, and eventually began moving back toward the Channel.",
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"plaintext": "In 1346, the Battle of Crecy became the first great land battle of the Hundred Years' War, and the most stunning victory of Edward's career. English longbowmen crippled the French knights for many years to come, allowing Edward to take the key Channel port of Calais in 1347. Meanwhile, public discontent caused the town of Lyon to riot in 1347. Importantly, the English campaign of the 1340s \"brought the hegemony of high medieval France to a decisive close.\"",
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{
"plaintext": "Expand on:",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Friso-Hollandic Wars",
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"plaintext": "In the Holy Roman Empire, Ludwig the Bavarian was in conflict with the Avignon Papacy. Pope Clement VI influenced the German Prince-electors to elect Charles of Moravia as rival king to Ludwig. He was crowned in 1346 in Bonn. After the death of Emperor Ludwig in September 1347, Charles IV was recognised as King of Germany by all of the German princes.",
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221,
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309,
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"plaintext": "In 1341, Margarete Maultasch, Countess of County of Tyrol, had expelled her husband John Henry of Bohemia. She then married Louis of Bavaria, a son of Ludwig, without an annulment of her previous marriage. The result was the excommunication of the couple. Meanwhile, in 1342, Kitzbühel became part of Tyrol.",
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"plaintext": "In 1340, a German law-code was drawn up by the Teutonic Knights for their long-settled Prussian district of Pomesania. The code defined two categories of people: the unfree, who came under peasant law (Gebauersrecht) and were consigned to the jurisdiction of their lords; and the freedmen. The latter group included peasants who had the right to demand trial by the written code and could not be sentenced to death in private courts. However, an appendix to the law-code also made it clear that the Old Prussian peasant converts were discriminated against by the Teutonic Knights, and were allowed remain \"semi-pagan, uncouth and lawless\". Such treatment shocked contemporary commentators such as Saint Bridget of Sweden.",
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"plaintext": "The Danish monarchy had disintegrated in the 1330s, but was restored in 1340 by Valdemar IV after a long interregnum. In the Danish crusader state of Estonia, some 80% of the indigenous population was subject to immigrant lords, to whom they owed tithe and military duty. When the lords reacted to falling grain-prices by increasing the level of tithe, which led to the St. George's Night Uprising in 1343. On 23 April, the Estonians rose up and killed their masters — German sources give a figure of 18,000 dead as a result of the uprising, although this total is unlikely. The Danish government in Estonia was overthrown when a major group of vassals in Tallinn handed over castles to the Teutonic Order in 1344–1345. Beset by pressing problems at home and unable to break the monopoly of the Hanseatic League at sea, Valdemar decided to sell the territory to the master of the Teutonic Order for 10,000 marks. The final sale was approved by the king's Danish counsellors, and the shift of sovereignty took place on 1 November 1346.",
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"plaintext": "In Sweden, the court was continually reminded of its religious duties by Bridget of Sweden, who was the king's cousin and beginning to win fame as a prophetess. Her primary aim was to reform and purify the upper class, and her posthumously complied Revelations contain thoughts on the Northern Crusades which must have been expressed in the 1344–1348 period. After King Magnus II of Sweden had tried and failed to take possession of Denmark in the early 1340s, she advised him not to offend his people by raising taxes to fund wars against their co-religionists, but instead to raise taxes only for self-defence or in crusading against unbelievers. Therefore, after Magnus had at least temporarily resolved difficulties at home, he prepared for a crusade against the Russian Orthodox Novgorod. Envoys were sent to the Russians in 1347, and an army was assembled that included Danish and German auxiliaries, and the support of Henry of Rendsburg. The army set sail for the campaign in 1348.",
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"plaintext": "Accordingly, there were political divisions in the Russian states in this decade. The southern territories of Novgorod had been subjugated by Prince Algirdas of Lithuania in 1346, and Simeon of Moscow had failed to intervene. The city was divided between competing boyar factions, and the lack of unity between Novgorod and her allies allowed for the success of Magnus' campaign of 1348. Pskov officially broke away from Novgorod that year; and Simeon was again delayed in helping against the Swedes, this time by business with his overlord, the Khan of the Golden Horde. Orekhov was taken by the Swedes, although it was to fall in 1349.",
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"plaintext": "Areas to expand on:",
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{
"plaintext": " Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 within the Byzantine Empire",
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"plaintext": " John III Comnenus becomes emperor of Trebizond (1342)",
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"plaintext": " Guy de Lusignan becomes King Gosdantin II of Armenia (1342).",
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"plaintext": " The Patriarchate of Antioch is transferred to Damascus under Ignatius II (1342).",
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"plaintext": " Zealots, Thessalonica",
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"plaintext": " Serbian expansion",
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{
"plaintext": " In 1342, Louis I became King of Hungary.",
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"plaintext": " Będzin Castle",
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"plaintext": "Saluzzo sacked by Manfred V of Saluzzo (1341).",
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"plaintext": " In 1342, Louis \"the Child\" became King of Sicily and Duke of Athens.",
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"plaintext": " An earthquake and tsunami of 1343 devastated the Maritime Republic of Amalfi.",
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"plaintext": "In Rome, the general despair brought on by the Plague and the absence of the Pope have been cited as possible causes for the rise of the Roman notary Cola di Rienzo: in 1347, he assumed the title of censor and claimed to restore the Roman Republic. He utilised popular rhetoric, and invited the men of Trastevere to sack the palaces of the fleeing Roman nobility. Cola tried to establish direct government with elections in the rione of the city, but he lacked the means to take the Castel Sant'Angelo and he was cut down by the Roman aristocracy in 1354.",
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"plaintext": "There were several rulers of the Kingdoms of Spain in the 1340s. Alfonso XI the Just ruled until the end of the decade as King of Castile and León. Castile and León surrounded Granada by land, and Alfonso advanced the Christian Reconquista. In 1340, at the Battle of Río Salado, he won the first Castilian victory over the Moors for over a century, and crossed the straits to Algeciras. In 1345, he attacked Gibraltar, but was unable to conquer it.",
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"plaintext": "Peter the Ceremonious ruled from 1336 as King of Aragon, King of Sardinia and Corsica, King of Valencia, Count of Barcelona and Prince of Catalonia. By 1343, Aragon had acquired the Balearic Islands, and in 1344 Peter deposed James III of Majorca to become King of Majorca himself. Navarre was ruled by Philip III until 1343, his Capetian wife Joanna II until 1349, and finally Charles II the Bad ruled into the late 14th century. The Kingdom of Portugal was meanwhile ruled by Afonso IV, from 1325 until his death in 1357.",
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"plaintext": "To finance the continuing wars of the 1340s, Edward III of England granted to a small group of merchants a monopoly on the export of wool. In return, they agreed to collect the \"poundage\", or wool tax, on his behalf. This included a tariff on the import of woolen cloth, which put out of business the Italian and foreign merchants that had dominated the wool export trade. The monopoly merchants went bankrupt in the following decade.",
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"plaintext": "Edward also introduced three new gold coins in 1344: the florin, leopard, and helm. However, the gold content of these coins did not match their respective value of 6 shillings, 3 shillings, and 1 shilling and sixpence, so they had to be withdrawn and mostly melted down by August of that year.",
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"plaintext": "In France, the king's personal expenditure on dowries, gratuities, the upkeep of the palace, his travels and his wardrobe, consumed the entirety of the royal income. Therefore, a monopoly on salt, an essential commodity, was established in 1341; monopolies in salt had already been established in Kingdom of Castile and Venice in the 1330s. The French salt tax or gabelle itself never amounted to more than 2%. Fouages were also levied in 1342 and 1349.",
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"plaintext": "The Italian city states were booming at the start of the decade. In 1340, Francesco Balducci Pegolotti wrote his Practica della mercatura. Meanwhile, rulers such as the Neapolitan princes had begun withdrawing massive funds from Florentine banks. England found itself unable to repay its debts, and both factors resulted in a crisis of confidence in the Florentine banks The family-based banks and mercantile associations of Florence and Genoa generally kept only 25–30% of their capital in liquid assets, and between 1341 and 1346, many of the most important of the Florentine banks collapsed. — an \"avalanche of bankruptcies\", in the words of Robert Fossier. These were owned by the following banking families: the Acciaiuolis, the Bonaccorsis, the Cocchis, the Antellesis, the Corsinis, the Uzzanos, the Perendolis, the Peruzzis and the Bardis.",
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"plaintext": "The situation in the towns remained delicate: while on one hand the trades were dominant, and Villani counted no fewer than 200 textile workshops in Florence around 1340, working conditions and entry restrictions imposed by the guilds created tensions with the unemployed and unskilled labourers. Strikes or grèves occurred in Ghent in 1337–1345 and in Florence in 1346. In 1349–1350, the fullers and weavers of Ghent and Liège massacred each other. The failures in the food supply in the regions of Provence and Lyon, in 1340 and 1348 respectively, affected contemporaries particularly harshly. This was not just because these generations were unused to them, but because they were accompanied by war and followed by epidemic in this decade.",
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"plaintext": "In 1340, the total population of Europe was 54 million; by 1450, it would be 37 million, a 31% drop in only a century. In addition to the earlier social and economic decline, the Black Plague is identified as the superficial cause, which struck Europe and wiped out a full third of the population in short space of 1348–1350. It has been described as \"a pandemic of plagues such as the world had not seen since the sixth century and was not destined to see again till the 1890s.\" It was actually three related diseases: bubonic plague and septicaemic plague, carried by fleas hosted by the black rat, and pneumonic plague, the especially fast and lethal airborne variant. The few areas that escaped included Poland, Hungary, Rouergue in France, Liège in Belgium, and the county of Béarn in the Pyrenees. It has been suggested that these areas were spared due to the predominance of O-Blood type, which had only recently taken root in the heartlands of Europe, although this hypothesis has yet to be proven.",
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"plaintext": "The pandemic, which began in central Asia, was first reported in Europe in the summer of 1346. The Genoese colony of Caffa in the Crimea was besieged by the Tartars, who catapulted plague-ridden corpses into the city. The defenders carried the disease back to Italy; in October 1347 it reached Messina in Sicily, in December a ship carried the plague into Marseille, and by January 1348 it was in Genoa. The plague then moved northward through France. According to the French monk Guillaume de Nangis:",
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"plaintext": "The reasons for the plague's success are not yet entirely understood. Urban overcrowding, declining sanitary conditions and the \"lively European trade in (rat-infested) grain\" have been cited as causes of the plague's rapid transmission; while favourable climatic conditions and the summer months may also have aided its spread. In the summer of 1348 it reached England, arriving first at Melcombe Regis in Dorset. It had spread through the southwestern shires to London by winter. It peaked in the summer of 1349, when it was passed on into Germany and Austria, and in winter it was in Scotland, Scandinavia and Spain.",
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"plaintext": "In general, towns were hit more severely than rural areas, the poor more than the rich, and the young and fit more than the old and infirm. Norman Davies generalises that \"No pope, no kings were stricken.\" Hundreds died in each parish, although some figures may have been exaggerated. Norwich, a city that did not exceed 17,000, was reported as having lost 57,000. The Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio records a loss of 100,000 in Florence, exceeding the total population of the city. The figure was probably closer to 50,000. Regardless, modern studies make it clear that the plague's toll in this decade was heavy.",
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"plaintext": "Heaviest hit were the clergy, who were brought into direct contact with plague victims. Guillaume de Nangis records that \"some monks and friars, being braver, administered the sacraments\", and that the sisters at the hospital of Paris, \"fearless of death, carried out their task to the end with the most perfect gentleness and humility. These sisters were all wiped out by death…\" In the dioceses of York and Lincoln, about 44% of the clergy perished, while nearly 50% died in the Exeter, Winchester, Norwich and Ely. In all, half of the English clergy may have died.",
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"plaintext": "In 14th century England, the Black Plague \"served as a somber backdrop to a deepening economic crisis… and growing social tensions and religious restlessness.\" Villages were deserted, herds were untended, wool and grain markets were crippled and land values plummeted. The plague would strike periodically in subsequent decades. However, it is also suggested that in Europe in general, the Black Plague solved the economic recession, in that the reduction in population returned the supply of cash credit and money per capita to its pre-crisis level, laying the foundation for recovery. Wages rose, and the peasantry benefited from a more open, fluid society.Notes] At the end of the decade, the economic effects of the Black Plague \"may well have been more purgative than toxic.\"",
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"plaintext": "A number of European building projects were completed in the 1340s, mainly consisting of cathedrals and universities. In 's-Hertogenbosch, construction was finished on the Romanesque church begun in 1220, which was later rebuilt as the 16th century St. John's Cathedral. In the German city of Mainz, work was completed on the Collegiate Church of St. Stephan, begun in 1267. In Naples, three decades of work were finished on the monastery of Santa Chiara.",
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"plaintext": "In religious art, a series of stained glass windows were completed for the choir clerestory of Évreux Cathedral in Normandy c. 1340. Stained glass was also completed for the former Königsfelden Abbey in Switzerland, around the same time.",
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"plaintext": "The possibilities of Giotto's art were developed further in this decade by his pupils Maso di Banco and Bernardo Daddi. Significant of their works is Pope Sylvester Tames the Dragon, painted in 1340 by di Banco for the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. An illustration by the artist Domenico Lenzi, the City Scene of 1340 from the Il Biadaiolo codex, shows just how much the Florentine artists were influenced by Giotto.",
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"plaintext": "In 1340, toward the end of his life, the painter Simone Martini was called to Avignon to work for the papal court. His frescos in the portico of Avignon Cathedral have been lost, but the frescoes in the papal palace, painted by his pupils or colleagues around 1340, survive. Another notable religious artist was the Pisan painter Francesco Traini, who painted the Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas as part of an Italian altarpiece \"which reflects the divine order of the cosmos\".",
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"plaintext": "In sculpture, the main artist was Andrea Pisano, who maintained a workshop in Pisa with his son Nino Pisano from 1343 to 1347. They are noted for the famous sculpture Maria lactans, and their work on Orvieto Cathedral.",
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"plaintext": " Perceforest, completed 1344",
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"plaintext": "It was around this decade that medieval cannon began to be used more widely in Europe, appearing in small numbers in several European states by the 1340s. \"Thunder jar\" weaponry utilizing gunpowder and other firearm technology spread to Spain in 1342 and to the city of Aachen in Northern Germany in 1346. \"Ribaldis\" were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts between 1345 and 1346, during preparations for the campaign in France. The effectiveness of these cannon was limited, as they are believed to have only shot large arrows and simple grapeshot, but they were so valuable that they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe. Contemporary chroniclers such as the French Jean Froissart and the Florentine Giovanni Villani record their destructiveness on the field at the Battle of Crecy in 1346.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1340s, Catholic Church was governed under the Avignon Papacy. Pope Benedict XII died on 25 April 1342, and was buried in a mausoleum in Avignon Cathedral. Thirteen days later, the cardinals elected Benedictine cardinal and theologian Pierre Roger de Beaufort as Pope Clement VI. He reigned as pope until 1352.",
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"plaintext": "In 1340s, the controversial Franciscan friar and Scholastic philosopher William of Ockham was at Munich under the protection of the Holy Roman Emperor, Louis of Bavaria, since 1330. During this time, he wrote exclusively on political matters, as an advocate of secular absolutism against papal authority, for which he had previously been excommunicated. Among the followers of Ockhamism — condensed as the omnipotence of God and Occam's Razor — were John of Mirecourt (fl. c. 1345) and Nicholas of Autrecourt (fl. c. 1347), both of whom taught at the University of Paris. Ockham, Mirecourt and Autrecourt all agreed on the principle of noncontradiction and experience as bases of certainty.",
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"plaintext": "On November 21, 1340, Autrecourt too was summoned him to Avignon to respond to allegations of false teaching. The trial, under Pope Benedict XII and his successor Clement VI, lasted until his conviction in 1346. Autrecourt was charged with 66 erroneous teachings or \"articles\", which he publicly recanted before the papal court. He recanted them in public again, in Paris in 1347. Although Ockham also expressed willingness to resubmit to the Church and Franciscan Order, there is no evidence of a formal reconciliation. Ockham is sometimes said to have died in 1349, but it is more likely to have been 1347, possibly of the Black Plague.",
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"plaintext": "In 1343, Clement VI issued the papal bull Unigenitus. The bull defined the doctrine of \"The Treasury of Merits\" or \"The Treasury of the Church\" as the basis for the issuance of indulgences by the Catholic Church.",
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"plaintext": " Ayyubid dynasty",
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"plaintext": "In Egypt, the Mameluk sultans were constantly changing. In 1347, the Blue Mosque was completed in Cairo.",
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"plaintext": "In the Horn of Africa, the 1340s were part of the century and a half (1314–1468) that comprised \"the crowning era of medieval Ethiopia\", which began with the reign of Amda Seyon I. The crusading spirit of Amda's conquests in the previous decades had established an effective Ethiopian hegemony over his divided Muslim neighbours, but the chief concern of his conquests had been above all to maintain trade for both Muslims and Christians. On Amda's death in 1344, the size of his Christian Empire was double what it had been in 1314. Trade flourished in ivory and other animal products from the western and southwestern border regions, while food products were exported from the highlands to the eastern lowlands and coastal ports. He was succeeded as emperor by his eldest son Newaya Krestos, who followed his father's policies toward the Mulisms in the east, most of whom continued to be tributaries of Ethiopia.",
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"plaintext": "In the Mali Empire of West Africa, Mansa Souleyman, who had assumed office in 1341, took steep measures to put Mali back into financial shape, developing a reputation for miserliness. However, he proved to be a good and strong ruler despite numerous challenges. It is during his reign that Fula raids on Takrur began. There was also a palace conspiracy to overthrow him hatched by the Qasa (Manding term meaning Queen) and several army commanders. Mansa Souleyman's generals successfully fought off the military incursions, and the senior wife behind the plot was imprisoned. Mali was at this time the dominant empire of West Africa, having conquered Songhai Empire. The Songhai Empire would not regain independence for another three decades.",
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"plaintext": "Very little is known of the Americas in this period, save what can be determined from archaeology. In North America, the Mississippian culture was in a continued state of decline. The city of Cahokia had experienced gradual decline since the 1200s, possibly due to contributory factors such as depletion of resources, climatic change, war, disease, social unrest and declining political and economic power. The final abandonment of the city may have taken place some time between this decade and 1400. Radiocarbon dating of wash material from Mound 55 give a date of around 1350, which can be taken as the time the mound was last used.",
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"plaintext": "Other Mississippian sites which went into decline after this decade, from about 1350 on, include the Kincaid Mounds and the Moundville site. In the case of the latter, the decline was marked by a loss of the appearance of a town and a decrease in the importation of goods. Although the site retained its ceremonial and political functions, some of the mounds were abandoned while others lost their religious importance altogether.",
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"plaintext": "In Central America, the Mayans, who centuries earlier had suffered a serious decline, were ruled from a capital in the Yucatan Peninsula called Mayapan. Other pre-Columbian civilisations, however, were on the rise. The precursors to the Aztecs, the Mexicas, had recently founded their capital city of Tenochtitlan. They also had occasional skirmishes with the nearby Mixtec civilization.",
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"plaintext": " According to Fossier (p 89), a number of yeomen had benefited by the disappearance of many of their neighbours, as they were able to take over their empty farmlands and were then in a position to pay the going wages. However, while Hollister (p 285) and Soto (p 71) argue for the plague's positive socio-economic effects, Fossier (p 89) further suggests these were offset by state intervention in the form of royal taxation and wage restrictions. Edward III's issuance of the Ordinance of Labourers in 1349 limited the steep rise in wages that resulted from the plague, and the yeomen who had previously benefited now found themselves \"deprived by royal ordinance of their essential workforce\". The enforcement of such wage restrictions in 1351–1359 was to provoke serious unrest in Cheshire and Oxfordshire in that decade, while increased taxation in France caused similar discontent culminating in the Jacquerie (Fossier, p89–90).",
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"plaintext": " Delbrück, Hans et al. History of the Art of War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990. ",
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"plaintext": " Neillands, Robin. The Hundred Years' War. New York: Routledge, 1990. ",
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"plaintext": " Nossov, Konstantin. Ancient and Medieval Siege Weapons. City: The Lyons Press, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": " Rees, Bob and Marika Sherwood. Black Peoples of the Americas. City: Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 1992. ",
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"plaintext": " Soto, Jesús Huerta de. Money, Bank Credit, and Economic Cycles. (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2006) Translated by Melinda A. Stroup. ",
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"plaintext": " Stride, G.T & C. Ifeka: \"Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000–1800\". Nelson, 1971",
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},
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"plaintext": " Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972).",
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| [
"1340s"
]
| 83,334 | 569 | 2 | 408 | 0 | 0 | 1340s | decade | []
|
36,432 | 1,094,470,700 | 1330s | [
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| [
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| 82,329 | 417 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1330s | decade | []
|
36,433 | 1,098,266,037 | 950 | [
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10
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[
20,
30
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[
35,
39
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lady Finella, Scottish noblewoman (d. 995)",
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55025070
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lambert I, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10779101
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[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lothair Udo I, German nobleman (d. 994)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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50319421,
40023
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[
1,
14
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[
36,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Masako, Japanese empress consort (d. 1000)",
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33812850,
34876
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[
1,
7
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[
38,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Moninho Viegas, French knight (d. 1022)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
46555845,
38731
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[
1,
15
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[
35,
39
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Notker III, German Benedictine monk (d. 1022)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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4969218,
4240
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[
1,
11
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[
20,
31
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},
{
"plaintext": " Odo I (or Eudes), French nobleman (d. 996)",
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3368566,
40025
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[
1,
6
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[
39,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Otto I, duke of Carinthia (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4188681,
74817
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[
1,
7
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[
17,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Reginar IV, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1299499
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sarolt, Grand Princess of Hungary (d. 1008)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15111290,
8816496,
35907
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[
1,
7
],
[
27,
34
],
[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Soběslav, Bohemian nobleman (d. 1004)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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2561298,
35903
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[
1,
9
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[
33,
37
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " William I, French nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
7342749
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wolbodo, bishop of Liège (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1154345,
17200239
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[
1,
8
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[
20,
25
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " January 15 Wang Jingchong, Chinese general",
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15790,
42418579
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1,
11
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[
13,
27
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},
{
"plaintext": " October 7 Li, Chinese empress consort",
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"target_page_ids": [
22446,
42094362
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October Al-Qahir, Abbasid caliph (b. 899)",
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1091241,
35701
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[
10,
18
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[
39,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 22 Lothair II, king of Italy",
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"target_page_ids": [
21526,
2426535,
6006557
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
24
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[
34,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 24 ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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8359
],
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shi Hongzhao, Chinese general",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52736076
],
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[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wang Zhang, Chinese official",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
53332334
],
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yang Bin, Chinese chancellor",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
53090668
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[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ælfric, bishop of Ramsbury (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
14564906,
1171536
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
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[
19,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Farabi, Muslim philosopher (or 951)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
175040,
171177,
51105
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[
1,
10
],
[
19,
30
],
[
35,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hywel Dda (\"the Good\"), king of Wales",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
82824,
69894
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[
1,
10
],
[
33,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Jinquan, Chinese general (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
51164786
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[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ricfried, Frankish nobleman (b. 845)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
49965745,
35770
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[
1,
9
],
[
33,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sunyer, count of Barcelona, Girona and Ausona",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
3307561,
3409591,
59700,
305002
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[
1,
7
],
[
18,
27
],
[
29,
35
],
[
40,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zoltán, Grand Prince of Hungary (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
310311
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dharma Mahadevi, Indian Queen Regnant",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
61796854
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
}
]
| [
"950"
]
| 23,449 | 460 | 18 | 76 | 0 | 0 | 950 | year | []
|
36,434 | 1,106,839,506 | 959 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 959 (CMLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
321295,
15651
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[
10,
15
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[
23,
55
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[
101,
116
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 12 En'yū, emperor of Japan (d. 991)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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202224,
15573,
35179
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1,
9
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[
11,
16
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[
29,
34
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[
39,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yeshe-Ö, Tibetan lama-king (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
38336249,
7914867
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
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[
18,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zhao Defang, prince of the Song Dynasty (d. 981)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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37131489,
56978,
48028
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[
1,
12
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[
28,
40
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[
45,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 27 Chai Rong, emperor of Later Zhou (b. 921)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15922,
7685714,
7685760,
36205
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
19
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[
32,
42
],
[
47,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 1 Eadwig (the All Fair), king of England",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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22340,
47099,
407950
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[
1,
10
],
[
12,
18
],
[
43,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " October 3 Gérard of Brogne, Frankish abbot",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
22347,
9958985,
1143
],
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[
1,
10
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[
12,
28
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[
39,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 9 Constantine VII, Byzantine emperor (b. 905)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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21446,
253480,
50805
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[
1,
11
],
[
13,
28
],
[
52,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ælfsige (or Aelfsige), archbishop of Canterbury",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
375512,
1916875
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
38,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chen Jue, Chinese official and chief of staff",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
41699999
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[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Donnchadh mac Urchadh, king of Maigh Seóla (Ireland)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
24560997,
1450313,
147575
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
32,
43
],
[
45,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Han Yanhui, Chinese Khitan chancellor (b. 882)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52695827,
15684439,
52446
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
21,
27
],
[
43,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pietro III Candiano, doge of Venice",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5302394,
613492
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
30,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Song Qiqiu, Chinese chief strategist (b. 887)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
36919310,
779652,
36417
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
27,
37
],
[
42,
45
]
]
}
]
| [
"959"
]
| 23,750 | 298 | 15 | 39 | 0 | 0 | 959 | year | []
|
36,435 | 1,086,663,305 | 984 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 984 (CMLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
319727,
15651
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[
10,
18
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[
26,
55
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[
101,
116
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu al-Qasim Muhammad, founder of the Abbadid Dynasty (d. 1042)",
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630792,
49865,
40041
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[
1,
22
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[
39,
54
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[
59,
63
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},
{
"plaintext": " Choe Chung, Korean Confucian scholar and poet (d. 1068)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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25404160,
5820,
1709124,
36692
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[
1,
11
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[
20,
29
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[
42,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emma, queen of England, Denmark and Norway (d. 1052, approximate date)",
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40236,
407950,
76972,
21241,
40050
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[
1,
5
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[
16,
23
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[
25,
32
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[
37,
43
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[
48,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 7 Crescentius (the Elder), politician and aristocrat",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15863,
5274749,
20750674
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
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[
9,
20
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[
49,
59
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 18 Dietrich I, bishop of Metz",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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16090,
8885472,
5433463
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[
1,
8
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[
10,
20
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[
32,
36
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 1 Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester ",
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1254,
2768031,
1428326
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
20
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[
32,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 20 John XIV, pope of the Catholic Church",
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363828,
606848
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1,
10
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12,
20
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[
34,
49
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 9 Warin, archbishop of Cologne",
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28544,
5919401,
14780436
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
19
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[
35,
42
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Buluggin ibn Ziri, ruler (emir) of the Zirid Dynasty",
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2137294,
178427,
645486
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[
1,
18
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[
27,
31
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[
40,
53
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Domnall Claen, king of Leinster (Ireland)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
4217740,
74203,
147575
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[
1,
14
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[
24,
32
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[
34,
41
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edith of Wilton, English princess and abbess",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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2536386,
1301
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[
1,
16
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[
39,
45
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eochaid Ua Floinn, Irish poet (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27385899
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gerberga, Frankish queen (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
4528298
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[
1,
9
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jordan, bishop of Poland (or 982)",
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1548152,
45367947,
48027
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[
1,
7
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[
19,
25
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[
30,
33
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Miró III, count of Cerdanya and Besalú (b. 920)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
34176663,
6967656,
5214041,
50988
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[
1,
9
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[
20,
28
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[
33,
39
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[
44,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ragnhild Eriksdotter, Norse Viking noblewoman",
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"target_page_ids": [
16721189,
32610
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[
1,
21
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[
29,
35
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shi Shouxin, Chinese general (b. 928)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
36878472,
49382
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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[
34,
37
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]
| [
"984"
]
| 23,840 | 173 | 10 | 51 | 0 | 0 | 984 | year | []
|
36,436 | 1,106,894,898 | 968 | [
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"plaintext": "Year 968 (CMLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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25657,
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15651
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10,
18
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26,
57
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[
103,
118
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " November 29 Kazan, emperor of Japan (d. 1008)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21578,
10506,
15573,
35907
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1,
12
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[
14,
19
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[
32,
37
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[
42,
46
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 21 Minamoto no Yorinobu, Japanese samurai (d. 1048)",
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8850,
2612861,
28288,
40046
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1,
12
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[
14,
34
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[
45,
52
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[
57,
61
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " December 23 Zhen Zong, emperor of the Song Dynasty (d. 1022)",
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14750344,
30873283,
56978,
38731
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1,
12
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[
14,
23
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[
40,
52
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[
57,
61
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gisela, French princess and daughter of Hugh Capet (d. 1002)",
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75185,
35901
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[
1,
7
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[
41,
51
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[
56,
60
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pan, Chinese princess and wife of Zhen Zong (d. 989)",
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"target_page_ids": [
37132721,
48023
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
4
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[
49,
52
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Romanos III, emperor of the Byzantine Empire (d. 1034)",
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74199,
16972981,
36695
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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[
29,
45
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[
50,
54
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{
"plaintext": " March 2 William, archbishop of Mainz (b. 929)",
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19516,
33943,
5436361,
49380
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
17
],
[
33,
38
],
[
43,
46
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 14 Matilda of Ringelheim, Frankish queen",
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20199,
20515
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 19 Emma of Paris, duchess of Normandy (b. 943)",
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20316,
34207070,
379489,
36208
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[
1,
9
],
[
11,
24
],
[
37,
45
],
[
50,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 2 Yuan Dezhao, Chinese chancellor (b. 891)",
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1777,
52686146,
10556774,
35885
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
21
],
[
31,
41
],
[
46,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " April 4 Abu Firas al-Hamdani, Arab prince and poet (b. 932)",
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18951826,
18746315,
1227714,
49388
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[
1,
8
],
[
10,
30
],
[
48,
52
],
[
57,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu al-Misk Kafur, Ikhshidid vizier of Egypt (b. 905)",
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2197831,
242409,
377373,
50805
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[
1,
18
],
[
30,
36
],
[
40,
45
],
[
50,
53
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aldred, bishop of Lindisfarne (approximate date)",
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"target_page_ids": [
4725427,
18454
],
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[
1,
7
],
[
19,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Muttaqi, Abbasid caliph (b. 908)",
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1091248,
50984
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[
1,
11
],
[
32,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ananias I, catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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24274107,
229447
],
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[
1,
10
],
[
30,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bardas Phokas (the Elder), Byzantine general",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12402162
],
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[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eadgifu, wife of Edward the Elder (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
876309,
10209822
],
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[
1,
8
],
[
18,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John III, duke of Naples (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
6065372,
3761566
],
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[
1,
9
],
[
19,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Landulf III, prince of Benevento (or 969)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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4790956,
1273903,
35883
],
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[
1,
12
],
[
24,
33
],
[
38,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Jun, emperor of Northern Han (b. 926)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
52614344,
346830,
36423
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
21,
33
],
[
38,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mord Fiddle, Icelandic farmer and law expert ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20881248,
3257268
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
35,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mumadona Dias, countess of Portugal",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
6146349,
24757665
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
28,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rajendravarman II, ruler of the Khmer Empire",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
18669814,
222431
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[
1,
18
],
[
33,
45
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert of Vermandois, Frankish nobleman (or 967)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
6258104,
28978421,
35898
],
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[
1,
21
],
[
32,
40
],
[
45,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sun Guangxian, Chinese chief strategist",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
40610015
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sunifred II, Frankish nobleman (b. 915)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
34025753,
51093
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
36,
39
]
]
}
]
| [
"968"
]
| 23,918 | 176 | 26 | 74 | 0 | 0 | 968 | year | []
|
36,437 | 1,086,663,320 | 986 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 986 (CMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
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25657,
168855,
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[
10,
18
],
[
26,
56
],
[
102,
117
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Qushayri, Persian Sufi scholar and theologian (d. 1072)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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22982196,
28246,
35934
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[
1,
12
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[
22,
26
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[
54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Æthelstan Ætheling, son of Æthelred II (the Unready) (d. 1014)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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6200859,
10083,
35923
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[
1,
19
],
[
28,
39
],
[
58,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bezprym (or Besfrim), duke of Poland (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1692166,
45367947
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
31,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Constance of Arles, French queen (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1526299
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lê Long Đĩnh, emperor of the Lê Dynasty (d. 1009)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
14841213,
2818930,
35908
],
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[
1,
13
],
[
30,
40
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Poppo, archbishop of Trier (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
7577596,
15008891
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
22,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Reginald I, count palatine of Burgundy (d. 1057)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10552201,
441670,
35530
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
31,
39
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " March 2 Lothair III, king of the West Frankish Kingdom (b. 941)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19516,
638030,
3464935,
52584
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
21
],
[
35,
56
],
[
61,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " May 25 Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, Persian astronomer (b. 903)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
19354,
262757,
580,
50033
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
30
],
[
40,
50
],
[
55,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " August 15 Minnborinus, Irish missionary and abbot",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
1442,
30431279,
1143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
12,
23
],
[
46,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Æthelstan Mannessune, English landowner (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
25645231,
869616
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
31,
40
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bahram ibn Ardashir al-Majusi, Buyid official and general",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
42938379
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
30
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bobo, Frankish warrior and pilgrim (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
20550130,
14209431
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
],
[
28,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cadwallon ab Ieuaf, king of Gwynedd (Wales)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
2690761,
438748,
69894
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
],
[
29,
36
],
[
38,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Toke Gormsen, king of Scania (971-986), king of Denmark (985-986)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
53886459,
16749103,
76972
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
23,
29
],
[
49,
56
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mór ingen Donnchadha, Irish queen (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
31651041
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yang Ye, Chinese general and governor (jiedushi)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
5686888,
1251366
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
40,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Styrbjörn the Strong, Swedish Viking ruler",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
898456,
32610
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
31,
37
]
]
}
]
| [
"986"
]
| 23,785 | 643 | 10 | 47 | 0 | 0 | 986 | year | []
|
36,438 | 1,086,663,268 | 980 | [
{
"plaintext": "Year 980 (CMLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.",
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"section_name": "Introduction",
"target_page_ids": [
25657,
321380,
15651
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
10,
16
],
[
24,
54
],
[
100,
115
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 5 Mokjong, king of Goryeo (Korea) (d. 1009)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15861,
4961667,
188435,
16749,
35908
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
9,
16
],
[
26,
32
],
[
34,
39
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " July 15 Ichijō, emperor of Japan (d. 1011)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
16088,
229386,
15573,
36283
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
10,
16
],
[
29,
34
],
[
39,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi, Persian scholar (d. 1037)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
10713305,
40036
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani, Persian physician (d. 1070)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2232040,
36293
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adalbero, German nobleman (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
4368401,
28978421
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
18,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Avicenna, Persian polymath (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
1130,
25121
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
19,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Baldwin IV (the Bearded), French nobleman (d. 1035)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
360703,
40034
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
47,
51
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bardo, German abbot and archbishop (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
17105124,
1143
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
15,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Benedict VIII, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1024)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
24014,
606848,
38729
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
28,
43
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Einar Thambarskelfir, Norwegian nobleman (d. 1050)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
2629586,
36291
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
46,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ekkehard IV, Swiss chronicler (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
6243271
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Farrukhi Sistani, Persian poet (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
3618641,
25353172
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
27,
31
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Geoffrey I, French nobleman (d. 1008)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
633132,
35907
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
33,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Herman I, German nobleman (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
11660448
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Humbert I, founder of the House of Savoy (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
66127,
69842
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
27,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pope Nicholas II, pope of the Catholic Church (d. 1061) ",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
77813,
606848,
36037
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
31,
46
],
[
51,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Olof Skötkonung, king of Sweden (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
255539,
5058739
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
26,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1002)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
38935,
35901
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
34,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sviatopolk I, Grand Prince of Kiev (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
158420,
21486360
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
31,
35
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tancred of Hauteville, Norman nobleman (d. 1041)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
291495,
40040
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
44,
48
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodora Porphyrogenita, Byzantine empress (d. 1056)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
74216,
40052
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
],
[
48,
52
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Xuedou Chongxian, Chinese Buddhist monk (d. 1052)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
53995528,
226808,
40050
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
27,
35
],
[
45,
49
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " February 15 Berthold, German nobleman (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
11020,
36704848
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
14,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " September 28 Minamoto no Hiromasa, Japanese nobleman (b. 918)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
27533,
3879736,
51090
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
15,
35
],
[
59,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dado (or Dodon), Italian nobleman (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
9201358
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
5
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Domnall ua Néill (or Donal O'Neill), High King of Ireland ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
10031232,
147575
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
51,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eoghan Ua Cathain, abbot of Clonfert (Ireland)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
24500146,
8620784
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
29,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gunnhild, Norwegian Viking queen (approximate date)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
12123767,
32610
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
21,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ibn Khalawayh, Persian scholar and grammar (or 981)",
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1,
14
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36,
43
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[
48,
51
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liu Chang, emperor of Southern Han (b. 942)",
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[
1,
10
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[
23,
35
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[
40,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yaropolk I, Grand Prince of Kiev (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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158416
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[
1,
11
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| [
"980"
]
| 23,458 | 250 | 19 | 72 | 0 | 0 | 980 | year | []
|
36,439 | 1,106,974,937 | 976 | [
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116
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"plaintext": " February 5 Sanjō, emperor of Japan (d. 1017)",
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36
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45
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},
{
"plaintext": " Izumi Shikibu, Japanese poet (approximate date)",
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5867459,
774012
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"plaintext": " January 10 John I Tzimiskes, Byzantine emperor",
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16076,
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29
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50277569,
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16
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36,
44
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10,
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"plaintext": " June 14 ",
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15797
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1,
8
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"plaintext": " Aron, Bulgarian nobleman",
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1,
5
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},
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"plaintext": " David, Bulgarian nobleman",
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10625032
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1,
6
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{
"plaintext": " Moses, Bulgarian nobleman",
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6
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5919496,
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8
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10,
14
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37
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},
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6985637,
2582233
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1,
10
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[
12,
26
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[
37,
44
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]
},
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597423,
51093
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1,
11
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[
13,
24
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45,
48
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"plaintext": " November 14 Taizu, Chinese emperor (b. 927)",
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1071501,
49386
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
19
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[
41,
44
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Mansur Yahya, Zaidi scholar and imam",
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30252497,
15240
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[
1,
16
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[
36,
40
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Isarn, bishop of Grenoble (approximate date)",
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18069358,
5796314
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[
1,
6
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[
18,
26
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]
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"plaintext": " Kvirike II, Georgian prince and chorbishop",
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13751436,
5352986
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[
1,
11
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[
33,
43
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Madame Huarui, Chinese concubine and poet",
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11656243,
256577
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[
1,
14
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[
38,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mathgamain mac Cennétig, king of Munster",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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13938112,
56864
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[
1,
24
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[
34,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pietro IV Candiano, doge of Venice",
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6016334,
613492
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[
1,
19
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[
29,
35
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rukn al-Dawla, Buyid general and emir ",
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2837631
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[
1,
14
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Sun Taizhen, queen of Wuyue (Ten Kingdoms)",
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1631479,
58079
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[
1,
12
],
[
23,
28
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[
30,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodoric I, German nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
17645585
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ali ibn Muhammad al-Iyadi, Arabic poet.",
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56012438
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[
1,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phạm Thị Trân, Vietnamese opera singer and Mandarin (b. 926)",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
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66291238,
36423
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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[
57,
60
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| [
"976"
]
| 23,782 | 306 | 13 | 53 | 0 | 0 | 976 | year | []
|
36,440 | 1,105,265,601 | 1220s | [
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{
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2805521
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1,
22
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1289726,
629237
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1,
13
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[
35,
49
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53,
61
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20975798,
4342656
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1,
9
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11,
44
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336544,
3255313
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1,
11
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[
21,
25
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30,
37
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1755
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1,
10
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144677,
174215
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1,
11
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44
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1357591,
490533
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1,
9
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11,
26
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[
31,
37
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182758,
16822
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1,
10
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12,
29
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1475346,
16665146
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1,
17
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[
19,
27
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31,
43
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195037
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1,
7
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193543,
297220
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1,
6
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23,
27
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38,
59
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250122
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1,
8
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70646,
750274
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[
1,
14
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[
24,
31
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11638
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[
1,
24
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68974
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[
1,
33
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533383,
240146
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1,
13
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[
21,
31
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[
39,
52
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45588
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1,
20
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195040
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[
1,
16
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"plaintext": " Pope Gregory IX",
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24218
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16
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46591
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[
1,
10
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23854
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1,
18
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1017015,
295402
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[
1,
10
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[
32,
47
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"plaintext": " Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, final Sultan of the Khwarezmian Empire",
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30876142,
33001260
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1,
23
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[
45,
63
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"plaintext": " James I, King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona",
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63332,
586776
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1,
8
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[
18,
24
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"plaintext": " Jochi, Mongol army commander and eldest son of Genghis Khan",
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745324
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1,
6
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182917
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[
1,
16
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]
},
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"plaintext": " John I, King of Sweden",
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774100
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[
1,
7
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"plaintext": " John III Doukas Vatatzes, Emperor of Nicaea",
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74221,
309758
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[
1,
25
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[
27,
44
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"plaintext": " Emperor Juntoku of Japan",
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45585
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[
1,
16
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852663,
219947
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[
1,
9
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[
11,
34
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"plaintext": " Knut II, King of Sweden",
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"section_name": "Significant people",
"target_page_ids": [
250060
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[
1,
8
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"section_name": "Significant people",
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653505,
40138262,
26288
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1,
19
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[
21,
39
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[
44,
63
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},
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"plaintext": " Louis VIII, King of France",
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79596
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[
1,
11
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18549
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[
1,
9
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"plaintext": " Lý Chiêu Hoàng, Empress of Vietnam",
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18751217
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[
1,
15
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"plaintext": " Lý Huệ Tông, Emperor of Vietnam",
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18763295
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[
1,
12
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},
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"plaintext": " Manqu Qhapaq, first Emperor of the Inca Empire",
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90843,
15319
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[
1,
13
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[
36,
47
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},
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"plaintext": " Ögedei Khan, second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, third son of Genghis Khan",
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"section_name": "Significant people",
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739857
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[
1,
12
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},
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163841,
230949
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[
1,
15
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[
17,
34
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},
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246359
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[
1,
10
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},
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1321541
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1,
19
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5645603
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[
1,
22
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21204231
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[
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7
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252891
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1,
10
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39287
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[
1,
16
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1,
8
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5260104
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1,
9
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[
25,
29
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"plaintext": " Theodore Komnenos Doukas, Despot of Epirus and Emperor of Thessalonika",
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1,
25
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"section_name": "Significant people",
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744553
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1,
6
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8
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"plaintext": " Yusuf II al-Mustansir, Almohad Caliph of Morocco",
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| [
"1220s"
]
| 81,352 | 515 | 0 | 81 | 0 | 0 | 1220s | decade | []
|
36,441 | 1,094,470,880 | 1230s | [
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| [
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| 79,748 | 380 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1230s | decade | []
|
36,442 | 1,094,470,869 | 1240s | [
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"plaintext": "Fibonacci. Fibonacci sequence and Liber Abbaci",
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| [
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| 82,961 | 357 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1240s | decade | []
|
36,443 | 1,082,657,139 | 1260s | [
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"plaintext": " Qutuz",
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| 81,343 | 370 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 1260s | 13th-century decade | []
|
36,444 | 1,094,470,841 | 1270s | [
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| 79,978 | 380 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1270s | decade | []
|
36,445 | 1,094,470,829 | 1280s | [
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| [
"1280s"
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| 83,352 | 363 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1280s | decade | []
|
36,446 | 1,094,470,748 | 1290s | [
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| 82,968 | 415 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1290s | decade | []
|
36,447 | 1,107,188,094 | 2030s | [
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"plaintext": " More than 100 countries pledged to reverse deforestation.",
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"plaintext": " India plans to draw half of its energy requirement from renewable sources.",
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"plaintext": " China aims to peak emissions before 2030.",
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"plaintext": " The 2030 Climate Target Plan of the EU aims to cut greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030. The European Commission made proposals in July 2021 for how to achieve this goal.",
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"plaintext": " Egypt Vision 2030",
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"plaintext": " New petrol and diesel cars will be banned from sale in the UK.",
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"plaintext": " Masdar City in Abu Dhabi, UAE, is expected to be completed by 2030.",
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"plaintext": " The 2030 Asian Games are scheduled to be held in Doha.",
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"plaintext": " ATHENA (Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics), which is an X-ray observatory, is planned to launch this year.",
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"plaintext": " NASA plans to deorbit the International Space Station in January of this year, directing any unbroken remnants into the South Pacific Ocean.",
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"plaintext": " The 2031 Rugby World Cup will be held in the United States.",
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"plaintext": " 13 January: Microsoft has set the end of support date for the one of the last remaining versions of Windows 10, IoT Enterprise LTSC 2021.",
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"plaintext": " 23 July–8 August: The 2032 Summer Olympics is expected to take place in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.",
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"plaintext": " 18 May: at 03:33:20 (UTC), Unix time will equal 2000000000 seconds.",
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"plaintext": " The planned final phase of the UK's High Speed 2 rail link is scheduled to be completed.",
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"plaintext": " A Jubilee will be held in the Catholic Church, in this case 2000 years after the traditional year of Jesus' death and resurrection.",
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"plaintext": " The 2033 Rugby World Cup will be held in the United States.",
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"plaintext": " As of 2011, Switzerland is scheduled to phase out the last of its nuclear power plants.",
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"plaintext": " The European Space Agency may launch the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna.",
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"plaintext": " Transport for London aims for all of its buses to be zero-emission.",
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{
"plaintext": " ODINUS may be launched on a mission to explore Uranus and Neptune.",
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"plaintext": " The 2034 Asian Games are scheduled to be held in Riyadh.",
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"plaintext": " 8 January: Near-Earth object will make a close approach to Earth.",
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12,
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},
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"plaintext": " September 13: The 50th anniversary of the Super Mario video game franchise will be held on this date.",
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"plaintext": " The US State of California will require all car sales be zero-emission vehicles by this year.",
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"plaintext": " ITER is expected to achieve full fusion in 2035.",
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"plaintext": " On 7 February, the 64-bit timestamps used by NTP, which consist of a 32-bit part for seconds and a 32-bit part for fractional seconds that gives a time scale that rolls over every 232 seconds (136 years) and a theoretical resolution of 2−32 seconds (233 picoseconds), and due to the fact that the NTP uses an epoch of 1 January 1900, will cause the first roll over to occur in this year.",
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"plaintext": " The United States military's lease on the island of Diego Garcia, part of the British Indian Ocean Territory, will expire if it is not renewed.",
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"plaintext": " Certain documents relating to Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon's wishes to preserve a monarchy if Germany occupied the UK in World War II are to be released from the Royal Archives.",
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"plaintext": " The Oxford English Dictionary is expected to publish its completed revised third edition.",
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"plaintext": " A fourth image of the supernova AT 2016jka is expected to appear around distant galaxy MRG-M0138 due to gravitational lensing.",
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"plaintext": " 19 January: Any computer systems still measuring time with signed 32-bit Unix time will fail on account of the year 2038 problem.",
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"plaintext": " 12 April: Documents related to the NSA's PRISM program are to be declassified by the U.S. Government.",
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{
"plaintext": " 25 April: Easter will occur on its latest possible date. The last time this occurred was in 1943 and, after 2038, the next time it will occur will be in 2190.",
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11,
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"plaintext": " 26 December: A total solar eclipse will occur in the Southern Hemisphere. It will start in the southern Indian Ocean, will cross Australia and New Zealand and it will end in the southern Pacific Ocean.",
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16,
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"plaintext": " 1 September will mark 100 years since the start of WWII (invasion of Russia).",
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{
"plaintext": " On 2 September, the destroyers-for-bases deal's 99-year rent-free leases to the U.S. by the U.K. will expire.",
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21,
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{
"plaintext": " On 19 September, a time capsule from K-pop supergroup BTS is set to be opened on the 20th Youth Day celebrations in South Korea.",
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20,
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| 713,789 | 10,294 | 39 | 93 | 0 | 0 | 2030s | next decade in the Gregorian calendar (2030-2039) | [
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|
36,448 | 1,035,183,495 | 350s | [
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"plaintext": "The 350s decade ran from January 1, 350, to December 31, 359.",
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"plaintext": " Constantius II, Roman Emperor",
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"plaintext": " Magnentius, Roman usurper",
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}
]
| [
"350s"
]
| 30,926 | 155 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 350s | decade | []
|
36,449 | 998,628,398 | 370s | [
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| [
"370s"
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| 34,321 | 201 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 370s | decade | []
|
36,458 | 1,073,916,418 | 356 | [
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"plaintext": " Cai Mo (or Daoming), Chinese official and politician (b. 281)",
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| [
"356"
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| 47,937 | 261 | 5 | 27 | 0 | 0 | 356 | year | []
|
36,459 | 1,101,447,401 | 1170 | [
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30,
37
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42,
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55,
59
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},
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"plaintext": " Amaury I, French nobleman (House of Craon) (d. 1226)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Azzo VI of Este (or Azzolino), Italian nobleman (d. 1212)",
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"plaintext": " Bahauddin Zakariya, Ghurid scholar and poet (d. 1262)",
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5391369,
42497
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"plaintext": " Erard of Brienne-Ramerupt, French nobleman (d. 1246)",
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"plaintext": " Ermengarde de Beaumont, queen of Scotland (d. 1233)",
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23
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{
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351711,
39992
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1,
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{
"plaintext": " Franca Visalta, Italian nun and abbess (approximate date)",
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18904748,
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[
1,
15
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33,
39
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{
"plaintext": " Gebhard I of Plain (or Pleyen), German bishop (d. 1232)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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54468324,
36068
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1,
19
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51,
55
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{
"plaintext": " Giovanni Colonna (the Younger), Italian cardinal (d. 1245)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
50142391,
42485
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[
1,
17
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[
54,
58
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},
{
"plaintext": " Henry Borwin II (or Burwy), German nobleman (d. 1226)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
34076590
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hubert de Burgh, English Chief Justiciar (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
87943,
367954
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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[
26,
41
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{
"plaintext": " John of Brienne (or John I), king of Jerusalem (d. 1237)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
182917,
16822,
40068
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[
1,
16
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[
38,
47
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52,
56
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leonardo of Pisa, Italian mathematician (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
17949
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[
1,
17
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{
"plaintext": " Lope Díaz II, Castilian nobleman (House of Haro) (d. 1236)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
35715117,
29602467,
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[
1,
13
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35,
48
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54,
58
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maelgwn ap Rhys, Welsh prince of Deheubarth (d. 1230)",
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1750472,
285557
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1,
16
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{
"plaintext": " Matilda of Boulogne, duchess of Brabant (approximate date)",
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22917197,
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Minamoto no Ienaga, Japanese nobleman and poet (d. 1234)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
49800907,
36069
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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52,
56
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{
"plaintext": " Muqali (or Mukhhulai), Mongol military leader (d. 1223)",
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9522764,
36064
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[
1,
7
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51,
55
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{
"plaintext": " Pons d'Ortaffa, Catalan nobleman and troubadour (d. 1246)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
15306621,
63788
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1,
15
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38,
48
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ranulf de Blondeville, English nobleman and regent (d. 1232)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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2682725,
35348624
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[
1,
22
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[
45,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Richard de Percy, English nobleman (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
18618499
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[
1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, Navarrese bishop (d. 1247)",
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"target_page_ids": [
15880462,
42487
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[
1,
24
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47,
51
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},
{
"plaintext": " Roger de Lacy, English nobleman and crusader (d. 1211)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
21256579
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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},
{
"plaintext": " Saer de Quincy, 1st Earl of Winchester (approximate date)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
455689,
797728
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
21,
39
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sophia of Wittelsbach, German noblewoman (d. 1238)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
37059099,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
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[
46,
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{
"plaintext": " Theoderich II von Wied, German archbishop (d. 1242)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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41607153,
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[
1,
23
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[
47,
51
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{
"plaintext": " Walther von der Vogelweide, German lyrical poet (d. 1230)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
209350
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[
1,
27
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},
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"plaintext": " Xiang Zong, Chinese emperor of Western Xia (d. 1211)",
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"section_name": "Births",
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3450329,
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[
1,
11
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32,
43
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},
{
"plaintext": " Zhao Rukuo, Chinese historian and politician (d. 1231)",
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"section_name": "Births",
"target_page_ids": [
13945874,
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[
1,
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"plaintext": " January 22 Wang Chongyang, Chinese philosopher (b. 1113)",
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"plaintext": " April 23 Minamoto no Tametomo, Japanese samurai (b. 1139)",
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"plaintext": " May 6 Lope Díaz I de Haro, Castilian nobleman (b. 1105)",
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56
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"plaintext": " May 21 Godric of Finchale, English hermit and merchant ",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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27
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43
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"plaintext": " July 25 Reginald II of Bar (or Renaud), French nobleman",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
15804,
15716659
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[
1,
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[
10,
28
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"plaintext": " August 19 Mstislav II Izyaslavich, Grand Prince of Kiev",
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"section_name": "Deaths",
"target_page_ids": [
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12,
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53,
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"plaintext": " September 6 Qutb al-Din Mawdud, Zangid ruler of Mosul",
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"plaintext": " September 14 Heilika of Lengenfeld, German countess ",
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27947,
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[
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"plaintext": " November 18 Albert I (the Bear), German nobleman",
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1509
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1,
12
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14,
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"plaintext": " November 20 Gerung of Meissen, German bishop",
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21575,
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[
1,
12
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[
14,
31
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"plaintext": " December 20 Al-Mustanjid, Abbasid caliph (b. 1124)",
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14,
26
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"plaintext": " December 29 Thomas Becket, English archbishop",
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8893,
37190
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1,
12
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14,
27
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"plaintext": " Abu Hamid al-Gharnati, Andalusian traveller (b. 1080)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Aindileas Ua Chlúmháin, Irish chief poet and writer",
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"plaintext": " Christina Björnsdotter, queen of Sweden (b. 1120)",
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217473,
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"plaintext": " Eliezer ben Nathan, German rabbi and poet (b. 1090)",
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"plaintext": " Gerlach of Valkenburg, Dutch hermit (b. 1100)",
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36300
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1,
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"plaintext": " Gonçalo Mendes da Maia, Portuguese knight",
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36,460 | 1,093,645,955 | First_Nephi | [
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"plaintext": "The First Book of Nephi: His Reign and Ministry (), usually referred to as First Nephi or 1 Nephi, is the first book of the Book of Mormon and one of four books with the name Nephi. The original translation of the title did not include the word \"first\". First and Second were added to the titles of the Books of Nephi by Oliver Cowdery when preparing the book for printing. It is, according to the book itself, a first-person narrative by a prophet named Nephi, of events that began around 600 BC and recorded on the small plates of Nephi approximately 30 years later. Its 22 chapters tell the story of one family's challenges and the miracles they witness as they escape from Jerusalem, struggle to survive in the wilderness, build a ship and sail to the Americas. The book is composed of two intermingled genres; one a historical narrative describing the events and conversations that occurred and the other a recording of visions, sermons, poetry, and doctrinal discourses as shared by either Nephi or Lehi to members of the family. Originally seven chapters in length, the book was reformatted in 1879 by Orson Pratt to its current state, twenty-two chapters in length.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in Jerusalem at the time of King Zedekiah, Nephi's father Lehi, has a vision and is warned of the imminent Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem. Lehi attempts to share this warning with the people of Jerusalem, but they reject him and try to kill him. Lehi and his family (wife Sariah, four sons Laman, Lemuel, Sam, and Nephi, and unnamed daughters) leave Jerusalem and establish a camp in the wilderness. Lehi preaches to his family, especially Laman and Lemuel who do not believe their father's vision and complained about the wealth and comforts they left behind. After praying, Nephi is convinced of his father's words and inspires his older brother Sam to also believe. As Nephi prays, the Lord promises that he will be a \"ruler and a teacher\" over his brothers, so long as he is faithful and they continue to rebel.",
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"plaintext": "Lehi sends his sons back to Jerusalem to retrieve the brass plates, a record similar to the Old Testament, which was kept by Laban, a powerful leader in Jerusalem. Nephi and his brothers return and become frustrated after two failed attempts, where Laban tries to steal Lehi's property and murder his sons. After an angel appears, Nephi returns alone, finding Laban drunk and unconscious. Nephi kills Laban with his own sword, then tricks Laban's treasurer, Zoram, to bring the brass plates outside the city to his brothers. Zoram discovers Nephi's trick and tries to flee, but Nephi persuades him to travel with his family, and they all return together with the plates.",
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"plaintext": "Lehi carefully studies the brass plates, and discovers the genealogy of his family. The brass plates indicate that he is a descendant of Joseph, the son of Jacob. The plates also contain the five books of Moses, the writings of Isaiah and Jeremiah, and other prophets.",
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"plaintext": "Lehi has a vision of the tree of life. Relating this vision to his children, he expounds on it by teaching about the Messiah, and that they need to be righteous. Nephi prays to the Lord for a similar vision and help understanding his father's vision. In his vision, Nephi sees the vision his father had described, and also given an explanation about its symbolism. Nephi is shown many past and future events, including the life of the Son of God. He also sees the civilizations of his descendants, the voyages of Columbus, the American Revolutionary War, the scattering of his descendants (the American Indians), the Book of Mormon, its translation by Joseph Smith, the restoration of God's church, continued revelation in the modern era, and the correction of biblical translation errors. Nephi sees apocalyptic events, but is forbidden to write about them because John the Apostle will write them in the Bible. Finally, Nephi sees the future generations of his descendants, and of his brothers Laman and Lemuel. Whereas his people will have the gospel, they will ultimately be destroyed for wickedness; however the children of his brothers will be raised without a knowledge of the gospel, survive to the modern era, and be taught by the gospel and the restored church.",
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"plaintext": "After Nephi's vision, Laman and Lemuel argue over the meaning of Lehi's vision. Nephi chastises them for not asking the Lord for the interpretation, and explains the point they were disputing. He pleads with them to pray and repent.",
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"plaintext": "After Lehi's sons marry Ishmael's daughters, Lehi discovers a \"ball of curious workmanship\" (a compass) at his tent door. Using the directions on the ball, they journey southeast along the Red Sea. As they travel, Nephi's steel bow breaks while hunting. Upon hearing the news, the entire camp complains and blasphemes for their misfortune, including Lehi. Nephi makes a new wooden bow and asks Lehi where to hunt. Humbled, Lehi repents and asks the Lord. Nephi is able to find food for the camp. They discover a message on the ball that it only works when they are faithful. When they are righteous, it will lead them through fertile land. If they are wicked, it will not function properly.",
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"plaintext": "Ishmael dies on their journey near Nahom. In mourning, Ishmael's daughters complain about the difficult journey and desire to return to Jerusalem. Laman and Lemuel conspire to kill Lehi and Nephi, but the voice of the Lord chastises them, and they repent. They continue traveling Eastward through the desert for eight more years, and their wives bear children.",
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"plaintext": "Arriving in a place near the sea, they set up a camp and call the area Bountiful. After many days, the voice of the Lord commands Nephi to go up the mountain. Once on the mountain, the Lord instructs Nephi to build a ship, and describes how to build a ship and how to make the tools needed. Nephi returns to camp and begins work. Laman and Lemuel mock him for trying an impossible task. Nephi lectures them, which greatly angers them. Nephi warns Laman and Lemuel not to touch him or they would die instantly, as he was filled with the spirit of God, then commands them to help build the ship. The Lord commands Nephi to touch them, saying it will not kill them but greatly shock them. Laman and Lemuel proclaim they now know Nephi is doing God's will, and repent.",
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"plaintext": "They complete the ship, and the Lord commands Lehi to load everyone and all their supplies on the ship. They depart on the ocean. Many days later, Laman and Lemuel and the sons of Ishmael begin partying, dancing, and sinning. Nephi, fearing that the Lord would be angry with them, speaks to them. Angered, Laman and Lemuel bind Nephi. The compass stops working, and the ship is caught in a terrible storm. At the pleading of their wives, and for fear of sinking, Laman and Lemuel release Nephi. Nephi prays, and the storm stops. Many days later, they arrive in the promised land, on the American continent.",
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"plaintext": "Upon arriving in America, they begin building farms, planting crops, raise native livestock, and mine ore. The Lord commands Nephi to make metal plates to chronicle the events of his people, their genealogy, and write the gospel the Lord gives him.",
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"plaintext": "The final parts of First Nephi contain some teachings of Jesus Christ. He quotes Isaiah (Chapters 48 through 54). He says all the ancient prophets testified of the Savior, and only through him can they be redeemed for their sins.",
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"plaintext": "Nephi makes a number of prophecies that are fulfilled within the Book of Mormon. Nephi sees the land of America, and that his descendants fill the land with innumerable cities. He also sees many of the wars that would take place between his descendants and the descendants of Laman and Lemuel.",
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"plaintext": "There are several prophecies that are made that can only be fulfilled outside of the Book of Mormon. Key among these are the prophecies concerning the birth, life, and death of the Savior. Nephi records that Jesus would be born to a virgin, \"the mother of the Son of God, after the manner of the flesh\" (1 Nephi 11:18); that Jesus would be baptized; that there would be twelve disciples; that he would heal the sick and bedeviled; that he would be judged by the world; and that he would be crucified.",
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"plaintext": "Although in the book of First Nephi Jesus is never identified by name, he is identified as the son of God, a great prophet, the messiah, and the savior of the world.",
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"plaintext": "In First Nephi, Nephi's father Lehi prophesied that Jerusalem would be destroyed by the Babylonians.",
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"plaintext": "Nephi also prophesies concerning the future of the American continent. He sees people flee from Europe to settle in America; that the Bible (a record from the Jews) would travel among the people; that the people settling in America would drive the indigenous people out of the land; that the settlers would overpower Europe; the discovery and translation of the Book of Mormon; and that the apostle John the Revelator would write concerning the final days.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps the most potentially controversial part of the First Book of Nephi is the misunderstanding that has resulted from descriptions trying to define the \"great and abominable church\" that Nephi sees among the \"nations and kingdoms of the Gentiles\"(I Nephi 13:3-8). It may be of interest to note how this particular vision has affected Mormonism's view toward the rest of Christianity.",
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"plaintext": "The Great and Abominable Church",
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"plaintext": "Nephi sees the persecution of the apostles and their followers by the \"house of Israel\", then later sees a \"great church\" that is, according to the description of the angel, \"...most abominable above all other churches, which slayeth the saints of God, yea, and tortureth them and bindeth them down, and yoketh them with a yoke of iron...\". The description almost immediately appears to be describing the persecution of Reformers and Protestant or proto-Protestant groups of people who suffered persecution and execution before, during, and after the Middle Ages, and this view seems to have been held by Bruce R. McConkie in his first edition of Mormon Doctrine. While Mormons do not believe such groups had the fullness of the gospel (often meaning priesthood authority of the Aaronic and Melchizedek Priesthoods), and neither considering themselves Protestant, they do however believe that such groups had many righteous leaders and members who could be considered saints because they followed the light of Christ and sought to follow Him. Such people would include Wycliffe and Tyndale, who have been brought up most recently in an LDS General Conference.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believe that this great and abominable church includes any organized group of people who fight against God and His divine purposes by means of persecution, false teachings and belief systems, and oppression. Bruce R. McConkie, who was later ordained an apostle of the LDS Church, originally wrote his opinion that the Catholic Church was the great and abominable church, but very few in the LDS Church share his view today. His meaning of the Catholic Church was the church in its original state when it was executing and plundering and hiding its crimes as a government and a church. Scriptures indicate organizations and nations during periods of times, but not necessarily throughout the span of history in its entirety.",
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"plaintext": "The idea that the great and abominable church includes all evil institutions may appear completely accurate to some, since there were also immoral institutions even before the death of the Apostles. However, when Christ was crucified and his apostles and the saints were killed, the proper leadership of his church was lost. There was no longer authority directed from Christ on the earth and therefore man began to lead the church based on their own beliefs. This eventually led to changes away from true doctrine and the formation of many churches holding different viewpoints. Other churches had existed during the time of the apostles, but from the church Christ set up, after the corruption and mystification of doctrine in the Bible, the Catholic Church began to rise. Precisely what \"The Great and Abominable Church\" is, however, remains vague.",
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"plaintext": "The Taking Away of Truth from the Bible",
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"plaintext": "Besides the persecution of the saints, Nephi sees that people who comprise the great and abominable church among the Gentiles would also be involved with taking \"away from the gospel of the Lamb many parts which are plain and most precious; and also many covenants of the Lord have they taken away.\"",
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"plaintext": "They would do this by taking the record of the Jews that would go forth \"in purity\" \"by the hand of the twelve apostles of the Lamb\" to the Gentiles, and taking away \"plain and precious things\" from the \"book of the Lamb of God.\" Latter-day Saints believe that the Bible lost some of its originally intended meaning and doctrine as spoken by the ancient prophets and apostles because of this taking away of plain and precious truths by some Gentile teachers and compilers soon after the death of the apostles, though the Bible remained an important source of truth as attested by Nephi. This could be looked upon when the council of Nicaea voted on which parts of the Bible were \"true doctrine.\"",
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"plaintext": "Future Events and Books of Scripture",
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"plaintext": "Nephi sees in his vision that the record and testimony of his people in the Book of Mormon is brought forth \"unto the Gentiles, by the gift and power of the Lamb.\" He sees this book taken to the descendants of the Lamanites to teach them the fullness of the gospel, and that other books are also brought by the Gentiles to them and to all the house of Israel to convince them \"that the records of the twelve apostles of the Lamb are true.\" He sees that these books have the important role of making known the \"plain and precious things\" that had been lost from the Bible, but also \"establish the truth of the first\" (the Bible).",
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"plaintext": " The Journey",
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"plaintext": ".",
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"plaintext": "The First Book of Nephi from the official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints",
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36,461 | 1,092,052,031 | Second_Nephi | [
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"plaintext": "Lehi relates a vision whereby he knew that Jerusalem was destroyed, and he says that had they remained in the city they would have perished. He emphasizes that if the people are righteous, they will prosper; but if they are wicked, they will be destroyed. This is a general blessing and curse upon all peoples who inhabit the land where Lehi and his family lived.",
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"plaintext": "In 2 Nephi chapter 2, Lehi expounds to Jacob about the redemption and salvation through Jesus. He speaks about oppositesthat without evil there is no good; without sin there is no righteousness; that without these things there is no God; and if there is no God there is no earth. He talks about the importance of The Fall of Man and how without it, man would lose his free will, and salvation would ultimately be impossible.",
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"plaintext": "To Joseph, he talks about his namesake, which includes Joseph of Egypt. He quotes some of the lost prophecies by Joseph. Joseph predicted that the Lord would raise up Moses to free the people of Israel. He also predicted that a seer named after Joseph, and whose father's name is also Joseph, would the Lord raise up, for the purpose of restoring Israel.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 Nephi verses 23 and 24 mentions that the descendants of Joseph (Lehi's son) would not be destroyed \"for they shall hearken unto the words of the book\" (this books seems to be The Book of Mormon). Then on verse 24, most likely referring to his posterity it says \"there shall rise up one mighty among them, who shall do much good, both in word and deed (...)\". While the references suggest he is Joseph Smith, this seems contradictory as he is not a descendant of Lehi. Therefore, it is not clear who this person may be.",
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"plaintext": "Lehi blesses Zoram, the servant of Laban who had thrown in his lot with Nephi, as long as he and his seed obey the commandments of the Lord. To the children of his sons Laman and Lemuel he says that if their parents teach them wickedness, that their sins will be the responsibility of the parents.",
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"plaintext": "Nephi continues the narrative by recording the death of Lehi. In this passage, he also records what is known as \"the Psalm of Nephi\", where he pleads for the Lord to forgive his weaknesses, make him strong so he can conquer his enemies, and redeem his soul.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of Lehi, Laman and Lemuel and others rebel against Nephi and try to kill him. Warned by the Lord, Nephi leaves the area with those who listen to him and travel far away to establish another settlement. He takes the brass plates and other records, along with the ball or compass. They call this new place Nephi, choose Nephi to be their king, and call themselves the people of Nephi, or Nephites. They observe the Law of Moses as it is recorded in the brass plates. They also prosper exceedingly, and build a temple like the temple of Solomon.",
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"plaintext": "Nephi also begins arming his people using the sword that Laban had as a model for production. At this time, the people with Laman and Lemuel and others who remained behind had their skin turn dark, as a sign that the people of Nephi are not to mix with them until they repent.",
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"plaintext": "Nephi ordains his younger brothers Jacob and Joseph as teachers over the people of Nephi. The remainder of Second Nephi is a recording of their (Jacob's and Nephi's) teachings and prophecies.",
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"plaintext": "A speech that Jacob delivered to the people of Nephi is recorded in chapters 6-10. Jacob quotes passages from Isaiah. He prophesies that the destruction of the people in Jerusalem has already happened. He also shows that at a future date the Lord will lift up his hand to the Gentiles, and set up his standard, and then gather the tribes of Israel one final time. He reads from Isaiah 50 and 51. Then he prophesies about the birth, life, infinite atonement and death of Christ, calling on his people to repent and believe in the Savior. He also explains the resurrection; that the body lies in the grave and the spirit either in torment or in a state of paradise, and that without Christ there could be no resurrection, and that because of Christ all men will be resurrected with their spirit being freed from either paradise or torment and their body raised from the grave, and then they are judged according to their works in life. Jacob continues by teaching about the various sins, such as lying, murdering, whoredoms, idol worship. He exhorts his people to throw off their sins. He then continues by prophesying about the crucifixion of Jesus Christ and the establishment of a free people in America in the last days.",
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"plaintext": "Nephi then records in the book more of Isaiah chapters 2 through 14 of Isaiah. Nephi then prophesies that Christ himself will visit the Nephites in America after his death and resurrection. He prophesies the destruction of his own people due to wickedness. He also predicts that the remainder of the people, the Lamanites and others, will be smitten by the immigrating Gentiles in the last days. He prophesies that the Gentiles will establish many different churches and also practice priestcraft, or the practice of preaching the gospel for money rather than for the love of the gospel. Nephi predicts the translation of the Book of Mormon and of the Three Witnesses who would testify that it was true. He prophesies the conversation that Martin Harris has with Professor Charles Anthon. Nephi continues by prophesying about the Gentiles' attitude towards the Bible, who would accept it as the only scripture in the world. Nephi challenges that assumption, and encourages the Gentiles to believe that God would speak to more than one nation. He also says that there will be scriptures that will come from some of the lost tribes of Israel. The House of Israel is described as having three parts, and Nephi prophesies that one day all their writings would be restored and made known one to the other.",
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"plaintext": "\"And it shall come to pass that the Jews shall have the words of the Nephites, and the Nephites shall have the words of the Jews; and the Nephites and the Jews shall have the words of the lost tribes of Israel; and the lost tribes of Israel shall have the words of the Nephites and the Jews.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nephi ends his record by pleading with the reader to follow the Savior's example and be baptized, but emphasizes that baptism is the beginning of the way and not the end, underscoring the need to enduring to the end. His final words include another exhortation to pray and seek the Holy Ghost, and a testimony that his words are true.",
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"plaintext": " Nephi, son of Lehi",
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"plaintext": " The Second Book of Nephi from the official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints",
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"plaintext": "The Book of Nephi: The Son of Nephi, Who Was the Son of Helaman is religious text of the Latter Day Saint movement. The book is usually referred to as Third Nephi or 3 Nephi, and is one of fifteen books that make up the Book of Mormon. This book was firstly called \"III Nephi\" in the 1879 edition and \"Third Nephi\" in the 1920 edition of the Book of Mormon. It contains an account of the visit of Jesus Christ to the inhabitants of ancient America. Jesus had told his disciples in Jerusalem according to the Bible in the Gospel of John, \"And other sheep I have, which are not of this fold: them also I must bring, and they shall hear my voice; and there shall be one fold, and one shepherd.\" In this book, Christ declares to those in ancient America that they were these \"other sheep\" of whom he spoke. The account of this visit is recorded beginning in chapter 11 of 3 Nephi.",
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"plaintext": "Before Christ visits these people there is a giant storm, a tremendous earthquake, and darkness. Cities burn, cities sink into the sea, mountains are brought down and valleys brought up. There is sharp lightning, wind, and thunderings and many people die. After the great storm comes darkness and the voices of mourning for the dead. The darkness lasts for approximately three days, during which a voice is \"heard among all the inhabitants of the earth, upon all the face of this land, crying: Wo, wo, wo unto this people; wo unto the inhabitants of the whole earth except that they shall repent; for the devil laugheth, and his angels rejoice, because of the slain fair sons and daughters of my people; and it is because of their iniquities and abominations that they are fallen!\" (3 Nephi 9:1-2) The voice then lists cities \"and the inhabitants thereof\" he had destroyed because of their wickedness: Zarahemla (3 Nephi 9:3), Moroni (9:4), Moronihah (9:5), Gilgal (9:6), Onihah, Mocum, and Jerusalem (the New World city founded by the Lamanites, Amelekites, and Amulonites, not Jerusalem in Judaea) (9:7), Gadiandi, Gadiomnah, Jacob, and Gimgimno (9:8), Jacobugath (9:9), Laman, Josh, Gad, and Kishkumen (9:10), since \"there were none righteous among them\" (9:11). He asks, \"O all ye that are spared because you were more righteous than they, will ye not now return unto me, and repent of your sins, and be converted, that I may heal you?\" (9:13) \"Yea, verily, I say unto you, if ye shall come unto me, ye shall have eternal life. Behold, my arm of mercy is extended towards you, and whosoever will come, him will I receive, and blessed are those that come unto me.\" (9:14) \"Behold, I am Jesus Christ, the Son of God. I created the heavens and the earth, and all things that in them are. I was with the Father from the beginning. I am in the Father, and the Father in me; and in me hath the Father glorified his name.\" (9:15)",
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"plaintext": "After three days, the darkness clears. It is the time of the resurrection of Christ. The people gather to a land called Bountiful where stood a temple. A voice is heard from heaven which the people did not understand it at first, that \"did pierce them that did hear to the center, insomuch that there was no part of their frame that it did not cause to quake; yea, it did pierce them to the very soul, and did cause their hearts to burn.\" The voice is the voice of God Almighty, the very Eternal Father proclaiming His Son Jesus Christ the risen Lord.",
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"plaintext": "The resurrected Christ descends from the sky. He stands before them and calls them to come and sees the wounds in His hands and side. He heals them and teaches them precepts that were to guide their Church.",
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"plaintext": " He gave to Nephi and others that he called the power to baptize the people, using the words: \"Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen.\" Then they were to be immersed in the water, and come out of the water again.",
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"plaintext": " There were to be no disputes about his doctrine, because contention is Satanic.",
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"plaintext": " Actions which stirred men to anger must be done away with. And Jesus said his doctrine came from the Father himself.",
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"plaintext": " Repentance from sin must accompany baptism. Salvation depends on believing in Jesus and being baptized. Anyone who does not believe in Jesus and is not baptized will be damned.",
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"plaintext": " Be reconciled with one's brother before asked to be reconciled with Christ.",
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"plaintext": " Do not look on a woman with lust.",
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"plaintext": " Do not divorce your wife except on grounds of unfaithfulness.",
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"plaintext": " Do not swear oaths.",
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"plaintext": " Resist evil.",
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"plaintext": " When compelled to make a plaintiff whole in a civil suit, make more than full restitution.",
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"plaintext": " When pressed into labor, do twice the work that is compelled.",
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"plaintext": " Do not turn away anyone who asks to borrow.",
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"plaintext": " Love your enemies.",
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"plaintext": " Do not make a public display of alms-giving.",
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"plaintext": " Do not make a public display of prayer or use vain repetition.",
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"plaintext": " Do not visibly emphasize your misery when fasting.",
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"plaintext": " Do not judge.",
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"plaintext": " Ask God for all things through prayer with faith.",
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"plaintext": " Do not follow after false prophets.",
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"plaintext": " Jesus' words must be declared to the ends of the earth.",
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"plaintext": " Ye shall call the church in my name. (3 Nephi 27:7)",
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"plaintext": " Bring ye all the tithes into the storehouse, that there may be meat in my house (3 Nephi 24:10)",
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"plaintext": " Never cease to pray in your hearts (3 Nephi 20:1)",
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{
"plaintext": " Suffer not any one knowingly to partake of my flesh and blood unworthily (3 Nephi 18:28)",
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"plaintext": " Ye shall meet together oft; and ye shall not forbid any man from coming unto you when ye shall meet together, but suffer them that they may come unto you and forbid them not (3 Nephi 18:22)",
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"plaintext": " Always pray unto the Father in my name (3 Nephi 18:19)",
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"plaintext": " Keep my commandments, which the Father hath commanded me that I should give unto you (3 Nephi 18:14)",
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"plaintext": " There shall one be ordained among you, and to him will I give power that he shall break bread and bless it and give it unto the people of my church, unto all those who shall believe and be baptized in my name. And this shall ye always observe to do, even as I have done, even as I have broken bread and blessed it and given it unto you (3 Nephi 18:5-6)",
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"plaintext": ".",
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"plaintext": " Jesus Christ Visits the Americas (Image) by John Scott",
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"plaintext": "The Book of Nephi: Who Is the Son of Nephi—One of the Disciples of Jesus Christ, usually referred to as Fourth Nephi or 4 Nephi ( ), is one of the fifteen books that make up the Book of Mormon. This book was first called \"IV Nephi\" in the 1879 edition and \"Fourth Nephi\" in the 1920 edition of Book of Mormon.",
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"plaintext": "The book describes the period of time immediately following the visit of Jesus Christ to the Book of Mormon peoples, in which time the Nephites and the Lamanites are all converted to the Church of Christ. The Nephites stopped obeying the law of Moses and obeyed the commandments of Jesus instead. After the year AD 100, all the original disciples of Jesus had died, except for three which he allowed to live on and on until the end of human history. But new disciples were ordained to replace the ones that died. According to the record, \"surely there could not be a happier people among all the people who had been created by the hand of God\" (4 Ne. 1:16). During this time the distinction between the Lamanites and Nephites disappears: \"neither were there Lamanites, nor any manner of -ites; but they were in one, the children of Christ, and heirs to the kingdom of God\" (4 Ne. 1:17).",
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"plaintext": "The Nephi who recorded the coming of Jesus to America died, and the keeping of the plates passed to his son Amos. After that, the people started to get rich, and wear expensive clothing and jewelry, and divide themselves into rich and poor, and the communal sharing of private property came to an end. Then they formed churches which were really businesses for the purpose of gaining profits.",
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"plaintext": "One of these churches began to persecute members of the True Church of Christ, casting them into prison (but the prison then broke in two), or casting them into fiery furnaces (but the victims walked out unscathed), or casting them into a lion's den (but the victims played with the animals as if they were lambs). \"And they did smite upon the people of Jesus; but the people of Jesus did not smite again.\"",
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"plaintext": "The people once again divided into Nephites and Lamanites, and although the Nephites remain righteous longer than the Lamanites, by AD 300, \"both the people of Nephi and the Lamanites had become exceedingly wicked one like unto another\" (4 Ne. 1:45).",
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| 19,301 | 248 | 19 | 78 | 0 | 0 | 1030 | year | []
|
36,487 | 1,098,068,585 | Sparta | [
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"plaintext": "Sparta (Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, Spártā; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, Spártē) was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referred to its main settlement on the banks of the Eurotas River in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese. Around 650 BC, it rose to become the dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.",
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"plaintext": "Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the leading force of the unified Greek military during the Greco-Persian Wars, in rivalry with the rising naval power of Athens. Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), from which it emerged victorious after the Battle of Aegospotami. The decisive Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC ended the Spartan hegemony, although the city-state maintained its political independence until its forced integration into the Achaean League in 192 BC. The city nevertheless recovered a large autonomy after Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC and prospered during the Roman Empire, as its antiquarian customs attracted many Roman tourists. However, Sparta was sacked in 396 AD by the Visigothic king Alaric, and underwent a long period of decline, especially in the Middle Ages, when many of its citizens moved to Mystras. Modern Sparta is the capital of the southern Greek region of Laconia and a center for processing citrus and olives.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution, which were supposedly introduced by the semi-mythical legislator Lycurgus. His laws configured the Spartan society to maximize military proficiency at all costs, focusing all social institutions on military training and physical development. The inhabitants of Sparta were stratified as Spartiates (citizens with full rights), mothakes (free non-Spartiate people descended from Spartans), perioikoi (free non-Spartiates), and helots (state-owned enslaved non-Spartan locals). Spartiate men underwent the rigorous agoge training regimen, and Spartan phalanx brigades were widely considered to be among the best in battle. Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights than elsewhere in classical antiquity.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta was frequently a subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in Western culture following the revival of classical learning. The admiration of Sparta is known as Laconophilia. Bertrand Russell wrote:Sparta had a double effect on Greek thought: through the reality, and through the myth.... The reality enabled the Spartans to defeat Athens in war; the myth influenced Plato's political theory, and that of countless subsequent writers.... [The] ideals that it favors had a great part in framing the doctrines of Rousseau, Nietzsche, and National Socialism.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest attested term referring to Lacedaemon is the Mycenaean Greek , ra-ke-da-mi-ni-jo, \"Lakedaimonian\", written in Linear B syllabic script, the equivalent of the later Greek , Lakedaimonios (Latin: Lacedaemonius).",
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"plaintext": "The ancient Greeks used one of three words to refer to the Spartan city-state and its location. First, \"Sparta\" refers primarily to the main cluster of settlements in the valley of the Eurotas River. The second word, \"Lacedaemon\" (), was often used as an adjective and is the name referenced in the works of Homer and the historians Herodotus and Thucydides. The third term, \"Laconice\" (), referred to the immediate area around the town of Sparta, the plateau east of the Taygetos mountains, and sometimes to all the regions under direct Spartan control, including Messenia.",
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"plaintext": "Herodotus seems to use \"Lacedaemon\" for the Mycenaean Greek citadel at Therapne, in contrast to the lower town of Sparta. This term could be used synonymously with Sparta, but typically it denoted the terrain in which the city was located. In Homer it is typically combined with epithets of the countryside: wide, lovely, shining and most often hollow and broken (full of ravines), suggesting the Eurotas Valley. \"Sparta\" on the other hand is described as \"the country of lovely women\", an epithet for people.",
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"plaintext": "The residents of Sparta were often called Lacedaemonians. This epithet utilized the plural of the adjective Lacedaemonius (Greek: ; Latin: Lacedaemonii, but also Lacedaemones). The ancients sometimes used a back-formation, referring to the land of Lacedaemon as Lacedaemonian country. As most words for \"country\" were feminine, the adjective was in the feminine: Lacedaemonia (, Lakedaimonia). Eventually, the adjective came to be used alone.",
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"plaintext": "\"Lacedaemonia\" was not in general use during the classical period and before. It does occur in Greek as an equivalent of Laconia and Messenia during the Roman and early Byzantine periods, mostly in ethnographers and lexica of place names. For example, Hesychius of Alexandria's Lexicon (5th century AD) defines Agiadae as a \"place in Lacedaemonia\" named after Agis. The actual transition may be captured by Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae (7th century AD), an etymological dictionary. Isidore relied heavily on Orosius' Historiarum Adversum Paganos (5th century AD) and Eusebius of Caesarea's Chronicon (early 5th century AD), as did Orosius. The latter defines Sparta to be Lacedaemonia Civitas, but Isidore defines Lacedaemonia as founded by Lacedaemon, son of Semele, which is consistent with Eusebius' explanation. There is a rare use, perhaps the earliest of \"Lacedaemonia\", in Diodorus Siculus' The Library of History, but probably with (‘’chōra’’, \"country\") suppressed.",
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"plaintext": "Lakedaimona was until 2006 the name of a province in the modern Greek prefecture of Laconia.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta is located in the region of Laconia, in the south-eastern Peloponnese. Ancient Sparta was built on the banks of the Eurotas River, the largest river of Laconia, which provided it with a source of fresh water. The valley of the Eurotas is a natural fortress, bounded to the west by Mt. Taygetus (2,407 m) and to the east by Mt. Parnon (1,935 m). To the north, Laconia is separated from Arcadia by hilly uplands reaching 1000 m in altitude. These natural defenses worked to Sparta's advantage and protected it from sacking and invasion. Though landlocked, Sparta had a vassal harbor, Gytheio, on the Laconian Gulf.",
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"plaintext": "Lacedaemon (Greek: ) was a mythical king of Laconia. The son of Zeus by the nymph Taygete, he married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas, by whom he became the father of Amyclas, Eurydice, and Asine. As king, he named his country after himself and the city after his wife. He was believed to have built the sanctuary of the Charites, which stood between Sparta and Amyclae, and to have given to those divinities the names of Cleta and Phaenna. A shrine was erected to him in the neighborhood of Therapne.",
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"plaintext": "The remaining archaeological wealth consisted of inscriptions, sculptures, and other objects collected in the local museum, founded by Stamatakis in 1872 and enlarged in 1907. Partial excavation of the round building was undertaken in 1892 and 1893 by the American School at Athens. The structure has been since found to be a semicircular retaining wall of Hellenic origin that was partly restored during the Roman period.",
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"plaintext": "In 1904, the British School at Athens began a thorough exploration of Laconia, and in the following year excavations were made at Thalamae, Geronthrae, and Angelona near Monemvasia. In 1906, excavations began in Sparta itself.",
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{
"plaintext": "A \"small circus\" (as described by Leake) proved to be a theatre-like building constructed soon after 200AD around the altar and in front of the Temple of Artemis Orthia. It is believed that musical and gymnastic contests took place here, as well as the famous flogging ordeal administered to Spartan boys (diamastigosis). The temple, which can be dated to the 2nd century BC, rests on the foundation of an older temple of the 6th century, and close beside it were found the remains of a yet earlier temple, dating from the 9th or even the 10th century. The votive offerings in clay, amber, bronze, ivory and lead dating from the 9th to the 4th centuries BC, which were found in great profusion within the precinct range, supply invaluable information about early Spartan art.",
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{
"plaintext": "In 1907, the location of the sanctuary of Athena \"of the Brazen House\" (Χαλκίοικος, Chalkioikos) was determined to be on the acropolis immediately above the theatre. Though the actual temple is almost completely destroyed, the site has produced the longest extant archaic inscription in Laconia, numerous bronze nails and plates, and a considerable number of votive offerings. The city-wall, built in successive stages from the 4th to the 2nd century, was traced for a great part of its circuit, which measured 48 stades or nearly (Polyb. 1X. 21). The late Roman wall enclosing the acropolis, part of which probably dates from the years following the Gothic raid of 262AD, was also investigated. Besides the actual buildings discovered, a number of points were situated and mapped in a general study of Spartan topography, based upon the description of Pausanias.",
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{
"plaintext": "In terms of domestic archaeology, little is known about Spartan houses and villages before the Archaic period, but the best evidence comes from excavations at Nichoria in Messenia where postholes have been found. These villages were open and consisted of small and simple houses built with stone foundations and clay walls.",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": "The Menelaion is a shrine associated with Menelaus, located east of Sparta, by the river Eurotas, on the hill Profitis Ilias (Coordinates: ). Built around the early 8th century BC, the Spartans believed it had been the former residence of Menelaus. In 1970, the British School in Athens started excavations around the Menelaion in an attempt to locate Mycenaean remains in the area. Among other findings, they uncovered the remains of two Mycenaean mansions and found the first offerings dedicated to Helen and Menelaus. These mansions were destroyed by earthquake and fire, and archaeologists consider them the possible palace of Menelaus himself. ",
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554,
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{
"plaintext": "Excavations made from the early 1990s to the present suggest that the area around the Menelaion in the southern part of the Eurotas valley seems to have been the center of Mycenaean Laconia. The Mycenaean settlement was roughly triangular in shape, with its apex pointed towards the north. Its area was approximately equal to that of the \"newer\" Sparta, but denudation has wreaked havoc with its buildings and nothing is left of its original structures save for ruined foundations and broken potsherds.",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": "The prehistory of Sparta is difficult to reconstruct because the literary evidence was written far later than the events it describes and is distorted by oral tradition. The earliest certain evidence of human settlement in the region of Sparta consists of pottery dating from the Middle Neolithic period, found in the vicinity of Kouphovouno some two kilometres () south-southwest of Sparta.",
"section_idx": 5,
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{
"plaintext": "This civilization seems to have fallen into decline by the late Bronze Age, when, according to Herodotus, Macedonian tribes from the north (called Dorians by those they conquered) marched into the Peloponnese and, subjugating the local tribes, settled there. The Dorians seem to have set about expanding the frontiers of Spartan territory almost before they had established their own state. They fought against the Argive Dorians to the east and southeast, and also the Arcadian Achaeans to the northwest. The evidence suggests that Sparta, relatively inaccessible because of the topography of the Taygetan plain, was secure from early on: it was never fortified.",
"section_idx": 5,
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415,
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],
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470,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Nothing distinctive in the archaeology of the Eurotas River Valley identifies the Dorians or the Dorian Spartan state. The prehistory of the Neolithic, the Bronze Age and the Dark Age (the Early Iron Age) at this moment must be treated apart from the stream of Dorian Spartan history.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "The legendary period of Spartan history is believed to fall into the Dark Age. It treats the mythic heroes such as the Heraclids and the Perseids, offering a view of the occupation of the Peloponnesus that contains both fantastic and possibly historical elements. The subsequent proto-historic period, combining both legend and historical fragments, offers the first credible history.",
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{
"plaintext": "Between the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Spartans experienced a period of lawlessness and civil strife, later attested by both Herodotus and Thucydides. As a result, they carried out a series of political and social reforms of their own society which they later attributed to a semi-mythical lawgiver, Lycurgus. Several writers throughout antiquity, including Herodotus, Xenophon, and Plutarch have attempted to explain Spartan exceptionalism as a result of the so-called Lycurgan Reforms.Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaimonians, chapter 1",
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{
"plaintext": "In the Second Messenian War, Sparta established itself as a local power in the Peloponnesus and the rest of Greece. During the following centuries, Sparta's reputation as a land-fighting force was unequalled. At its peak around 500 BC, Sparta had some 20,000–35,000 citizens, plus numerous helots and perioikoi. The likely total of 40,000–50,000 made Sparta one of the larger Greek city-states; however, according to Thucydides, the population of Athens in 431 BC was 360,000–610,000, making it much larger.",
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{
"plaintext": "In 480 BC, a small force led by King Leonidas (about 300 full Spartiates, 700 Thespians, and 400 Thebans, although these numbers were lessened by earlier casualties) made a legendary last stand at the Battle of Thermopylae against the massive Persian army, led by Xerxes. The Spartans received advance warning of the Persian invasion from their deposed king Demaratus, which prompted them to consult the Delphic oracle. According to Herodotus, the Pythia proclaimed that either one of the kings of Sparta had to die or Sparta would be destroyed. This prophecy was fulfilled after king Leonidas died in the battle. The superior weaponry, strategy, and bronze armour of the Greek hoplites and their phalanx fighting formation again proved their worth one year later when Sparta assembled its full strength and led a Greek alliance against the Persians at the Battle of Plataea.",
"section_idx": 5,
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651,
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],
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678,
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],
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697,
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The decisive Greek victory at Plataea put an end to the Greco-Persian War along with Persian ambitions to expand into Europe. Even though this war was won by a pan-Greek army, credit was given to Sparta, who besides providing the leading forces at Thermopylae and Plataea, had been the de facto leader of the entire Greek expedition.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "History",
"target_page_ids": [
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{
"plaintext": "In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia were the main powers fighting for supremacy in the northeastern Mediterranean. In the course of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditional land power, acquired a navy which managed to overpower the previously dominant flotilla of Athens, ending the Athenian Empire. At the peak of its power in the early 4th century BC, Sparta had subdued many of the main Greek states and even invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia (modern day Turkey), a period known as the Spartan hegemony.",
"section_idx": 5,
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171,
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],
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322,
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],
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536,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "During the Corinthian War, Sparta faced a coalition of the leading Greek states: Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos. The alliance was initially backed by Persia, which feared further Spartan expansion into Asia. Sparta achieved a series of land victories, but many of her ships were destroyed at the Battle of Cnidus by a Greek-Phoenician mercenary fleet that Persia had provided to Athens. The event severely damaged Sparta's naval power but did not end its aspirations of invading further into Persia, until Conon the Athenian ravaged the Spartan coastline and provoked the old Spartan fear of a helot revolt.",
"section_idx": 5,
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300,
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],
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510,
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "After a few more years of fighting, in 387 BC the Peace of Antalcidas was established, according to which all Greek cities of Ionia would return to Persian control, and Persia's Asian border would be free of the Spartan threat. The effects of the war were to reaffirm Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's weakened hegemonic position in the Greek political system. Sparta entered its long-term decline after a severe military defeat to Epaminondas of Thebes at the Battle of Leuctra. This was the first time that a full strength Spartan army lost a land battle.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "As Spartan citizenship was inherited by blood, Sparta increasingly faced a helot population that vastly outnumbered its citizens. The alarming decline of Spartan citizens was commented on by Aristotle.",
"section_idx": 5,
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{
"plaintext": "Sparta never fully recovered from its losses at Leuctra in 371 BC and the subsequent helot revolts. In 338, Philip II invaded and devastated much of Laconia, turning the Spartans out, though he did not seize Sparta itself. Even during its decline, Sparta never forgot its claim to be the \"defender of Hellenism\" and its Laconic wit. An anecdote has it that when Philip II sent a message to Sparta saying \"If I invade Laconia, I shall turn you out.\", the Spartans responded with the single, terse reply: , \"if\". When Philip created the League of Corinth on the pretext of unifying Greece against Persia, the Spartans chose not to join, since they had no interest in joining a pan-Greek expedition unless it were under Spartan leadership. Thus, upon defeating the Persians at the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander the Great sent to Athens 300 suits of Persian armour with the following inscription: \"Alexander, son of Philip, and all the Greeks except the Spartans, give these offerings taken from the foreigners who live in Asia\".",
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778,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Sparta continued to be one of the Peloponesian powers until its eventual loss of independence in 192 BC. During Alexander's campaigns in the east, the Spartan king Agis III sent a force to Crete in 333 BC to secure the island for the Persian interest. Agis next took command of allied Greek forces against Macedon, gaining early successes, before laying siege to Megalopolis in 331 BC. A large Macedonian army under general Antipater marched to its relief and defeated the Spartan-led force in a pitched battle. More than 5,300 of the Spartans and their allies were killed in battle, and 3,500 of Antipater's troops. Agis, now wounded and unable to stand, ordered his men to leave him behind to face the advancing Macedonian army so that he could buy them time to retreat. On his knees, the Spartan king slew several enemy soldiers before being finally killed by a javelin. Alexander was merciful, and he only forced the Spartans to join the League of Corinth, which they had previously refused.",
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "During the Punic Wars, Sparta was an ally of the Roman Republic. Spartan political independence was put to an end when it was eventually forced into the Achaean League after its defeat in the decisive Laconian War by a coalition of other Greek city-states and Rome, and the resultant overthrow of its final king Nabis, in 192 BC. Sparta played no active part in the Achaean War in 146 BC when the Achaean League was defeated by the Roman general Lucius Mummius. Subsequently, Sparta became a free city under Roman rule, some of the institutions of Lycurgus were restored, and the city became a tourist attraction for the Roman elite who came to observe exotic Spartan customs.",
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366,
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492,
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548,
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 214 AD, Roman emperor Caracalla, in his preparation for his campaign against Parthia, recruited a 500-man Spartan cohort (lokhos). Herodian described this unit as a phalanx, implying it fought like the old Spartans as hoplites, or even as a Macedonian phalanx. Despite this, a gravestone of a fallen legionary named Marcus Aurelius Alexys shows him lightly armed, with a pilos-like cap and a wooden club. The unit was presumably discharged in 217 after Caracalla was assassinated.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "An exchange of letters in the deutero-canonical First Book of Maccabees expresses a Jewish claim to kinship with the Spartans:",
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"plaintext": "The letters are reproduced in a variant form by Josephus. Jewish historian Uriel Rappaport notes that the relationship between the Jews and the Spartans expressed in this correspondence has \"intrigued many scholars, and various explanations have been suggested for the problems raised ... including the historicity of the Jewish leader and high priest Jonathan's letter to the Spartans, the authenticity of the letter of Arius to Onias, cited in Jonathan's letter, and the supposed 'brotherhood' of the Jews and the Spartans.\" Rappaport is clear that \"the authenticity of [the reply] letter of Arius is based on even less firm foundations than the letter of Jonathan\".",
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{
"plaintext": "In 396 AD, Sparta was sacked by Visigoths under Alaric I who sold inhabitants into slavery.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "According to Byzantine sources, some parts of the Laconian region remained pagan until well into the 10th century. The Tsakonian language still spoken in Tsakonia is the only surviving descendant of the ancient Doric language. In the Middle Ages, the political and cultural center of Laconia shifted to the nearby settlement of Mystras, and Sparta fell further in even local importance. Modern Sparta was re-founded in 1834, by a decree of King Otto of Greece.",
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{
"plaintext": "Sparta was an oligarchy. The state was ruled by two hereditary kings of the Agiad and Eurypontid families, both supposedly descendants of Heracles and equal in authority, so that one could not act against the power and political enactments of his colleague.",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": "The duties of the kings were primarily religious, judicial, and military. As chief priests of the state, they maintained communication with the Delphian sanctuary, whose pronouncements exercised great authority in Spartan politics. In the time of Herodotus c. 450 BC, their judicial functions had been restricted to cases dealing with heiresses, adoptions and the public roads. Aristotle describes the kingship at Sparta as \"a kind of unlimited and perpetual generalship\" (Pol. iii. 1285a), while Isocrates refers to the Spartans as \"subject to an oligarchy at home, to a kingship on campaign\" (iii. 24).",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "Civil and criminal cases were decided by a group of officials known as the ephors, as well as a council of elders known as the Gerousia. The Gerousia consisted of 28 elders over the age of 60, elected for life and usually part of the royal households, and the two kings. High state decisions were discussed by this council, who could then propose policies to the damos, the collective body of Spartan citizenry, who would select one of the alternatives by vote.",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": "Royal prerogatives were curtailed over time. From the period of the Persian wars, the king lost the right to declare war and was accompanied in the field by two ephors. He was supplanted by the ephors also in the control of foreign policy. Over time, the kings became mere figureheads except in their capacity as generals. Political power was transferred to the ephors and Gerousia.",
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"plaintext": "An assembly of citizens called the Ekklesia was responsible for electing men to the Gerousia for life.",
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{
"plaintext": "The Spartan education process known as the agoge was essential for full citizenship. However, usually the only boys eligible for the agoge were Spartiates, those who could trace their ancestry to the original inhabitants of the city.",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": "There were two exceptions. trophimoi or \"foster sons\" were foreign students invited to study. The Athenian general Xenophon, for example, sent his two sons to Sparta as trophimoi. Also, the son of a helot could be enrolled as a syntrophos if a Spartiate formally adopted him and paid his way; if he did exceptionally well in training, he might be sponsored to become a Spartiate. Spartans who could not afford to pay the expenses of the agoge could lose their citizenship.",
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{
"plaintext": "These laws meant that Sparta could not readily replace citizens lost in battle or otherwise, which eventually proved near fatal as citizens became greatly outnumbered by non-citizens, and even more dangerously by helots.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "The other classes were the perioikoi, free inhabitants who were non-citizens, and the helots, state-owned serfs. Descendants of non-Spartan citizens were forbidden the agoge.",
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"plaintext": "The Spartans were a minority of the Lakonian population. The largest class of inhabitants were the helots (in Classical Greek / Heílôtes).",
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"plaintext": "The helots were originally free Greeks from the areas of Messenia and Lakonia whom the Spartans had defeated in battle and subsequently enslaved. In contrast to populations conquered by other Greek cities (e.g. the Athenian treatment of Melos), the male population was not exterminated and the women and children turned into chattel slaves. Instead, the helots were given a subordinate position in society more comparable to serfs in medieval Europe than chattel slaves in the rest of Greece. The Spartan helots were not only agricultural workers, but were also household servants, both male and female would be assigned domestic duties, such as wool-working. However, the helots were not the private property of individual Spartan citizens, regardless of their household duties, and were instead owned by the state through the kleros system.",
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"plaintext": "Helots did not have voting or political rights. The Spartan poet Tyrtaios refers to Helots being allowed to marry and retaining 50% of the fruits of their labor. They also seem to have been allowed to practice religious rites and, according to Thucydides, own a limited amount of personal property.",
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"plaintext": "Initially, helots couldn't be freed but during the middle Hellenistic period, some 6,000 helots accumulated enough wealth to buy their freedom, for example, in 227 BC.",
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"plaintext": "In other Greek city-states, free citizens were part-time soldiers who, when not at war, carried on other trades. Since Spartan men were full-time soldiers, they were not available to carry out manual labour. The helots were used as unskilled serfs, tilling Spartan land. Helot women were often used as wet nurses. Helots also travelled with the Spartan army as non-combatant serfs. At the last stand of the Battle of Thermopylae, the Greek dead included not just the legendary three hundred Spartan soldiers but also several hundred Thespian and Theban troops and a number of helots.",
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"plaintext": "There was at least one helot revolt (c. 465–460 BC) that led to prolonged conflict. By the tenth year of this war the Spartans and Messenians had reached an agreement in which Messenian rebels were allowed to leave the Peloponnese. They were given safe passage under the terms that they would be re-enslaved if they tried to return. This agreement ended the most serious incursion into Spartan territory since their expansion in the seventh and eighth centuries BC. Thucydides remarked that \"Spartan policy is always mainly governed by the necessity of taking precautions against the helots.\" On the other hand, the Spartans trusted their helots enough in 479 BC to take a force of 35,000 with them to Plataea, something they could not have risked if they feared the helots would attack them or run away. Slave revolts occurred elsewhere in the Greek world, and in 413 BC 20,000 Athenian slaves ran away to join the Spartan forces occupying Attica. What made Sparta's relations with her slave population unique was that the helots, precisely because they enjoyed privileges such as family and property, retained their identity as a conquered people (the Messenians) and also had effective kinship groups that could be used to organize rebellion.",
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"plaintext": "As the Spartiate population declined and the helot population continued to grow, the imbalance of power caused increasing tension. According to Myron of Priene of the middle 3rd century BC:",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch also states that Spartans treated the helots \"harshly and cruelly\": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous – wine usually being cut with water) \"...and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs...\" during syssitia (obligatory banquets).",
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"plaintext": "Each year when the Ephors took office, they ritually declared war on the helots, allowing Spartans to kill them without risk of ritual pollution. This fight seems to have been carried out by kryptai (sing. κρύπτης kryptēs), graduates of the agoge who took part in the mysterious institution known as the Krypteia. Thucydides states:",
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"plaintext": "The helots were invited by a proclamation to pick out those of their number who claimed to have most distinguished themselves against the enemy, in order that they might receive their freedom; the object being to test them, as it was thought that the first to claim their freedom would be the most high spirited and the most apt to rebel. As many as two thousand were selected accordingly, who crowned themselves and went round the temples, rejoicing in their new freedom. The Spartans, however, soon afterwards did away with them, and no one ever knew how each of them perished.",
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"plaintext": "The Perioikoi came from similar origins as the helots but occupied a significantly different position in Spartan society. Although they did not enjoy full citizen-rights, they were free and not subjected to the same restrictions as the helots. The exact nature of their subjection to the Spartans is not clear, but they seem to have served partly as a kind of military reserve, partly as skilled craftsmen and partly as agents of foreign trade. Perioikoic hoplites served increasingly with the Spartan army, explicitly at the Battle of Plataea, and although they may also have fulfilled functions such as the manufacture and repair of armour and weapons, they were increasingly integrated into the combat units of the Spartan army as the Spartiate population declined.",
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"plaintext": "Full citizen Spartiates were barred by law from trade or manufacture, which consequently rested in the hands of the Perioikoi. This lucrative monopoly, in a fertile territory with a good harbors, ensured the loyalty of the perioikoi. Despite the prohibition on menial labor or trade, there is evidence of Spartan sculptors, and Spartans were certainly poets, magistrates, ambassadors, and governors as well as soldiers.",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": "Allegedly, Spartans were prohibited from possessing gold and silver coins, and according to legend Spartan currency consisted of iron bars to discourage hoarding. It was not until the 260s or 250s BC that Sparta began to mint its own coins. Though the conspicuous display of wealth appears to have been discouraged, this did not preclude the production of very fine decorated bronze, ivory and wooden works of art as well as exquisite jewellery, attested in archaeology.",
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"plaintext": "Allegedly as part of the Lycurgan Reforms in the mid-8th century BC, a massive land reform had divided property into 9,000 equal portions. Each citizen received one estate, a kleros, which was expected to provide his living. The land was worked by helots who retained half the yield. From the other half, the Spartiate was expected to pay his mess (syssitia) fees, and the agoge fees for his children. However, nothing is known of matters of wealth such as how land was bought, sold, and inherited, or whether daughters received dowries. However, from early on there were marked differences of wealth within the state, and these became more serious after the law of Epitadeus some time after the Peloponnesian War, which removed the legal prohibition on the gift or bequest of land. By the mid-5th century, land had become concentrated in the hands of a tiny elite, and the notion that all Spartan citizens were equals had become an empty pretence. By Aristotle's day (384–322 BC) citizenship had been reduced from 9,000 to less than 1,000, then further decreased to 700 at the accession of Agis IV in 244 BC. Attempts were made to remedy this by imposing legal penalties upon bachelors, but this could not reverse the trend.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta was above all a militarist state, and emphasis on military fitness began virtually at birth. Shortly after birth, a mother would bathe her child in wine to see whether the child was strong. If the child survived it was brought before the Gerousia by the child's father. The Gerousia then decided whether it was to be reared or not. It is commonly stated that if they considered it \"puny and deformed\", the baby was thrown into a chasm on Mount Taygetos known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, \"Deposits\"). This was, in effect, a primitive form of eugenics. Sparta is often viewed as being unique in this regard, however, anthropologist Laila Williamson notes that \"Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule.\" There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations in the chasm only uncovered adult remains, likely belonging to criminals.",
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"plaintext": "Spartan burial customs changed over time. The Archaic Spartan poet Tyrtaeus spoke of the Spartan war-dead as follows:",
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"plaintext": "When Spartans died, marked headstones would only be granted to soldiers who died in combat during a victorious campaign or women who died either in service of a divine office or in childbirth. These headstones likely acted as memorials, rather than as grave markers. Evidence of Spartan burials is provided by the Tomb of the Lacedaimonians in Athens. Excavations at the cemetery of classical Sparta, uncovered ritually pierced kantharoid-like ceramic vessels, the ritual slaughter of horses, and specific burial enclosures alongside individual 'plots'. Some of the graves were reused over time.",
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"plaintext": "In the Hellenistic Period, grander, two-storey monumental tombs are found at Sparta. Ten of these have been found for this period.",
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"plaintext": "When male Spartans began military training at age seven, they would enter the agoge system. The agoge was designed to encourage discipline and physical toughness and to emphasize the importance of the Spartan state. Boys lived in communal messes and, according to Xenophon, whose sons attended the agoge, the boys were fed \"just the right amount for them never to become sluggish through being too full, while also giving them a taste of what it is not to have enough.\" In addition, they were trained to survive in times of privation, even if it meant stealing. Besides physical and weapons training, boys studied reading, writing, music and dancing. Special punishments were imposed if boys failed to answer questions sufficiently \"laconically\" (i.e. briefly and wittily).",
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"plaintext": "Spartan boys were expected to take an older male mentor, usually an unmarried young man. According to some sources, the older man was expected to function as a kind of substitute father and role model to his junior partner; however, others believe it was reasonably certain that they had sexual relations (the exact nature of Spartan pederasty is not entirely clear). Xenophon, an admirer of the Spartan educational system whose sons attended the agoge, explicitly denies the sexual nature of the relationship.",
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"plaintext": "Some Spartan youth apparently became members of an irregular unit known as the Krypteia. The immediate objective of this unit was to seek out and kill vulnerable helot Laconians as part of the larger program of terrorising and intimidating the helot population.",
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"plaintext": "Less information is available about the education of Spartan girls, but they seem to have gone through a fairly extensive formal educational cycle, broadly similar to that of the boys but with less emphasis on military training. Spartan girls received an education known as mousikē. This included music, dancing, singing and poetry. Choral dancing was taught so Spartan girls could participate in ritual activities, including the cults of Helen and Artemis. In this respect, classical Sparta was unique in ancient Greece. In no other city-state did women receive any kind of formal education.",
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"plaintext": "At age 20, the Spartan citizen began his membership in one of the syssitia (dining messes or clubs), composed of about fifteen members each, of which every citizen was required to be a member. Here each group learned how to bond and rely on one another. The Spartans were not eligible for election for public office until the age of 30. Only native Spartans were considered full citizens and were obliged to undergo the training as prescribed by law, as well as participate in and contribute financially to one of the syssitia.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta is thought to be the first city to practice athletic nudity, and some scholars claim that it was also the first to formalize pederasty. According to these sources, the Spartans believed that the love of an older, accomplished aristocrat for an adolescent was essential to his formation as a free citizen. The agoge, the education of the ruling class, was, they claim, founded on pederastic relationships required of each citizen, with the lover responsible for the boy's training.",
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"plaintext": "However, other scholars question this interpretation. Xenophon explicitly denies it, but not Plutarch.",
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"plaintext": "Spartan men remained in the active reserve until age 60. Men were encouraged to marry at age 20 but could not live with their families until they left their active military service at age 30. They called themselves \"homoioi\" (equals), pointing to their common lifestyle and the discipline of the phalanx, which demanded that no soldier be superior to his comrades. Insofar as hoplite warfare could be perfected, the Spartans did so.",
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"plaintext": "Thucydides reports that when a Spartan man went to war, his wife (or another woman of some significance) would customarily present him with his shield (shield) and say: \"With this, or upon this\" (Ἢ τὰν ἢ ἐπὶ τᾶς, Èi tàn èi èpì tàs), meaning that true Spartans could only return to Sparta either victorious (with their shield in hand) or dead (carried upon it). This is almost certainly propaganda. Spartans buried their battle dead on or near the battle field; corpses were not brought back on their shield. Nevertheless, it is fair to say that it was less of a disgrace for a soldier to lose his helmet, breastplate or greaves than his shield, since the former were designed to protect one man, whereas the shield also protected the man on his left. Thus, the shield was symbolic of the individual soldier's subordination to his unit, his integral part in its success, and his solemn responsibility to his comrades in arms – messmates and friends, often close blood relations.",
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"plaintext": "According to Aristotle, the Spartan military culture was actually short-sighted and ineffective. He observed:",
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"plaintext": "It is the standards of civilized men not of beasts that must be kept in mind, for it is good men not beasts who are capable of real courage. Those like the Spartans who concentrate on the one and ignore the other in their education turn men into machines and in devoting themselves to one single aspect of city's life, end up making them inferior even in that.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most persistent myths about Sparta that has no basis in fact is the notion that Spartan mothers were without feelings toward their off-spring and helped enforce a militaristic lifestyle on their sons and husbands. The myth can be traced back to Plutarch, who includes no less than 17 \"sayings\" of \"Spartan women,\" all of which paraphrase or elaborate on the theme that Spartan mothers rejected their own offspring if they showed any kind of cowardice. In some of these sayings, mothers revile their sons in insulting language merely for surviving a battle. These sayings purporting to be from Spartan women were far more likely to be of Athenian origin and designed to portray Spartan women as unnatural and so undeserving of pity.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta's agriculture consisted mainly of barley, wine, cheese, grain, and figs. These items were grown locally on each Spartan citizen's kleros and were tended to by helots. Spartan citizens were required to donate a certain amount of what they yielded from their kleros to their syssitia, or mess. These donations to the syssitia were a requirement for every Spartan citizen. All the donated food was then redistributed to feed the Spartan population of that syssitia. The helots who tended to the lands were fed using a portion of what they harvested.",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch reports the peculiar customs associated with the Spartan wedding night:",
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"plaintext": "The custom was to capture women for marriage... The so-called 'bridesmaid' took charge of the captured girl. She first shaved her head to the scalp, then dressed her in a man's cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. The bridegroom – who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always – first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed.",
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"plaintext": "The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage. These customs, unique to the Spartans, have been interpreted in various ways. One of them decidedly supports the need to disguise the bride as a man in order to help the bridegroom consummate the marriage, so unaccustomed were men to women's looks at the time of their first intercourse. The \"abduction\" may have served to ward off the evil eye, and the cutting of the wife's hair was perhaps part of a rite of passage that signaled her entrance into a new life.",
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"plaintext": "Spartan women, of the citizenry class, enjoyed a status, power, and respect that was unknown in the rest of the classical world. The higher status of females in Spartan society started at birth; unlike Athens, Spartan girls were fed the same food as their brothers. Nor were they confined to their father's house and prevented from exercising or getting fresh air as in Athens, but exercised and even competed in sports. Most important, rather than being married off at the age of 12 or 13, Spartan law forbade the marriage of a girl until she was in her late teens or early 20s. The reasons for delaying marriage were to ensure the birth of healthy children, but the effect was to spare Spartan women the hazards and lasting health damage associated with pregnancy among adolescents. Spartan women, better fed from childhood and fit from exercise, stood a far better chance of reaching old age than their sisters in other Greek cities, where the median age for death was 34.6 years or roughly 10 years below that of men.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore dresses (peplos) slit up the side to allow freer movement and moved freely about the city, either walking or driving chariots. Girls as well as boys exercised, possibly in the nude, and young women as well as young men may have participated in the Gymnopaedia (\"Festival of Nude Youths\").",
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"plaintext": "Another practice that was mentioned by many visitors to Sparta was the practice of “wife-sharing”. In accordance with the Spartan belief that breeding should be between the most physically fit parents, many older men allowed younger, more fit men, to impregnate their wives. Other unmarried or childless men might even request another man's wife to bear his children if she had previously been a strong child bearer. For this reason many considered Spartan women polygamous or polyandrous. This practice was encouraged in order that women bear as many strong-bodied children as they could. The Spartan population was hard to maintain due to the constant absence and loss of the men in battle and the intense physical inspection of newborns.",
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"plaintext": "Spartan women were also literate and numerate, a rarity in the ancient world. Furthermore, as a result of their education and the fact that they moved freely in society engaging with their fellow (male) citizens, they were notorious for speaking their minds even in public. Plato, in the middle of the fourth century, described women's curriculum in Sparta as consisting of gymnastics and mousike (music and arts). Plato goes on to praise Spartan women's ability when it came to philosophical discussion.",
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"plaintext": "Most importantly, Spartan women had economic power because they controlled their own properties, and those of their husbands. It is estimated that in later Classical Sparta, when the male population was in serious decline, women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta. The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative.",
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"plaintext": "Many women played a significant role in the history of Sparta. Queen Gorgo, heiress to the throne and the wife of Leonidas I, was an influential and well-documented figure. Herodotus records that as a small girl she advised her father Cleomenes to resist a bribe. She was later said to be responsible for decoding a warning that the Persian forces were about to invade Greece; after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning. Plutarch's Moralia contains a collection of \"Sayings of Spartan Women\", including a laconic quip attributed to Gorgo: when asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she replied \"Because we are the only women who are mothers of men\". In 396, Cynisca, sister of the Eurypontid king Agesilaos II, became the first woman in Greece to win an Olympic chariot race. She won again in 392, and dedicated two monuments to commemorate her victory, these being an inscription in Sparta and a set of bronze equestrian statues at the Olympic temple of Zeus.",
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"plaintext": "Laconophilia is love or admiration of Sparta and its culture or constitution. Sparta was subject of considerable admiration in its day, even in rival Athens. In ancient times \"Many of the noblest and best of the Athenians always considered the Spartan state nearly as an ideal theory realised in practice.\" Many Greek philosophers, especially Platonists, would often describe Sparta as an ideal state, strong, brave, and free from the corruptions of commerce and money. The French classicist François Ollier in his 1933 book Le mirage spartiate (The Spartan Mirage) warned that a major scholarly problem is that all surviving accounts of Sparta were by non-Spartans who often excessively idealized their subject. No accounts survive by the Spartans themselves, if such were ever written. ",
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"plaintext": "With the revival of classical learning in Renaissance Europe, Laconophilia re-appeared, for example in the writings of Machiavelli. The Elizabethan English constitutionalist John Aylmer compared the mixed government of Tudor England to the Spartan republic, stating that \"Lacedemonia [was] the noblest and best city governed that ever was\". He commended it as a model for England. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau contrasted Sparta favourably with Athens in his Discourse on the Arts and Sciences, arguing that its austere constitution was preferable to the more sophisticated Athenian life. Sparta was also used as a model of austere purity by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France.",
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"plaintext": "A German racist strain of Laconophilia was initiated by Karl Otfried Müller, who linked Spartan ideals to the supposed racial superiority of the Dorians, the ethnic sub-group of the Greeks to which the Spartans belonged. In the 20th century, this developed into Fascist admiration of Spartan ideals. Adolf Hitler praised the Spartans, recommending in 1928 that Germany should imitate them by limiting \"the number allowed to live\". He added that \"The Spartans were once capable of such a wise measure... The subjugation of 350,000 Helots by 6,000 Spartans was only possible because of the racial superiority of the Spartans.\" The Spartans had created \"the first racialist state\". Following the invasion of the USSR, Hitler viewed citizens of the USSR as like the helots under the Spartans: \"They [the Spartans] came as conquerors, and they took everything\", and so should the Germans. A Nazi officer specified that \"the Germans would have to assume the position of the Spartiates, while... the Russians were the Helots.\"",
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"plaintext": "Certain early Zionists, and particularly the founders of Kibbutz movement in Israel, were influenced by Spartan ideals, particularly in education. Tabenkin, a founding father of the Kibbutz movement and the Palmach strikeforce, prescribed that education for warfare \"should begin from the nursery\", that children should from kindergarten be taken to \"spend nights in the mountains and valleys\".",
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"plaintext": "In modern times, the adjective \"Spartan\" means simple, frugal, avoiding luxury and comfort. The term \"laconic phrase\" describes the very terse and direct speech characteristic of the Spartans.",
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"plaintext": "Sparta also features prominently in modern popular culture, most famously the Battle of Thermopylae (see Battle of Thermopylae in popular culture).",
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"plaintext": " Helen – princess in the Trojan War",
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"plaintext": " Leonidas I (c. 520–480 BC) – king, commander at the Battle of Thermopylae",
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"plaintext": " Lysander (5th–4th century BC) – general",
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"plaintext": " Menelaus – king during the Trojan War",
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"plaintext": " Nabis – king",
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"plaintext": " Xanthippus of Carthage – Spartan mercenary in the First Punic War",
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"plaintext": " Archaeological Museum of Sparta",
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"plaintext": " List of Kings of Sparta",
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"plaintext": " List of ancient Greek cities",
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"plaintext": " David, Ephraim. 1989. \"Dress in Spartan Society\". Ancient World 19:3–13.",
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"plaintext": " Flower, Michael A. 2009. \"Spartan 'Religion' and Greek 'Religion. In Sparta: Comparative Approaches. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson, 193–229. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " Hodkinson, Stephen, and Ian MacGregor Morris, eds. 2010. Sparta in Modern Thought. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Low, Polly. 2006. \"Commemorating the Spartan War-Dead\". In Sparta and War. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson and Anton Powell, 85–109. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.",
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"plaintext": " Rabinowitz, Adam. 2009. \"Drinking from the Same Cup: Sparta and Late Archaic Commensality\". In Sparta: Comparative Approaches. Edited by Stephen Hodkinson, 113–191. Swansea, UK: Classical Press of Wales.",
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"plaintext": " GTP – Sparta",
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"plaintext": " GTP – Ancient Sparta",
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| [
"Sparta",
"Diarchies",
"Former_populated_places_in_Greece",
"Greek_city-states",
"Locations_in_Greek_mythology",
"Populated_places_in_Laconia",
"States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_2nd_century_BC",
"States_and_territories_established_in_the_11th_century_BC"
]
| 5,690 | 87,746 | 2,565 | 326 | 0 | 0 | Sparta | city-state in ancient Greece | [
"Lacedaemon",
"Lacedemon"
]
|
36,511 | 1,107,696,758 | Milan | [
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"plaintext": "Maximian built several gigantic monuments: the large circus (470 × 85 metres), the thermae or \"Baths of Hercules\", a large complex of imperial palaces and other services and buildings of which few visible traces remain. Maximian increased the city area to 375 acres by surrounding it with a new, larger stone wall (about 4.5km long) with many 24-sided towers. The monumental area had twin towers; the one included later in the construction of the convent of San Maurizio Maggiore remains 16.6 m high.",
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"plaintext": "The Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan from Mediolanum in 313 AD, granting tolerance to all religions within the Empire, thus paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion of Roman Europe. Constantine was in Mediolanum to celebrate the wedding of his sister to the Eastern Emperor, Licinius.",
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"plaintext": "In 452 Attila in his turn besieged Mediolanum, but the real break with the city's Imperial past came in 539, during the Gothic War, when Uraia (a nephew of Witiges, formerly King of the Italian Ostrogoths) laid Mediolanum to waste with great loss of life.",
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"plaintext": "After the siege of the city by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence moved to Ravenna. An age of decline began which worsened when Attila, King of the Huns, sacked and devastated the city in 452AD. In 539 the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569 the Lombards (from whom the name of the Italian region Lombardy derives), conquered Milan, overpowering the small Byzantine garrison left for its defence. Some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to Charlemagne and the Franks in 774.",
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"plaintext": "The 11th century saw a reaction against the control of the Holy Roman Emperors. City-states emerged in northern Italy, an expression of the new political power of the cities and their will to fight against all feudal powers. Milan was no exception. It did not take long, however, for the Italian city-states to begin fighting each other to try to limit neighbouring powers. The Milanese destroyed Lodi and continuously warred with Pavia, Cremona and Como, who in turn asked Frederick I Barbarossa for help. In a sally they captured Empress Beatrice and forced her to ride a donkey backwards through the city until getting out. These brought the destruction of much of Milan in 1162. A fire destroyed the storehouses containing the entire food supply, and within just a few days Milan was forced to surrender.",
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"plaintext": "A period of peace followed and Milan prospered as a centre of trade due to its geographical position. During this time, the city was considered one of the largest European cities.",
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"plaintext": "In 1395, Gian Galeazzo Visconti became the first Duke of Milan after receiving the title from Wenceslaus, King of the Romans. In 1447 Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, died without a male heir; following the end of the Visconti line, the Ambrosian Republic was established; it took its name from St. Ambrose, the popular patron saint of the city. Both the Guelph and the Ghibelline factions worked together to bring about the Ambrosian Republic in Milan. Nonetheless, the Republic collapsed when, in 1450, Milan was conquered by Francesco I of the House of Sforza, which made Milan one of the leading cities of the Italian Renaissance.",
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"plaintext": "Milan's last independent ruler, Lodovico il Moro, requested the aid of Charles VIII of France against the other Italian states, eventually unleashing the Italian Wars. The king's cousin, Louis of Orléans, took part in the expedition and realized most of Italy was virtually defenseless. This prompted him to come back a few years later in 1500, and claim the Duchy of Milan for himself, his grandmother having been a member of the ruling Visconti family. At that time, Milan was also defended by Swiss mercenaries. After the victory of Louis's successor François I over the Swiss at the Battle of Marignan, the duchy was promised to the French king François I. When the Spanish Habsburg Emperor Charles V defeated François I at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, northern Italy, including Milan, passed to Habsburg Spain.",
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"plaintext": "In 1556, Charles V abdicated in favour of his son Philip II and his brother Ferdinand I. Charles's Italian possessions, including Milan, passed to Philip II and remained with the Spanish line of Habsburgs, while Ferdinand's Austrian line of Habsburgs ruled the Holy Roman Empire. The Great Plague of Milan in 1629–31, that claimed the lives of an estimated 60,000 people out of a population of 130,000, caused unprecedented devastation in the city and was effectively described by Alessandro Manzoni in his masterpiece \"The Betrothed\". This episode was seen by many as the symbol of Spanish bad rule and decadence and is considered one of the last outbreaks of the centuries-long pandemic of plague that began with the Black Death.",
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"plaintext": "In 1700 the Spanish line of Habsburgs was extinguished with the death of Charles II. After his death, the War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701 with the occupation of all Spanish possessions by French troops backing the claim of the French Philippe of Anjou to the Spanish throne. In 1706, the French were defeated in Ramillies and Turin and were forced to yield northern Italy to the Austrian Habsburgs. In 1713–1714 the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt formally confirmed Austrian sovereignty over most of Habsburg Spain's Italian possessions including Lombardy and its capital, Milan. Napoleon invaded Italy in 1796, and Milan was declared capital of the Cisalpine Republic. Later, he declared Milan capital of the Kingdom of Italy and was crowned King of Italy in the cathedral. Once Napoleon's occupation ended, the Congress of Vienna returned Lombardy, and Milan, to Austrian control in 1815.",
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"plaintext": "On March 18, 1848, Milan efficaciously rebelled against Austrian rule, during the so-called \"Five Days\" (), that forced Field Marshal Radetzky to temporarily withdraw from the city. The bordering kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia sent troops in order to protect the insurgents and organised a plebiscite that ratified by a huge majority the unification of Lombardy with Piedmont-Sardinia. But just a few months later the Austrians were able to send fresh forces that routed the Piedmontese army at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July and to reassert Austrian control over northern Italy. About ten years later, however, Italian nationalist politicians, officers and intellectuals such as Cavour, Garibaldi and Mazzini were able to gather a huge consensus and to pressure the monarchy to forge an alliance with the new French Empire of Napoleon III in order to defeat Austria and establish a large Italian state in the region. At the Battle of Solferino in 1859 French and Italian troops heavily defeated the Austrians that retreated under the Quadrilateral line. Following this battle, Milan and the rest of Lombardy were incorporated into Piedmont-Sardinia, which then proceeded to annex all the other Italian statlets and proclaim the birth of the Kingdom of Italy on March 17, 1861.",
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"plaintext": "The political unification of Italy enhanced Milan's economic dominance over northern Italy. A dense rail network, whose construction had started under Austrian patronage, was completed in a brief time, making Milan the rail hub of northern Italy and, with the opening of the Gotthard (1882) and Simplon (1906) railway tunnels, the major South European rail hub for goods and passenger transport. Indeed, Milan and Venice were among the main stops of the Orient Express that started operating from 1919. Abundant hydroelectric resources allowed the development of a strong steel and textile sector and, as Milanese banks dominated Italy's financial sphere, the city became the country's leading financial centre. Very rapid industrialization in the last two decades of the 1800s led to the birth of a massive worker class as well as bitter social conflicts. In May 1898 Milan was shaken by the Bava Beccaris massacre, a riot related to soaring cost of living.",
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"plaintext": "Milan's northern location in Italy closer to Europe, secured also a leading role for the city on the political scene. It was in Milan that Benito Mussolini built his political and journalistic careers, and his fascist Blackshirts rallied for the first time in the city's Piazza San Sepolcro; here the future Fascist dictator launched his March on Rome on 28 October 1922. During the Second World War Milan large industrial and transport facilities suffered extensive damage from Allied bombings that often also hit residential districts. When Italy surrendered in 1943, German forces occupied and plundered most of northern Italy, fueling the birth of a massive resistance guerrilla movement. On April 29, 1945, the American 1st Armored Division was advancing on Milan but, before it arrived, the Italian resistance seized control of the city and executed Mussolini along with his mistress and several regime officers, that were later hanged and exposed in Piazzale Loreto, where one year before some resistance members had been executed.",
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"plaintext": "During the post-war economic boom, the reconstruction effort and the so-called Italian economic miracle attracted a large wave of internal migration (especially from rural areas of southern Italy) to Milan. The population grew from 1.3million in 1951 to 1.7million in 1967. During this period, Milan was rapidly rebuilt, with the construction of several innovative and modernist skyscrapers, such as the Torre Velasca and the Pirelli Tower, that soon became the symbols of this new era of prosperity. The economic prosperity was, however, overshadowed in the late 1960s and early 1970s during the so-called Years of Lead, when Milan witnessed an unprecedented wave of street violence, labour strikes and political terrorism. The apex of this period of turmoil occurred on 12 December 1969, when a bomb exploded at the National Agrarian Bank in Piazza Fontana, killing 17 people and injuring 88.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980s, with the international success of Milanese houses (like Armani, Versace and Dolce & Gabbana), Milan became one of the world's fashion capitals. The city saw also a marked rise in international tourism, notably from America and Japan, while the stock exchange increased its market capitalisation more than five-fold. This period led the mass media to nickname the metropolis \"Milano da bere\", literally \"Milan to be drunk\". However, in the 1990s, Milan was badly affected by Tangentopoli, a political scandal in which many politicians and businessmen were tried for corruption. The city was also affected by a severe financial crisis and a steady decline in textiles, automobile and steel production. Berlusconi's Milano 2 and Milano 3 projects were the most important housing projects of the 1980s and 1990s in Milan and brought to the city new economical and social energy.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 21st century, Milan underwent a series of sweeping redevelopments over huge former industrial areas. Two new business districts, Porta Nuova and CityLife, were built in the space of a decade, radically changing the skyline of the city. Its exhibition centre moved to a much larger site in Rho. The long decline in traditional manufacturing has been overshadowed by a great expansion of publishing, finance, banking, fashion design, information technology, logistics and tourism. The city's decades-long population decline seems to have partially reverted in recent years, as the gained about 100,000 new residents since the last census. The successful re-branding of the city as a global capital of innovation has been instrumental in its successful bids for hosting large international events such as 2015 Expo and 2026 Winter Olympics.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is located in the north-western section of the Po Valley, approximately halfway between the river Po to the south and the foothills of the Alps with the great lakes (Lake Como, Lake Maggiore, Lake Lugano) to the north, the Ticino river to the west and the Adda to the east. The city's land is flat, the highest point being at above sea level.",
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"plaintext": "The administrative covers an area of about , with a population, in 2013, of 1,324,169 and a population density of . The Metropolitan City of Milan covers and in 2015 had a population estimated at 3,196,825, with a resulting density of . A larger urban area, comprising parts of the provinces of Milan, Monza e Brianza, Como, Lecco and Varese is wide and has a population of 5,270,000 with a density of .",
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"plaintext": "The concentric layout of the city centre reflects the Navigli, an ancient system of navigable and interconnected canals, now mostly covered. The suburbs of the city have expanded mainly to the north, swallowing up many along the roads towards Varese, Como, Lecco and Bergamo.",
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"plaintext": "Milan features a mid-latitude, four-season humid subtropical climate (Cfa), according to the Köppen climate classification. Milan's climate is similar to much of Northern Italy's inland plains, with hot, humid summers and cold, foggy winters. The Alps and Apennine Mountains form a natural barrier that protects the city from the major circulations coming from northern Europe and the sea.",
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"plaintext": "During winter, daily average temperatures can fall below freezing () and accumulations of snow can occur: the historic average of Milan's area is in the period between 1961 and 1990, with a record of in January 1985. In the suburbs the average can reach . The city receives on average seven days of snow per year.",
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"plaintext": "The city was often shrouded in thick cloud or fog during winter, although the removal of rice paddies from the southern neighbourhoods and the urban heat island effect have greatly reduced this occurrence since the turn of the 21st century. Occasionally, the Foehn winds cause the temperatures to rise unexpectedly: on 22 January 2012 the daily high reached while on 22 February 2012 it reached . Air pollution levels rise significantly in wintertime when cold air clings to the soil, causing Milan to be one of Europe's most polluted cities.",
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"plaintext": "Summers in Milan are hot and humidity levels are high with peak temperatures reaching above . Due to the high humidity, urban heat effect and lack of wind, nighttimes often remain muggy during the summer months. Usually the summer enjoys clearer skies with an average of more than 13 hours of daylight: when precipitation occurs though, it is more likely to be accompanied by thunderstorms and hail. Springs and autumns are generally pleasant, with temperatures ranging between ; these seasons are characterized by higher rainfall, especially in April and May. Relative humidity typically ranges between 45% (comfortable) and 95% (very humid) throughout the year, rarely dropping below 27% (dry) and reaching as high as 100%. Wind is generally absent: over the course of the year typical wind speeds vary from (calm to gentle breeze), rarely exceeding (fresh breeze), except during summer thunderstorms when winds can blow strong. In the spring, gale-force windstorms may happen, generated either by Tramontane blowing from the Alps or by Bora-like winds from the north. Due to its geographic location surrounded by mountains on 3 sides, Milan is among the least windy cities in Europe. ",
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"plaintext": "The legislative body of the Italian is the City Council (Consiglio Comunale), which in cities with more than one million population is composed by 48 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, at the same time of the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Committee (Giunta Comunale), composed by 12 assessors, that is nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor. The current mayor of Milan is Giuseppe Sala, an independent leading a centre-left alliance led by the Democratic Party.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality of Milan is subdivided into nine administrative Borough Councils (Consigli di Municipio), down from the former twenty districts before the 1999 administrative reform. Each Borough Council is governed by a Council (Consiglio) and a President, elected contextually to the city Mayor. The urban organisation is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114), the Municipal Statute and several laws, notably the Legislative Decree 267/2000 or Unified Text on Local Administration (Testo Unico degli Enti Locali). After the 2016 administrative reform, the Borough Councils have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics and are responsible for running most local services, such as schools, social services, waste collection, roads, parks, libraries and local commerce; in addition they are supplied with an autonomous funding in order to finance local activities.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is the capital of the eponymous Metropolitan city. According to the last governmental dispositions concerning administrative reorganisation, the urban area of Milan is one of the 15 Metropolitan municipalities (città metropolitane), new administrative bodies fully operative since 1 January 2015. The new Metro municipalities, giving large urban areas the administrative powers of a province, are conceived for improving the performance of local administrations and to slash local spending by better co-ordinating the municipalities in providing basic services (including transport, school and social programs) and environment protection. In this policy framework, the Mayor of Milan is designated to exercise the functions of Metropolitan mayor (Sindaco metropolitano), presiding over a Metropolitan Council formed by 24 mayors of municipalities within the Metro municipality. The Metropolitan City of Milan is headed by the Metropolitan Mayor (Sindaco metropolitano) and by the Metropolitan Council (Consiglio metropolitano). Since 21 June 2016 Giuseppe Sala, as mayor of the capital city, has been the mayor of the Metropolitan City.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is also the capital of Lombardy, one of the twenty regions of Italy. Lombardy is by far the most populated region of Italy, with more than ten million inhabitants, almost one sixth of the national total. It is governed by a Regional Council, composed of 80 members elected for a five-year term. On 26 March 2018, a list of candidates of the Centre-right coalition, a coalition of centrist and right-wing parties, led by Attilio Fontana, largely won the regional election, defeating a coalition of socialists, liberals and ecologists and a third-party candidate from the populist Five Stars Movement. The conservatives have governed the region almost uninterruptedly since 1970. The regional council has 48 members from the Centre-right coalition, 18 from the Centre-left coalition and 13 from the Five Star Movement. The seat of the regional government is Palazzo Lombardia that, standing at , is the fifth-tallest building in Milan.",
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"plaintext": "Two business districts dominate Milan's skyline: Porta Nuova in the north-east (boroughs n° 9 and 2) and CityLife (borough n° 8) in the north-west part of the commune. The tallest buildings include the Unicredit Tower at 231 m (though only 162 m without the spire), and the 209 m Allianz Tower, a 50-story tower.",
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"plaintext": "In the 15th century, when the Sforza ruled the city, an old Viscontean fortress was enlarged and embellished to become the Castello Sforzesco, the seat of an elegant Renaissance court surrounded by a walled hunting park. Notable architects involved in the project included the Florentine Filarete, who was commissioned to build the high central entrance tower, and the military specialist Bartolomeo Gadio. The alliance between Francesco Sforza and Florence's Cosimo de' Medici bore to Milan Tuscan models of Renaissance architecture, apparent in the Ospedale Maggiore and Bramante's work in the city, which includes Santa Maria presso San Satiro (a reconstruction of a small 9th-century church), the tribune of Santa Maria delle Grazie and three cloisters for Sant'Ambrogio. The Counter-Reformation in the 16th to 17th centuries was also the period of Spanish domination and was marked by two powerful figures: Saint Charles Borromeo and his cousin, Cardinal Federico Borromeo. Not only did they impose themselves as moral guides to the people of Milan, but they also gave a great impulse to culture, with the creation of the Biblioteca Ambrosiana, in a building designed by Francesco Maria Richini, and the nearby Pinacoteca Ambrosiana. Many notable churches and Baroque mansions were built in the city during this period by the architects, Pellegrino Tibaldi, Galeazzo Alessi and Richini himself.",
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"plaintext": "Empress Maria Theresa of Austria was responsible for the significant renovations carried out in Milan during the 18th century. This urban and artistic renewal included the establishment of Teatro alla Scala, inaugurated in 1778, and the renovation of the Royal Palace. The late 1700s Palazzo Belgioioso by Giuseppe Piermarini and Royal Villa of Milan by Leopoldo Pollack, later the official residence of Austrian viceroys, are often regarded among the best examples of Neoclassical architecture in Lombardy. The Napoleonic rule of the city in 1805–1814, having established Milan as the capital of a satellite Kingdom of Italy, took steps in order to reshape it accordingly to its new status, with the construction of large boulevards, new squares (Porta Ticinese by Luigi Cagnola and Foro Bonaparte by Giovanni Antonio Antolini) and cultural institutions (Art Gallery and the Academy of Fine Arts). The massive Arch of Peace, situated at the bottom of Corso Sempione, is often compared to the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. In the second half of the 19th century, Milan quickly became the main industrial centre of the new Italian nation, drawing inspiration from the great European capitals that were hubs of the Second Industrial Revolution. The great Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, realised by Giuseppe Mengoni between 1865 and 1877 to celebrate Vittorio Emanuele II, is a covered passage with a glass and cast iron roof, inspired by the Burlington Arcade in London. Several other arcades such as the Galleria del Corso, built between 1923 and 1931, complement it. Another late-19th-century eclectic monument in the city is the Cimitero Monumentale graveyard, built in a Neo-Romanesque style between 1863 and 1866.",
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"plaintext": "The tumultuous period of early 20th century brought several, radical innovations in Milanese architecture. Art Nouveau, also known as Liberty in Italy, is recognisable in Palazzo Castiglioni, built by architect Giuseppe Sommaruga between 1901 and 1903. Other examples include Hotel Corso, Casa Guazzoni with its wrought iron and staircase, and Berri-Meregalli house, the latter built in a traditional Milanese Art Nouveau style combined with elements of neo-Romanesque and Gothic revival architecture, regarded as one of the last such types of architecture in the city. A new, more eclectic form of architecture can be seen in buildings such as Castello Cova, built the 1910s in a distinctly neo-medieval style, evoking the architectural trends of the past. An important example of Art Deco, which blended such styles with Fascist architecture, is the huge Central railway station inaugurated in 1931.",
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"plaintext": "The post–World War II period saw rapid reconstruction and fast economic growth, accompanied by a nearly two-fold increase in population. In the 1950s and 1960s, a strong demand for new residential and commercial areas drove to extreme urban expansion, that has produced some of the major milestones in the city's architectural history, including Gio Ponti's Pirelli Tower (1956–60), Velasca Tower (1956–58), and the creation of brand new residential satellite towns, as well as huge amounts of low quality public housings. In recent years, de-industrialization, urban decay and gentrification led to a vast urban renewal of former industrial areas, that have been transformed into modern residential and financial districts, notably Porta Nuova in downtown Milan and FieraMilano in the suburb of Rho. In addition, the old exhibition area is being completely reshaped according to the Citylife regeneration project, featuring residencial areas, museums, an urban park and three skyscrapers designed by international architects, and after whom they are named: the Isozaki Arata—when completed, the tallest building in Italy, the twisted Hadid Tower, and the curved Libeskind Tower.",
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"plaintext": "The largest parks in the central area of Milan are Sempione Park, at the north-western edge, and Montanelli Gardens, situated northeast of the city. English-style Sempione Park, built in 1890, contains a Napoleonic Arena, the Milan City Aquarium, a steel lattice panoramic tower, an art exhibition centre, a Japanese garden and a public library. The Montanelli gardens, created in the 18th century, hosts the Natural History Museum of Milan and a planetarium. Slightly away from the city centre, heading east, Forlanini Park is characterised by a large pond and a few preserved shacks which remind of the area's agricultural past. In recent years Milan's authorities pledged to develop its green areas: they planned to create twenty new urban parks and extend the already existing ones, and announced plans to plant three million trees by 2030.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, even though Milan is located in one of the most urbanised regions of Italy, it is surrounded by a belt of green areas and features numerous gardens even in its very centre. Since 1990, the farmlands and woodlands north (Parco Nord Milano) and south (Parco Agricolo Sud Milano) of the urban area have been protected as regional parks. West of the city, the Parco delle Cave (Sand pit park) has been established on a neglected site where gravel and sand used to be extracted, featuring artificial lakes and woods.",
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"plaintext": "The official estimated population of the City of Milan was 1,378,689 as of 31 December 2018, according to ISTAT, the official Italian statistical agency, up by 136,556 from the 2011 census, or a growth of about 11%. At the same date 3,250,315 people lived in Milan province-level municipality. The population of Milan today is lower than its historical peak. With rapid industrialization in post-war years, the population of Milan peaked at 1,743,427 in 1973. Thereafter, during the following decades, about one third of the population moved to the outer belt of suburbs and new satellite settlements that grew around the city proper.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is home to the second largest Far East Asian community in Europe after Paris, with Philippines and China making up about a quarter of its foreign population (circa 73.000 of 277.000, in 2021). Another 3,500 foreigners come from other East Asian countries.",
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"plaintext": "Today, Milan's conurbation extends well beyond the borders of the city proper and of its special-status provincial authority: its contiguous built-up urban area was home to 5,270,000 people in 2015, while its wider metropolitan area, the largest in Italy and fourth largest in the EU, is estimated to have a population of more than 8.2million.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2021, some 276,776 foreign residents lived in the municipality of Milan, representing 20.1% of the total resident population. These figures suggest that the immigrant population has more than doubled in the last 15 years.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II, Milan experienced two main waves of immigration: the first, dating from the 1950s to the early 1970s, saw a large influx of migrants from poorer and rural areas within Italy; the second, starting from the late 1980s, has been characterized by the preponderance of foreign-born immigrants.",
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"plaintext": "The early period coincided with the so-called Italian economic miracle of postwar years, an era of extraordinary growth based on rapid industrial expansion and great public works, that brought to the city a large influx of over 400,000 people, mainly from rural and underdeveloped Southern Italy. In the last three decades, the foreign born share of the population soared. Immigrants came mainly from Africa (in particular Eritreans, Egyptians, Moroccans, Senegalese, and Nigerian), and the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe (notably Albanians, Romanians, Ukrainians, Macedonians, Moldovans, and Russians), in addition to a growing number of Asians (in particular Chinese, Sri Lankans and Filipinos) and Latin Americans (Mainly South Americans). At the beginning of the 1990s, Milan already had a population of foreign-born residents of approximately 58,000 (or 4% of the then population), that rose rapidly to over 117,000 by the end of the decade (about 9% of the total).",
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"plaintext": "Decades of continuing high immigration have made the city the most cosmopolitan and multicultural in Italy. Milan notably hosts the oldest and largest Chinese community in Italy, with almost 34,000 people in 2021. Situated in the 9th district, and centred on Via Paolo Sarpi, an important commercial avenue, the Milanese Chinatown was originally established in the 1920s by immigrants from Wencheng County, in the Zhejiang province, and used to operate small textile and leather workshops.",
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"plaintext": "Milan has also a substantial English-speaking community (more than 4,000 American, British, Irish and Australian expatriates), and several English schools and language publications, such as Hello Milano, Where Milano and Easy Milano.",
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"plaintext": "Milan's population, like that of Italy as a whole, is mostly Catholic. It is the seat of the Archdiocese of Milan. Greater Milan is also home to Protestant, Eastern Orthodox, Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh and Buddhist communities.",
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"plaintext": "Milan has been a Christian-majority city since the late Roman Empire. Its religious history was marked by the figure of St. Ambrose, whose heritage includes the Ambrosian Rite (Italian: Rito ambrosiano), used by some five million Catholics in the greater part of the Archdiocese of Milan, which consider the largest in Europe. The Rite varies slightly from the canonical Roman Rite liturgy, with differences in the mass, liturgical year (Lent starts four days later than in the Roman Rite), baptism, rite of funerals, priest clothes, and sacred music (use of the Ambrosian chant rather than Gregorian).",
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"plaintext": "In addition, the city is home to the largest Orthodox community in Italy. Lombardy is the seat of at least 78 Orthodox parishes and monasteries, the vast majority of them located in the area of Milan. The main Romanian Orthodox church in Milan is the Catholic church of Our Lady of Victory (Chiesa di Santa Maria della Vittoria), currently granted for use to the local Romanian community. Similarly, the point of reference for the followers of the Russian Orthodox Church is the Catholic church of San Vito in Pasquirolo.",
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"plaintext": "The Jewish community of Milan is the second largest in Italy after Rome, with about 10,000 members, mainly Sephardi. The main city synagogue, Hechal David u-Mordechai Temple, was built by architect Luca Beltrami in 1892.",
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"plaintext": "Milan hosts also one of the largest Muslim communities in Italy, and the city saw the construction of the country's first new mosque featuring a dome and minaret, since the destruction of the ancient mosques of Lucera in the year 1300. In 2014 the City Council agreed on the construction of a new mosque amid bitter political debate, since it is strenuously opposed by right-wing parties such as the Northern League.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, accurate statistics on the Hindu and Sikh presence in Milan metro area are not available; however, various sources estimate that about 40% of the total Indian population living in Italy, or about 50,000 individuals, reside in Lombardy, where a number of Hindu and Sikh temples exist and where they form the largest such communities in Europe after the ones in Britain.",
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"plaintext": "Whereas Rome is Italy's political capital, Milan is the country's industrial and financial heart. With a 2014 GDP estimated at €158.9billion, the province of Milan generates approximately 10% of the national GDP; while the economy of the Lombardy region generates approximately 22% of Italy's GDP (or an estimated €357billion in 2015, roughly the size of Belgium). The province of Milan is home to about 45% of businesses in the Lombardy region and more than 8 percent of all businesses in Italy, including three Fortune 500 companies.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Economist Intelligence Unit, Milan was the 11th most expensive city in Europe and the 22nd most expensive city in the world in 2019, while the well-known Via Monte Napoleone is Europe's most expensive shopping street according to Global Blue.",
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"plaintext": "Since the late 1800s, the area of Milan has been a major industrial and manufacturing centre. Alfa Romeo automobile company and Falck steel group employed thousands of workers in the city until the closure of their sites in Arese in 2004 and Sesto San Giovanni in 1995. Other global industrial companies, such as Edison, Prysmian Group, Riva Group, Saras, Saipem and Techint, maintain their headquarters and significant employment in the city and its suburbs. Other relevant industries active in metro Milan include chemicals (e.g. Mapei, Versalis, Tamoil Italy), home appliances (e.g. Candy), hospitality (UNA Hotels & Resorts), food & beverages (e.g. Bertolli, Campari), machinery, medical technologies (e.g. Amplifon, Bracco), plastics and textiles. The construction (e.g. Webuild), retail (e.g. Esselunga, La Rinascente) and utilities (e.g. A2A, Edison S.p.A., Snam, Sorgenia) sectors are also large employers in the Greater Milan.",
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"plaintext": "Season-related pastries include chiacchiere (flat fritters dusted with sugar) and tortelli (fried spherical cookies) for Carnival, colomba (glazed cake shaped as a dove) for Easter, pane dei morti (\"bread of the (Day of the) Dead\", cookies flavoured with cinnamon) for All Souls' Day and panettone for Christmas. The salame Milano, a salami with a very fine grain, is widespread throughout Italy. Renowned Milanese cheeses are gorgonzola (from the namesake village nearby), mascarpone, used in pastry-making, taleggio and quartirolo.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is well known for its world-class restaurants and cafés, characterised by innovative cuisine and design. , Milan has 157 Michelin-selected places, including three 2-Michelin-starred restaurants; these include Cracco, Sadler and il Luogo di Aimo e Nadia. Many historical restaurants and bars are found in the historic centre, the Brera and Navigli districts. One of the city's oldest surviving cafés, Caffè Cova, was established in 1817. In total, Milan has 15 cafés, bars and restaurants registered among the Historical Places of Italy, continuously operating for at least 70 years.",
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"plaintext": "Milan hosted matches at the FIFA World Cup in 1934 and 1990 and the UEFA European Championship in 1980, and more recently held the 2003 World Rowing Championships, the 2009 World Boxing Championships, and some games of the Men's Volleyball World Championship in 2010 and the final games of the Women's Volleyball World Championship in 2014. In 2018, Milan hosted the World Figure Skating Championships. Milan will host the 2026 Winter Olympics as well as the 2026 Winter Paralympics jointly with Cortina d'Ampezzo.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is also home to Italy's oldest American football team: Rhinos Milano, who have won five Italian Super Bowls. The team plays at the Velodromo Vigorelli, with a capacity of 8,000. Another American football team that use the same venue is the Seamen Milano, who will join the professional European League of Football in 2023. Milan has also two cricket teams: Milano Fiori, currently competing in the second division, and Kingsgrove Milan, who won the Serie A championship in 2014. Amatori Rugby Milano, the most decorated rugby team in Italy, was founded in Milan in 1927. The Monza Formula One circuit is located near the city, inside a suburban park. It is one of the world's oldest car racing circuits. The capacity for the F1 races is currently over 113,000. It has hosted an F1 race nearly every year since the first year of competition, with the exception of 1980.",
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"plaintext": "In road cycling, Milan hosts the start of the annual Milan–San Remo classic one-day race and the annual Milano–Torino one day race. Milan is also the traditional finish for the final stage of the Giro d'Italia, which, along with the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España, is one of cycling's three Grand Tours.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is a major global centre of higher education teaching and research and has the second largest concentration of higher education institutes in Italy after Rome. Milan's higher education system includes 7 universities, 48 faculties and 142 departments, with 185,000 university students enrolled in 2011 (approximately 11 percent of the national total) and the largest number of university graduates and postgraduate students (34,000 and more than 5,000, respectively) in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "The University of Milan (also known as the \"State University\") founded in 1923, is the largest public teaching and research university in the city. The University of Milan is the sixth-largest university in Italy, with approximately 60,000 enrolled students and a teaching staff of 2,500. Most relevant academics are in the fields of medicine, law and politics, and sustainability. Notable alumni such as former Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi and Nobel laureates earned their degree at University of Milan.",
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"plaintext": "University of Milan-Bicocca, established as \"Second University of Milan\" in 1998 and renamed in 1999, is the city's most modern high education institution on science and technology, and born during the 1990s in the effort to release pressure on the overcrowded and older University of Milan. Built over a once industrial area, today enrolls more than 30,000 students, of which more than 60% are females. As its older parent institute, it is one of the most sought-after location for medical students.",
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"plaintext": "The Polytechnic University of Milan is the city's oldest university, founded in 1863. With over 40,000 students, it is the largest technical university in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Catholic University of the Sacred Heart is the largest private teaching university in Europe and the largest Catholic University in the world with 42,000 enrolled students.",
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"plaintext": "Bocconi University is a private management and finance university established in 1902, ranking as the best university in Italy in its fields, and as one of the best in the world. In 2020, QS World University Rankings (viewed as one of the three most-widely read university rankings in the world) ranked the university 7th worldwide and 3rd in Europe in business and management studies, as well as 1st in economics and econometrics outside the U.S. and the U.K.",
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"plaintext": "The Financial Times ranked it the sixth best business school in Europe in 2018. Bocconi University also ranks as the 5th best 1 year MBA course in the world, according to the Forbes 2017 ranking.",
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"plaintext": "Vita-Salute San Raffaele University is a private teaching medical university linked to the San Raffaele Hospital.",
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"plaintext": "University Institute of Languages and Communication (also known as \"University IULM\") is a private teaching university established in 1968, later renamed from its original name \"University Institute of Languages of Milan\", becoming first Italian university offering courses on public relations; later it became a point of reference also for business communication; media and advertising; translation and interpreting; communication in culture and arts markets, tourism and fashion.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is also well known for its fine arts and music schools. The Milan Academy of Fine Arts (Brera Academy) is a public academic institution founded in 1776 by Empress Maria Theresa of Austria; the New Academy of Fine Arts is the largest private art and design university in Italy; the European Institute of Design is a private university specialised in fashion, industrial and interior design, audio/visual design including photography, advertising and marketing and business communication; the Marangoni Institute, is a fashion institute with campuses in Milan, London, and Paris; the Domus Academy is a private postgraduate institution of design, fashion, architecture, interior design and management; the Pontifical Ambrosian Institute of Sacred Music, a college of music founded in 1931 by the blessed cardinal A.I. Schuster, archbishop of Milan, and raised according to the rules by the Holy See in 1940, is—similarly to the Pontifical Institute of Sacred Music in Rome, which is consociated with—an Institute \"ad instar facultatis\" and is authorised to confer university qualifications with canonical validity and the Milan Conservatory, a college of music established in 1807, currently Italy's largest with more than 1,700 students and 240 music teachers.",
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"plaintext": "Milan is one of the key transport nodes of Italy and southern Europe. Its central railway station is Italy's second and Europe's eighth busiest. The Malpensa, Linate and Orio al Serio airports serve the Greater Milan, the largest metropolitan area in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Azienda Trasporti Milanesi (ATM) is the Milanese municipal transport company; it operates 4 metro lines, 18 tram lines, 131 bus lines, 4 trolleybus lines, and 1 people mover line, carrying about 776million passengers in 2018. Overall the network covers nearly reaching 46 municipalities. Besides public transport, ATM manages the interchange parking lots and other transport services including bike sharing and carsharing systems.",
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"plaintext": "The Milan Metro is the rapid transit system serving the city and surrounding municipalities. The network consists of 4 lines (plus one under construction), with a total network length of , and a total of 113 stations, mostly underground. It has a daily ridership of 1.15million, the largest in Italy as well as one of the largest in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The Milan suburban railway service, operated by Trenord, comprises 12 S lines connecting the metropolitan area with the city centre, with possible transfers to all the metro lines. Most S lines run through the Milan Passerby railway, commonly referred to as \"il Passante\" and served by double-decker trains every 4/8 minutes in the central underground section.",
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"plaintext": "Milan Central station, with 120million passengers per year, is the largest and eighth busiest railway station in Europe and the second busiest in Italy after Rome. Milano Cadorna and Milano Porta Garibaldi stations are respectively the seventh and the eleventh busiest stations in Italy. Since the end of 2009, two high-speed train lines link Milan to Rome, Naples and Turin, considerably shortening travel times with other major cities in Italy. Further high-speed lines are under construction towards Genoa and Verona. Milan is served by direct international trains to Nice, Marseille, Lyon, Paris, Lugano, Geneva, Bern, Basel, Zurich and Frankfurt, and by overnight sleeper services to Paris and Dijon (Thello), Munich and Vienna (ÖBB).",
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"plaintext": "Milan is also the core of Lombardy's regional train network. Regional trains were operated on two different systems by LeNord (departing from Milano Cadorna) and Trenitalia (departing from Milan Centrale and Milano Porta Garibaldi). Since 2011, a new company, Trenord, operates both Trenitalia and LeNord regional trains in Lombardy, carrying over 750,000 passengers on more than 50 routes every day.",
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"plaintext": "The city tram network consists of approximately of track and 18 lines, and is Europe's most advanced light rail system. Bus lines cover over . Milan has also taxi services operated by private companies and licensed by the City council of Milan. The city is also a key node for the national road network, being served by all the major highways of Northern Italy. Numerous long-distance bus lines link Milan with many other cities and towns in Lombardy and throughout Italy.",
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"plaintext": " Malpensa Airport is Italy's second-busiest airport with 24.7million passengers served in 2018 and Italy's busiest for freight and cargo, handling about 600,000 tons of international freight in 2018. Malpensa lays from downtown Milan and is connected to the city by the Malpensa Express railway service.",
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"plaintext": " Linate Airport is Milan's city airport, and is now mainly used for domestic and short-haul international flights, serving 9.2million passengers in 2018. Linate Airport is the second largest base for Italy's national flag carrier, Alitalia.",
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"plaintext": " Orio al Serio Airport, located some away, near the town of Bergamo, mainly serves the low-cost traffic of Milan and it is the main base of Ryanair (12.9million passengers served in 2018).",
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"plaintext": "Lastly, Bresso Airfield is a general aviation airport, operated by Aero Club Milano.",
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"plaintext": "The bicycle is becoming an increasingly important mode of transportation in Milan. Since 2008, the implementation of a city-wide network of bike paths has been initiated, to fight congestion and air pollution. During the COVID pandemic in 2019, 35km of bike lanes have been realized on short notice, to relieve pressure on the subway occupation. The bike sharing systems BikeMi has been deployed in almost all the city and enjoys increasing popularity. Stationless commercial bike and scooter sharing systems are widely available.",
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"plaintext": "Milan has fifteen official sister cities as reported on the city's website. The date column indicates the year in which the relationship was established. São Paulo was Milan's first sister city.",
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"plaintext": " São Paulo, Brazil, since 1961",
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"plaintext": " Chicago, United States, since 1962",
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"plaintext": " Lyon, France, since 1967",
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"plaintext": " Frankfurt, Germany, since 1969",
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"plaintext": " Birmingham, United Kingdom, since 1974",
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"plaintext": " Dakar, Senegal, since 1974",
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"plaintext": " Shanghai, China, since 1979",
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"plaintext": " Osaka, Japan, since 1981",
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"plaintext": " Tel Aviv, Israel, since 1997",
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"plaintext": " Bethlehem, Palestine, since 2000",
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"plaintext": " Toronto, Canada, since 2003",
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"plaintext": " Bucaramanga, Colombia since 2012",
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"plaintext": " Kraków, Poland, since 2003",
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"plaintext": " Melbourne, Australia, since 2004",
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"plaintext": " Guadalajara, Mexico, since 2004",
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"plaintext": " Daegu, South Korea, since 2015",
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"plaintext": "The partnership with the city of St. Petersburg, Russia, that started in 1967, was suspended in 2012 (a decision taken by the city of Milan), because of the prohibition of the Russian government on \"homosexual propaganda\".",
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"plaintext": "Milan has the following collaborations:",
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{
"plaintext": " Algiers, Algeria",
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"plaintext": " Amsterdam, Netherlands",
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{
"plaintext": " Barcelona, Spain",
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"plaintext": " Bilbao, Spain",
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"plaintext": " Chengdu, China",
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"plaintext": " Copenhagen, Denmark",
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"plaintext": " Guangzhou, China",
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"plaintext": " Dubai, United Arab Emirates",
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"plaintext": " Moscow, Russia",
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"plaintext": " New York, United States",
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"plaintext": " Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan",
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"plaintext": " Saitama Prefecture, Japan",
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"plaintext": " Tegucigalpa, Honduras",
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"plaintext": " Tehran, Iran",
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"plaintext": "People awarded the honorary citizenship of Milan are:",
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"plaintext": " List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits",
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"plaintext": " Outline of Italy",
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"plaintext": " Outline of Milan",
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"plaintext": " Biscione",
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"plaintext": " ATM—Milan's Transportation Company",
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"plaintext": " Rete Metropolitana di Milano ",
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"plaintext": " Videotour in Milan",
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"plaintext": " Photo gallery made by a UNESCO photographer",
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| [
"Milan",
"Cities_and_towns_in_Lombardy",
"Municipalities_of_the_Metropolitan_City_of_Milan",
"1st-millennium_BC_establishments_in_Italy",
"Former_capitals_of_Italy",
"Populated_places_established_in_the_6th_century_BC"
]
| 490 | 114,393 | 18,490 | 893 | 0 | 0 | Milan | Italian commune and capital city of Lombardy | [
"Milano",
"Milano, Italy",
"Milan, Italy",
"Mailand",
"Milan Records"
]
|
36,513 | 1,052,159,219 | Venice_(disambiguation) | [
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"plaintext": " Music of Venice, the city's role in the development of the music of Italy",
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"plaintext": " Venice (Anderson Paak album), 2014",
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"plaintext": " Venice (band), a band from Venice, California",
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"plaintext": " Venice (musical), first produced in 2010 in Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.",
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"plaintext": " Venice, Los Angeles, a neighborhood on the Westside of the city, California",
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"plaintext": " Venice, Louisiana, an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Plaquemines Parish",
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"plaintext": " Venice, Missouri, an unincorporated community",
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"plaintext": " Venice, Ohio, former name of Ross, a census-designated place in Butler County",
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"plaintext": " Venice, Utah, an unincorporated community in Sevier County",
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"plaintext": " Venice, Alberta, Canada, a hamlet in Lac La Biche County",
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"plaintext": " Venise, Doubs, a commune of the Doubs département, in France",
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"plaintext": " Klein-Venedig (Little Venice), Venezuela, a 16th-century German colony",
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"plaintext": " \"Brazilian Venice\", nickname for Recife, Brazil",
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"plaintext": " The Green Venice or Marais Poitevin, a large area of marshland in western France",
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"plaintext": " \"Venice of America\", nickname for Fort Lauderdale, Florida, U.S.",
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"plaintext": " Venice of Cieszyn, part of the Old Town of Cieszyn, Poland",
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"plaintext": " Venice of Portugal, nickname for Aveiro, Portugal",
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"plaintext": " \"Venice of the Pacific\", nickname for the ruins of Nan Madol at Pohnpei",
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"plaintext": " Venice Kamel Gouda (born 1934), Egyptian research professor and a former Minister of State for Scientific Research",
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"plaintext": " Venice, from the Porch of Madonna della Salute, an 1835 painting by J. M. W. Turner",
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"plaintext": " Sony VENICE, a Sony E-mount camera",
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36,517 | 1,104,887,408 | The_Who | [
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"plaintext": "The Who are an English rock band formed in London in 1964. Their classic lineup consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist and singer John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered one of the most influential rock bands of the 20thcentury, and have sold over 100 million records worldwide. Their contributions to rock music include the development of the Marshall Stack, large PA systems, the use of the synthesizer, Entwistle and Moon's influential playing styles, Townshend's feedback and power chord guitar technique, and the development of the rock opera. They are cited as an influence by many hard rock, punk rock, power pop and mod bands, and their songs are still regularly played. The Who were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990. ",
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"plaintext": "The Who developed from an earlier group, the Detours, and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements, featuring auto-destructive art by destroying guitars and drums on stage. Their first single as the Who, \"I Can't Explain\" (1965), reached the UK topten, and was followed by a string of hit singles including \"My Generation\" (1965), \"Substitute\" (1966) and \"Happy Jack\" (1966). In 1967, they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released \"I Can See for Miles\", their only US topten single. The group's 1969 concept album Tommy included the single \"Pinball Wizard\" and was a critical and commercial success.",
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"plaintext": "Further festival appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight, along with the concert album Live at Leeds (1970), established their reputation as a respected rock act. The success put pressure on lead songwriter Townshend, and the follow-up to Tommy, Lifehouse, was abandoned. Songs from the project made up Who's Next (1971), including the hits \"Won't Get Fooled Again\", \"Baba O'Riley\", and \"Behind Blue Eyes\". The group released another concept album, Quadrophenia (1973), as a celebration of their mod roots, and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy (1975). They continued to tour to large audiences before semi-retiring from live performances at the end of 1976. The release of Who Are You (1978) was overshadowed by Moon's death shortly after.",
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"plaintext": "Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed touring, and released a film adaptation of Quadrophenia and the retrospective documentary The Kids Are Alright. After Townshend became weary of the group, they split in 1983. The Who occasionally re-formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985, a 25thanniversary tour in 1989 and a tour of Quadrophenia in 1996–1997. A full reunion began in 1999, with drummer Zak Starkey. After Entwistle's death in 2002, plans for a new album were delayed until 2006, with Endless Wire. Since Entwistle's death, the Who have continued to perform and tour, most commonly with Starkey on drums, Pino Palladino on bass, and Pete's brother Simon Townshend on second guitar and backing vocals. In 2019, the group released the album Who and toured with a symphony orchestra.",
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"plaintext": "The founding members of the Who, Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend and John Entwistle, grew up in Acton, London and went to Acton County Grammar School. Townshend's father, Cliff, played saxophone and his mother, Betty, had sung in the entertainment division of the Royal Air Force during World War II, and both supported their son's interest in rock and roll. Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their second year of Acton County, and formed a trad jazz group; Entwistle also played French horn in the Middlesex Schools' Symphony Orchestra. Both were interested in rock, and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richard's début single, \"Move It\". Entwistle moved to guitar, but struggled with it due to his large fingers, and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy. He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home. After Acton County, Townshend attended Ealing Art College, a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who.",
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"plaintext": "Daltrey, who was in the year above, had moved to Acton from Shepherd's Bush, a more working-class area. He had trouble fitting in at the school, and discovered gangs and rock and roll. He was expelled at 15 and found work on a building site. In 1959 he started the Detours, the band that was to evolve into the Who. The band played professional gigs, such as corporate and wedding functions, and Daltrey kept a close eye on the finances as well as the music.",
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"plaintext": "Daltrey spotted Entwistle by chance on the street carrying a bass and recruited him into the Detours. In mid-1961, Entwistle suggested Townshend as a guitarist, Daltrey on lead guitar, Entwistle on bass, Harry Wilson on drums, and Colin Dawson on vocals. The band played instrumentals by the Shadows and the Ventures, and a variety of pop and trad jazz covers. Daltrey was considered the leader and, according to Townshend, \"ran things the way he wanted them\". Wilson was fired in mid-1962 and replaced by Doug Sandom, though he was older than the rest of the band, married, and a more proficient musician, having been playing semi-professionally for two years.",
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"plaintext": "Dawson left after frequently arguing with Daltrey and after being briefly replaced by Gabby Connolly, Daltrey moved to lead vocals. Townshend, with Entwistle's encouragement, became the sole guitarist. Through Townshend's mother, the group obtained a management contract with local promoter Robert Druce, who started booking the band as a support act. The Detours were influenced by the bands they supported, including Screaming Lord Sutch, Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers, Shane Fenton and the Fentones, and Johnny Kidd and the Pirates. The Detours were particularly interested in the Pirates as they also only had one guitarist, Mick Green, who inspired Townshend to combine rhythm and lead guitar in his style. Entwistle's bass became more of a lead instrument, playing melodies. In February 1964, the Detours became aware of the group Johnny Devlin and the Detours and changed their name. Townshend and his house-mate Richard Barnes spent a night considering names, focusing on a theme of joke announcements, including \"No One\" and \"the Group\". Townshend preferred \"the Hair\", and Barnes liked \"the Who\" because it \"had a pop punch\". Daltrey chose \"the Who\" the next morning.",
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"plaintext": "By the time the Detours had become the Who, they had already found regular gigs, including at the Oldfield Hotel in Greenford, the White Hart Hotel in Acton, the Goldhawk Social Club in Shepherd's Bush, and the Notre Dame Hall in Leicester Square. They had also replaced Druce as manager with Helmut Gorden, with whom they secured an audition with Chris Parmeinter for Fontana Records. Parmeinter found problems with the drumming and, according to Sandom, Townshend immediately turned on him and threatened to fire him if his playing did not immediately improve. Sandom left in disgust, but was persuaded to lend his kit to any potential stand-ins or replacements. Sandom and Townshend did not speak to each other again for 14 years.",
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"plaintext": "During a gig with a stand-in drummer in late April at the Oldfield, the band first met Keith Moon. Moon grew up in Wembley, and had been drumming in bands since 1961. He was performing with a semi-professional band called the Beachcombers, and wanted to play full-time. Moon played a few songs with the group, breaking a bass drum pedal and tearing a drum skin. The band were impressed with his energy and enthusiasm, and offered him the job. Moon performed with the Beachcombers a few more times, but dates clashed and he chose to devote himself to the Who. The Beachcombers auditioned Sandom, but were unimpressed and did not ask him to join.",
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"plaintext": "The Who changed managers to Peter Meaden. He decided that the group would be ideal to represent the growing mod movement in Britain which involved fashion, scooters and music genres such as rhythm and blues, soul and Modern Jazz. He renamed the group the High Numbers, dressed them up in mod clothes, secured a second, more favourable audition with Fontana and wrote the lyrics for both sides of their single \"Zoot Suit\"/\"I'm the Face\" to appeal to mods. The tune for \"Zoot Suit\" was \"Misery\" by the Dynamics, and \"I'm the Face\" borrowed from Slim Harpo's \"I Got Love If You Want It\". Although Meaden tried to promote the single, it failed to reach the top 50 and the band reverted to calling themselves the Who. The group none of whom played their instruments conventionally began to improve their stage image; Daltrey started using his microphone cable as a whip on stage, and occasionally leapt into the crowd; Moon threw drumsticks into the air mid-beat; Townshend mimed machine-gunning the crowd with his guitar while jumping on stage and playing guitar with a fast arm-windmilling motion, or stood with his arms aloft allowing his guitar to produce feedback in a posture dubbed \"the Bird Man\".",
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"plaintext": "Meaden was replaced as manager by two filmmakers, Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp. They were looking for a young, unsigned rock group that they could make a film about, and had seen the band at the Railway Hotel in Wealdstone, which had become a regular venue for them. Lambert related to Townshend and his art school background, and encouraged him to write songs. In August, Lambert and Stamp made a promotional film featuring the group and their audience at the Railway. The band changed their set towards soul, rhythm and blues and Motown covers, and created the slogan \"Maximum R&B\".",
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"plaintext": "In June 1964, during a performance at the Railway, Townshend accidentally broke the head of his guitar on the low ceiling of the stage. Angered by the audience's laughter, he smashed the instrument on the stage, then picked up another guitar and continued the show. The following week, the audience were keen to see a repeat of the event. Moon obliged by kicking his drum kit over, and auto-destructive art became a feature of the Who's live set.",
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"plaintext": "By late1964, the Who were becoming popular in London's Marquee Club, and a rave review of their live act appeared in Melody Maker. Lambert and Stamp attracted the attention of the American producer Shel Talmy, who had produced the Kinks. Townshend had written a song, \"I Can't Explain\", that deliberately sounded like the Kinks to attract Talmy's attention. Talmy saw the group in rehearsals and was impressed. He signed them to his production company, and sold the recording to the US arm of Decca Records, which meant that the group's early singles were released in Britain on Brunswick Records, one of UK Decca's labels for US artists. \"I Can't Explain\" was recorded in early November 1964 at Pye Studios in Marble Arch with the Ivy League on backing vocals, and Jimmy Page played fuzz guitar on the B-side, \"Bald Headed Woman\".",
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"plaintext": "\"I Can't Explain\" became popular with pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline. Pirate radio was important for bands as there were no commercial radio stations in the UK and BBC Radio played little pop music. The group gained further exposure when they appeared on the television programme Ready Steady Go! Lambert and Stamp were tasked with finding \"typical teens\", and invited the group's regular audience from the Goldhawk Social Club. Enthusiastic reception on television and regular airplay on pirate radio helped the single slowly climb the charts in early 1965 until it reached the top 10. In early 1965, The Who made their first appearance on the television music show, Top of the Pops, at the BBC's Dickenson Road Studios in Manchester, with \"I Can't Explain\".",
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"plaintext": "The next single, \"My Generation\", followed in October. Townshend had written it as a slow blues, but after several abortive attempts, it was turned into a more powerful song with a bass solo from Entwistle. The song used gimmicks such as a vocal stutter to simulate the speech of a mod on amphetamines, and two key changes. Townshend insisted in interviews that the lyrics \"Hope I die before I get old\" were not meant to be taken literally. Peaking at No.2, \"My Generation\" is the group's highest-charting single in the UK. The debut album My Generation was released in late 1965. Among original material by Townshend, including the title track and \"The Kids Are Alright\", the album has several James Brown covers from the session earlier that year that Daltrey favoured.",
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"plaintext": "After My Generation, the Who fell out with Talmy, which meant an abrupt end to their recording contract. The resulting legal acrimony resulted in Talmy holding the rights to the master tapes, which prevented the album from being reissued until 2002. The Who were signed to Robert Stigwood's label, Reaction, and released \"Substitute\". Townshend said he wrote the song about identity crisis, and as a parody of the Rolling Stones's \"19th Nervous Breakdown\". It was the first single to feature him playing an acoustic twelve-string guitar. Talmy took legal action over the B-side, \"Instant Party\", and the single was withdrawn. A new B-side, \"Waltz for a Pig\", was recorded by the Graham Bond Organisation under the pseudonym \"the Who Orchestra\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1966 the Who released \"I'm a Boy\", about a boy dressed as a girl, taken from an abortive collection of songs called Quads; \"Happy Jack\"; and an EP, Ready Steady Who, that tied in with their regular appearances on Ready Steady Go! The group continued to have conflict; on 20 May, Moon and Entwistle were late to a gig having been on the Ready Steady Go! set with The Beach Boys' Bruce Johnston. During \"My Generation\", Townshend attacked Moon with his guitar; Moon suffered a black eye and bruises, and he and Entwistle left the band, but changed their minds and rejoined a week later. Moon kept looking for other work, and Jeff Beck had him play drums on his song \"Beck's Bolero\" (with Page, John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins) because he was \"trying to get Keith out of the Who\".",
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"plaintext": "To alleviate financial pressure on the band, Lambert arranged a song-writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album. Entwistle contributed \"Boris the Spider\" and \"Whiskey Man\" and found a niche role as second songwriter. The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes, and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece, \"A Quick One, While He's Away\". The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away, but is ultimately forgiven. The album was titled A Quick One (Happy Jack in the US), and reached No.4 in the UK charts. It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single \"Pictures of Lily\".",
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"plaintext": "By 1966, Ready Steady Go! had ended, the mod movement was becoming unfashionable, and the Who found themselves in competition on the London circuit with groups including Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Lambert and Stamp realised that commercial success in the US was paramount to the group's future, and arranged a deal with promoter Frank Barsalona for a short package tour in New York. The group's performances, which still involved smashing guitars and kicking over drums, were well received, and led to their first major US appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival. The group, especially Moon, were not fond of the hippie movement, and thought their violent stage act would stand in sharp contrast to the peaceful atmosphere of the festival. Hendrix was also on the bill, and was also going to smash his guitar on stage. Townshend verbally abused Hendrix and accused him of stealing his act, and the pair argued about who should go on stage first, with the Who winning the argument. The Who brought hired equipment to the festival; Hendrix shipped over his regular touring gear from Britain, including a full Marshall stack. According to biographer Tony Fletcher, Hendrix sounded \"so much better than the Who it was embarrassing\". The Who's appearance at Monterey gave them recognition in the US, and \"Happy Jack\" reached the top 30.",
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"plaintext": "The group followed Monterey with a US tour supporting Herman's Hermits. The Hermits were a straightforward pop band and enjoyed drugs and practical jokes. They bonded with Moon, who was excited to learn that cherry bombs were legal to purchase in Alabama. Moon acquired a reputation of destroying hotel rooms while on tour, with a particular interest in blowing up toilets. Entwistle said the first cherry bomb they tried \"blew a hole in the suitcase and the chair\". Moon recalled his first attempt to flush one down the toilet: \"[A]ll that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable. I never realised dynamite was so powerful.\" After a gig in Flint, Michigan on Moon's 21st birthday on 23 August 1967, the entourage caused $24,000 of damage at the hotel, and Moon knocked out one of his front teeth. Daltrey later said that the tour brought the band closer, and as the support act, they could turn up and perform a short show without any major responsibilities.",
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"plaintext": "After the Hermits tour, the Who recorded their next single, \"I Can See for Miles\", which Townshend had written in 1966 but had avoided recording until he was sure it could be produced well. Townshend called it \"the ultimate Who record\", and was disappointed it reached only No.10 in the UK. It became their best selling single in the US, reaching No.9. The group toured the US again with Eric Burdon and the Animals, including an appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, miming to \"I Can See For Miles\" and \"My Generation\". Moon bribed a stage hand to put explosives in his drum kit, who loaded it with ten times the expected quantity. The resulting detonation threw Moon off his drum riser and his arm was cut by a flying piece of a cymbal. Townshend's hair was singed and his left ear left ringing, and a camera and studio monitor were destroyed.",
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"plaintext": "The next album was The Who Sell Out a concept album paying tribute to pirate radio, which had been outlawed in August 1967 by the Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967. It included humorous jingles and mock commercials between songs, a mini rock opera called \"Rael\", and \"I Can See For Miles\". The Who declared themselves a pop art group and thus viewed advertising as an artform; they recorded a wide variety of radio advertisements, such as for canned milkshakes and the American Cancer Society, in defiance of the rising anti-consumerist ethos of the hippie counterculture. Townshend stated, \"We don't change offstage. We live pop art.\" Later that year, Lambert and Stamp formed a record label, Track Records, with distribution by Polydor. As well as signing Hendrix, Track became the imprint for all the Who's UK output until the mid-1970s.",
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"plaintext": "The group started 1968 by touring Australia and New Zealand with the Small Faces. The groups had trouble with the local authorities and the New Zealand Truth called them \"unwashed, foul-smelling, booze-swilling no-hopers\". After an incident that took place on a flight to Sydney, the band were briefly arrested in Melbourne and then forced to leave the country; Prime Minister John Gorton sent a telegram to The Who telling them never to return to Australia. The Who would not return to Australia again until 2004. They continued to tour across the US and Canada during the first half of the year.",
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"plaintext": "By 1968 the Who had started to attract attention in the underground press. Townshend had stopped using drugs and became interested in the teachings of Meher Baba. In August, he gave an interview to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner describing in detail the plot of a new album project and its relationship to Baba's teachings. The album went through several names during recording, including Deaf Dumb and Blind Boy and Amazing Journey; Townshend settled on Tommy for the album about the life of a deaf, dumb and blind boy, and his attempt to communicate with others. Some songs, such as \"Welcome\" and \"Amazing Journey\", were inspired by Baba's teaching, and others came from observations within the band. \"Sally Simpson\" is about a fan who tried to climb on stage at a gig by the Doors that they attended and \"Pinball Wizard\" was written so that New York Times journalist Nik Cohn, a pinball enthusiast, would give the album a good review. Townshend later said, \"I wanted the story of Tommy to have several levels... a rock singles level and a bigger concept level\", containing the spiritual message he wanted as well as being entertaining. The album was projected for a Christmas 1968 release but recording stalled after Townshend decided to make a double album to cover the story in sufficient depth.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the year, 18 months of touring had led to a well-rehearsed and tight live band, which was evident when they performed \"A Quick One While He's Away\" at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus television special. The Stones considered their own performance lacklustre, and the project was never broadcast. The Who had not released an album in over a year, and had not completed the recording of Tommy, which continued well into 1969, interspersed with gigs at weekends. Lambert was a key figure in keeping the group focused and getting the album completed, and typed up a script to help them understand the story and how the songs fitted together.",
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"plaintext": "The album was released in May with the accompanying single, \"Pinball Wizard\", a début performance at Ronnie Scott's, and a tour, playing most of the new album live. Tommy sold 200,000 copies in the US in its first two weeks, and was a critical smash, Life saying, \"for sheer power, invention and brilliance of performance, Tommy outstrips anything which has ever come out of a recording studio\". Melody Maker declared: \"Surely the Who are now the band against which all others are to be judged.\" Daltrey had significantly improved as a singer, and set a template for rock singers in the 1970s by growing his hair long and wearing open shirts on stage. Townshend had taken to wearing a boiler suit and Doctor Martens shoes.",
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"plaintext": "In August, the Who performed at the Woodstock Festival, despite being reluctant and demanding $13,000 up front. The group were scheduled to appear on Saturday night, 16 August, but the festival ran late and they did not take to the stage until 5am on Sunday; they played most of Tommy. During their performance, Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman interrupted the set to give a political speech about the arrest of John Sinclair; Townshend kicked him off stage, shouting: \"Fuck off my fucking stage!\" During \"See Me, Feel Me\", the sun rose almost as if on cue; Entwistle later said, \"God was our lighting man\". At the end, Townshend threw his guitar into the audience. The set was professionally recorded and filmed, and portions appear on the Woodstock film, The Old Grey Whistle Test and The Kids Are Alright.",
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"plaintext": "Woodstock has been regarded as culturally significant, but the Who were critical of the event. Roadie John \"Wiggie\" Wolff, who arranged the band's payment, described it as \"a shambles\". Daltrey declared it as \"the worst gig ever played\" and Townshend said, \"I thought the whole of America had gone mad.\" A more enjoyable appearance came a few weeks later at the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival in England, which Townshend described as \"a great concert for\" the band. According to Townshend, at the end of the Isle of Wight gig the field was covered in rubbish left by fans (which the band's roadies helped to clear up), which inspired the line \"teenage wasteland\" from their single \"Baba O'Riley\".",
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"plaintext": "By 1970, the Who were widely considered one of the best and most popular live rock bands; Chris Charlesworth described their concerts as \"leading to a kind of rock nirvana that most bands can only dream about\". They decided a live album would help demonstrate how different the sound at their gigs was to Tommy, and set about listening to the hours of recordings they had accumulated. Townshend baulked at the prospect of doing so, and demanded that all the tapes be burned. Instead, they booked two shows, one in Leeds on 14 February, and one in Hull the following day, with the intention of recording a live album. Technical problems from the Hull gig resulted in the Leeds gig being used, which became Live at Leeds. The album is viewed by several critics including The Independent, The Telegraph and the BBC, as one of the best live rock albums of all time.",
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"plaintext": "The Tommy tour included shows in European opera houses and saw the Who become the first rock act to play at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. In March the Who released the UK top20 hit \"The Seeker\", continuing a theme of issuing singles separate to albums. Townshend wrote the song to commemorate the common man, as a contrast to the themes on Tommy. The tour included their second appearance at the Isle of Wight Festival. A record attendance in England which the Guinness Book of Records estimated at between 600,000 and 700,000 people, the Who began their set at 2:00 A.M. on Sunday 30 August.",
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"plaintext": "Tommy secured the Who's future, and made them millionaires. The group reacted in different ways Daltrey and Entwistle lived comfortably, Townshend was embarrassed at his wealth, which he felt was at odds with Meher Baba's ideals, and Moon spent frivolously.",
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"plaintext": "During the latter part of 1970, Townshend plotted a follow up Tommy: Lifehouse, which was to be a multi-media project symbolising the relationship between an artist and his audience. He developed ideas in his home studio, creating layers of synthesizers, and the Young Vic theatre in London was booked for a series of experimental concerts. Townshend approached the gigs with optimism; the rest of the band were just happy to be gigging again. Eventually, the others complained to Townshend that the project was too complicated and they should simply record another album. Things deteriorated until Townshend had a nervous breakdown and abandoned Lifehouse. Entwistle was the first member of the group to release a solo album, Smash Your Head Against the Wall, in May 1971.",
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"plaintext": "Recording at the Record Plant in New York City in March 1971 was abandoned when Lambert's addiction to hard drugs interfered with his ability to produce. The group restarted with Glyn Johns in April. The album was mostly Lifehouse material, with one unrelated song by Entwistle, \"My Wife\", and was released as Who's Next in August. The album reached No.1 in the UK and No.4 in the US. \"Baba O'Riley\" and \"Won't Get Fooled Again\" are early examples of synthesizer use in rock, featuring keyboard sounds generated in real time by a Lowrey organ; on \"Won't Get Fooled Again\", it was further processed through a VCS3 synthesizer. The synthesizer intro to \"Baba O'Riley\" was programmed based on Meher Baba's vital stats, and the track featured a violin solo by Dave Arbus. The album was a critical and commercial success, and has been certified 3× platinum by the RIAA. The Who continued to issue Lifehouse-related material over the next few years, including the singles \"Let's See Action\", \"Join Together\" and \"Relay\".",
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"plaintext": "The band went back on tour, and \"Baba O' Riley\" and \"Won't Get Fooled Again\" became live favourites. In November they performed at the newly opened Rainbow Theatre in London for three nights, continuing in the US later that month, where Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times described the Who as \"the Greatest Show on Earth\". The tour was slightly disrupted at the Civic Auditorium in San Francisco on 12 December when Moon passed out over his kit after overdosing on brandy and barbiturates. He recovered and completed the gig, playing to his usual strength.",
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"plaintext": "After touring Who's Next, and needing time to write a follow-up, Townshend insisted that the Who take a lengthy break, as they had not stopped touring since the band started. There was no group activity until May 1972, when they started working on a proposed new album, Rock Is Dead—Long Live Rock!, but, unhappy with the recordings, abandoned the sessions. Tensions began to emerge as Townshend believed Daltrey just wanted a money-making band and Daltrey thought Townshend's projects were getting pretentious. Moon's behaviour was becoming increasingly destructive and problematic through excessive drinking and drugs use, and a desire to party and tour. Daltrey performed an audit of the group's finances and discovered that Lambert and Stamp had not kept sufficient records. He believed them to be no longer effective managers, which Townshend and Moon disputed. The painful dissolution of the managerial and personal relationships are recounted in James D. Cooper's 2014 retrospective documentary, Lambert & Stamp. Following a short European tour, the remainder of 1972 was spent working on an orchestral version of Tommy with Lou Reizner.",
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"plaintext": "By 1973, the Who turned to recording the album Quadrophenia about mod and its subculture, set against clashes with Rockers in early 1960s Britain. The story is about a boy named Jimmy, who undergoes a personality crisis, and his relationship with his family, friends and mod culture. The music features four themes, reflecting the four personalities of the Who. Townshend played multi-tracked synthesizers, and Entwistle played several overdubbed horn parts. By the time the album was being recorded, relationships between the band and Lambert and Stamp had broken down irreparably, and Bill Curbishley replaced them. The album reached No.2 in both the UK and US.",
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"plaintext": "The Quadrophenia tour started in Stoke on Trent in October and was immediately beset with problems. Daltrey resisted Townshend's wish to add Joe Cocker's keyboardist Chris Stainton (who played on the album) to the touring band. As a compromise, Townshend assembled the keyboard and synthesizer parts on backing tapes, as such a strategy had been successful with \"Baba O'Riley\" and \"Won't Get Fooled Again\". The technology was not sophisticated enough to deal with the demands of the music; added to this issue, tour rehearsals had been interrupted due to an argument that culminated in Daltrey punching Townshend and knocking him out cold. At a gig in Newcastle, the tapes completely malfunctioned, and an enraged Townshend dragged sound-man Bob Pridden on-stage, screamed at him, kicked all the amps over and partially destroyed the backing tapes. The show was abandoned for an \"oldies\" set, at the end of which Townshend smashed his guitar and Moon kicked over his drumkit. The Independent described this gig as one of the worst of all time. The US tour started on 20 November at the Cow Palace in Daly City, California; Moon passed out during \"Won't Get Fooled Again\" and during \"Magic Bus\". Townshend asked the audience, \"Can anyone play the drums? I mean somebody good.\" An audience member, Scot Halpin, filled in for the rest of the show. After a show in Montreal, the band (except for Daltrey, who retired to bed early) caused so much damage to their hotel room, including destroying an antique painting and ramming a marble table through a wall, that federal law enforcement arrested them.",
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"plaintext": "By 1974, work had begun in earnest on a Tommy film. Stigwood suggested Ken Russell as director, whose previous work Townshend had admired. The film featured a star-studded cast, including the band members. David Essex auditioned for the title role, but the band persuaded Daltrey to take it. The cast included Ann-Margret, Oliver Reed, Eric Clapton, Tina Turner, Elton John and Jack Nicholson. Townshend and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for most of the year, handling the bulk of the instrumentation. Moon had moved to Los Angeles, so they used session drummers, including Kenney Jones (who would later join the Who). Elton John used his own band for \"Pinball Wizard\". Filming was from April until August. 1500extras appeared in the \"Pinball Wizard\" sequence.",
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"plaintext": "The film premiered on 18 March 1975 to a standing ovation. Townshend was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score. Tommy was shown at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival, but not in the main competition. It won the award for Rock Movie of the Year in the First Annual Rock Music Awards and generated over $2million in its first month. The soundtrack reached numbertwo on the Billboard charts.",
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"plaintext": "Work on Tommy took up most of 1974, and live performances by the Who were restricted to a show in May at the Valley, the home of Charlton Athletic, in front of 80,000 fans, and a few dates at Madison Square Garden in June. Towards the end of the year, the group released the out-takes album Odds & Sods, which featured several songs from the aborted Lifehouse project.",
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"plaintext": "In 1975, Daltrey and Townshend disagreed about the band's future and criticised each other via interviews in the music paper New Musical Express. Daltrey was grateful that the Who had saved him from a career as a sheet-metal worker and was unhappy at Townshend not playing well; Townshend felt the commitment of the group prevented him from releasing solo material. The next album, The Who by Numbers, had introspective songs from Townshend that dealt with disillusionment such as \"However Much I Booze\" and \"How Many Friends\"; they resembled his later solo work. Entwistle's \"Success Story\" gave a humorous look at the music industry, and \"Squeeze Box\" was a hit single. The group toured from October, playing little new material and few Quadrophenia numbers, and reintroducing several from Tommy. The American leg of the tour began in Houston to a crowd of 18,000 at The Summit Arena, and was supported by Toots and the Maytals. On 6 December 1975, the Who set the record for largest indoor concert at the Pontiac Silverdome, attended by 78,000. On 31 May 1976, they played a second concert at the Valley which was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the world's loudest concert at over 120dB. Townshend had become fed up of touring but Entwistle considered live performance to be at a peak.",
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"plaintext": "After the 1976 tour, Townshend took most of the following year off to spend time with his family. He discovered that former Beatles and Rolling Stones manager Allen Klein had bought a stake in his publishing company. A settlement was reached, but Townshend was upset and disillusioned that Klein had attempted to take ownership of his songs. Townshend went to the Speakeasy where he met the Sex Pistols' Steve Jones and Paul Cook, fans of the Who. After leaving, he passed out in a doorway, where a policeman said he would not be arrested if he could stand and walk. The events inspired the title track of the next album, Who Are You.",
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"plaintext": "The group reconvened in September 1977, but Townshend announced there would be no live performances for the immediate future, a decision that Daltrey endorsed. By this point, Moon was so unhealthy that the Who conceded it would be difficult for him to cope with touring. The only gig that year was an informal show on 15 December at the Gaumont State Cinema in Kilburn, London, filmed for the documentary The Kids Are Alright. The band had not played for 14 months, and their performance was so weak that the footage was unused. Moon's playing was particularly lacklustre and he had gained a lot of weight, though Daltrey later said, \"even at his worst, Keith Moon was amazing.\"",
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"plaintext": "Recording of Who Are You started in January 1978. Daltrey clashed with Johns over the production of his vocals, and Moon's drumming was so poor that Daltrey and Entwistle considered firing him. Moon's playing improved, but on one track, \"Music Must Change\", he was replaced as he could not play in 6/8 time. In May, the Who filmed another performance at Shepperton Sound Studios for The Kids Are Alright. This performance was strong, and several tracks were used in the film. It was the last gig Moon performed with the Who.",
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"plaintext": "The album was released on 18 August, and became their biggest and fastest seller to date, peaking at No.6 in the UK and No.2 in the US. Instead of touring, Daltrey, Townshend and Moon did a series of promotional television interviews, and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for The Kids Are Alright.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 September, Moon attended a party held by Paul McCartney to celebrate Buddy Holly's birthday. Returning to his flat, Moon took 32 tablets of clomethiazole which had been prescribed to combat his alcohol withdrawal. He passed out the following morning and was discovered dead later that day.",
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"plaintext": "The day after Moon's death, Townshend issued the statement: \"We are more determined than ever to carry on, and we want the spirit of the group to which Keith contributed so much to go on, although no human being can ever take his place.\" Drummer Phil Collins, having a temporary break from Genesis after his first marriage had failed, was at a loose end and asked to replace Moon, but Townshend had already asked Kenney Jones, who had previously played with the Small Faces and Faces. Jones officially joined the band in November 1978. John \"Rabbit\" Bundrick joined the live band as an unofficial keyboardist. On 2 May 1979, the Who returned to the stage with a concert at the Rainbow Theatre, followed by the Cannes Film Festival in France and dates at Madison Square Garden in New York.",
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"plaintext": "The Quadrophenia film was released that year. It was directed by Franc Roddam in his feature-directing début, and had straightforward acting rather than musical numbers as in Tommy. John Lydon was considered for Jimmy, but the role went to Phil Daniels. Sting played Jimmy's friend and fellow mod, the Ace Face. The soundtrack was Jones' first appearance on a Who record, performing on newly written material not on the original album. The film was a critical and box office success in the UK and appealed to the growing mod revival movement. The Jam were influenced by the Who, and critics noticed a similarity between Townshend and the group's leader, Paul Weller.",
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"plaintext": "The Kids Are Alright was also completed in 1979. It was a retrospective of the band's career, directed by Jeff Stein. The film included footage of the band at Monterey, Woodstock and Pontiac, and clips from the Smothers Brothers' show and Russell Harty Plus. Moon had died one week after seeing the rough cut with Daltrey. The film contains the Shepperton concert, and an audio track of him playing over silent footage of himself was the last time he ever played the drums.",
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"plaintext": "In December, the Who became the third band, after the Beatles and the Band, to appear on the cover of Time. The article, by Jay Cocks, said the band had outpaced, outlasted, outlived and outclassed all of their rock band contemporaries.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 December 1979, a crowd crush at a Who gig at the Riverfront Coliseum, Cincinnati killed 11 fans. This was partly due to the festival seating, where the first to enter get the best positions. Some fans waiting outside mistook the band's soundcheck for the concert, and attempted to force their way inside. As only a few entrance doors were opened, a bottleneck situation ensued with thousands trying to gain entry, and the crush became deadly.",
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"plaintext": "The Who were not told until after the show because civic authorities feared crowd problems if the concert were cancelled. The band were deeply shaken upon learning of it and requested that appropriate safety precautions be taken in the future. The following evening, in Buffalo, New York, Daltrey told the crowd that the band had \"lost a lot of family last night and this show's for them\".",
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"plaintext": "Daltrey took a break in 1980 to work on the film McVicar, in which he took the lead role of bank robber John McVicar. The soundtrack album is a Daltrey solo album, though all members of the Who are included in the supporting musicians, and was his most successful solo release.",
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"plaintext": "The Who released two studio albums with Jones as drummer, Face Dances (1981) and It's Hard (1982). Face Dances produced a US top20 and UK top ten hit with the single \"You Better You Bet\", whose video was one of the first shown on MTV. Both Face Dances and It's Hard sold well and the latter received a five-star review in Rolling Stone. The single \"Eminence Front\" from It's Hard was a hit, and became a regular at live shows. By this time Townshend had fallen into depression, wondering if he was no longer a visionary. He was again at odds with Daltrey and Entwistle, who merely wanted to tour and play hits and thought Townshend had saved his best songs for his solo album, Empty Glass (1980). Jones' drumming style was very different from Moon's and this drew criticism within the band. Townshend briefly became addicted to heroin before cleaning up early in 1982 after treatment with Meg Patterson.",
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"plaintext": "Townshend wanted the Who to stop touring and become a studio act; Entwistle threatened to quit, saying, \"I don't intend to get off the road... there's not much I can do about it except hope they change their minds.\" Townshend did not change his mind, and so the Who embarked on a farewell tour of the US and Canada with the Clash as support, ending in Toronto on 17 December 1982.",
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"plaintext": "Townshend spent part of 1983 writing material for a Who studio album owed to Warner Bros. Records from a contract in 1980, but he found himself unable to generate music appropriate for the Who and at the end of 1983 paid for himself and Jones to be released from the contract. On 16 December 1983, Townshend announced at a press conference that he was leaving the Who, effectively ending the band.",
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"plaintext": "After the Who break-up, Townshend focused on solo albums such as A Novel (1985), The Iron Man (1989, featuring Daltrey and Entwistle and two songs credited to the Who), and Psychoderelict (1993).",
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"plaintext": "In July 1985, the Who performed at Live Aid at Wembley Stadium, London. The BBC transmission truck blew a fuse during the set, temporarily interrupting the broadcast. At the 1988 Brit Awards, at the Royal Albert Hall, the band were given the British Phonographic Industry's Lifetime Achievement Award. The short set they played there was the last time Jones played with the Who until 2014.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, the band embarked on a 25th-anniversary The Kids Are Alright reunion tour with Simon Phillips on drums and Steve \"Boltz\" Bolton as a second guitarist. Townshend had announced in 1987 that he suffered from tinnitus and alternated acoustic, rhythm and lead guitar to preserve his hearing. Their two shows at Sullivan Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, sold 100,000 tickets in less than eight hours, beating previous records set there by U2 and David Bowie. The tour was briefly marred at a gig in Tacoma, Washington, where Townshend injured his hand on-stage. Some critics disliked the tour's over-produced and expanded line-up, calling it \"The Who on Ice\"; Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said the tour \"tarnished the reputation of the Who almost irreparably\". The tour included most of Tommy and included such guests as Phil Collins, Billy Idol and Elton John. A 2-CD live album, Join Together, was released in 1990.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, the Who recorded a cover of Elton John's \"Saturday Night's Alright for Fighting\" for the tribute album Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin. It was the last studio recording to feature Entwistle. In 1994, Daltrey turned 50 and celebrated with two concerts at New York's Carnegie Hall. The shows included guest spots by Entwistle and Townshend. Although all three surviving original members of the Who attended, they appeared on stage together only during the finale, \"Join Together\", with the other guests. Daltrey toured that year with Entwistle, Zak Starkey on drums and Simon Townshend filling in for his brother as guitarist.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, Townshend, Entwistle and Daltrey performed Quadrophenia with guests and Starkey on drums at Hyde Park. The performance was narrated by Daniels, who had played Jimmy in the 1979 film. This was the first live performance of Quadrophenia in its entirety. Despite technical difficulties the show led to a six-night residency at Madison Square Garden and a US and European tour through 1996 and 1997. Townshend played mostly acoustic guitar, but eventually was persuaded to play some electric. In 1998, VH1 ranked the Who ninth in their list of the \"100 Greatest Artists of Rock 'n' Roll\".",
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"plaintext": "In late 1999, the Who performed as a five-piece for the first time since 1985, with Bundrick on keyboards and Starkey on drums. The first show in Las Vegas at the MGM Grand Garden Arena was partially broadcast on TV and the Internet and released as the DVD The Vegas Job. They then performed acoustic shows at Neil Young's Bridge School Benefit at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California, followed by gigs at the House of Blues in Chicago and two Christmas charity shows at the Shepherd's Bush Empire in London. Critics were delighted to see a rejuvenated band with a basic line-up comparable to the tours of the 1960s and 1970s. Andy Greene in Rolling Stone called the 1999 tour better than the final one with Moon in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "The band toured the US and UK from June to October 2000, to generally favourable reviews, culminating in a charity show at the Royal Albert Hall for the Teenage Cancer Trust with guest performances from Paul Weller, Eddie Vedder, Noel Gallagher, Bryan Adams and Nigel Kennedy. Stephen Tomas Erlewine described the gig as \"an exceptional reunion concert\". In October 2001 the band performed the Concert for New York City at Madison Square Garden for families of firefighters and police who had lost their lives following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center; with Forbes describing their performance as a \"catharsis\" for the law enforcement in attendance. Earlier that year the band were honoured with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.",
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"plaintext": "The Who played concerts in the UK in early 2002 in preparation for a full US tour. On 27 June, the day before the first date, Entwistle, 57, was found dead of a heart attack at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas. Cocaine was a contributing factor.",
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"plaintext": "Entwistle's son, Christopher, gave a statement supporting the Who's decision to carry on. The US tour began at the Hollywood Bowl with touring bassist Pino Palladino. Townshend dedicated the show to Entwistle, and ended with a montage of pictures of him. The tour lasted until September. The loss of a founding member of the Who caused Townshend to re-evaluate his relationship with Daltrey, which had been strained over the band's career. He decided their friendship was important, and this ultimately led to writing and recording new material.",
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"plaintext": "To combat bootlegging, in 2002 the band began to release the Encore Series of official soundboard recordings via themusic.com. An official statement read: \"to satisfy this demand they have agreed to release their own official recordings to benefit worthy causes\". In 2004, the Who released \"Old Red Wine\" and \"Real Good Looking Boy\" (with Palladino and Greg Lake, respectively, on bass) on a singles anthology, Then and Now, and went on an 18-date tour of Japan, Australia, the UK and the US, including a return appearance at the Isle of Wight. Later that year, Rolling Stone ranked the Who No.29 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.",
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"plaintext": "The Who announced in 2005 that they were working on a new album. Townshend posted a novella called The Boy Who Heard Music on his blog, which developed into a mini-opera called Wire & Glass, forming the basis for the album. Endless Wire, released in 2006, was the first full studio album of new material since 1982's It's Hard and contained the band's first mini-opera since \"Rael\" in 1967. The album reached No.7 in the US and No.9 in the UK. Starkey was invited to join Oasis in April 2006 and the Who in November 2006, but he declined and split his time between the two.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2007, the documentary The Story of The Who was released, featuring unreleased footage of the 1970 Leeds appearance and a 1964 performance at the Railway Hotel when the group were The High Numbers. Amazing Journey was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award.",
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"plaintext": "The Who toured in support of Endless Wire, including the BBC Electric Proms at the Roundhouse in London in 2006, headlining the 2007 Glastonbury Festival, a half-time appearance at the Super Bowl XLIV in 2010 and being the final act at the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games. In November 2012, the Who released Live at Hull, an album of the band's performance the night after the Live at Leeds gig.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2013, Townshend announced the Who would stage their final tour in 2015, performing in locations they have never played before. Daltrey clarified that the tour was unrelated to the band's 50th anniversary and indicated that he and Townshend were considering recording new material. Daltrey stated, \"We can't go on touring forever... it could be open-ended, but it will have a finality to it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Jones reunited with the Who in June 2014 at a charity gig for Prostate Cancer UK his Hurtwood Polo Club, alongside Jeff Beck, Procol Harum and Mike Rutherford. Later that month, the Who announced plans for a world tour with a possible accompanying album. In September, the Who released the song \"Be Lucky\", which was included on the compilation The Who Hits 50! in October. That November, the group released a virtual reality app co-designed by Daltrey's son, Jamie, featuring events and images from the band's history.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2019, the band announced the Moving On! Tour. The tour began on 7 May in Grand Rapids, Michigan, but was interrupted during a show in Houston, Texas on 26 September 2019 after Daltrey lost his voice. The COVID-19 pandemic put the remainder of the tour on hold.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2022, the band announced they would embark on 22 April 2022 in Hollywood, Florida on a new North American tour entitled The Who Hits Back due to conclude on 5 November 2022 in Las Vegas, Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "The Who have been regarded primarily as a rock band, yet have taken influence from several other styles of music during their career. The original group played a mixture of trad jazz and contemporary pop hits as the Detours, and R&B in 1963. The group moved to a mod sound the following year, particularly after hearing the Small Faces fuse Motown with a harsher R&B sound. The group's early work was geared towards singles, though it was not straightforward pop. In 1967, Townshend coined the term \"power pop\" to describe the Who's style. Like their contemporaries, the group were influenced by the arrival of Hendrix, particularly after the Who and the Experience met at Monterey. This and lengthy touring strengthened the band's sound. In the studio, they began to develop softer pieces, particularly from Tommy onwards, and turned their attention towards albums more than singles.",
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"plaintext": "From the early 1970s, the band's sound included synthesizers, particularly on Who's Next and Quadrophenia. Although groups had used synthesizers before, the Who were one of the first to integrate the sound into a basic rock structure. In By Numbers the group's style had scaled back to more standard rock, but synthesisers regained prominence on Face Dances.",
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"plaintext": "Townshend and Entwistle were instrumental in making extreme volumes and distortion standard rock practices. The Who were early adopters of Marshall Amplification. Entwistle was the first member to get two 4×12 speaker cabinets, quickly followed by Townshend. The group used feedback as part of their guitar sound, both live and in the studio. In 1967, Townshend changed to using Sound City amplifiers, customised by Dave Reeves, then in 1970 to Hiwatt. The group were the first to use 1000-watt PA systems for live gigs, which led to competition from bands such as the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout their careers, the members of the Who have said their live sound has never been captured as they wished on record. Live gigs and the audience have always been important to the group. \"Irish\" Jack Lyons said, \"The Who weren't a joke, they were fucking real, and so were we.\"",
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"plaintext": "Daltrey initially based his style on Motown and rock and roll, but from Tommy onwards he tackled a wider range of styles. His trademark sound with the band, as noted in 1983, has been a characteristic scream, as heard at the end of \"Won't Get Fooled Again\".",
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"plaintext": "Group backing vocals are prominent in the Who. After \"I Can't Explain\" used session men for backing vocals, Townshend and Entwistle resolved to do better themselves on subsequent releases, producing strong backing harmonies. Daltrey, Townshend and Entwistle sang lead on various songs, and occasionally Moon joined in. Who's Next featured Daltrey and Townshend sharing the lead vocals on several songs, and biographer Dave Marsh considers the contrast between Daltrey's strong, guttural tone and Townshend's higher and gentler sound to be one of the album's highlights.",
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"plaintext": "Daltrey's voice is negatively affected by marijuana smoke, to which he says he is allergic. On 20 May 2015, during a Who concert at Nassau Coliseum, he smelled a joint burning and told the smoker to put it out or \"the show will be over\". The fan obliged, without taking Pete Townshend's advice that \"the quickest way\" to extinguish a joint is \"up your fucking arse\".",
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"plaintext": "Townshend considered himself less technical than guitarists such as Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck and wanted to stand out visually instead. His playing style evolved from the banjo, favouring down strokes and using a combination of the plectrum and fingerpicking. His rhythm playing frequently used seventh chords and suspended fourths, and he is associated with the power chord, an easy-to-finger chord built from the root and fifth that has since become a fundamental part of the rock guitar vocabulary. Townshend also produced noises by manipulating controls on his guitar and by allowing the instrument to feedback.",
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"plaintext": "In the group's early career, Townshend favoured Rickenbacker guitars as they allowed him to fret rhythm guitar chords easily and move the neck back and forwards to create vibrato. From 1968 to 1973, he favoured a Gibson SG Special live, and later used customised Les Pauls in different tunings.",
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"plaintext": "In the studio for Who's Next and thereafter, Townshend used a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow-body guitar, a Fender Bandmaster amp and an Edwards volume pedal, all gifts from Joe Walsh. Townshend started his career with an acoustic guitar and has regularly recorded and written with a Gibson J-200.",
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"plaintext": "A distinctive part of the original band's sound was Entwistle's lead bass playing, while Townshend concentrated on rhythm and chords. Entwistle's was the first popular use of Rotosound strings in 1966, trying to find a piano-like sound. His bassline on \"Pinball Wizard\" was described by Who biographer John Atkins as \"a contribution of its own without diminishing the guitar lines\"; he described his part on \"The Real Me\" from Quadrophenia, recorded in one take, as \"a bass solo with vocals\". Entwistle's basses include a \"Frankenstein\" assembled from five Fender Precision and Jazz basses, and Warwick, Alembic, Gretsch and Guild basses.",
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"plaintext": "Moon further strengthened the reversal of traditional rock instrumentation by playing lead parts on his drums. His style was at odds with British rock contemporaries such as The Kinks' Mick Avory and The Shadows' Brian Bennett who did not consider tom-toms necessary for rock music. Moon used Premier kits starting in 1966. He avoided the hi-hat, and concentrated on a mix of tom rolls and cymbals.",
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"plaintext": "Jones' concise, supportive drumming style was in sharp contrast to Moon's. The Who were initially enthusiastic about working with a completely different drummer. Townshend later stated, \"we've never really been able to replace Keith\" and Daltrey ultimately believed Jones was not right for the band, while still speaking highly of him as a friend and drummer. Starkey knew Moon from childhood and Moon gave him his first drum kit. Starkey has been praised for his playing style which echoes Moon's without being a copy.",
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"plaintext": "Townshend focused on writing meaningful lyrics inspired by Bob Dylan, whose words dealt with subjects other than boy–girl relationships that were common in rock music; in contrast to Dylan's intellectualism, Townshend believed his lyrics should be about things kids could relate to. Early material focused on the frustration and anxiety shared by mod audiences, which Townshend said was a result of \"searching for niche\". By The Who Sell Out, he began to work narrative and characters into songs, which he fully developed by Tommy, including spiritual themes influenced by Baba. From the mid-1970s onwards, his songs tended to be more personal, which influenced his decision to go solo.",
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"plaintext": "Entwistle's songs, by contrast, typically feature black humour and darker themes. His two contributions to Tommy (\"Cousin Kevin\" and \"Fiddle About\") appeared because Townshend did not believe he could write songs as \"nasty\" as Entwistle's.",
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"plaintext": "The Who are perceived as having had a poor working relationship. In the original band, Sandom had been the peacemaker and settled disputes. Moon, by contrast, was as volatile as Daltrey and Townshend. Entwistle was too passive to become involved in arguments. The group established their live reputation and stage show in part out of insecurity and aggression amongst its members, and Townshend recalled that all decisions had to be made democratically \"because we always disagreed\".",
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"plaintext": "The only genuine friendship in the Who during the 1960s was between Entwistle and Moon. The pair enjoyed each other's sense of humour and shared a fondness for clubbing. Journalist Richard Green noted a \"chemistry of playfullness that would go beyond playfullness\". Their relationship diminished somewhat when Entwistle got married in 1967, though they still socialised on tour. When Moon was destroying toilets in hotels, Entwistle confessed he \"was standing behind him with the matches\".",
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"plaintext": "The group regularly argued in the press, though Townshend said disputes were amplified in print and the group simply found it difficult to agree on things. Tommy mutually benefitted Townshend and Daltrey's standing in the band because of the former's songwriting and the latter's stage presence, yet even this did not make them close friends. The pair quarrelled, particularly in the mid-1970s, over the group's direction. During his time with the band, Jones was subject to intermittent criticism from Daltrey.",
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"plaintext": "Entwistle's death came as a shock to both Townshend and Daltrey, and caused them to re-evaluate their relationship. Townshend has said that he and Daltrey have since become close friends. In 2015, Townshend confirmed their friendship was still strong, adding their acceptance of each other's differences \"brought us to a really genuine and compassionate relationship, which can only be described as love.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Who are one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century. Their appearances at Monterey and Woodstock helped give them a reputation as one of the greatest live rock acts and they have been credited with originating the \"rock opera\". The band has sold over 100million records worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "The group's contributions to rock include the power chord, windmill strum and the use of non-musical instrument noise such as feedback. The band influenced fashion from their earliest days with their embrace of pop art and the use of the Union Jack for clothing. The guitar-smashing incident at the Railway Hotel in 1964 is one of Rolling Stone magazine's \"50Moments That Changed the History of Rock 'n' Roll\".",
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"plaintext": "Pink Floyd began to use feedback from their early shows in 1966, inspired by the Who, whom they considered a formative influence. Shortly after arriving in London in 1966, Jimi Hendrix visited Marshall's music shop demanding an amp setup like Townshend's and manipulated electronic noises in ways that Townshend had pioneered. The Beatles were fans and socialised with Moon in particular during the mid-1960s. In 1965, Paul McCartney said the Who \"are the most exciting thing around\" and was inspired to write \"Helter Skelter\" in the group's \"heavy\" style; John Lennon borrowed the acoustic guitar style in \"Pinball Wizard\" for \"Polythene Pam\".",
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"plaintext": "The loud volume of the band's live show influenced the approach of hard rock and heavy metal. Proto punk and punk rock bands such as the MC5, the Stooges, the Ramones the Sex Pistols, the Clash and Green Day cite the Who as an influence. An early influence on Queen, guitarist Brian May referred to the Who as being \"among our favourite groups\". The Who inspired mod revival bands, particularly the Jam, which helped other groups influenced by the Who become popular. The Who influenced hard rock bands such as Guns N' Roses. In the mid-1990s, Britpop bands such as Blur and Oasis were influenced by the Who. The Who have also influenced pop punk band Panic! at the Disco.",
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"plaintext": "The Who have inspired many tribute bands; Daltrey has endorsed the Whodlums, who raise money for the Teenage Cancer Trust. Many bands have covered Who songs; Elton John's version of \"Pinball Wizard\" reached No.7 in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "During the Who's hiatuses in the 1980s and 90s, Townshend developed his skills as a music publisher to be financially successful from the Who without recording or touring. He countered criticism of \"selling out\" by saying that licensing the songs to other media allows a wider exposure and widens the group's appeal.",
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"plaintext": "The American forensic drama CSI ( Crime Scene Investigation, Miami, NY, Cyber and Vegas) feature Who songs as theme music, \"Who Are You\", \"Won't Get Fooled Again\", \"Baba O'Riley\" and \"I Can See for Miles\" respectively. The group's songs have featured in other popular TV series such as The Simpsons, and Top Gear, which had an episode where the presenters were tasked with being roadies for the band.",
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"plaintext": "Rock-oriented films such as Almost Famous, School of Rock and Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny refer to the band and feature their songs, and other films have used the band's material in their soundtracks, including Apollo 13 (which used \"I Can See For Miles\") and The Spy Who Shagged Me (which used a take of \"My Generation\" recorded for the BBC). Several of the band's tracks have appeared in the video game Rock Band and its sequels.",
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"plaintext": "The New York Times Magazine has listed The Who among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.",
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"plaintext": "The Who have received many awards and accolades from the music industry for their recordings and their influence. They received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the British Phonographic Industry in 1988, and from the Grammy Foundation in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "The band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 where their display describes them as \"prime contenders, in the minds of many, for the title of World's Greatest Rock Band\", and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Rolling Stones 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list included Who's Next at number 28, Tommy at number 96, The Who Sell Out at number 113, Live at Leeds at number 170, My Generation at number 236, Quadrophenia at number 266, and A Quick One at number 383. And in 2004, on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list, Rolling Stone included \"My Generation\" at number 11, \"Won't Get Fooled Again\" at number 133, \"I Can See for Miles\" at number 258, \"Baba O'Riley\" at number 340, and \"I Can't Explain\" at number 371. They are ranked the 29th greatest artist of all time by Rolling Stone magazine, and the same magazine ranked Pete Townshend among the greatest songwriters.",
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"plaintext": "The single \"My Generation\" and the albums Tommy and Who's Next have each been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2008, Pete Townshend and Roger Daltrey received Kennedy Center Honors as members of the Who. In 2009, My Generation was selected for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry.",
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"plaintext": " Roger Daltrey– lead and backing vocals, rhythm guitar, harmonica, percussion ",
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36,522 | 1,100,542,207 | Thermonuclear_fusion | [
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"plaintext": "In a deuterium–tritium fusion reaction, for example, the energy necessary to overcome the Coulomb barrier is 0.1MeV. Converting between energy and temperature shows that the 0.1 MeV barrier would be overcome at a temperature in excess of 1.2 billion kelvin.",
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"plaintext": "There are two effects that are needed to lower the actual temperature. One is the fact that temperature is the average kinetic energy, implying that some nuclei at this temperature would actually have much higher energy than 0.1MeV, while others would be much lower. It is the nuclei in the high-energy tail of the velocity distribution that account for most of the fusion reactions. The other effect is quantum tunnelling. The nuclei do not actually have to have enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier completely. If they have nearly enough energy, they can tunnel through the remaining barrier. For these reasons fuel at lower temperatures will still undergo fusion events, at a lower rate.",
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"plaintext": "The word cartel comes from the Italian word cartello, which means a \"leaf of paper\" or \"placard\", and is itself derived from the Latin charta meaning \"card\". The Italian word became cartel in Middle French, which was borrowed into English. In English, the word was originally used for a written agreement between warring nations to regulate the treatment and exchange of prisoners from the 1690s onward. From 1899 onwards, the usage of the word became generalized as to mean any intergovernmental agreement between rival nations.",
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"plaintext": "The use of the English word cartel to describe an economic group rather than international agreements was derived much later in the 1800s from the German Kartell, which also has its origins in the French cartel. It was first used between German railway companies in 1846 to describe tariff- and technical standardization efforts. The first time the word was referred to describe a kind of restriction of competition was by the Austro-Hungarian political scientist Lorenz von Stein, who wrote on tariff cartels:",
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"plaintext": "Cartels have existed since ancient times. Guilds in the European Middle Ages, associations of craftsmen or merchants of the same trade, have been regarded as cartel-like. Tightly organized sales cartels existed in the mining industry of the late Middle Ages, like the 1301 salt syndicate in France and Naples, or the Alaun cartel of 1470 between the Papal State and Naples. Both unions had common sales organizations for overall production called the Societas Communis Vendicionis ('Common Sales Society').",
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"plaintext": "Laissez-faire (liberal) economic conditions dominated Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries. Around 1870, cartels first appeared in industries formerly under free-market conditions. Although cartels existed in all economically developed countries, the core area of cartel activities was in central Europe. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary were nicknamed the \"lands of the cartels\". Cartels were also widespread in the United States during the period of robber barons and industrial trusts.",
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"plaintext": "The creation of cartels increased globally after World War I. They became the leading form of market organization, particularly in Europe and Japan. In the 1930s, authoritarian regimes such as Nazi Germany, Italy under Mussolini, and Spain under Franco used cartels to organize their corporatist economies. Between the late 19th century and around 1945, the United States was ambivalent about cartels and trusts. There were periods of both opposition to market concentration and relative tolerance of cartels. During World War II, the United States strictly turned away from cartels. After 1945, American-promoted market liberalism led to a worldwide cartel ban, where cartels continue to be obstructed in an increasing number of countries and circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "Cartels have many structures and functions that ideally enable corporations to navigate and control market uncertainties and gain collusive profits within their industry. A typical cartel often requires what competition authorities refer to as a CAU (Contact, Agreement or Understanding). Typologies have emerged to distinguish distinct forms of cartels:",
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"plaintext": " Selling or buying cartels unite against the cartel's customers or suppliers, respectively. The former type is more frequent than the latter.",
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"plaintext": " Domestic cartels only have members from one country, whereas international cartels have members from more than one country. There have been full-fledged international cartels that have comprised the whole world, such as the international steel cartel of the period between World WarI andII.",
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"plaintext": " Price cartels engage in price fixing, normally to raise prices for a commodity above the competitive price level. The loosest form of a price cartel can be recognized in tacit collusion (implicit collusion), wherein smaller enterprises individually devise their prices and market shares in response to the same market conditions, without direct communication, resulting in a less competitive outcome. This type of collusion is generally legal and can achieve a monopolistic outcome.",
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"plaintext": " Quota cartels distribute proportional shares of the market to their members.",
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"plaintext": " Common sales cartels sell their joint output through a central selling agency (in French: comptoir). They are also known as syndicates (French: syndicat industriel).",
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"plaintext": " Territorial cartels distribute districts of the market to be used only by individual participants, which act as monopolists.",
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"plaintext": " Submission cartels control offers given to public tenders. They use bid rigging: bidders for a tender agree on a bid price. They then do not bid in unison, or share the return from the winning bid among themselves.",
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"plaintext": " Technology and patent cartels share knowledge about technology or science within themselves while they limit the information from outside individuals.",
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"plaintext": " Condition cartels unify contractual terms – the modes of payment and delivery, or warranty limits.",
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"plaintext": " Standardization cartels implement common standards for sold or purchased products. If the members of a cartel produce different sorts or grades of a good, conversion factors are applied to calculate the value of the respective output.",
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"plaintext": " Compulsory cartels, also called \"forced cartels\", are established or maintained by external pressure. Voluntary cartels are formed by the free will of their participants.",
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"plaintext": "A survey of hundreds of published economic studies and legal decisions of antitrust authorities found that the median price increase achieved by cartels in the last 200 years is about 23 percent. Private international cartels (those with participants from two or more nations) had an average price increase of 28 percent, whereas domestic cartels averaged 18 percent. Less than 10 percent of all cartels in the sample failed to raise market prices.",
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"plaintext": "In general, cartel agreements are economically unstable in that there is an incentive for members to cheat by selling at below the cartel's agreed price or selling more than the cartel's production quotas. Many cartels that attempt to set product prices are unsuccessful in the long term because of cheating punishment mechanisms such as price wars or financial punishment. An empirical study of 20th-century cartels determined that the mean duration of discovered cartels is from 5 to 8 years and overcharged by approximately 32%. This distribution was found to be bimodal, with many cartels breaking up quickly (less than a year), many others lasting between five and ten years, and still some that lasted decades. Within the industries that have operating cartels, the median number of cartel members is 8. Once a cartel is broken, the incentives to form a new cartel return, and the cartel may be re-formed. Publicly known cartels that do not follow this business cycle include, by some accounts, OPEC.",
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"plaintext": "Cartels often practice price fixing internationally. When the agreement to control prices is sanctioned by a multilateral treaty or protected by national sovereignty, no antitrust actions may be initiated. OPEC countries partially control the price of oil, and the International Air Transport Association (IATA) fixes prices for international airline tickets while the organization is excepted from antitrust law.",
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"plaintext": "Drawing upon research on organizational misconduct, scholars in economics, sociology and management have studied the organization of cartels. They have paid attention to the way cartel participants work together to conceal their activities from antitrust authorities. Even more than reaching efficiency, participating firms need to ensure that their collective secret is maintained.",
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"plaintext": "The scientific analysis of cartels is based on cartel theory. It was pioneered in 1883 by the Austrian economist Friedrich Kleinwächter and in its early stages was developed mainly by German-speaking scholars. These scholars tended to regard cartels as an acceptable part of the economy. At the same time, American lawyers increasingly turned against trade restrictions, including all cartels. The Sherman act, which impeded the formation and activities of cartels, was passed in the United States in 1890. The American viewpoint, supported by activists like Thurman Arnold and Harley M. Kilgore, eventually prevailed when governmental policy in Washington could have a larger impact in World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Because cartels are likely to have an impact on market positions, they are subjected to competition law, which is executed by governmental competition regulators. Very similar regulations apply to corporate mergers. A single entity that holds a monopoly is not considered a cartel but can be sanctioned through other abuses of its monopoly. ",
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"plaintext": "Prior to World War II, members of cartels could sign contracts that were enforceable in courts of law except in the United States. Before 1945, cartels were tolerated in Europe and specifically promoted as a business practice in German-speaking countries. In U.S. v. National Lead Co. et al., the Supreme Court of the United States noted the testimony of individuals who cited that a cartel, in its versatile form, is ",
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"plaintext": "The first legislation against cartels to be enforced was the Sherman Act 1890, which also prohibits price fixing, market-sharing, output restrictions and other anti-competitive conduct. Section 1 and 2 of the Act outlines the law in regards to cartels,Section 1:",
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"plaintext": "Every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be illegal.",
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"plaintext": "Section 2:",
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"plaintext": "Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a felony, and, on conviction thereof, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $100 million if a corporation, or, if any other person, $1 million, or by imprisonment not exceeding ten years, or by both said punishments, in the discretion of the court.",
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"plaintext": "In practice, detecting and desisting cartels is undertaken through the use of economic analysis and leniency programmes. Economic analysis is implemented to identify any discrepancies in market behaviour between both suspected and unsuspected cartel engaged firms. A structural approach is done in the form of screening already suspicious firms for industry traits of a typical cartel price path. A typical path often includes a formation phase in which prices decline, followed by a transition phase in which prices tend to rise, and end with a stationary phase in which price variance remains low.Indicators such as price changes alongside import rates, market concentration, time period of permanent price changes and stability of companies' market shares are used as economic markers to help supplement the search for cartel behaviour. On the contrary, when aiming to create suspicion around potential cartels, a behavioural approach is often used to identify behavioural collusive patterns, to initiate further economic analysis into identifying and prosecuting those involved in the operations. For example, studies have shown that industries are more likely to experience collusion where there are fewer firms, products are homogeneous and there is a stable demand.",
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"plaintext": "Leniency programmes were first introduced in 1978 in the US, before being successfully reformed in 1993. The underlying principle of a leniency program is to offer discretionary penalty reductions for corporations or individuals who are affiliated with cartel operations, in exchange for their cooperation with enforcement authorities in helping to identify and penalise other participating members. According to the Australian Department of Justice, the following 6 conditions must be met for admission into a leniency program:",
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"plaintext": " The corporation is the first one to come forward and qualify for leniency with respect to the illegal activity being reported;",
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"plaintext": " The Division, at the time the corporation comes in, does not yet have evidence against the company that is likely to result in a sustainable conviction;",
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"plaintext": " The corporation, upon its discovery of the illegal activity being reported, took prompt and effective action to terminate its part in the activity;",
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"plaintext": " The corporation reports the wrongdoing with candor and completeness and provides full, continuing and complete cooperation that advances the Division in its investigation;",
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"plaintext": " The confession of wrongdoing is truly a corporate act, as opposed to isolated confessions of individual executives or officials;",
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"plaintext": " Where possible, the corporation makes restitution to injured parties; and",
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"plaintext": " The Division determines that granting leniency would not be unfair to others, considering the nature of the illegal activity, the confessing corporation's role in it, and when the corporation comes forward.",
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"plaintext": "The application of leniency programme penalties varies according to individual countries policies and are proportional to cartel profits and years of infringement. However, typically the first corporation or individual to cooperate will receive the most reduced penalty in comparison to those who come forward later. The effectiveness of leniency programmes in destabilising and deterring cartels is evidenced by the decreased formation and discovery of cartels in the US since the introduction of the programmes in 1993. Some prosecuted examples include:",
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"plaintext": " Lysine Cartel: An employee of Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) alerted authorities of the existence of the cartel within the Lysine industry.",
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"plaintext": " Stainless steel: Buyers of the product complained to the European Commission (EC) about price spikes.",
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"plaintext": " Sodium gluconate: Defendants in the lysine case informed authorities of collusive behaviours between corporations in this industry.",
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"plaintext": "Today, price fixing by private entities is illegal under the antitrust laws of more than 140 countries. The commodities of prosecuted international cartels include lysine, citric acid, graphite electrodes, and bulk vitamins. In many countries, the predominant belief is that cartels are contrary to free and fair competition, considered the backbone of political democracy. Maintaining cartels continues to become harder for cartels. Even if international cartels cannot be regulated as a whole by individual nations, their individual activities in domestic markets are affected.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike other cartels, export cartels are legal in virtually all jurisdictions, despite their harmful effects on affected markets.",
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"plaintext": " The Phoebus cartel was established by lighting manufacturers in the early 20th century to control the pricing and lifespan of incandescent light bulbs.",
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"plaintext": " The Quinine cartel existed among producers of the anti-malarial drug Quinine to control production rates and pricing, operating in the early 20th century with two incarnations. During the early years of its operation, Quinine was the only viable medical treatment for malaria.",
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"plaintext": " The British Valve Association existed among British manufacturers of vacuum tubes to regulate the pricing, electrode structure, and part numbering system for its members.",
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"plaintext": " The Seven Sisters was the name for the consortium of seven transnational oil companies which dominated the global petroleum industry from the 1940s to the 1970s. The contemporary equivalent is OPEC, an international organization of petroleum producing nations that sets production targets and prices among its members.",
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"plaintext": " The Swiss Cheese Union, an industry organization of cheese producers, functioned as a cartel through the extent of its control on cheese production in the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": " Between 1995 and 2004, several of the largest elevator manufacturers operated a market-rigging cartel, including ThyssenKrupp, Kone, and Otis, which were fined by the European Union in 2001.",
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"plaintext": " The Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers, a government-sanctioned private organization that regulates the production and marketing of maple syrup in Quebec.",
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"plaintext": " Cartel seat (monument)",
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"plaintext": " Drug cartel",
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"plaintext": " Corporate group",
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"plaintext": " Connor, John M.: Private international cartels. Effectiveness, welfare, and anti-cartel enforcement. Purdue University. West Lafayette, Indiana2003. ",
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"plaintext": " Fear, Jeffrey R.: Cartels. In: Geoffrey Jones; Jonathan Zeitlin (ed.): The Oxford handbook of business history. Oxford: Univ. Press, 2007, p.268–293.",
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"plaintext": " Freyer, Tony A.: Antitrust and global capitalism 1930–2004, New York2006.",
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"plaintext": " Hexner, Ervin, The International Steel Cartel, Chapel Hill1943.",
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"plaintext": " Kleinwächter, Friedrich, Die Kartelle. Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Organization der Volkswirtschaft, Innsbruck1883.",
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"plaintext": " Leonhardt, Holm Arno: Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien, Hildesheim2013.",
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"plaintext": " Leonhardt, Holm Arno: The development of cartel+ theory between 1883 and the 1930s – from international diversity to convergence: syndicats industriels, ententes, comptoirs, trusts, pools, combinations, associations, kartells, cartelle, Unternehmerverbände. Hildesheim2018. Einloggen | Hildesheimer Beiträge zu Theologie und Geschichte.",
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"plaintext": " Levenstein, Margaret C. and Valerie Y. Suslow. \"What Determines Cartel Success?\" Journal of Economic Literature 64 (March2006): 43–95.",
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"plaintext": " Liefmann, Robert: Cartels, Concerns and Trusts, Ontario2001 [London1932]",
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"plaintext": " Martyniszyn, Marek, \"Export Cartels: Is it Legal to Target Your Neighbour? Analysis in Light of Recent Case Law\", Journal of International Economic Law 15 (1) (2012): 181–222.",
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"plaintext": " Stigler, George J.: The extent and bases of monopoly. In: The American economic review, Vol. 32 (1942), pp.1–22.",
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"plaintext": " Stocking, George W. and Myron W. Watkins: Cartels in Action. New York: Twentieth Century Fund (1946).",
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"plaintext": " Stocking, George W. and Myron W. Watkins: Cartels or competition? The economics of international controls by business and government. New York: Twentieth Century Fund 1948.",
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"plaintext": " Strieder, Jakob: Studien zur Geschichte kapitalistischer Organizationsformen. Monopole, Kartelle und Aktiengesellschaften im Mittelalter und zu Beginn der Neuzeit. München 1925.",
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"plaintext": " Wells, Wyatt C.: Antitrust and the Formation of the Postwar World, New York 2002.",
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"plaintext": " Price-Fixing Overcharges from Purdue University",
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36,527 | 1,106,104,037 | Cohabitation | [
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation is an arrangement where people who are not married, usually couples, live together. They are often involved in a romantic or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis. Such arrangements have become increasingly common in Western countries since the late 20th century, being led by changing social views, especially regarding marriage, gender roles and religion.",
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"plaintext": "More broadly, the term cohabitation can mean any number of people living together. To \"cohabit\", in a broad sense, means to \"coexist\". The origin of the term comes from the mid 16th century, from the Latin cohabitare, from co- 'together' + habitare 'dwell'.",
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"plaintext": "Today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, the Scandinavian countries have been the first to start this leading trend, although many countries have since followed. Mediterranean Europe has traditionally been very conservative, with religion playing a strong role. Until the mid-1990s, cohabitation levels remained low in this region, but have since increased.",
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"plaintext": "During the past decades, in Western countries, there has been an increase in unmarried couples cohabiting. Historically, many Western countries have been influenced by Christian doctrines on sex, which opposes unmarried cohabitation. As social norms have changed, such beliefs have become less widely held by the population and some Christian denominations today view cohabitation as a precursor to marriage. Pope Francis has married a cohabiting couple who had children, while former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams and the Archbishop of York John Sentamu have expressed tolerance of cohabitation.",
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"plaintext": "In recent decades high rates of participation of women in the workforce, and the widespread availability of highly effective long acting reversible contraceptives has led to women making individual choices over their reproduction with decreased reliance on male partners for financial stability. All these changes favored living arrangement alternatives to marriage.",
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"plaintext": "In Central and Eastern Europe, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, there were major political changes, such as the fall of Communist governments. These societies entered a new era of increased social freedom, less rigid rules, and less authoritarian governments. They interacted with Western Europe and some became members of the European Union. As a result, the patterns of family life have started to change: marriage rates have declined, and marriage was postponed to a later age. Cohabitation and births to unmarried mothers increased, and in some countries the increase was very quick.",
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"plaintext": "The deinstitutionalization of marriage refers to the weakening of the social and legal norms that regulate peoples' behavior in regard to marriage. The rise in cohabitation is part of other major social changes such as: higher divorce rate, older age at first marriage and childbearing, and more births outside marriage. Factors such as secularization, increased participation of women in the labor force, changing in the meaning of marriage, risk reduction, individualism, and changing views on sexuality have been cited as contributing to these social changes. There has also been a change in modern sexual ethics, with a focus on consent, rather than marital status (i.e. decriminalization of adultery and fornication; criminalization of marital rape), reflecting new concepts about the role and purpose of sexual interaction, and new conceptualizations of female sexuality and of self-determination. There have been objections against the legal and social regulation of female sexuality; with such regulations being often seen as violations of women's rights. In addition, some individuals may feel that marriage is unnecessary or outdated, leading to couples not formalizing their relation. For instance, in the European Values Study (EVS) of 2008, the percentage of respondents who agreed with the assertion that \"Marriage is an outdated institution\" was 37.5% in Luxembourg, 35.4% in France, 34.3% in Belgium, 31.2% in Spain, 30.5% in Austria, 29.2% in Germany, 27.7% in Switzerland, 27.2% in Bulgaria, 27.0% in the Netherlands, 25.0% in Slovenia.",
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"plaintext": "The fact that many couples choose to live together without formalizing their relation is also recognized by the European Union. A 2004 directive forbids EU members from",
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"plaintext": "denying entry or residence of partners \"with whom the Union citizen has a durable relationship, duly attested.\"",
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"plaintext": "Today, cohabitation in the United States is often a part of the dating process. In fact, \"cohabitation is increasingly becoming the first coresidential union formed among young adults.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, more than two-thirds of married couples in the US said that they lived together before getting married. \"In 1994, there were 3.7 million cohabiting couples in the United States.\" This is a major increase from a few decades ago. According to Dr. Galena Rhoades, \"Before 1970, living together outside marriage was uncommon, but by the late 1990s at least 50% to 60% of couples lived together premaritally.\"",
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"plaintext": "People may live together for a number of reasons. Cohabitants could live together to save money, because of the convenience of living with another, or a need to find housing.",
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"plaintext": "Lower income individuals facing financial uncertainty may delay or avoid marriage, not only because of the difficulty of paying for a wedding but also because of fear of financial hardship if a marriage were to end in divorce.",
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"plaintext": "When given a survey of the reasons why they cohabit, most couples listed reasons such as spending more time together, convenience based reasons, and testing their relationships, while few gave the reason that they do not believe in marriage. The extremely high costs of housing and tight budgets of today's economy are also factors that can lead a couple to cohabitation.",
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"plaintext": "Today sixty percent of all marriages are preceded by a period of cohabitation. Researchers suggest that couples live together as a way of trying out marriage to test compatibility with their partners, while still having the option of ending the relationship without legal implications. In 1996, \"More than three-quarters of all cohabitors report[ed] plans to marry their partners, which implies that most of them viewed cohabitation as a prelude to marriage.\" Cohabitation shares many qualities with marriage, often couples who are cohabiting share a residence, personal resources, exclude intimate relations with others and, in more than 10% of cohabiting couples, have children. \"Many young adults believe cohabitation is a good way to test their relationships prior to marriage.\" Couples who have plans to marry before moving in together or who are engaged before cohabiting typically marry within two years of living together. The state of cohabitation of a couple often ends either in marriage or in break-up; according to a 1996 study about 10% of cohabiting unions remained in this state more than five years. According to a survey done by The National Center for Health Statistics, \"over half of marriages from 1990-1994 among women began as cohabitation.\"",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation can be an alternative to marriage in situations where marriage is not possible for financial or family reasons (such as same-sex, interracial or interreligious marriages).",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation, sometimes called de facto marriage, is becoming more commonly known as a substitute for conventional marriage. Common-law marriage in the United States can still be contracted in nine US states, and in two others under restriction. This helps provide the surviving partner a legal basis for inheriting the decedent's belongings in the event of the death of their cohabiting partner. In today's cohabiting relationships, forty percent of households include children, giving us an idea of how cohabitation could be considered a new normative type of family dynamic. As of 2012, 41% of all births in the US were to unmarried women. In three states (Mississippi – 55%, Louisiana – 53%, and New Mexico – 52%) births outside marriage were in the majority; the lowest percentage of births outside marriage was in Utah, at 19%. During the period 2006–2010, 58% of births outside marriage were to cohabiting parents.",
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"plaintext": "Contemporary objections to cohabiting couples include religious opposition to non-marital unions, social pressure for couples to get married, and potential effects of cohabitation on a child's development.",
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"plaintext": "The rise in the number of cohabiting couples and children born out of wedlock in the Western world has made cohabitation a strong focus of sociological research. The rise in cohabiting couples in the United States, from around 450,000 in 1960 to 7.5million in 2011 has been accompanied by US research performed on child development within cohabiting households. Opponents of cohabitation say non-marital parenting is an unsuitable environment for a child's development. One study from 2002 correlated lower numeracy skills and higher delinquency to children of cohabiting couples, however, recent studies that control for factors including poverty, the educational level of parents and violence in the home show children of cohabiting couples are developmentally similar to peers of comparable married couples.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, researchers compared teenage children living in a cohabiting household (a single mother and her boyfriend who was not related to the teenager) against peers in single-parent households. The results showed white and Hispanic teenagers had lower performance in school, greater risk of suspension or expulsion than peers from single-parent households, and the same rate of behavioral and emotional problems.",
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"plaintext": "A study on the 1995 and 2002 National Survey of Family Growth found increases in both the prevalence and duration of unmarried cohabitation. The study found that 40% of children in the United States would live in a cohabiting household by age 12, and children born to single mothers were more likely than those born to married mothers to live in a cohabiting household. The percentage of women ages 19–44 who had ever cohabited increased from 45% in 1995 to 54% in 2002.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, 63% of women who graduate from high school were found to spend some time cohabiting, compared to only 45% of women with a four-year college degree. Cohabiting couples who have children often get married. One study found that children born of parents who cohabit are 90% more likely to end up living in households with married parents than children born to single mothers. 67% of unmarried Hispanic mothers are expected to marry, while 40% of African American mothers are expected to marry.",
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"plaintext": "Studies have found that religious affiliation correlates with cohabitation and marriage entry. People frequently cite religious reasons for their opposition to cohabitation. The Roman Catholic Church and nearly all mainstream Protestant denominations around the world oppose cohabitation and consider it to be the sin of fornication. However, others, such as the Anglican Church \"welcome cohabiting couples in the Church and encourage them to regard cohabitation as a prelude to Christian marriage.\"",
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"plaintext": "Religion can also lead to societal pressures against cohabitation especially within highly religious communities. Some couples may refrain from cohabitation because one or both partners fear disappointing or alienating conservative family members. Young adults who grew up in families that oppose cohabitation have lower rates than their peers.",
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"plaintext": "The increase in cohabitation in the United States and other developed nations has been linked to the secularization of those countries. Researchers have noted that changes in the religious demographics of a society have accompanied the rise in cohabitation.",
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"plaintext": "Non-marital and same-sex relationships are forbidden by the Islamic law of Zina, and cohabitation is against the law in many Muslim majority countries including Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Sudan, and Yemen.",
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"plaintext": "Conflicting studies on the effect of cohabitation on subsequent marriage have been published. In countries where the majority of people disapprove of unmarried individuals living together, or a minority of the population cohabits before marriage, marriages resulting from cohabitation are more prone to divorce. But in a study on European countries, those where around half of the population cohabits before marriage, cohabitation is not selective of divorce-prone individuals, and no difference in couples that have cohabited before and after marriage is observed. In countries such as Italy, the increased risk of marital disruption for people who experienced premarital cohabitation can be entirely attributed to the selection of the most divorce-prone into cohabitation.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, the CDC found that for married couples the likelihood percentage of the relationship ending after five years is 20%, for unmarried cohabitators the likelihood percentage is 49%. After 10 years the likelihood percentage for the relationship to end is 33% for married couples and 62% for unmarried cohabitators. One German study found that in regions with high rates of childbirth to cohabitating parents, no negative effect is observed in cohabitation. The study states \"union stability of cohabiting mothers is positively related to their prevalence.\"",
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"plaintext": "A 2004 study of 136 couples (272 individuals) from researchers at the University of Denver found differences among couples that cohabited before engagement, after engagement, or not until marriage. The longitudinal study collected survey data before marriage and 10 months into marriage, with findings suggesting those",
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"plaintext": "who cohabit before engagement are at greater risk for poor marital outcomes than those who",
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"plaintext": "cohabit only after engagement or at marriage.",
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"plaintext": "A follow-up survey by the researches of over 1,000 married men and women married in the past 10 years found those who moved in with a lover before engagement or marriage reported significantly lower quality marriages and a greater possibility of a separation than other couples.",
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"plaintext": "About 20% of those who cohabited before getting engaged had since suggested splitting – compared with only 12% of those who only moved in together after getting engaged and 10% who did not cohabit prior to marriage.",
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"plaintext": "The researchers from Denver suggest that relationships with pre-engagement cohabitation \"may wind up sliding into marriage\", whereas those that only cohabit post engagement or marriage make a more clear decision. This could explain their 2006 study of 197 heterosexual couples finding that men who cohabited with their spouse before engagement were less dedicated than men who cohabited only after engagement or not at all before marriage.",
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"plaintext": "In some heterosexual couples, women are more likely to understand cohabitation as an intermediary step preceding marriage, and men more likely to perceive it without an explicit connection to marriage.",
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"plaintext": "An analysis of data from the CDC's National Survey of Family Growth data from 1988, 1995, and 2002 suggests that the positive relationship between premarital cohabitation and marital instability has weakened for more recent birth and marriage cohorts, as the total number of couples cohabiting before marriage has increased.",
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"plaintext": "Later CDC work found that between 2002 and 2006-2010, the number of couples in opposite-sex cohabiting relationships increased from 9.0% to 11.2% for women, and from 9.2% to 12.2% for men.",
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"plaintext": "Drawing on the 2006–2008 data, Princeton University researchers examined whether and to what extent variation in premarital cohabitation experiences influence marital stability. They found that the relationship between cohabitation and marital instability is complex and depends in part on marriage cohort, race/ethnicity, and marriage plans. Their analyses reveal that a 'cohabitation effect' exists only for women married prior to 1996, and that, until marriage plans are considered, there is no cohabitation effect among women married since 1996.",
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"plaintext": "Recent research from 2011 by the Pew Research Center has found that the number of couples that cohabit before marriage has increased. 44% of adults (and more than half of 30- to 49-year-olds) say they have cohabited at some point. Nearly two-thirds of adults who ever cohabited (64%) say they thought about it as a step toward marriage. The report also notes a trend toward rising public acceptance of cohabiting couples over the years. Most Americans now say the rise in unmarried couples living together either makes no difference to society (46%) or is good for society (9%).",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 study found that, among cohabiting individuals, those who were engaged prior to cohabitation or had \"definite plans for marriage\" were linked to lower risks of marital instability among women, but the relationship was not observed with men.",
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"plaintext": "One study on low to moderate income couples living with minor children found that respondents who became sexually involved within the first month of their relationship were correlated to lower scores of relationship quality among women. Another study found respondents to a mail-in survey self-reported higher levels of commitment in the cohabiting group, as well as lower relationship satisfaction and more negative communication.",
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"plaintext": "A 2018 study found that cohabiting before marriage was linked to a lower risk of divorce during the first year of marriage, but a greater risk of divorce in the long run. However, a report published by the Council on Contemporary Families that same year found that couples who cohabited before marriage were less likely to divorce than couples who did not.",
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"plaintext": "University of Chicago sociologist Linda Waite found that \"16 percent of cohabiting women reported that arguments with their partners became physical during the past year, while only 5 percent of married women had similar experiences.\" Most cohabiting couples have a faithful relationship, but Waite's surveys also demonstrated that 20% of cohabiting women reported having secondary sex partners, compared to only 4% of married women. A 1992 study found that male members of heterosexual couples with children are less likely to be a part of the childcare but half the time they are responsible for child abuse.",
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"plaintext": "According to an article by Judith Treas and Deirdre Giesen, cohabiting couples are twice as likely to experience infidelity within the relationship than married couples.",
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"plaintext": "Regarding cohabitation as a fertility factor, a large survey in the United States came to the result that married women had an average of 1.9 children, compared to 1.3 among those cohabiting. The corresponding numbers for men were 1.7 and 1.1, respectively. The difference of 0.6 children for both sexes was expected to decrease to between 0.2 and 0.3 over the lifetime when correcting for the confounder that married people have their children earlier in life.",
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"plaintext": "A study of the United States and multiple countries in Europe came to the result that women who continue to cohabit after birth have significantly lower probability of having a second child than married women in all countries except those in Eastern Europe. Another study, on the contrary, came to the result that cohabiting couples in France have equal fertility as married ones. Also, Russians have a higher fertility within cohabitation, while Romanians rather tend to have childless marriages.",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": "Survey data from 2003 in Romania came to the result that marriage equalized the total fertility rate among both highly educated and low educated people to approximately 1.4. Among those cohabiting, on the other hand, lower level of education increased fertility rate to 1.7, and a higher level of education decreased it to 0.7. On the other hand, another study came to the result that Romanian women with little education have about equal fertility in marital and cohabiting partnerships.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, married couples that submit a combined tax return may face a marriage penalty, where tax credits for low-income single earners are not applied to the combined income.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1998, Senate GOP leader Trent Lott decided to pull a bill to abolish \"the marriage penalty,\" \"which in the tax code reflects the fact that married couples who both work for wages frequently pay more in taxes than if they earned the same amount of income but weren't married. And the more equal the incomes of the couple, the steeper the marriage tax penalty.\" The earned income tax credit (EITC) is cash welfare for low-income workers, but the problem is the EITC is not for married couples because they have to combine their wages, which again leads to \"the marriage penalty.\" If couples do not get married then their wages do not have to combine and the EITC in a way is \"paying for\" low-income couples not to marry. Opponents of cohabitation believe that some cohabiting couples choose not to marry because they would suffer a tax penalty.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the perceived disincentive to marry that the EITC provides, cohabiting couples suffer many financial losses as their unions are not recognized with the same legal and financial benefits as those who are legally married. These financial penalties can include the costs of separate insurance policies and the costs of setting up legal protections similar to those that are automatically granted by the state upon marriage.",
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"plaintext": "A conflicting study, published by the National Center for Health Statistics, with a sample of 12,571 people, concludes that \"those who live together after making plans to marry or getting engaged have about the same chances of divorcing as couples who never cohabited before marriage.\"",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, William Doherty, a professor in the Department of Family Social Science at the University of Minnesota has remarked that in his research he has found that \"committed cohabiting relationships seem to confer many of the benefits of marriage.\"",
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"plaintext": "A 2003 study by the Australian Institute of Family Studies found that \"The differences in measured outcomes for those from direct and indirect marriages appear to be entirely attributable to other factors.\" The study concluded that the evidence suggests that premarital cohabitation has \"little impact one way or the other\" on the chances of any subsequent marriage surviving.",
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"plaintext": "Canadian laws on the recognition of unmarried cohabitation for legal purposes vary significantly by province/territory; and in addition to this, federal regulations also have an impact across the country. (see Common-law marriage) Family formation has undergone significant changes in Canada during the last decades of the 20th century, but the patterns vary widely across the country, suggesting differing cultural norms in different regions. From 1995, births to cohabiting parents have increased, particularly in Quebec. In Canada, it is difficult to obtain exact data on the percentage of births outside marriage, because data on the marital status of mothers is collected differently across the provinces and territories of Canada, and in some (such as Alberta) it is not broken down in detail in regard to whether the mother was legally married or not at the birth of her child. As of 2012, the statistical category of \"single mothers\" (defined as never married at the time of the birth) encompassed 28.3% of mothers, the category \"divorced\" (i.e. mothers who were unmarried at the time of birth, but had been previously married during their lives) encompassed 1%, while for 10% of mothers the marital status was unknown (\"not stated\").",
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"plaintext": "There are, however, very significant differences by province/territory; for example in 2012, 77.8% of births in Nunavut were listed to \"single mothers\", by contrast, less than 20% of mothers in Ontario were listed in this category. Latest data from the Quebec Statistical Institute shows that as of 2015, in Quebec, 63% of children were born to unmarried women. In Canada, legal issues regarding cohabitation are very complicated by the fact that family law in this regard differs by province/territory, which is very confusing to the public, especially as this contrasts to criminal law which is the same across Canada, as well as to marriage and divorce law, which is also the same across the country, under the 1986 Divorce Act (Canada) (although provinces/territories have jurisdiction over some marital issues, including the solemnization of marriage, spousal and child support, and property division). The marital status of Canadians also varies by province/territory: in 2011, 46.4% of the population aged 15 and over was legally married; ranging from the lowest percentage of married people being in Nunavut (29.7%), Northwest Territories (35.0%), Quebec (35.4%), and Yukon (37.6%); to highest being in Newfoundland and Labrador (52.9%), Prince Edward Island (51.7%), Ontario (50.3%) and Alberta (50.2%). While today Quebec is known for liberal family formation and cohabitation, this is a recent development: during the first half of the 20th century, family life in the province was conservative and strongly dominated by Roman Catholicism; before 1968, there was no provincial divorce legislation in Quebec, and spouses could only end their marriage if they obtained a private Act of Parliament. One of the explanations of the current high rates of cohabitation in Quebec is that the traditionally strong social control of the church and the Catholic doctrine over people's private relations and sexual morality has led the population to rebel against traditional and conservative social values. While some provinces were early to modernize family law, in others this only happened in the 1990s and the 21st century, such as in Alberta, through the Family Law Act (Alberta) which came into force in 2005. This Act overhauled family legislation, replacing the Domestic Relations Act, the Maintenance Order Act, the Parentage and Maintenance Act, and parts of the Provincial Court Act and the Child, Youth and Family Enhancement Act, which were seen as outdated. Also, the Adult Interdependent Relationships Act (S.A. 2002, c. A-4.5) amended 69 Alberta laws. The Canadian Prairies provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan have strong common-law spouses regulations, imposing rights and obligations on common-law couples. Nova Scotia has also been very slow to advance family law – it was only in 1999 that this province abolished discrimination against \"illegitimate\" children with regard to inheritance (through section 16 of NS Intestate Succession Act amended in 1999). In general, today, provinces in Western Canada give more rights to common-law spouses than those in Atlantic Canada and in Quebec. This may seem quite paradoxical, because it is the eastern provinces which have the strongest tradition of cohabitation; according to a study \"unmarried cohabitation seems to be more common in Eastern Canada than in Western Canada, which might be related to internal and international migration\". (as of 2012, 48% of births in New Brunswick, 47.1% in Newfoundland and Labrador, and 45.2% in Nova Scotia, were listed to \"single mothers\", way above the national average). In British Columbia, the Family Law Act came into force in 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation in the United States became common in the late 20th century. , 4.85million unmarried couples were living together, and , about half of all women aged 15 to 44 had lived unmarried with a partner. In 2007, it is estimated that 6.4million households were maintained by two opposite sex persons who said they were unmarried.",
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"plaintext": " In 2012, the General Social Survey found that public disapproval of cohabitation had dropped to 20% of the population.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers at the National Center for Family and Marriage Research estimated in 2011 that 66% of first marriages are entered after a period of cohabitation. According to the 2009 American Community Survey conducted by the Census Bureau, the proportion of 30- to 44-year-olds living together has almost doubled since 1999, from 4% to 7%. Fifty-eight percent of women aged 19 to 44 had ever cohabited in data collected in 2006–08, while in 1987 only 33% had. Cohabitation is more prevalent among those with less education. \"Among women ages 19 to 44, 73% of those without a high school education have ever cohabited, compared with about half of women with some college (52%) or a college degree (47%),\" note the Pew study's authors, Richard Fry and D'Vera Cohn.",
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"plaintext": "Before the mid-20th century, laws against cohabitation, fornication, adultery and other such behaviors were common in the US (especially in Southern and Northeastern states), but these laws have been gradually abolished or struck down by courts as unconstitutional.",
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"plaintext": "As of April 2016, cohabitation of unmarried couples remains illegal in three states (Mississippi, Michigan, and North Carolina), while as of 2020 fornication remains illegal in two states (Idaho and Mississippi). These laws are almost never enforced and are now believed to be unconstitutional since the legal decision Lawrence v. Texas in 2003. However, these laws may have indirect effects. For example, one consequence may be that one may not claim their partner as a dependent (for a tax exemption), whereas in the other states it may be possible to do so after meeting four criteria: residency, income, support and status.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, in North Carolina, Pender County Superior Court judge Benjamin G. Alford ruled that North Carolina's cohabitation law is unconstitutional. However, the Supreme Court of North Carolina has never had the opportunity to rule on it, so the law's statewide constitutionality remains unclear.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 December 2013, US Federal Judge Clark Waddoups ruled in Brown v. Buhman that the portions of Utah's anti-polygamy laws which prohibit multiple cohabitation were unconstitutional, but also allowed Utah to maintain its ban on multiple marriage licenses. This decision was overturned by the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit, thus effectively recriminalizing polygamy as a felony. In 2020, Utah voted to downgrade polygamy from a felony to an infraction, but it remains a felony if force, threats or other abuses are involved. Unlawful cohabitation, where prosecutors did not need to prove that a marriage ceremony had taken place (only that a couple had lived together), had been a major tool used to prosecute polygamy in Utah since the 1882 Edmunds Act.",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation in Latin America is becoming more common. Indeed, although this is a largely Roman Catholic region, it has the highest rates of non-marital childbearing in the world (55–74% of all children in this region are born to unmarried parents). In Mexico, 18.7% of all couples were cohabiting . Among young people, the figures are much higher.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2000, in Argentina 58% of births were to unmarried women.",
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"plaintext": "The percentage of births outside marriage has increased throughout Latin America during the past decades, and there is also a relation to place of residence: women living in the capital city are more likely to have children outside marriage than those living in other parts of the country. Recent data shows figures for non-marital childbearing to be 74% for Colombia, 69% for Peru, 68% for Chile, 66% for Brazil and 55% for Mexico.",
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"plaintext": "In Nepal, living together is socially acceptable only after marriage. However, cohabitation is an emerging trend in urban areas of Nepal. Reports have shown that there may be significant number of unmarried couples cohabiting in cities, especially in the capital, Kathmandu. Even when unmarried couples cohabit they either prefer to remain anonymous or pose themselves as a married couple. Cohabitation is not recognized by the law of Nepal and there is no special provision to secure the right of cohabitants in Nepalese law.",
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"plaintext": "In Bangladesh, there are no laws prohibiting cohabitation but it is still socially unacceptable. However, cohabitation is becoming more common in urban areas due to western influence. An unmarried couple may feel immense pressure to marry by their family, and will probably choose to live as if they were married and, if exposed, can be expelled from housing or university. Cohabitation has become tolerant in recent years, especially among youths.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "In China, cohabitation has become popular among young adults. One study shows that the cohabitation rate before first marriage was over 20% for those born after 1977. Another recent study shows that cohabitation increases the divorce likelihood for those married in the early-reform period, but premarital cohabitation has no effect on divorce for those married in the late-reform period in China.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation in India had been taboo in traditional Hindu and Muslim societies. However, this is more acceptable between upper classes in large cities, but is not often found in rural areas and smaller towns which are more social conservative. Live-in relationships are legal in India. Recent Indian court rulings have ascribed some rights to long-term cohabiting partners. Female live-in partners have economic rights under Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 subject to following conditions as laid by Honourable Supreme Court of India in case of D. Velusamy v D. Patchaiammal:",
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"plaintext": " The couple must hold themselves out to society as being akin to spouses.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": " They must be of legal age to marry.",
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"plaintext": " They must be otherwise qualified to enter into a legal marriage, including being unmarried.",
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"plaintext": " They must have voluntarily cohabited and held themselves out to the world as being akin to spouses for a significant period of time.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 June 2020, the Uttarakhand High Court stated in the case of Madhu Bala v. State of Uttarakhand and others (Habeas Corpus Petition No. 8 of 2020) that consensual cohabitation between two adults of the same-sex is legal.",
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"plaintext": "In Indonesia, an Islamic penal code proposed in 2005 would have made cohabitation punishable by up to two years in prison. The practice is still frowned upon, and many hotels and boarding houses have been raided by police for allowing unmarried couples to share a room.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, according to M. Iwasawa at the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, less than 3% of females between 25–29 are currently cohabiting, but more than one in five have had some experience of an unmarried partnership, including cohabitation. A more recent Iwasawa study has shown that there has been a recent emergence of non-marital cohabitation. Couples born in the 1950s cohort showed an incidence of cohabitation of 11.8%, where the 1960s and 1970s cohorts showed cohabitation rates of 30%, and 53.9% respectively. The split between urban and rural residence for people who had cohabited is indicates 68.8% were urban and 31.2% were rural.",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines, around 2.4million Filipinos were cohabiting . The 2000 census placed the percentage of cohabiting couples at 19%. The majority of individuals are between the ages of 20–24. Poverty was often the main factor in decision to cohabit.",
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"plaintext": "In the European Union, cohabitation is very common. In 2014, 42% of all births in the 28 EU countries were nonmarital. In the following European countries the majority of births occur outside marriage: Iceland (69.9% in 2016), France (59.7% in 2016), Bulgaria (58.6% in 2016), Slovenia (58.6% in 2016), Norway (56.2% in 2016), Estonia (56.1% in 2016), Sweden (54.9% in 2016), Denmark (54% in 2016), Portugal (52.8% in 2016), and the Netherlands (50.4% in 2016).",
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"plaintext": "While couples of all ages cohabit, the phenomenon is much more common among younger people. In late 2005, 21% of families in Finland consisted of cohabiting couples (all age groups). Of couples with children, 18% were cohabiting. Of ages 18 and above in 2003, 13.4% were cohabiting. Generally, cohabitation amongst Finns is most common for people under 30. Legal obstacles for cohabitation were removed in 1926 in a reform of the Criminal Code, while the phenomenon was socially accepted much later on. In France, 17.5% of couples were cohabiting as of 1999.",
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"plaintext": "In Britain today, nearly half of babies are born to people who are not married (in the United Kingdom 47.3% in 2011; in Scotland in 2012 the proportion was 51.3%). It is estimated that by 2016, the majority of births in the UK will be to unmarried parents.",
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"plaintext": "The Victorian era of the late 19th century is famous for the Victorian standards of personal morality. Historians generally agree that the middle classes held high personal moral standards and rejected cohabitation. They have debated whether the working classes followed suit. Moralists in the late 19th century such as Henry Mayhew decried high levels of cohabitation without marriage and illegitimate births in London slums. However new research using computerized matching of data files shows that the rates of cohabitation were quite low—under 5% – for the working class and the urban poor.",
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"plaintext": "Falling marriage rates and increased births outside marriage have become a political issue, with questions of whether the government should promote marriage or focus on the status of a parent rather than a spouse; the Conservative Party support the former whilst Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats support the latter. There are also differences between England and Wales and Scotland, with the latter being more accepting of cohabitation.",
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"plaintext": "In Bulgaria, there has been a rapid increase in cohabitation after the fall of Communism. The transition from communism to market economy had a great impact on the demographic behavior of the population. After the fall of Communism, the legal and social pressure to get married has declined, and the population has started to experience new life styles. As of 2014, 58.8% of children were born to unmarried mothers.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "The marriage rates in Czech Republic have fallen dramatically during the past decades. In the 1970s to 1980s, about 96–97% of women married; in 2000 it was estimated that only 75% of women would ever marry. The age at first marriage for women has increased from being in the range of 21.4–21.8 years in the 1970s and 1980s, to being 29.6 in 2011. In the early 1990s, predictions were made by some Czech demographers that cohabitation would increase during the next decades; and indeed, there has been a marked increase in the number of people who live in non-marital couple relations. In 2016, 48.6% of births were to unmarried women.",
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"plaintext": "Until the 1980s, it was illegal for unmarried couples to cohabitate, which made it impossible for many same-sex couples to live together. At this point the Bundesgerichtshof ruled that cohabitation could not be banned as it was protected by the Basic Law.",
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"plaintext": "As in other western societies, patterns of family life have been changing in Germany during the past decades. This has not created a moral panic, but has been seen more as an ongoing social evolution. Cohabitation, divorce rates, lone parents, and people's reluctance to marry or to have children have increased. However, with regards to family formation and long term cohabitation instead of marriage, there are very strong differences between the regions of former West Germany and East Germany (which was formally Communist). Significantly more children are born out of wedlock in eastern Germany than in western Germany. In 2012, in eastern Germany 61.6% of births were to unmarried women, while in western Germany only 28.4% were. A longitudinal survey found that union stability was significantly higher for cohabiting mothers in eastern Germany than western Germany, due to differences in German society.",
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"plaintext": "In Greece, family dynamics remain conservative. The principal form of partnership is marriage, and extramarital childbearing and long term cohabitation are not widespread. For instance, in 2016 only 9.4% of births were outside marriage, which is the lowest percentage among the European Union member states. Religion in Greece plays a very important role in society; it was only in 1983 that civil marriage was introduced in the country. The new laws modernized family law, abolished dowry, and provided for equal rights for \"illegitimate\" children. According to a 2008 study: \"Greek society still remains conservative and birthing outside marriage, although protected by law, remains in many ways socially unacceptable.\" Despite this, there have been further legal changes providing for a modern \"western\" outlook on family life, including Law 3719/2008 dealing with family issues, including Article 14 of the law, which reduced the separation period (necessary before a divorce in certain circumstances) from four years to two years.",
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"plaintext": "The literature on second demographic transition argues as well that highly educated women are more prone to engage in cohabitation, although the reasons are different: they are less concerned with respecting the societal norms. Some scholars argued that cohabitation is very similar to being single in the sense of not giving up independence and personal autonomy.",
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"plaintext": "In Hungary, cohabitation was an uncommon phenomenon until the late 1980s and it was largely confined to the divorced or widowed individuals. Among the ethnic groups, Gypsy/Roma tended to have higher rates of cohabitation, mainly due to their reluctance to register their marriages officially. Since the 1980s, cohabitation became much more frequent among all ethnic groups and it has been argued to have strongly influenced the decline in fertility. As of 2015, 47.9% of births were to unmarried women.",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation in Ireland has increased in recent years, and 36.6% of births were to unmarried women in 2016. Until a few decades ago, women who had children outside marriage were severely stigmatized and often detained in Magdalene laundries. The Civil Partnership and Certain Rights and Obligations of Cohabitants Act 2010 gives some rights to unmarried cohabitants (under this act same-sex couples can enter into civil partnerships, while long term unmarried couples – both heterosexual and same sex – who have not registered their relation have some limited rights and obligations).",
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"plaintext": "In Italy, where Roman Catholicism had a historically strong presence, cohabitation is not as common as in other countries of Europe, yet it has increased in recent years. There are significant regional differences, with non-marital unions being more common in the North of the country than in Southern Italy. A study published in 2006 found that long term cohabitation was still novel to Italy, though more common among young people. As of 2015, the share of births outside marriage was 28.7%, but this varied by statistical regions as follows: Central Italy (33.8%), Northeast Italy (33.1%), Northwest Italy (31.3%), Insular Italy (24.2%), and South Italy (20.3%).",
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"plaintext": "Dutch researchers have found that research participants see cohabitation as a risk-reduction strategy in a country with high relationship instability. As of 2016, 50.4% births were to unmarried women.",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation is a common type of partnership in Norway. Cohabitants have some rights if they have joint children, or if they have lived together for five years. Cohabitants can also regulate their relationship through a cohabitation agreement. In Norway, in 2016, 56.2% of children were born outside marriage.",
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"plaintext": "In Poland, after the fall of Communism, the influence of religion has increased. Indeed, Poland has one of the most religious populations in Europe (see religion in Europe). Cohabitation in Poland has traditionally been associated with the lower social classes, but in recent years an increase has been seen among the more educated. Family structure in Poland remains traditional: Marriages are contracted at relatively young ages, and the incidence of divorce is relatively low (by European standards). The exact incidence of cohabitation is not well established, but it is quite low compared to other Western countries. However, Poland is not completely 'immune' to Western influence and, in 2016, 25% of children were born outside marriage.",
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"plaintext": "Slovakia is more conservative and religious than neighboring Czech Republic. The principal form of partnership is marriage, but extramarital childbearing and cohabitation are slowly spreading, yet this trend is not without criticism; and some view these phenomena as a threat to traditional values. In 2016, 40.2% of births were to unmarried women. Fertility in Slovakia has been described in a 2008 study as \"between tradition and modernity\".",
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"plaintext": "Switzerland has a tradition of strong conservatism; which can be seen in its legal and social history: in Europe, Switzerland was one of the last countries to establish gender equality in marriage: married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a referendum, who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving). Adultery was decriminalized in 1989. Until the late 20th century, most cantons had regulations banning unmarried cohabitation of couples; the last canton to end such prohibition was Valais, in 1995. As of 2015, 22.5% of births were to unmarried women.",
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"plaintext": "Births outside marriage are most common in the French speaking part (highest percentage in the cantons of Vaud, Neuchâtel, Geneva, Jura) and least common in the eastern German speaking cantons (lowest percentage in the cantons of St. Gallen, Zug, Appenzell Innerrhoden, Appenzell Ausserrhoden).",
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"plaintext": "Spanish society has undergone major changes since the fall of the Franco regime. Important legal changes which have occurred throughout the 1970s and 1980s include legalization of divorce, decriminalization of adultery, gender equality in family law, and removing the ban on contraception. The liberalization of the political climate has allowed for alternative family formation. In the mid-1990s, cohabitation in Spain was still described as a \"marginal\" phenomenon, but since the 1990s, cohabitation has increased dramatically in Spain. In Spain, in 2016, 45.9% of births were outside marriage. As in other countries, there are regional differences: in 2011, in Catalonia the figure was 42% – highest in mainland Spain in that year (Canary Islands 59% and Balearic Islands 43.5% were highest) while in Murcia it was only 30.7% (lowest).",
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"plaintext": "In Russia, many couples express a desire to cohabit before marriage, then register a civil marriage, and then at a later stage have a large church wedding.",
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"plaintext": "The cohabitation rate in West Asian countries is much lower than in European countries. In some parts of the continent it is however becoming more common for young people. As of 1994, the rate of premarital cohabitation in Israel was 25%.",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation is illegal according to Sunni sharia law.",
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"plaintext": "Cohabitation, Bi'ah, is a legal status, \"Yadua BetTzibbur\", by the Jews Halakha or Halacha religious Law",
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"plaintext": "Some legal recognition is extended to former common-law unions in Kuwait. Kuwaiti Family law applies the law of the father's, husband's or male partner's country in case of expatriate familial disputes. Hence, if the father's country of nationality recognises common-law marriages (like the United Kingdom), matters such as child support dues and maintenance can be considered in a Kuwaiti court. However, out-of-marriage sexual intercourse is an offence punishable in Kuwait with a prison sentence between 6 months and 6 years if caught in action by an official or an administrative deportation order. This meaning that common-law marriage recognition can only be practically seen in exceptional cases like where the illegitimate child was born aboard and/or former couples who have since expatriated to Kuwait. Single expat parents including expat mothers can legally sponsor their children for residency permits. Couples where one or both parties are Kuwaiti are covered by local family law and hence do not have recourse to the limited recognition of common-law marriage.",
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"plaintext": "Children born out-of-wedlock are given partial recognition. Their single expat mother or single expat father can sponsor them for residency. However, sexual relations out-of-marriage in UAE is illegal. But in November 2020 UAE Allowed Sexual relations out-of-marriage.",
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"plaintext": "In Australia, 22% of couples were cohabiting . 78% of couples who marry have lived together beforehand in 2008, rising from 16% in 1975. As of 2013, of all births, 34% were to unmarried women. Australia recognizes de facto relationships. The proportion of births outside marriage varies by state/territory, being, in 2009, lowest in Victoria (at 28%), Australian Capital Territory (at 29%), and New South Wales (at 30%); and highest in Northern Territory (at 63%) and Tasmania (at 51%).",
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"plaintext": "In New Zealand, 23.7% of couples were cohabiting as of 2006. In 2010, 48% of births were outside marriage. Like Australia, New Zealand recognizes de facto relationships.",
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"plaintext": " Alimony",
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"plaintext": " Samenlevingscontract",
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},
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},
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| [
"Living_arrangements",
"Intimate_relationships",
"Family",
"Criticism_of_marriage"
]
| 49,800 | 14,796 | 447 | 192 | 0 | 0 | cohabitation | arrangement where two people who are not married live together in an intimate relationship | []
|
36,530 | 1,107,469,506 | Mobile_Bay | [
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"plaintext": "Mobile Bay ( ) is a shallow inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, lying within the state of Alabama in the United States. Its mouth is formed by the Fort Morgan Peninsula on the eastern side and Dauphin Island, a barrier island on the western side. The Mobile River and Tensaw River empty into the northern end of the bay, making it an estuary. Several smaller rivers also empty into the bay: Dog River, Deer River, and Fowl River on the western side of the bay, and Fish River on the eastern side. Mobile Bay is the fourth largest estuary in the United States with a discharge of of water per second. Annually, and often several times during the summer months, the fish and crustaceans will swarm the shallow coastline and shore of the bay. This event, appropriately named a jubilee, draws a large crowd because of the abundance of fresh, easily caught seafood.",
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"plaintext": "Mobile Bay is in area. It is long by a maximum width of . The deepest areas of the bay are located within the shipping channel, sometimes in excess of deep, but the average depth of the bay is .",
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"plaintext": "Long occupied by cultures of indigenous peoples, this area was still under the chiefs of Mississippian culture at the time of Hernando de Soto's exploration.",
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"plaintext": "The recorded history of Mobile Bay begins about 1500, when Spanish explorers were sailing into the area. On early maps, the bay was named as Bahía del Espíritu Santo (Bay of the Holy Spirit). The area was explored in more detail in 1516 by Diego Miruelo and in 1519 by Alonso Álvarez de Pineda. In 1528, Pánfilo de Narváez travelled through what was likely the Mobile Bay area, encountering Native Americans who fled and burned their towns at the approach of the expedition. This response was a prelude to the journeys of Hernando de Soto, more than eleven years later.",
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"plaintext": "Hernando de Soto explored the area of Mobile Bay and beyond in 1540, finding the area inhabited by indigenous Mississippian culture people. During this expedition his forces destroyed the fortified town of Mauvila, also spelled Maubila, from which the name Mobile was later derived. It was a town of the paramount Chief Tuscaloosa, located in inland Alabama, well to the north of the current site of Mobile. The next large expedition was that of Tristán de Luna y Arellano, in his unsuccessful attempt to establish a permanent colony for Spain nearby at Pensacola in 1559.",
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"plaintext": "Although Spain's presence in the area had been sporadic, in 1702 French colonists created a deep-sea port at Dauphin Island and founded French Louisiana's capital at Mobile, a few miles north of Mobile Bay on the Mobile River. Following a series of floods, the original settlement of Fort Louis de la Mobile was relocated in 1711 to the head of Mobile Bay.",
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"plaintext": "During the American Civil War Mobile Bay was used as a major port for blockade runners bringing in badly needed supplies for the Confederacy. On August 5, 1864, Admiral David Farragut led a Union flotilla through Confederate defenses and sealed off one of the last major Southern ports of the bay in the Battle of Mobile Bay. A number of Civil War-era shipwrecks remain in Mobile Bay, including American Diver, CSS Gaines, CSS Huntsville, USS Philippi, CSS Phoenix, USS Rodolph, USS Tecumseh, and CSS Tuscaloosa.",
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"plaintext": "Mobile's role as a seaport has continued to the present day, though the commodities have changed through time. Cotton was the chief commodity in the nineteenth century. During the Second World War, Mobile's shipbuilding industry expanded, and the city's population surged as both black and white migrants moved there for work. Growth has been rapid since then.",
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"plaintext": "The city has endured several devastating hurricanes in its history, the most recent being Hurricane Frederic in 1979 and Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Areas of low elevation, including the downtown business district, have been flooded repeatedly in hurricanes. However, much of the city is at an elevation exceeding above sea level, which is unusually high for the Gulf and Atlantic coasts.",
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"plaintext": "On September 13, 1979, Hurricane Frederic entered the bay with winds reaching , destroying the bridge to Dauphin Island. On August 28–29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina pushed a massive storm surge into Mobile Bay; it measured high at Bayou La Batre (Alabama), with higher waves on top, and high at Mobile, at the far northern end of the 31-mile-long Mobile Bay. Thousands of boats, piers, and beach houses were damaged by waves exceeding high, and the battleship was pushed off her moorings, leaving her listing to port (tilted to the left). Downtown Mobile was flooded several feet, and the south-end towns of Bayou La Batre and Bon Secour were severely damaged. Dozens of vessels of various sizes were left stranded inland.",
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"plaintext": "Chairman Kaga tastes the dishes along with the judges. While he occasionally makes comments and seeks input from judges during tasting, he generally does not participate in scoring; he did do so, however, during the 2000th Dish Battle. During this episode, a team of French cuisine chefs—captain Hiroyuki Sakai, the original Iron Chef French Yutaka Ishinabe, and former challenger Etsuo Joh—battled a team of Chinese cuisine chefs composed of captain Chen Kenichi, former challenger Sozo Myamoto, and former challenger Yuji Wakiya (who would later be Iron Chef Chinese on the 2012 revival). To break the tie, Chairman Kaga asked them to allow him this one instance of selfishness, and he cast his vote for the French team.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of a deadlock (as was possible during the era of the four-judge panel), first place is awarded to the chef with the greater number of points. On the rare occasions that the scores were also tied, an immediate \"overtime battle\" was held to determine the winner. In overtime, the chefs are given 30 minutes to prepare dishes with a different key ingredient, having to make do with what remains of their pantry or with items that were previously prepared for the main battle. The overtime battles are aired as a separate episode. On one occasion, the overtime battle itself resulted in a tie, prompting Chairman Kaga to declare both the Iron Chef and challenger winners.",
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"plaintext": "The stage setting for the show, , the high-quality (and sometimes very expensive) ingredients used in the cooking battles, and Kaga's extravagant costumes required the show to have a budget far higher than those of most other cooking shows. Some statistics: 893 portions of foie gras, 54 sea bream, 827 Ise shrimp, 964 matsutake mushrooms, 4,593 eggs, 1,489 truffles, 4,651g of caviar, and 84 pieces of shark fin were used during the show, bringing the total grocery bill to ¥843,354,407 (or about $7,115,520). One of the most expensive battles was Battle Swallow's Nest, which ran over $40,000 solely for that ingredient, not counting large quantities of shark's fin; for the battle, the producers were permitted to return any unused portions to Hattori Nutrition College.",
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"plaintext": "For the show's grand finale, aired from September 10, 1999, to September 24, 1999, the Iron Chefs faced off against each other in a three-part battle, with the winner to face French chef Alain Passard, owner of Michelin three-star restaurant L’Arpege, with the winner dubbed the \"King of Iron Chefs\".",
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"plaintext": "In the first round, Iron Chef Chinese Chen defeated Iron Chef Italian Kobe in Battle Pork (Tokyo X). In the second round, Iron Chef French Sakai defeated Iron Chef Japanese Morimoto in Battle Bell Pepper. In the final match, Sakai defeated Chen in Battle Homard Lobster and was dubbed \"King of Iron Chefs\". Prior to that episode, Sakai had never won a lobster battle.",
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"plaintext": "In the final bonus match in Kitchen Stadium, with all of the current and previous Iron Chefs looking on, Iron Chef French Sakai defeated Alain Passard in Battle Long-Gang Chicken. Thus, Hiroyuki Sakai was dubbed as both \"King of Iron Chefs\" and \"The No. 1 in the World.\"",
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"plaintext": "Two reunion specials were produced in 2000. The first was \"The Millennium Special\"; the second was \"New York Special\", staged in a makeshift Kitchen Stadium at Webster Hall in New York City, and was the first appearance of Bobby Flay. The New York special also included Michiba and Morimoto on Gordon Elliott's Door Knock Dinners (with footage aired on both shows) surprising a family in Rye by preparing dinner for them with just leftovers and other items in the family's refrigerator. Another reunion episode of the show (entitled \"Iron Chef: 21st Century Battle\") was produced and broadcast in 2001. A final reunion episode was produced and broadcast in 2002, entitled \"The Japan Cup\".",
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"plaintext": "Sakai, Chen, Kobe and Michiba, along with celebrity chefs including Chen's son Chen Kentaro and Singaporean patissier Janice Wong, also participated in an Iron Chef All Stars charity dinner at the Sydney Opera House in August 2017 that raised $26,500 (AUD) for Opportunity International Australia and was eventually Kobe's last Iron Chef event before his death.",
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"plaintext": "Starting around 1997, Iron Chef was shown, on KTSF in San Francisco, KSCI in Long Beach, as well as stations in Hawaii and the New York City area, in its original Japanese version with English subtitles, and quickly became a cult hit. In summer of 1998, the show stopped using subtitles; Fuji TV released a statement saying that the show was intended as a \"service to the Japanese community abroad\" and due to Japanese copyright laws were to be aired without subtitles, which had previously been provided \"inadvertently.\"",
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"plaintext": "While always a success in Japan, Iron Chef became a surprise hit in the United States when it was picked up by the Food Network in 1999 and dubbed into English. Part of the U.S. appeal was due to the dubbing, which gave the show a campy charm that evoked English-dubbed Chinese kung fu movies of the 1970s. Audiences also found amusing some of the over-the-top culinary concoctions regularly featured on the show, eventually leading to a spoof on Saturday Night Live.",
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"plaintext": "The show was presented in the United States and Canada on the Food Network, dubbed and/or subtitled into English. It is also actively broadcast on SBS TV in Australia. In the case of SBS, this is unusual as the network has a policy favouring in-house subtitling. It may be felt that the tone given to the show by its American dub is essential to its charms, heightened perhaps by the fact that in most episodes, the flamboyant Chairman is subtitled instead of dubbed. However, episodes aired since February 2009 have seen the Chairman's voice dubbed rather than subtitled as was the case in previous airings, except when he sends the chefs into battle.",
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"plaintext": "The show was broadcast on the Finnish channel SubTV, and the Swedish channel TV400 (TV4). Iron Chef was also broadcast on Challenge in the UK in 2003 and 2004, as part of its \"Japanese Christmas Cracker\" and \"Japanorama\" strands.",
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"plaintext": "The show had again aired in the U.S. on the Fine Living Network from May 5, 2008, until the channel went off the air on May 30, 2010; however, the music from earlier broadcasts, taken from the film Backdraft, had been replaced due to music-licensing issues with NBC Universal. The Cooking Channel picked up the series on June 1, 2010, when it replaced Fine Living. The stations that have carried the series, Fine Living, Cooking Channel, and Food Network, are all owned by Scripps Networks Interactive.",
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"plaintext": "FilmRise acquired the exclusive rights to the original Iron Chef episodes in October 2021. The following month, episodes began streaming for free on Paramount's Pluto TV service.",
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"plaintext": "Since the acquisition by FilmRise, Iron Chef has begun to appear on U.S. Streaming services. As of June 2022, this includes FuboTV, Peacock and Amazon Prime (via Freevee). These episodes are not presented in strict broadcast order. These episodes are dubbed and have different music than the original Backdraft track. It is unclear if these are all of the dubbed episodes that were made.",
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"plaintext": "For Amazon Freevee at least, the correct mapping of seasons/episodes to chronological broadcast order are (original episode information from List of Iron Chef episodes:",
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"plaintext": "Also Season 4 Episodes 1 - 2 are retrospective episodes on the history of Iron Chef Japanese Rokusaburo Michiba (Season 4 Episode 1) and Iron Chefs Chinese Chen Kenichi and French Hiroyuki Sakai (Season 4 Episode 2) that were apparently made for US audiences and not part of the original Japanese broadcast.",
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"plaintext": "Certain challengers have made repeat appearances, or have been particularly memorable (including if they were the lone chefs specializing in their particular cuisines in the show's history).",
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"plaintext": "(Japanese names are not in the traditional Japanese style [i.e. family name first] but have been written in standard European style [i.e. family name last].)",
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{
"plaintext": " Jacques Borie: An MOF winner. He is the only challenger who beat iron chef Yutaka Ishinabe.",
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"plaintext": " La Tour d'Argent (Two wins and one draw in four battles) – A historic French restaurant in Paris (dating itself back to 1582) that has a Tokyo branch at the Hotel New Otani open since 1984.",
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"plaintext": " Tadaaki Shimazu: a chef who worked at the Tokyo branch, he bested Sakai with homard lobster as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Bernard Leprince (One win in two battles) : a chef at the main Paris branch who faced Nakamura twice, with the chefs winning one each. Leprince won their initial battle during the French Special with salmon as the theme, while Nakamura won the rematch in Tokyo with duck as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Dominique Corby: a chef at the Tokyo branch, he was the 300th challenger and fought Chen to a draw first with foie gras as the regulation theme and then with asparagus as the overtime theme. He is the only competitor to have tied an Iron Chef twice — once initially and again in the overtime battle. He and Chen were subsequently declared joint winners.",
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"plaintext": " Arpège (Two wins and one draw in four battles) – a French restaurant in Paris that earned its first Michelin Guide star in its first year after its founding in 1986, its second soon thereafter and a third in 1996, which it has maintained since. It was also ranked 8th in The World's 50 Best Restaurants in 2018. ",
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"plaintext": " Alain Passard (One win and one draw in three battles): Arpège's owner and head chef. He represented France in the 1997 Iron Chef World Cup in Kyoto and beat American Patrick Clark with homard lobster as the theme before tying Nakamura in the final with foie gras as the theme. Short after his appearance, L'Arpege had received its third Michelin star. In the series finale, Passard was invited to Kitchen Stadium to be the final challenger during the final King of Iron Chefs series, where Sakai bested him with Long Gang chicken as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Tetsuya Shimada: A Japanese French chef who worked at Arpège from 1987 until his return to Japan in 1992, his skills were recognized by Passard, who made him a seafood specialist while at Arpège. Also a member of Club Mistral (see below), Sakai also beat him with black truffles as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Cheng Kazuhiko: A Chinese chef and the first challenger to win in Kitchen Stadium after he bested Chen in the sixth episode with octopus as the theme",
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"plaintext": " Tadamichi Ōta: defeated Iron Chef Sakai in an octopus battle, in which Sakai was particularly squeamish about handling the live creatures. Later became the leader of the \"Ōta Faction\" (大田軍団) of traditional Japanese chefs. The Ōta Faction regularly challenged Iron Chef Morimoto and his neo-Japanese style, winning one out of five battles. Ōta Faction was the name used in the translated version shown on Food Network. In the original Japanese version (shown in the U.S. and transcribed by the Iron Chef Reporter in southern California) the group is called Ōta’s Party of Heaven and Earth (OPHE; 大田天地の会). Every time he appeared, Fukui would point out that he was not related to Shinichiro Ohta, the show's floor reporter.",
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"plaintext": " Kyoko Kagata (One win in two battles): A French chef, the first female chef to appear on the show and the youngest chef to be victorious after beating Chen with scallops as the theme. Four years later, after experiencing a midlife crisis, she challenged Chen again. This time, with veal as the theme, Chen won by 19-17 on Kishi's scorecard and 20-19 on the others.",
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"plaintext": " An interesting side note is that the second female challenger, cooking show host Katsuyo Kobayashi, also faced Chen. Kobayashi indirectly picked Chen because she allowed Kaga to pick for her. Chen lost both battles, and purportedly caught some flak from chef-friends of his. Chen fought another two female challengers in separate battles and won.",
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"plaintext": " Cho Chiyo: An okonomiyaki turned Cantonese chef from Kobe who helped feed those suffering hardship after the city was devastated by the Great Hanshin Earthquake. Kaga invited her to battle in recognition of her bravery and so that she could cook to her heart's content, and she challenged Chen, who prevailed with tofu as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Toshiro Kandagawa (three wins out of six battles): Regular challenger who aligned himself with the Ōta Faction, a group of hardline traditionalists in Japanese cuisine, and often led his army of fellow chefs and protegés into Kitchen Stadium during challenges. Kandagawa has taken part in several battles wherein he supported apprentices to battle an Iron Chef (only one out of the ten won). Kandagawa also participated in several \"battle special\" episodes, including the 21st Century Battle. Rokusaburo Michiba was his main rival until Michiba's retirement as Iron Chef Japanese; he has recorded victories over Chen, Nakamura and Sakai.",
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"plaintext": " Pierre Gagnaire: The owner and head chef of the eponymous Michelin 3-star Pierre Gagnaire in Paris, Gagnaire represented France in the 1995 Iron Chef World Cup at Ariake Coliseum but lost to eventual runner-up Gianfranco Vissani with tuna as the theme ingredient. He was later under financial pressure as the French economic downturn threatened to close the restaurant, and Kaga was moved to organize the France Battle Special to rekindle Gagnaire's spirit. He then proceeded to defeat Sakai with lobster as the theme. Gagnaire has since opened another restaurant bearing his name in Tokyo as part of his ventures, operating since 2005.",
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"plaintext": " Rory Kennedy: The head chef of Rules in Covent Garden, London and the lone British challenger on the show. He and Sakai battled to a draw with rabbit as the theme, with Sakai prevailing in overtime with pigeon as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Bobby Flay: Flay entered into a bit of a rivalry with Iron Chef Japanese Morimoto during the show's special New York Battle. Flay complained that his side of the kitchen was poorly laid out (it was noted in an Iron Chef America \"Behind the Scenes\" episode that the kitchen was hastily set up in the provided forum). At one point Flay received an electric shock, transmitted by a wet floor and faulty wiring, when he grabbed a metal pan on the range. When Flay stood on his cutting board at the end of the battle, Morimoto declared that Flay was \"not a chef\" for disregarding the cleanliness of one's cutting board. Morimoto won, but Flay was offered a rematch. He accepted, and got his revenge, in the 21st Century Battle in Japan, where, at battle's end, he tossed the cutting board off the counter before climbing on it, so as not to offend Morimoto again. Flay then became an Iron Chef alongside Morimoto on Iron Chef America. This rivalry was revisited for a third time with Morimoto defeating Flay during the Holiday Ice Battle (Iron Chef America, November 2009)",
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"plaintext": " Ron Siegel: A French/California cuisine chef who was head chef of Charles Nob Hill in San Francisco when he bested Sakai with lobster as the theme to become the first American challenger to win in Kitchen Stadium. Mayor Willie Brown had personally recommended Siegel to be on the show.",
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"plaintext": " Michael Noble: The lone Canadian challenger and an award winner in the Bocuse d'Or, who was head chef at the Metropolitan Hotel in Vancouver when he challenged Morimoto in Battle Potato in 1999 with Morimoto winning 3-1.",
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"plaintext": " Wayne Nish: A Japanese-American chef (his grandfather is from Yamaguchi Prefecture), New York native and the head chef at March, a highly-rated restaurant on Manhattan's Upper East Side. Sakai bested him with apples as the theme, with the battle also being notable because it was the only one that regular color commentator Yukio Hattori judged.",
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"plaintext": " : A group of Italian chefs working in Japan who took their name from the top flight of Italian football and frequently challenged Iron Chef Italian Kobe: Mario Frittoli, Constantino Gemmoli, and Franco Canzoniere. No group member ever defeated Kobe, although one member did defeat Morimoto. ",
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"plaintext": " Marco Paolo Molinari: A member of Serie A and a world pasta champion who prevailed over Morimoto with porcini mushrooms as the theme, making him ultimately the only Italian challenger to beat an Iron Chef. Utilized a block of marble that was first heated using alcohol spray and a torch and then cooled with dry ice while creating and kneading his dough, which bewildered Morimoto.",
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"plaintext": " Joël Bruant (One win in two battles): A Tokyo-based French chef considered a French culinary ambassador to Japan, he was vice chairman of the Acaedemie Culinaire de France and a top apprentice to Paul Bocuse. He and Marashi Furutaka beat Michiba and Chen in a doubles match with sea bass as the theme, but Sakai beat him with salmon as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " : A group of young specialists in French cuisine. They mainly targeted Iron Chef French Sakai as a member of Club des Trentes – one of their competing groups composed of more established French chefs that included Sakai, Ishinabe and challenger Etsuo Jō – in a similar fashion, although they took on Iron Chef Chinese Chen and Iron Chef French Ishinabe once each as well. Only one of them managed a win (Kazutaka Okabe versus Sakai, in a lamb battle) despite several attempts.",
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"plaintext": " Tatsuo Umemiya: An actor, tarento (including on restaurant variety shows) and businessman. He lost to Michiba with horse mackerel as the theme but was invited back as a judge for some subsequent battles including the King of Iron Chefs series finale.",
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"plaintext": " Heichinrou (One win out of three battles): The oldest restaurant in Yokohama Chinatown sent three challengers to challenge Chen in 1998 and 1999 after deeming him worthy of their challenge. Chen beat cooking coach Hisao Yaginuma with bok choy as the theme and Mitsuo Suganuma (the first Japanese chef to head a Heichinrou branch) with shark fin as the theme before Xie Huaxian, the restaurant's grand chef, won with spiny lobster as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Dr. Yukio Hattori: A gentlemen's agreement went on between the Chairman of Gourmet Academy (Kaga) and the President of Culinary Academy (Hattori) where the Doctor agreed to battle an Iron Chef. If he won, he would be given a spot alongside the Iron Chefs and if he lost he would keep working for Kaga. As he remained a commentator until the end of the series, one can easily deduce the outcomes of his two battles. Joël Robuchon was invited as a guest judge for the event, and Honorary Iron Chef Ishinabe served in a commentary role in Hattori's place for the battle. Hattori also battled Nakamura in his final battle with tuna as the theme owing to the longstanding Hattori-Nadaban rivalry, with Nakamura prevailing with tuna as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Takashi Saitō (not to be confused with the baseball player): The top apprentice of Chen's father Chen Kenmin who also coached Kenichi after Kenmin passed away and then challenged him with prawns at the theme. Both chefs recreated one of Kenmin's signatures, prawns in chili sauce – Saito recreated Kenmin's original recipe, while Kenichi recreated his father's modern version of the dish (with ketchup, which he then served Canapé Style) and went on to win. In the 2000th Dish Special, Kaga said that Chen's prawns were his favorite dish to that point, and Chen himself also said it was the battle he remembered most including because it was the one battle that his mother Yoko watched in person.",
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"plaintext": "Isao Makio: A French chef who was a classmate of Sakai's at Izumi Municipal Junior High School in Kagoshima Prefecture, the two sat next to each other but barely talked, though the two were also on the same train to seek jobs and got off at different stations. After Sakai returned to Kagoshima to visit his parents' grave and unexpectedly reunited with his class and teacher, the class relayed his wish to meet Sakai and challenge him, which would be the first time they had met in 40 years. Sakai prevailed with Kagoshima black pig as the theme and the class in attendance.",
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"plaintext": "Lin Kunbi (no wins in two battles): A celebrity Fuchien Chinese chef who battled Michiba to a draw with potatoes as the theme, leading to the very first overtime in show history where Michiba prevailed with sweet potatoes as the theme. He later also faced Nakamura, who won with bell peppers as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Kenichi Miyanaga: A graduate of Hattori Nutrition College who was also an assistant for several Kitchen Stadium Battles and eventually hired by Michiba after Michiba retired as an active Iron Chef and after Miyanaga graduated. Michiba chose him to face Morimoto in a battle to also push Morimoto, and Morimoto won with sweetfish as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Yūji Wakiya (one win in three battles): A master of \"neo-Chinese\" cuisine, Wakiya lost to Iron Chef Sakai in Battle Sea Urchin but defeated Iron Chef Chen with papayas. He later became part of Chen's All-Chinese team alongside Sozo Miyamoto for the 2000th Dish Special. He was also named the second Iron Chef Chinese in the Millennium Cup and was supposed to take over Chen's place, but he never actually battled under the new title until the first episode of the 2012 revival.",
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"plaintext": "Etsuo Jō (two wins in three battles): A French chef famous for his sauces. Michiba defeated him with broccoli as the theme, but he then bested Sakai with wine as the theme. He was also chosen to be the third member of Sakai's All-French team for the 2000th Dish Special alongside Ishinabe.",
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"plaintext": "Sozo Miyamoto (no wins in two battles): A Shanghai cuisine chef and a rival of Chen's who, like him, won a silver award representing Japan in the World Chinese Cooking Championship in 1992. Chen won with carp as the theme, but Miyamoto was also invited to join him on the All-Chinese team for the 2000th Dish Special alongside Wakiya.",
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"plaintext": "Li Jinlun: A Cantonese chef working in Tokyo after being been the head chef at Fook Lam Moon, a famous Cantonese restaurant in Hong Kong. Chen bested him with swallow's nest ($24,000 worth) as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Kazunari Takeda: the first challenger defeat Iron Chef Masahiko Kobe in 30 minutes overtime battle with the theme ingredient Pink Prawn. He first tied with Masahiko Kobe during the battle of Cod Soft Roe and finally he made way to the 30 minutes overtime battle and won.",
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"plaintext": "Liang Shuqing: Liang Shueng's younger brother became the second challenger to defeat Iron Chef Chen Kenichi in 30 minutes overtime battle with the theme ingredient Konnyaku. He first tied with Chen Kenichi during the battle of Pork belly and finally he made way to the 30 minutes overtime battle and won.",
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"plaintext": "Masahiko Hagiwara (One win in two battles): An Italian chef and pasta specialist. Chen beat him with scampi as the theme, but he bested Kobe with short pasta as the theme in Kobe's debut, making him the only challenger to win against a debuting Iron Chef.",
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"plaintext": "Kentaro: Katsuyo Kobayashi's son who wants to defeat Iron Chef Chen Kenichi like his mother did before. He first appeared in his mother's cook show at the age of 5 and at age 25 he further his skills in art, music and cooking. During the battle with Iron Chef Chen Kenichi he refused to use the same recipes like his mother. Chen beat Kentaro in the new potatoes battle.",
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"plaintext": "Shinya Tasaki: The winner of the Association de la Sommellerie Internationale's Meilleur Sommelier du Monde (World's Best Sommelier) in Tokyo in 1995, the first (and as of 2020, still only) Asian national to win the competition. Also president of the Association . Tasaki is also the only non-professional chef to have won in Kitchen Stadium after defeating Kobe with fatty tuna as the theme. Though it was not a stipulation of the battle, by virtue of his being a sommelier, both he and Kobe chose wines to pair with their dishes. Also invited to perform sommelier duties during the series finale.",
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"plaintext": "Sotetsu Fujii: The high priest of the Fushikian Temple in Kamakura and a Shojin vegetarian chef, who Sakai bested with yams as the theme.",
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{
"plaintext": "Hiroshi Furusho: A French chef (including a specialty in Cajun cuisine) and a favorite of the Tokyo Yakult Swallows, including manager Katsuya Nomura, a recurring judge who recommended him for the show. Nomura and a number of players attended his appearance, where Michiba prevailed with turkey as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Jun'ichi Itō: The first challenger not classified as a chef specializing in any specific cuisine, he started French cooking at age 18 and left for France at age 28. He left for Italy three years later and joined Enoteca Pinchiorri, where Kobe had also trained. When he was 35, he opened his restaurant Herle Quin in Tokyo. Food critic Asako Kishi, the show's most frequent judge by dishes tasted, recommended him as a challenger before Chen won with yogurt as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Kensuke Sakai: An Italian chef, but most notable because his restaurant \"Nigiro\" was (at time of taping in 1998) really a food stand that he brings in by hand to a monastery's yard each night – he had been cited 30 times by Tokyo police before coming to the arrangement with the monastery. At his introduction, Sakai brought the food cart into Kitchen Stadium. Kobe bested him with pumpkin as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Chihiro Otsuki: One of just two Spanish cuisine challengers in the show's history, who had won awards for her cooking in Spain. Chen won by just a single point with tomatoes as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Yosei Watanabe: The lone Mexican cuisine chef to be a challenger on the show and the chef who opened the first authentic Mexican restaurant in Tokyo, who Kobe bested with mangoes as the theme.",
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{
"plaintext": "Senji Osada: A sous vide specialist, who Sakai bested with scallops as a theme. A vacuum machine was stalled on either side of Kitchen Stadium for the battle, and Osada used it for all of his dishes while Sakai also used it for two of his.",
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"plaintext": "Lee Myong-suk: A Royal Korean cuisine chef and the lone Korean challenger on the show, she went on to become an executive chef at the Culinary Institute of California. Chen was victorious in their battle with liver as the theme.",
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"plaintext": "Hironobu Tsujiguchi: A patissier who became the youngest champion of the World Cup of Desserts, he was the first and only challenger to win a dessert battle out of seven after he prevailed over Kobe with chocolate and bananas as the themes.",
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"plaintext": "Tetsutoshi Shimazu: An Italian chef and the first challenger specializing in pizza. Chen bested him with squid as the theme but worried during the battle as Shimazu was making his pizza that he himself might not have a dish that would beat it.",
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"plaintext": "Gillian Hirst: A chef from Brisbane who was the lone Australian challenger in the show's history. Nakamura bested her with ostrich as the theme by a single point.",
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{
"plaintext": "Takashi Mera (One win in two battles): A chef who used the longest knife in the country, almost twice the 8-inch average length used by other Japanese chefs. He lost to Michiba with tuna as the theme but was invited back for a rematch and bested Nakamura with wakame seaweed as the theme.",
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{
"plaintext": "Kiyotaka Ikegawa: A sumo rikishi known as Fuyoho who turned chef after an injury cut his sumo career short. Chen bested him with horsehair crab as the theme.",
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"plaintext": " Other female challengers include Fuyuko Kondō, Kandagawa protégée Yoshie Urabe, Yoshiko Takemasa, Katsuko Nanao, Kumiko Kobayashi, Miyoko Sakai and Chinese Cui Yufen Among the women listed above, only Cui won in her battle (coincidentally against Chen).",
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"plaintext": "The result of a battle may be influenced by the lineup of judges, which changes from show to show. A list of some of the more notable judges, some of which were previous Iron Chefs or challengers, includes:",
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{
"plaintext": " These names are not in the traditional East Asian style [i.e. family name first] but have been written in standard western style [i.e. family name last], as they appeared on the English dub of the show.",
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{
"plaintext": " Akebono, Yokozuna",
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"plaintext": " Asako Kishi, a.k.a. the \"East German Judge\", a food critic and nutritionist. She tasted the most dishes after Kaga, according to the 2000th Plate special episode.",
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{
"plaintext": " Chua Lam, Hong Kong gourmet and VP of Golden Harvest",
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"plaintext": " Jackie Chan, actor and martial artist",
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{
"plaintext": " Joël Robuchon, a French chef who was called \"Chef of the Century\" by the guide Gault Millau; he also trained the 200th challenger, Maurice Guillouët",
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{
"plaintext": " Julie Dreyfus, French actress, she refused to taste one dish prepared by Toshiro Kandagawa because it contained whale meat.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Katsuya Nomura, Nippon Professional Baseball catcher and manager",
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"plaintext": " Kazuhiro Sasaki, Yokohama BayStars (and later Seattle Mariners) closer",
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"plaintext": " Kazuko Hosoki, popular fortune teller and holder of the world record for most best-selling books",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kazushige Nagashima, a.k.a. \"Junior,\" former pro baseball player and sports commentator",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kenji Fukui, the show's regular announcer and play-by-play commentator, who was also a judge for the 2000th Dish Special",
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},
{
"plaintext": " KORN (born as Nobuaki Kondo), a Japanese rap artist",
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{
"plaintext": " Masaaki Hirano, Rosanjin scholar",
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"plaintext": " Mayuko Takata, actress",
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"plaintext": " Mitsuko Ishii, newscaster",
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"plaintext": " Nagisa Oshima, film director",
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{
"plaintext": " Pierre Troisgros, a legendary French chef who judged the France Battle special; he also trained one challenger, Ryozo Azao",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rokusaburo Michiba, Iron Chef Japanese I and Iron Chef Emeritus, who returned as a judge during King of Iron Chefs",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ryuichi Sakamoto, musician, composer, producer and actor",
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},
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"plaintext": " Ryutaro Hashimoto, former Prime Minister of Japan, judge for the final battle",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shigesato Itoi, famous director, writer, producer and video game designer, creator of the Mother series",
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"plaintext": " Shinichiro Kurimoto, member of the Japanese House of Representatives",
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},
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"plaintext": " Takehiko Bessho, Nippon Professional Baseball pitcher, manager and commentator",
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"plaintext": " Tamio Kageyama, novelist",
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{
"plaintext": " Tatsuo Umemiya, actor, tarento and challenger",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tenmei Kanoh, photographer",
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"section_name": "Notable judges",
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{
"plaintext": " Tim and Nina Zagat, the founders of the Zagat Survey, who also helped organize and judge the New York Battle",
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"section_name": "Notable judges",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Toshiki Kaifu, former Prime Minister of Japan",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ukyo Katayama, former Formula One driver",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yasushi Akimoto, lyricist and music producer",
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{
"plaintext": " Yoko Akino, actress and cookbook author, who also featured in a TV Tokyo special featuring Sakai, Chen and Michiba visiting and cooking in Shanghai, Seoul and Ho Chi Minh City",
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},
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"plaintext": " Yoshirō Mori, Lower House member",
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"plaintext": " Yoshiko Ishii, chanson singer",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Yukio Hatoyama, Leader of the Opposition",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dr. Yukio Hattori, Hattori Nutrition College president, challenger and the show's regular color commentator",
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"plaintext": " Yutaka Ishinabe, Iron Chef French I, who returned as a judge during King of Iron Chefs",
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{
"plaintext": "During the 2,000th Dish Battle, Chairman Kaga selected the five best and three worst dishes from the history of the show.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Notable dishes",
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{
"plaintext": "Five best dishes",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Notable dishes",
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{
"plaintext": " Prawns in Chili Sauce, Canapé Style (Iron Chef Chen Kenichi)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Foie Gras and Flatfish with Citrus Sauce (Iron Chef Rokusaburo Michiba)",
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"plaintext": " Smoked Asparagus Stick Salad (Iron Chef Masaharu Morimoto), the asparagus was so strongly smoked that all judges commented negatively.",
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"plaintext": " Potato Dumpling Soup (Iron Chef Komei Nakamura), the smell of foie gras killed the aroma of the potatoes and nobody was able to finish it. Both chefs in that match reached a no-decision, therefore the match was restarted.",
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"plaintext": " Soft Roe in Sake with Truffles (Challenger and commentator Yukio Hattori), gave Joël Robuchon the wrong impression of Japanese sake.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, Fuji Television announced that it was recording new episodes of Iron Chef. The first episode debuted on October 26, 2012 as a two-hour special, thereafter reverting to a one-hour show airing on Friday evenings at 19:57 Japan time. Unlike the original Ryōri no Tetsujin, the new show was titled Iron Chef (アイアンシェフ) in katakana characters. The Chairman's role was assumed by Japanese actor Hiroshi Tamaki. Fuji TV commentator Mizuki Sano hosted the program, and the reporters were Yurika Mita and Daisuke Miyagawa. Dr. Yukio Hattori returned from the original Iron Chef series to provide commentary. Three new Iron Chefs were chosen; Jun Kurogi as Iron Chef Japanese, Yūji Wakiya as Iron Chef Chinese, and Yōsuke Suga as Iron Chef French.",
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"plaintext": "The first battle in the new show was a two-hour special with two battles. The first challenger was former Kitchen Stadium challenger (referred as \"nominee\") Kenichi Miyanaga, recommended by Iron Chef Rokusaburo Michiba. Miyanaga is Michiba's top apprentice and battled Iron Chef Suga. The challenger (\"nominee\") in the second battle was Kentaro Chen, recommended by his father Iron Chef Chen Kenichi, who battled Iron Chef Wakiya.",
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"plaintext": "It was announced, after airing thirteen episodes, that the new run of Iron Chef would be discontinued after the last episode on March 22, 2013. Mr. Tatematsu, General Manager of Editing, explained, \"Iron Chef is a high quality show and we can say it is FujiTV's treasure. Currently we are struggling for the ratings. We think we have a time slot problem, too, so we would like to consider about a way to make it as special program and forward it into the next stage.\" On July 3, 2013 the Iron Chefs reunited for an American Chef Special with beef as the secret ingredient. All three Iron Chefs were paired with an American challenger, and then for a fourth round, all six competed. Currently, there are no plans for any more Iron Chef specials.",
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"plaintext": "Around Christmas 2001, the UPN network presented two one-hour episodes of Iron Chef USA hosted by William Shatner as \"The Chairman of the American Culinary Academy.\" Competition took place inside \"Kitchen Arena\" (built in Garden Arena in the Las Vegas MGM Grand Hotel). Commentary was provided by Michael Burger and Anthony Dias Blue, with floor reporting by Sissy Biggers. The show featured four Iron Chefs: Iron Chef American Todd English (whose specialty is actually Mediterranean food), Iron Chef French Jean Francois Meteigner, Iron Chef Italian Alessandro Stratta, and Iron Chef Asian Roy Yamaguchi. In the show's only two battles, English defeated Kerry Simon in a dungeness crab battle, and Stratta defeated Marcus Samuelsson in a turkey battle.",
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"plaintext": "These shows were neither a critical nor popular success, perhaps because the show focused little on cookinga major part of the Japanese program. The show had a small audience section with bleachers, and the audience yelled relentlessly during the show (sounding much like a sports audience). Shatner walked around the kitchen sampling the more expensive items, the chefs refused to say what they were doing, and the cameras rarely showed the food preparation.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, Food Network announced that it would air an Iron Chef special, called \"Iron Chef America: Battle of the Masters\", featuring Sakai and Morimoto dueling with American Iron Chefs Bobby Flay, Mario Batali, and Wolfgang Puck, all Food Network personalities and renowned American celebrity chefs. (Morimoto and Flay battled in two previous Iron Chef specials that were made after the original series aired.) The specials featured Alton Brown as the announcer and Mark Dacascos playing the role of The Chairman (in the storyline, this Chairman is the nephew of Takeshi Kaga).",
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"plaintext": "The show received high ratings and rave reviews and in October 2004, and Food Network began taping weekly episodes that premiered starting in January 2005. Some changes were made to the show, most notably replacing Puck with Morimoto as an Iron Chef (a fourth Iron Chef, Cat Cora, was added later), and the location was moved from Los Angeles to New York City. The fifth Iron Chef, Michael Symon, was added after his win in The Next Iron Chef. In 2009, Chef Jose Garces became the sixth Iron Chef following his own victory in the second season of that show. In 2010, Chef Marc Forgione won its third season, becoming the seventh Iron Chef on Iron Chef America. Chef Geoffrey Zakarian won that show's fourth season in 2011, making him the eighth Iron Chef. In 2012, Chef Alexandra Guarnaschelli, who had served as Sous Chef on Iron Chef episodes, became the ninth after winning the fifth season of The Next Iron Chef, while Stephanie Izard became the tenth and final Iron Chef.",
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"plaintext": "Iron Chef Gauntlet is a two season reformat of Iron Chef America where seven chefs from around the country compete in an elimination contest, with the last chef remaining facing a \"gauntlet\" challenge of defeating three other Iron Chefs in order to earn the title. It aired from 2017 to 2018",
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"plaintext": "Iron Chef Showdown was a reimagining of America that also aired on Food Network for a single season of 10 episodes from 2017 to 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend premiered on Netflix on June 15, 2022. Brown and Dacascos return to their respective roles, with Brown now joined by chef Kristen Kish as co-host. There will be eight episodes.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, Krav Sakinim (, Knife Fight), a show based on Iron Chef, began airing on Israel's Channel 10. Each episode features a different prominent Israeli chef, who competes against one of the show's featured foreign chefs. All Israeli winners compete against one another in the finals and the winner competes against a foreign chef for the title of season champion. Season 1 featured only French chef Stéphane Froidevaux, who won the season's finale, while season 2 saw the inclusion of Italian chef Alfredo Russo, meaning both Michelin star holders would have to compete against each other for a spot in the final bout. The show is actively hosted by actor Oded Menashe and the regular commentators are chef Yaron Kastenboim and catering company owner Ran Shmueli. While in season 1, the panel of judges was made up mostly of celebrities from the entertainment industry, season 2 features renowned persons from the culinary industry, such as restaurant critics and chefs. The competitors prepare a three-course meal, with each dish given a score of up to 10 points by each member of the panel and commentators, accumulating up to 150 points per chef (compared to 90 points in season 1, where the commentators had relatively more points to give).",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, UK public television network Channel 4 debuted Iron Chef UK, based on Iron Chef. The show airs five days a week, and is hosted by Olly Smith and Nick Nairn. The four Iron Chefs are Tom Aikens, Martin Blunos, Sanjay Dwivedi and Judy Joo. Like the original Iron Chef, the competitions are held in Kitchen Stadium and presided over by The Chairman. Judging occurs in two rounds, with the first round being appetizers, and the second being the main courses. Two challengers prepare the appetizer, producing one appetizer each, while the Iron Chef prepares two. These are judged, and the standing for the team versus the Iron Chef are announced. Then the second half begins: the challenging team and the Iron Chef return to the kitchen to prepare the main course. The two challengers each prepare one dish, while the Iron Chef prepares two. Judging resumes, and the results are announced. Either the Challenging team wins, or the Iron Chef wins in overall score, and the best dish from the challenging team is also announced. The challengers with the best dish returns on Friday to compete against the best Iron Chef of the week.",
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"plaintext": "The Seven Network announced in August 2010 that an Australian version was planned, in part to capitalize on the success of the highly popular MasterChef Australia.",
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"plaintext": "The Australian Iron Chefs were Neil Perry, Guy Grossi and Guillaume Brahimi, while the show features a static judging panel composed of food critics Larissa Dubecki, Simon Thomsen and Leo Schofield. Mark Dacascos reprises his role as The Chairman from Iron Chef America, and the program is hosted by Grant Denyer, with additional commentary provided by Richard Cornish.",
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"plaintext": "Iron Chef Australia began airing on October 19, 2010, attracting an audience of 1.13 million viewers for its first episode.",
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"plaintext": "It was cancelled at the end of its first season.",
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"plaintext": "On January 25, 2012, the first episode of Iron Chef Thailand broadcast on BBTV channel 7. The chairman is Mr. Santi Svetavimala. In this version of Iron Chef, there are four Iron Chefs: Chumpol Chaengprai (Thai cuisine); Boontham Pakpo (Japanese cuisine); Pongtawat \"Ian\" Chalermkittichai (Western cuisine); and Chaitep \"Mr. Lee\" Pattarapornpaisarn (Chinese cuisine). The program is hosted by Shahkrit Yamnam and the field reporter is DJ Pong (Nattapong Taengkasem). The format is different, in that in the first half of the program, there are three challengers who compete with each other to find out who is the best chef. The winner will compete against the Iron Chef on the second half of the program. This format was used for only three episodes.",
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"plaintext": "On February 22, 2012 the format of Iron Chef Thailand was changed to: the first 30 minutes of the program is where the Challenger Chef will present his/her \"Signature Dish with a Special Ingredient\" to the guests. Then followed by the actual \"Iron Chef Battle\", similar to Iron Chef Japan where the host will ask the Challenger Chef to select the Iron Chef he/she wants to challenge. After the Challenger Chef has selected the Iron Chef the Chairman will reveal the \"Secret Ingredient\" and once the Chairman says \"Allez Cuisine\" the battle begins. The battle time is 60 minutes where they will need to complete at least four dishes. The order in which Chefs present to the Judges will be determined by a coin toss conducted by the Host. The last 30 minutes of the program is \"Cooking with Iron Chef\". Guests learn how to cook from the Iron Chef and win the \"Best Student\" at the end of the program.",
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"plaintext": "The Vietnamese version was set to air from June 6, 2012 on VTV3. In this version there are only three Iron Chefs: David Thái, Long Chef and Yu Zhi Da. The ultimate winner would be a 2013 Iron Chef.",
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"plaintext": "There have been two adaptations of Iron Chef for Indonesian television.",
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"plaintext": "The first Indonesian adaptation of Iron Chef series, also known as Allez Cuisine, which came from Chairman Kaga's catchphrase in the original series, was aired on Indosiar from March 1, 2003 until August 12, 2006. The Kitchen Stadium owner role was played by Derry Drajat, and the main commentator was Gunardjo, an Indonesian food expert. The show featured three Super Chefs or Iron Chefs. Episodes were 1 hour long. The show also featured a mini-game segment with 6 competitors featuring the main ingredient of the episode. The mini game segment usually lasts for 2 minutes. After the main cooking segment was finished, the Super Chef will give verdict on the results of the mini-game and declare the mini-game winner.",
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"plaintext": "The second Iron Chef series or known as Iron Chef Indonesia was aired on RCTI from April 22, 2017 until November 19, 2017. Just like the first series, the concept of this show was still a battle between one of the three Super Chefs or Iron Chefs that has been selected by a Challenger Chef to served the three or four dishes with a predetermined main ingredients. The winner will be announced by the chairman based on the scores that have been given by the guest judges. The chairman role was played by Edward Akbar, the field reporter by Yuda Bustara, and the commentator by Kevindra Prianto Soemantri, with guest judges selected from chefs, celebrities, businesspersons, and executives every week.",
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"plaintext": "On October 17, 2018, Iron Chef Canada premiered on Food Network Canada, the first Iron Chef spin-off in Canada.",
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"plaintext": "The Chairman in this version is Jai West (in the storyline, the Chairman is the grandnephew of Takeshi Kaga). It is hosted by Gail Simmons, with play-by-play done by floor reporter Chris Nuttall-Smith. The Iron Chefs in this version include Hugh Acheson, Amanda Cohen, Lynn Crawford, Rob Feenie, Susur Lee, and Anna Olson.",
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"plaintext": "The competition is similar to Iron Chef America, with two key differences:",
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"plaintext": "1) Both the Iron Chef and the challenger must serve their first dish to the panel of judges within the first 20 minutes of competition (the Chairman does not taste these dishes). This dish is scored separately from the remainder of the dishes.",
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"plaintext": "2) With 30 minutes remaining in the competition, the Chairman introduces a \"culinary curve ball,\" a kitchen device or an additional ingredient which the chefs must use for at least one of their remaining dishes.",
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"plaintext": "Iron Chef: Brazil was first announced alongside Quest for an Iron Legend and Mexico. The series debuted on August 10, 2022.",
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"plaintext": " Interview with announcer Bill Bickard from bigempire.com",
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"plaintext": "The railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold \"Last Spike\" (later often referred to as the \"Golden Spike\") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit. In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West. It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive.",
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"plaintext": "Among the early proponents of building a railroad line that would connect the coasts of the United States was Dr. Hartwell Carver, who in 1847 submitted to the U.S. Congress a \"Proposal for a Charter to Build a Railroad from Lake Michigan to the Pacific Ocean\", seeking a congressional charter to support his idea.",
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"plaintext": "Congress agreed to support the idea. Under the direction of the Department of War, the Pacific Railroad Surveys were conducted from 1853 through 1855. These included an extensive series of expeditions of the American West seeking possible routes. A report on the explorations described alternative routes and included an immense amount of information about the American West, covering at least . It included the region's natural history and illustrations of reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals.",
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"plaintext": "The report failed however to include detailed topographic maps of potential routes needed to estimate the feasibility, cost and select the best route. The survey was detailed enough to determine that the best southern route lay south of the Gila River boundary with Mexico in mostly vacant desert, through the future territories of Arizona and New Mexico. This in part motivated the United States to complete the Gadsden Purchase.",
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"plaintext": "In 1856 the Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph of the US House of Representatives published a report recommending support for a proposed Pacific railroad bill:",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Congress was strongly divided on where the eastern terminus of the railroad should be—in a southern or northern city. Three routes were considered:",
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"plaintext": " A northern route roughly along the Missouri River through present-day northern Montana to Oregon Territory. This was considered impractical because of the rough terrain and extensive winter snows.",
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"plaintext": " A central route following the Platte River in Nebraska through to the South Pass in Wyoming, following most of the Oregon Trail. Snow on this route remained a concern.",
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"plaintext": " A southern route across Texas, New Mexico Territory, the Sonora desert, connecting to Los Angeles, California. Surveyors found during an 1848 survey that the best route lay south of the border between the United States and Mexico. This was resolved by the Gadsden Purchase in 1853.",
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"plaintext": "Once the central route was chosen, it was immediately obvious that the western terminus should be Sacramento. But there was considerable difference of opinion about the eastern terminus. Three locations along of Missouri River were considered:",
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"plaintext": " St. Joseph, Missouri, accessed via the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad.",
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"plaintext": " Kansas City, Kansas / Leavenworth, Kansas accessed via the Leavenworth, Pawnee and Western Railroad, controlled by Thomas Ewing Jr. and later by John C. Frémont.",
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"plaintext": " Council Bluffs, Iowa / Omaha, Nebraska, accessed via an extension of Union Pacific financier Thomas C. Durant's proposed Mississippi and Missouri Railroad and the new Union Pacific Railroad, also controlled by Durant.",
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"plaintext": "Council Bluffs had several advantages: It was well north of the Civil War fighting in Missouri; it was the shortest route to South Pass in the Rockies in Wyoming; and it would follow a fertile river that would encourage settlement. Durant had hired the future president Abraham Lincoln in 1857 when he was an attorney to represent him in a business matter about a bridge over the Missouri. Now Lincoln was responsible for choosing the eastern terminus, and he relied on Durant's counsel. Durant advocated for Omaha, and he was so confident of the choice that he began buying up land in Nebraska.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most prominent champions of the central route railroad was Asa Whitney. He envisioned a route from Chicago and the Great Lakes to northern California, paid for by the sale of land to settlers along the route. Whitney traveled widely to solicit support from businessmen and politicians, printed maps and pamphlets, and submitted several proposals to Congress, all at his own expense. In June 1845, he led a team along part of the proposed route to assess its feasibility.",
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"plaintext": "Legislation to begin construction of the Pacific Railroad (called the Memorial of Asa Whitney) was first introduced to Congress by Representative Zadock Pratt. Congress did not immediately act on Whitney's proposal.",
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"plaintext": "Theodore Judah was a fervent supporter of the central route railroad. He lobbied vigorously in favor of the project and undertook the survey of the route through the rugged Sierra Nevada, one of the chief obstacles of the project.",
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"plaintext": "In 1852, Judah was chief engineer for the newly formed Sacramento Valley Railroad, the first railroad built west of the Mississippi River. Although the railroad later went bankrupt once the easy placer gold deposits around Placerville, California were depleted, Judah was convinced that a properly financed railroad could pass from Sacramento through the Sierra Nevada mountains to reach the Great Basin and hook up with rail lines coming from the East.",
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"plaintext": "In 1856, Judah wrote a 13,000-word proposal in support of a Pacific railroad and distributed it to Cabinet secretaries, congressmen and other influential people. In September 1859, Judah was chosen to be the accredited lobbyist for the Pacific Railroad Convention, which indeed approved his plan to survey, finance and engineer the road. Judah returned to Washington in December 1859. He had a lobbying office in the United States Capitol, received an audience with President James Buchanan, and represented the Convention before Congress.",
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"plaintext": "Judah returned to California in 1860. He continued to search for a more practical route through the Sierra suitable for a railroad. In mid-1860, local miner Daniel Strong had surveyed a route over the Sierra for a wagon toll road, which he realized would also suit a railroad. He described his discovery in a letter to Judah. Together, they formed an association to solicit subscriptions from local merchants and businessmen to support their proposed railroad.",
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"plaintext": "From January or February 1861 until July, Judah and Strong led a 10-person expedition to survey the route for the railroad over the Sierra Nevada through Clipper Gap and Emigrant Gap, over Donner Pass, and south to Truckee. They discovered a way across the Sierras that was gradual enough to be made suitable for a railroad, although it still needed a lot of work.",
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"plaintext": "Four northern California businessmen formed the Central Pacific Railroad: Leland Stanford, (18241893), President; Collis Potter Huntington, (18211900), Vice President; Mark Hopkins, (18131878), Treasurer; Charles Crocker, (18221888), Construction Supervisor. All became substantially wealthy from their association with the railroad. ",
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"plaintext": "Former ophthalmologist Dr. Thomas Clark \"Doc\" Durant was nominally only a vice president of Union Pacific, so he installed a series of respected men like John Adams Dix as president of the railroad. Durant and its financing arrangements were, unlike those of the CPRR, mired in controversy and scandals.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1860, Iowa Representative Samuel Curtis introduced a bill to fund the railroad. It passed the House but died when it could not be reconciled with the Senate version because of opposition from southern states who wanted a southern route near the 42nd parallel. Curtis tried and failed again in 1861. After the southern states seceded from the Union, the House of Representatives approved the bill on May 6, 1862, and the Senate on June 20. Lincoln signed the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 into law on July 1. It authorized creation of two companies, the Central Pacific in the west and the Union Pacific in the mid-west, to build the railroad. The legislation called for building and operating a new railroad from the Missouri River at Council Bluffs, Iowa, west to Sacramento, California, and on to San Francisco Bay. Another act to supplement the first was passed in 1864. The Pacific Railroad Act of 1863 established the standard gauge to be used in these federally financed railways.",
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"plaintext": "To finance the project, the act authorized the federal government to issue 30-year U.S. government bonds (at 6% interest). The railroad companies were paid $16,000 per mile (approximately $ per mile today) for track laid on a level grade, $32,000 per mile (about $ per mile today) for track laid in foothills, and $48,000 per mile (or about $ per mile today) for track laid in mountains. The two railroad companies sold similar amounts of company-backed bonds and stock.",
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"plaintext": "While the federal legislation for the Union Pacific required that no partner was to own more than 10 percent of the stock, the Union Pacific had problems selling its stock. One of the few subscribers was The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints leader Brigham Young, who also supplied crews for building much of the railroad through Utah. Durant enticed other investors by offering to front money for the stock they purchased in their names. This scheme enabled Durant to control about half of the railroad stock. The initial construction of Union Pacific grade traversed land owned by Durant. Durant's railroad was paid by the mile, and to further inflate its profits, the Union Pacific built oxbows of unneeded track, and by July 4, 1865, it had only reached from Omaha after 2½ years of construction.",
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"plaintext": "Durant manipulated market prices on his stocks by spreading rumors about which railroads he had an interest in were being considered for connection with the Union Pacific. First he touted rumors that his fledgling M&M Railroad had a deal in the works, while secretly buying stock in the depressed Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad. Then he circulated rumors that the CR&M had plans to connect to the Union Pacific, at which point he began buying back the M&M stock at depressed prices. It's estimated his scams produced over $5 million in profits for him and his cohorts.",
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"plaintext": "Collis Huntington, a Sacramento hardware merchant, heard Judah's presentation about the railroad at the St. Charles Hotel in November 1860. He invited Judah to his office to hear his proposal in detail. Huntington persuaded Judah to accept financing from himself and four others: Mark Hopkins, his business partner; James Bailey, a jeweler; Leland Stanford, a grocer; and Charles Crocker, a dry-goods merchant. They initially invested $1,500 each and formed a board of directors. These investors became known as The Big Four, and their railroad was called the Central Pacific Railroad. Each eventually made millions of dollars from their investments and control of the Central Pacific Railroad.",
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"plaintext": "Before major construction could begin, Judah traveled back to New York City to raise funds to buy out The Big Four. However, shortly after arriving in New York, Judah died on November 2, 1863, of yellow fever that he had contracted while traveling over the Panama Railroad's transit of the Isthmus of Panama. The CPRR Engineering Department was taken over by his successor Samuel S. Montegue, as well as Canadian trained Chief Assistant Engineer (later Acting Chief Engineer) Lewis Metzler Clement who also became Superintendent of Track.",
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"plaintext": "To allow the companies to raise additional capital, Congress granted the railroads a right-of-way corridor, lands for additional facilities like sidings and maintenance yards. They were also granted alternate sections of government-owned lands— per mile (1.6km)—for on both sides of the track, forming a checkerboard pattern. The railroad companies were given the odd-numbered sections while the federal government retained the even-numbered sections. The exception was in cities, at rivers, or on non-government property. The railroads sold bonds based on the value of the lands, and in areas with good land like the Sacramento Valley and Nebraska sold the land to settlers, contributing to a rapid settlement of the West. The total area of the land grants to the Union Pacific and Central Pacific was larger than the area of the state of Texas: federal government land grants totaled about 130,000,000 acres, and state government land grants totaled about 50,000,000 acres.",
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"plaintext": "It was far from a given that the railroads operating in the thinly-settled west would make enough money to repay their construction and operation. If the railroad companies failed to sell the land granted them within three years, they were required to sell it at prevailing government price for homesteads: . If they failed to repay the bonds, all remaining railroad property, including trains and tracks, would revert to the U.S. government. To encourage settlement in the west, Congress (1861–1863) passed the Homestead Acts which granted an applicant of land with the requirement that the applicant improve the land. This incentive encouraged thousands of settlers to move west.",
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"plaintext": "The federal legislation lacked adequate oversight and accountability. The two companies took advantage of these weaknesses in the legislation to manipulate the project and produce extra profit for themselves. Despite the generous subsidies offered by the federal government, the railroad capitalists knew they would not turn a profit on the railroad business for many months, possibly years. They determined to make a profit on the construction itself. Both groups of financiers formed independent companies to complete the project, and they controlled management of the new companies along with the railroad ventures. This self-dealing allowed them to build in generous profit margins paid out by the railroad companies. In the west, the four men heading the Central Pacific chose a simple name for their company, the \"Contract and Finance Company.\" In the east, the Union Pacific selected a foreign name, calling their construction firm \"Crédit Mobilier of America.\" The latter company was later implicated in a far-reaching scandal which would greatly effect the railroads purpose, described later.",
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"plaintext": "Also, the lack of federal oversight provided both companies with incentives to continue building their railroads past one other, since they were each being paid, and receiving land grants, based on how many miles of track they laid, even though only one track would eventually be used. This tacitly-agreed profiteering activity was captured (probably accidentally) by Union Pacific photographer Andrew J. Russell in his images of the Promontory Trestle construction.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the civil engineers and surveyors who were hired by the Union Pacific had been employed during the American Civil War to repair and operate the over of railroad line the U.S. Military Railroad controlled by the end of the war. The Union Pacific also utilized their experience repairing and building truss bridges during the war. Most of the semi-skilled workers on the Union Pacific were recruited from the many soldiers discharged from the Union and Confederate armies along with emigrant Irishmen.",
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"plaintext": "After 1864, the Central Pacific Railroad received the same Federal financial incentives as the Union Pacific Railroad, along with some construction bonds granted by the state of California and the city of San Francisco. The Central Pacific hired some Canadian and European civil engineers and surveyors with extensive experience building railroads, but it had a difficult time finding semi-skilled labor. Most Caucasians in California preferred to work in the mines or agriculture. The railroad experimented by hiring local emigrant Chinese as manual laborers, many of whom were escaping the poverty and terrors of the war in the Sze Yup districts in the Pearl River Delta of Guangdong province in China. When they proved themselves as workers, the CPRR from that point forward preferred to hire Chinese, and even set up recruiting efforts in Canton. Despite their small stature and lack of experience, the Chinese laborers were responsible for most of the heavy manual labor since only a very limited amount of that work could be done by animals, simple machines, or black powder. The railroad also hired some black people escaping the aftermath of the American Civil War. Most of the black and white workers were paid $30 per month and given food and lodging. Most Chinese were initially paid $31 per month and provided lodging, but they preferred to cook their own meals. In 1867 the CPRR raised their wage to $35 (equivalent to $ in ) per month after a strike. CPRR came to see the advantage of good workers employed at low wages: \"Chinese labor proved to be Central Pacific's salvation.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Central Pacific broke ground on January 8, 1863. Because of insufficient transportation alternatives from the manufacturing centers on the east coast, virtually all of their tools and machinery including rails, railroad switches, railroad turntables, freight and passenger cars, and steam locomotives were transported first by train to east coast ports. They were then loaded on ships which either sailed around South America's Cape Horn, or offloaded the cargo at the Isthmus of Panama, where it was sent across via paddle steamer and the Panama Railroad. The Panama Railroad gauge was , which was incompatible with the gauge used by the CPRR equipment. The latter route was about twice as expensive per pound. Once the machinery and tools reached the San Francisco Bay area, they were put aboard river paddle steamers which transported them up the final of the Sacramento River to the new state capital in Sacramento. Many of these steam engines, railroad cars, and other machinery were shipped dismantled and had to be reassembled. Wooden timbers for railroad ties, trestles, bridges, firewood, and telegraph poles were harvested in California and transported to the project site.",
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"plaintext": "The Union Pacific Railroad did not start construction for another 18 months until July 1865. They were delayed by difficulties obtaining financial backing and the unavailability of workers and materials due to the Civil War. Their start point in the new city of Omaha, Nebraska was not yet connected via railroad to Council Bluffs, Iowa. Equipment needed to begin work was initially delivered to Omaha and Council Bluffs by paddle steamers on the Missouri River. The Union Pacific was so slow in beginning construction during 1865 that they sold two of the four steam locomotives they had purchased.",
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"plaintext": "After the U.S. Civil War ended in 1865, the Union Pacific still competed for railroad supplies with companies who were building or repairing railroads in the south, and prices rose.",
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"plaintext": "At that time in the United States, there were two primary standards for track gauge, as defined by the distance between the two rails. In Britain, the gauge was , and this had been adopted by the majority of northern railways. But much of the south had adopted a gauge. Transferring railway cars across a break of gauge required changing out the trucks. Alternatively, cargo was offloaded and reloaded, a time-consuming effort that delayed cargo shipments. For the transcontinental railroad, the builders adopted what is now known as the standard gauge.",
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"plaintext": "The Bessemer process and open hearth furnace steel-making were in use by 1865, but the advantages of steel rails which lasted much longer than iron rails had not yet been demonstrated. The rails used initially in building the railway were nearly all made of an iron flat-bottomed modified I-beam profile weighing or . The railroad companies were intent on completing the project as rapidly as possible at a minimum cost. Within a few years, nearly all railroads converted to steel rails.",
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"plaintext": "Time was not standardized across the United States and Canada until November 18, 1883. In 1865, each railroad set its own time to minimize scheduling errors. To communicate easily up and down the line, the railroads built telegraph lines alongside the tracks. These lines eventually superseded the original First Transcontinental Telegraph which followed much of the Mormon Trail up the North Platte River and across the very thinly populated Central Nevada Route through central Utah and Nevada. The telegraph lines along the railroad were easier to protect and maintain. Many of the original telegraph lines were abandoned as the telegraph business was consolidated with the railroad telegraph lines.",
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"plaintext": "The Union Pacific's of track started at MP 0.0 in Council Bluffs, Iowa, on the eastern side of the Missouri River. Omaha was chosen by President Abraham Lincoln as the location of its Transfer Depot where up to seven railroads could transfer mail and other goods to Union Pacific trains bound for the west.",
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"plaintext": "Trains were initially transported across the Missouri River by ferry before they could access the western tracks beginning in Omaha, Nebraska Territory. The river froze in the winter, and the ferries were replaced by sleighs. A bridge was not built until 1872, when the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge was completed.",
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"plaintext": "After the rail line's initial climb through the Missouri River bluffs west of Omaha and out of the Missouri River Valley, the route bridged the Elkhorn River and then crossed over the new Loup River bridge as it followed the north side of the Platte River valley west through Nebraska along the general path of the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails.",
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"plaintext": "By December 1865, the Union Pacific had only completed of track, reaching Fremont, Nebraska, and a further of roadbed.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of 1865, Peter A. Dey, Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific, resigned over a routing dispute with Thomas C. Durant, one of the chief financiers of the Union Pacific.",
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"plaintext": "With the end of the Civil War and increased government supervision in the offing, Durant hired his former M&M engineer Grenville M. Dodge to build the railroad, and the Union Pacific began a mad dash west.",
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"plaintext": "Former Union General John \"Jack\" Casement was hired as the new Chief Engineer of the Union Pacific. He equipped several railroad cars to serve as portable bunkhouses for the workers and gathered men and supplies to push the railroad rapidly west. Among the bunkhouses, Casement added a galley car to prepare meals, and he even provided for a herd of cows to be moved with the railhead and bunk cars to provide fresh meat. Hunters were hired to provide buffalo meat from the large herds of American bison.",
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"plaintext": "The small survey parties who scouted ahead to locate the roadbed were sometimes attacked and killed by raiding Native Americans. In response, the U.S. Army instituted active cavalry patrols that grew larger as the Native Americans grew more aggressive. Temporary, \"Hell on wheels\" towns, made mostly of canvas tents, accompanied the railroad as construction headed west.",
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"plaintext": "The Platte River was too shallow and meandering to provide river transport, but the Platte river valley headed west and sloped up gradually at about , often allowing to lay a mile (1.6km) of track a day or more in 1866 as the Union Pacific finally started moving rapidly west. Building bridges to cross creeks and rivers was the main source of delays. Near where the Platte River splits into the North Platte River and South Platte River, the railroad bridged the North Platte River over a bridge (nicknamed ½ mile bridge). It was built across the shallow but wide North Platte resting on piles driven by steam pile drivers. Here they built the \"railroad\" town of North Platte, Nebraska in December 1866 after completing about of track that year. In late 1866, former Major General Grenville M. Dodge was appointed Chief Engineer on the Union Pacific, but hard-working General \"Jack\" Casement continued to work as chief construction \"boss\" and his brother Daniel Casement continued as a financial officer.",
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"plaintext": "The original emigrant route across Wyoming of the Oregon, Mormon and California Trails, after progressing up the Platte River valley, went up the North Platte River valley through Casper, Wyoming, along the Sweetwater River and over the Continental Divide at the South Pass. The original westward travelers in their ox and mule pulled wagons tried to stick to river valleys to avoid as much road building as possible—gradients and sharp corners were usually of little or no concern to them. The ox and mule pulled wagons were the original off-road vehicles in their day since nearly all of the Emigrant Trails went cross country over rough, unimproved trails. The route over South Pass's main advantage for wagons pulled by oxen or mules was a shorter elevation over an \"easy\" pass to cross and its \"easy\" connection to nearby river valleys on both sides of the continental divide for water and grass. The emigrant trails were closed in winter. The North Platte–South Pass route was far less beneficial for a railroad, as it was about longer and much more expensive to construct up the narrow, steep and rocky canyons of the North Platte. The route along the North Platte was also further from Denver, Colorado, and went across difficult terrain, while a railroad connection to that City was already being planned for and surveyed.",
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"plaintext": "Efforts to survey a new, shorter, \"better\" route had been underway since 1864. By 1867, a new route was found and surveyed that went along part of the South Platte River in western Nebraska and after entering what is now the state of Wyoming, ascended a gradual sloping ridge between Lodgepole Creek and Crow Creek to the Evans pass (also called Sherman's Pass) which was discovered by the Union Pacific employed English surveyor and engineer, James Evans, in about 1864. This pass now is marked by the Ames Monument () marking its significance and commemorating two of the main backers of the Union Pacific Railroad. From North Platte, Nebraska (elevation ), the railroad proceeded westward and upward along a new path across the Nebraska Territory and Wyoming Territory (then part of the Dakota Territory) along the north bank of the South Platte River and into what would become the state of Wyoming at Lone Pine, Wyoming. Evans Pass was located between what would become the new \"railroad\" towns of Cheyenne and Laramie. Connecting to this pass, about west of Cheyenne, was the one place across the Laramie Mountains that had a narrow \"guitar neck\" of land that crossed the mountains without serious erosion at the so-called \"gangplank\" () discovered by Major General Grenville Dodge in 1865 when he was in the U.S. Army. The new route surveyed across Wyoming was over shorter, had a flatter profile, allowing for cheaper and easier railroad construction, and also went closer by Denver and the known coalfields in the Wasatch and Laramie Ranges.",
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"plaintext": "The railroad gained about in the climb to Cheyenne from North Platte, Nebraska—about —a very gentle slope of less than one degree average. This \"new\" route had never become an emigrant route because it lacked the water and grass to feed the emigrants' oxen and mules. Steam locomotives did not need grass, and the railroad companies could drill wells for water if necessary.",
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"plaintext": "Coal had been discovered in Wyoming and reported on by John C. Frémont in his 1843 expedition across Wyoming, and was already being exploited by Utah residents from towns like Coalville, Utah and later Kemmerer, Wyoming by the time the Transcontinental railroad was built. Union Pacific needed coal to fuel its steam locomotives on the almost treeless plains across Nebraska and Wyoming. Coal shipments by rail were also looked on as a potentially major source of income—this potential is still being realized.",
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"plaintext": "The Union Pacific reached the new railroad town of Cheyenne in December 1867, having laid about that year. They paused over the winter, preparing to push the track over Evans (Sherman's) pass. At , Evans pass is the highest point reached on the transcontinental railroad. About beyond Evans pass, the railroad had to build an extensive bridge over the Dale Creek canyon (). The Dale Creek Crossing was one of their more difficult railroad engineering challenges. Dale Creek Bridge was long and above Dale Creek. The bridge components were pre-built of timber in Chicago, Illinois and then shipped on rail cars to Dale Creek for assembly. The eastern and western approaches to the bridge site, near the highest elevation on the transcontinental railroad, required cutting through granite for nearly a mile on each side. The initial Dale Creek bridge had a train speed limit of per hour across the bridge. Beyond Dale Creek, railroad construction paused at what became the town of Laramie, Wyoming to build a bridge across the Laramie River.",
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"plaintext": "Located from Evans pass, Union Pacific connected the new \"railroad\" town of Cheyenne to Denver and its Denver Pacific Railway and Telegraph Company railroad line in 1870. Elevated above sea level, and sitting on the new Union Pacific route with a connection to Denver, Cheyenne was chosen to become a major railroad center and was equipped with extensive railroad yards, maintenance facilities, and a Union Pacific presence. Its location made it a good base for helper locomotives to couple to trains with snowplows to help clear the tracks of snow or help haul heavy freight over Evans pass. The Union Pacific's junction with the Denver Railroad with its connection to Kansas City, Kansas, Kansas City, Missouri and the railroads east of the Missouri River again increased Cheyenne's importance as the junction of two major railroads. Cheyenne later became Wyoming's largest city and the capital of the new state of Wyoming.",
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"plaintext": "The railroad established many townships along the way: Fremont, Elkhorn, Grand Island, North Platte, Ogallala and Sidney as the railroad followed the Platte River across Nebraska territory. The railroad even dipped into what would become the new state of Colorado after crossing the North Platte River as it followed the South Platte River west into what would become Julesburg before turning northwest along Lodgepole Creek into Wyoming. In the Dakota Territory (Wyoming) the new towns of Cheyenne, Laramie, Rawlins (named for Union General John Aaron Rawlins, who camped in the locality in 1867), Green River and Evanston (named after James Evans) were established, as well as much more fuel and water stops. The Green River was crossed with a new bridge, and the new \"railroad\" town of Green River constructed there after the tracks reached the Green River on October 1, 1868—the last big river to cross.",
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"plaintext": "On December 4, 1868, the Union Pacific reached Evanston, having laid almost of track over the Green River and the Laramie Plains that year. By 1871, Evanston became a significant maintenance shop town equipped to carry out extensive repairs on the cars and steam locomotives.",
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"plaintext": "In the Utah Territory, the railroad once again diverted from the main emigrant trails to cross the Wasatch Mountains and went down the rugged Echo Canyon (Summit County, Utah) and Weber River canyon. To speed up construction as much as possible, Union Pacific contracted several thousand Mormon workers to cut, fill, trestle, bridge, blast and tunnel its way down the rugged Weber River Canyon to Ogden, Utah, ahead of the railroad construction. The Mormon and Union Pacific rail work was joined in the area of the present-day border between Utah and Wyoming. The longest of four tunnels built in Weber Canyon was Tunnel 2. Work on this tunnel started in October 1868 and was completed six months later. Temporary tracks were laid around it and Tunnels 3 (), 4 () and 5 () to continue work on the tracks west of the tunnels.",
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"plaintext": "The tunnels were all made with the new dangerous nitroglycerine explosive, which expedited work but caused some fatal accidents. While building the railroad along the rugged Weber River Canyon, Mormon workers signed the Thousand Mile Tree which was lone tree alongside the track from Omaha. A historic marker has been placed there.",
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"plaintext": "The tracks reached Ogden, Utah, on March 8, 1869, although finishing work would continue on the tracks, tunnels and bridges in Weber Canyon for over a year. From Ogden, the railroad went north of the Great Salt Lake to Brigham City and Corinne using Mormon workers, before finally connecting with the Central Pacific Railroad at Promontory Summit in Utah territory on May 10, 1869. Some Union Pacific officers declined to pay the Mormons all of the agreed upon construction costs of the work through Weber Canyon, and beyond, claiming Union Pacific poverty despite the millions they had extracted through the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal. Only partial payment was secured through court actions against Union Pacific.",
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"plaintext": "The Central Pacific laid of track, starting in Sacramento, California, in 1863 and continuing over the rugged Sierra Nevada mountains at Donner Pass into the new state of Nevada. The elevation change from Sacramento (elev. ) to Donner Summit (elev. ) had to be accomplished in about with an average elevation change of 76feet permile (14meters perkm), and there were only a few places in the Sierra where this type of \"ramp\" existed. The discovery and detailed map survey with profiles and elevations of this route over the Sierra Nevada is credited to Theodore Judah, chief engineer of the Central Pacific Railroad until his death in 1863. This route is up a ridge between the North fork of the American River on the south and Bear River (Feather River) and South Yuba River on the north. As the railroad climbed out of Sacramento up to Donner Summit, there was only one section near \"Cape Horn CPRR\" where the railroad grade slightly exceeded two percent.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1864, the Central Pacific railroad entrepreneurs opened Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road (DFDLWR). Costing about $300,000 and a years worth of work, this toll road wagon route was opened over much of the route the Central Pacific railroad (CPRR) would use over Donner Summit to carry freight and passengers needed by the CPRR and to carry other cargo over their toll road to and from the ever-advancing railhead and over the Sierra to the gold and silver mining towns of Nevada. As the railroad advanced, their freight rates with the combined rail and wagon shipments would become much more competitive. The volume of the toll road freight traffic to Nevada was estimated to be about $13,000,000 a year as the Comstock Lode boomed, and getting even part of this freight traffic would help pay for the railroad construction. When the railroad reached Reno, it had the majority of all Nevada freight shipments, and the price of goods in Nevada dropped significantly as the freight charges to Nevada dropped significantly. The rail route over the Sierras followed the general route of the Truckee branch of the California Trail, going east over Donner Pass and down the rugged Truckee River valley.",
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"plaintext": "The route over the Sierra had been plotted out by Judah in preliminary surveys before his death in 1863. Judah's deputy, Samuel S. Montague was appointed as Central Pacific's new Chief Engineer, with Lewis M. Clement as Assistant Chief Engineer and Charles Cadwalader as second assistant. To build the new railroad, detailed surveys had to be run that showed where the cuts, fills, trestles, bridges and tunnels would have to be built. Work that was identified as taking a long time was started as soon as its projected track location could be ascertained and work crews, supplies and road work equipment found to be sent ahead. Tunnels, trestles and bridges were nearly all built this way. The spread-out nature of the work resulted in the work being split into two divisions, with L.M. Clement taking the upper division from Blue Cañon to Truckee and Cadwalader taking the lower division from Truckee to the Nevada border. Other assistant engineers were assigned to specific tasks such as building a bridge, tunnel or trestle which was done by the workers under experienced supervisors.",
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"plaintext": "In total, the Central Pacific had eleven tunnel projects (Nos. 3 through 13) under construction in the Sierra from 1865 to 1868, with seven tunnels located in a stretch on the east side of Donner Summit. The tunnels were usually built by drilling a series of holes in the tunnel face, filling them with black powder and detonating it to break the rock free. The black powder was provided by the California Powder Works near Santa Cruz, California. These works had started production in 1864 after the U.S. Civil War had cut off shipments of black powder from the East to the mining and railroad industry of California and Nevada. The Central Pacific was a prolific user of black powder, often using up to 500 kegs of each per day.",
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"plaintext": "The summit tunnel (Number 6), , was started in late 1865, well ahead of the railhead. Through solid granite, the summit tunnel progressed at a rate of only about per day per face as it was being worked by three eight-hour shifts of workers, hand drilling holes with a rock drill and hammer, filling them with black powder and trying to blast the granite loose. One crew worked drilling holes on the faces and another crew collected and removed the loosened rock after each explosion. The workers were pulled off the summit tunnel and the track grading east of Donner Pass in the winter of 1865–66 as there was no way to supply them, nor quarters they could have lived in. The crews were transferred to work on bridges and track grading on the Truckee River canyon.",
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"plaintext": "In 1866 they put in a vertical shaft in the center of the summit tunnel and started work towards the east and west tunnel faces, giving four working faces on the summit tunnel to speed up progress. A steam engine off an old locomotive was brought up with much effort over the wagon road and used as a winch driver to help remove loosened rock from the vertical shaft and two working faces. By the winter of 1866–67, work had progressed sufficiently and a camp had been built for workers on the summit tunnel which allowed work to continue. The cross section of a tunnel face was a , oval with an vertical wall. Progress on the tunnel sped up to over per day per face when they started using the newly invented nitroglycerin—manufactured near the tunnel. They used nitroglycerin to deepen the summit tunnel to the required height after the four tunnel faces met, and made even faster progress. Nearly all other tunnels were worked on both tunnel faces and met in the middle. Depending on the material the tunnels penetrated, they were left unlined or lined with brick, rock walls or timber and post. Some tunnels were designed to bend in the middle to align with the track bed curvature. Despite this potential complication, nearly all the different tunnel center lines met within or so. The detailed survey work that made these tunnel digs as precise as required was nearly all done by the Canadian-born and -trained Lewis Clement, the CPRR's Chief Assistant Engineer and Superintendent of Track, and his assistants.",
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"plaintext": "Hills or ridges in front of the railroad road bed would have to have a flat-bottomed, V-shaped \"cut\" made to get the railroad through the ridge or hill. The type of material determined the slope of the V and how much material would have to be removed. Ideally, these cuts would be matched with valley fills that could use the dug out material to bring the road bed up to grade—cut and fill construction. In the 1860s there was no heavy equipment that could be used to make these cuts or haul it away to make the fills. The options were to dig it out by pick and shovel, haul the hillside material by wheelbarrow and/or horse or mule cart or blast it loose. To blast a V-shaped cut out, they had to drill several holes up to deep in the material, fill them with black powder, and blast the material away. Since the Central Pacific was in a hurry, they were profligate users of black powder to blast their way through the hills. The only disadvantage came when a nearby valley needed fill to get across it. The explosive technique often blew most of the potential fill material down the hillside, making it unavailable for fill. Initially, many valleys were bridged by \"temporary\" trestles that could be rapidly built and were later replaced by much lower maintenance and permanent solid fill. The existing railroad made transporting and putting material in valleys much easier—load it on railway dump cars, haul where needed and dump it over the side of the trestle.",
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"plaintext": "The route down the eastern Sierras was done on the south side of Donner Lake with a series of switchbacks carved into the mountain. The Truckee River, which drains Lake Tahoe, had already found and scoured out the best route across the Carson Range of mountains east of the Sierras. The route down the rugged Truckee River Canyon, including required bridges, was done ahead of the main summit tunnel completion. To expedite the building of the railroad through the Truckee River canyon, the Central Pacific hauled two small locomotives, railcars, rails and other material on wagons and sleighs to what is now Truckee, California and worked the winter of 1867–68 on their way down Truckee canyon ahead of the tracks being completed to Truckee. In Truckee canyon, five Howe truss bridges had to be built. This gave them a head start on getting to the \"easy\" miles across Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "In order to keep the higher portions of the Sierra grade open in the winter, of timber snow sheds were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee in addition to utilizing snowplows pushed by locomotives, as well as manual shovelling. With the advent of more efficient oil fired steam and later diesel electric power to drive plows, flangers, spreaders, and rotary snow plows, most of the wooden snowsheds have long since been removed as obsolete. Tunnels 1–5 and Tunnel 13 of the original 1860s tunnels on Track 1 of the Sierra grade remain in use today, while additional new tunnels were later driven when the grade was double tracked over the first quarter of the twentieth century. In 1993, the Southern Pacific Railroad (which operated the CPRR-built Oakland–Ogden line until its 1996 merger with the Union Pacific) closed and pulled up the section of Track #1 over the summit running between the Norden complex (Shed 26, MP 192.1) and the covered crossovers in Shed #47 (MP 198.8) about a mile east of the old flyover at Eder, bypassing and abandoning the tunnel 6–8 complex, the concrete snowsheds just beyond them, and tunnels 9–12 ending at MP 195.7, all of which had been located on Track 1 within two miles of the summit. Since then all east- and westbound traffic has been run over the Track #2 grade crossing the summit about one mile (1.6km) south of Donner Pass through the Tunnel #41 (\"The Big Hole\") running under Mt. Judah between Soda Springs and Eder, which was opened in 1925 when the summit section of the grade was double tracked. This routing change was made because the Track 2 and Tunnel 41 Summit crossing is far easier and less expensive to maintain and keep open in the harsh Sierra winters.",
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"plaintext": "On June 18, 1868, the Central Pacific reached Reno, Nevada, after completing of railroad up and over the Sierras from Sacramento, California. By then the railroad had already been prebuilt down the Truckee River on the much flatter land from Reno to Wadsworth, Nevada, where they bridged the Truckee for the last time. From there, they struggled across a forty mile desert to the end of the Humboldt river at the Humboldt Sink. From the end of the Humboldt, they continued east over the Great Basin Desert bordering the Humboldt River to Wells, Nevada. One of the most troublesome problems found on this route along the Humboldt was at Palisade Canyon (near Carlin, Nevada), where for the line had to be built between the river and basalt cliffs. From Wells, Nevada to Promontory Summit, the Railroad left the Humboldt and proceeded across the Nevada and Utah desert. Water for the steam locomotives was provided by wells, springs, or pipelines to nearby water sources. Water was often pumped into the water tanks with windmills. Train fuel and water cranes for the early trains with steam locomotives may have been as often as every . On one memorable occasion, not far from Promontory, the Central Pacific crews organized an army of workers and five train loads of construction material, and laid of track on a prepared rail bed in one day—-a record that still stands today. The Central Pacific and Union Pacific raced to get as much track laid as possible, and the Central Pacific laid about of track from Reno to Promontory Summit in the one year before the Last Spike was driven on May 10, 1869.",
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"plaintext": "Central Pacific had 1,694 freight cars available by May 1869, with more under construction in their Sacramento yard. Major repairs and maintenance on the Central Pacific rolling stock was done in their Sacramento maintenance yard. Near the end of 1869, Central Pacific had 162 locomotives, of which 2 had two drivers (drive wheels), 110 had four drivers, and 50 had six drivers. The steam locomotives had been purchased in the eastern states and shipped to California by sea. Thirty-six additional locomotives were built and coming west, and twenty-eight more were under construction. There was a shortage of passenger cars and more had to be ordered. The first Central Pacific sleeper, the \"Silver Palace Sleeping Car\", arrived at Sacramento on June 8, 1868.",
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"plaintext": "The CPRR route passed through Newcastle and Truckee in California, Reno, Wadsworth, Winnemucca, Battle Mountain, Elko and Wells in Nevada (with many more fuel and water stops), before connecting with the Union Pacific line at Promontory Summit in the Utah Territory. When the eastern end of the CPRR was extended to Ogden by purchasing the Union Pacific Railroad line from Promontory for about $2.8 million in 1870, it ended the short period of a boom town for Promontory, extended the Central Pacific tracks about and made Ogden a major terminus on the transcontinental railroad, as passengers and freight switched railroads there.",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent to the railhead's meeting at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory, the San Joaquin River Bridge at Mossdale Crossing (near present-day Lathrop, California) was completed on September 8, 1869 with the first through freight train carrying freight from the East Coast leaving Sacramento and crossing the bridge to arrive that evening at the Alameda Wharf on San Francisco Bay. As a result, the western part of the route was extended from Sacramento to the Alameda Terminal in Alameda, California, and shortly thereafter, to the Oakland Long Wharf at Oakland Point in Oakland, California, and on to San Jose, California. Train ferries transferred some railroad cars to and from the Oakland wharves and tracks to wharves and tracks in San Francisco. Before the CPRR was completed, developers were building other feeder railroads like the Virginia and Truckee Railroad to the Comstock Lode diggings in Virginia City, Nevada, and several different extensions in California and Nevada to reach other cities there. Some of their main cargo was the thousands of cords ( each) of firewood needed for the many steam engines and pumps, cooking stoves, heating stoves etc. in Comstock Lode towns and the tons of ice needed by the miners as they worked ever deeper into the \"hot\" Comstock Lode ore body. In the mines, temperatures could get above at the work face and a miner often used over of ice per shift. This new railroad connected to the Central Pacific near Reno, and went through Carson City, the new capital of Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "After the transcontinental railroads were completed, many other railroads were built to connect up to other population centers in Utah, Wyoming, Kansas, Colorado, Oregon, Washington territories, etc. In 1869, the Kansas Pacific Railway started building the Hannibal Bridge, a swing bridge across the Missouri River between Kansas City, Missouri and Kansas City, Kansas which connected railroads on both sides of the Missouri while still allowing passage of paddle steamers on the river. After completion, this became another major east–west railroad. To speed completion of the Kansas Pacific Railroad to Denver, construction started east from Denver in March 1870 to meet the railroad coming west from Kansas city. The two crews met at a point called Comanche Crossing, Kansas Territory, on August 15, 1870. Denver was now firmly on track to becoming the largest city and the future capital of Colorado. The Kansas Pacific Railroad linked with the Denver Pacific Railway via Denver to Cheyenne in 1870.",
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"plaintext": "The original transcontinental railroad route did not pass through the two biggest cities in the so-called Great American Desert—Denver, Colorado, and Salt Lake City, Utah. Feeder railroad lines were soon built to service these two and other cities and states along the route.",
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"plaintext": "Modern-day Interstate 80 roughly follows the path of the railroad from Sacramento across modern day California, Nevada, Wyoming and Nebraska, with a few exceptions. Most significantly, the two routes are different between Wells, Nevada and Echo, Utah. In this area the freeway passes along the south shore of the Great Salt Lake and passes through Salt Lake City, cresting the Wasatch Mountains at Parley's Summit. The railroad was originally routed along the north shore, and later with the Lucin Cutoff directly across the center of the Great Salt Lake, passing through the city of Ogden instead of Salt Lake City. The railroad crosses the Wasatch Mountains via a much gentler grade through Weber Canyon. Most of the other deviations are in mountainous areas where interstate highways allow for grades up to six-percent grades, which allows them to go many places the railroads had to go around, since their goal was to hold their grades to less than two percent.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the capital investment needed to build the railroad was generated by selling government-guaranteed bonds (granted per mile of completed track) to interested investors. The Federal donation of right-of-way saved money and time as it did not have to be purchased from others. The financial incentives and bonds would hopefully cover most of the initial capital investment needed to build the railroad. The bonds would be paid back by the sale of government-granted land, as well as prospective passenger and freight income. Most of the engineers and surveyors who figured out how and where to build the railroad on the Union Pacific were engineering college trained. Many of Union Pacific engineers and surveyors were Union Army veterans (including two generals) who had learned their railroad trade keeping the trains running and tracks maintained during the U.S. Civil War. After securing the finances and selecting the engineering team, the next step was to hire the key personnel and prospective supervisors. Nearly all key workers and supervisors were hired because they had previous railroad on-the-job training, knew what needed to be done and how to direct workers to get it done. After the key personnel were hired, the semi-skilled jobs could be filled if there was available labor. The engineering team's main job was to tell the workers where to go, what to do, how to do it, and provide the construction material they would need to get it done.",
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"plaintext": "Survey teams were put out to produce detailed contour maps of the options on the different routes. The engineering team looked at the available surveys and chose what was the \"best\" route. Survey teams under the direction of the engineers closely led the work crews and marked where and by how much hills would have to be cut and depressions filled or bridged. Coordinators made sure that construction and other supplies were provided when and where needed, and additional supplies were ordered as the railroad construction consumed the supplies. Specialized bridging, explosive and tunneling teams were assigned to their specialized jobs. Some jobs like explosive work, tunneling, bridging, heavy cuts or fills were known to take longer than others, so the specialized teams were sent out ahead by wagon trains with the supplies and men to get these jobs done by the time the regular track-laying crews arrived. Finance officers made sure the supplies were paid for and men paid for their work. An army of men had to be coordinated and a seemingly never-ending chain of supplies had to be provided. The Central Pacific road crew set a track-laying record by laying of track in a single day, commemorating the event with a signpost beside the track for passing trains to see.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the track-laying crews, other crews were busy setting up stations with provisions for loading fuel, water and often also mail, passengers and freight. Personnel had to be hired to run these stations. Maintenance depots had to be built to keep all of the equipment repaired and operational. Telegraph operators had to be hired to man each station to keep track of where the trains were so that trains could run in each direction on the available single track without interference or accidents. Sidings had to be built to allow trains to pass. Provision had to be made to store and continually pay for coal or wood needed to run the steam locomotives. Water towers had to be built for refilling the water tanks on the engines, and provision made to keep them full.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of the Union Pacific track across the Nebraska and Wyoming territories was built by veterans of the Union and Confederate armies, as well as many recent immigrants. Brigham Young, President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, landed contracts with the Union Pacific that offered jobs for around 2,000 members of the church with the hope that the railroad would support commerce in Utah. Church members built most of the road through Utah. Construction superintendent Durant repeatedly failed to pay the wages agreed upon. The Union Pacific train carrying him to the final spike ceremony was held up by a strike by unpaid workers in Piedmont, Wyoming until he paid them for their work. Representatives of Brigham Young had less success, and failed in court to force him to honor the contract.",
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"plaintext": "The manual labor to build the Central Pacific's roadbed, bridges and tunnels was done primarily by many thousands of emigrant workers from China under the direction of skilled non-Chinese supervisors. The Chinese were commonly referred to at the time as \"Celestials\" and China as the \"Celestial Kingdom.\" Labor-saving devices in those days consisted primarily of wheelbarrows, horse or mule pulled carts, and a few railroad pulled gondolas. The construction work involved an immense amount of manual labor. Initially, Central Pacific had a hard time hiring and keeping unskilled workers on its line, as many would leave for the prospect of far more lucrative gold or silver mining options elsewhere. Despite the concerns expressed by Charles Crocker, one of the \"big four\" and a general contractor, that the Chinese were too small in stature and lacking previous experience with railroad work, they decided to try them anyway. After the first few days of trial with a few workers, with noticeably positive results, Crocker decided to hire as many as he could, looking primarily at the California labor force, where the majority of Chinese worked as independent gold miners or in the service industries (e.g.: laundries and kitchens). Most of these Chinese workers were represented by a Chinese \"boss\" who translated, collected salaries for his crew, kept discipline and relayed orders from an American general supervisor. Most Chinese workers spoke only rudimentary or no English, and the supervisors typically only learned rudimentary Chinese. Many more workers were imported from the Guangdong Province of China, which at the time, beside great poverty, suffered from the violence of the Taiping Rebellion. Most Chinese workers were planning on returning with their newfound \"wealth\" when the work was completed. Most of the men received between one and three dollars per day, the same as unskilled white workers; but the workers imported directly from China sometimes received less. A diligent worker could save over $20 per month after paying for food and lodging—a \"fortune\" by Chinese standards. A snapshot of workers in late 1865 showed about 3,000 Chinese and 1,700 white workers employed on the railroad. Nearly all of the white workers were in supervisory or skilled craft positions and made more money than the Chinese.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the early work on the Central Pacific consisted of constructing the railroad track bed, cutting and/or blasting through or around hills, filling in washes, building bridges or trestles, digging and blasting tunnels and then laying the rails over the Sierra Nevada (U.S.) mountains. Once the Central Pacific was out of the Sierras and the Carson Range, progress sped up considerably as the railroad bed could be built over nearly flat ground. In those days, the Central Pacific once did a section of of track in one day as a \"demonstration\" of what they could do on flat ground like most of the Union Pacific had in Wyoming and Nebraska.",
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"plaintext": "The track laying was divided up into various parts. In advance of the track layers, surveyors consulting with engineers determined where the track would go. Workers then built and prepared the roadbed, dug or blasted through hills, filled in washes, built trestles, bridges or culverts across streams or valleys, made tunnels if needed, and laid the ties. The actual track-laying gang would then lay rails on the previously laid ties positioned on the roadbed, drive the spikes, and bolt the fishplate bars to each rail. At the same time, another gang would distribute telegraph poles and wire along the grade, while the cooks prepared dinner and the clerks busied themselves with accounts, records, using the telegraph line to relay requests for more materials and supplies or communicate with supervisors. Usually the workers lived in camps built near their work site. Supplies were ordered by the engineers and hauled by rail, possibly then to be loaded on wagons if they were needed ahead of the railhead. Camps were moved when the railhead moved a significant distance. Later, as the railroad started moving long distances every few days, some railroad cars had bunkhouses built in them that moved with the workers—the Union Pacific had used this technique since 1866. Almost all of the roadbed work had to be done manually, using shovels, picks, axes, two-wheeled dump carts, wheelbarrows, ropes, scrapers, etc., with initially only black powder available for blasting. Carts pulled by mules, and horses were about the only labor-saving devices available then. Lumber and ties were usually provided by independent contractors who cut, hauled and sawed the timber as required.",
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"plaintext": "Tunnels were blasted through hard rock by drilling holes in the rock face by hand and filling them with black powder. Sometimes cracks were found which could be filled with powder and blasted loose. The loosened rock would be collected and hauled out of the tunnel for use in a fill area or as roadbed, or else dumped over the side as waste. A foot or so advance on a tunnel face was a typical day's work. Some tunnels took almost a year to finish and the Summit Tunnel, the longest, took almost two years. In the final days of working in the Sierras, the recently invented nitroglycerin explosive was introduced and used on the last tunnels including Summit Tunnel.",
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"plaintext": "Supply trains carried all the necessary material for the construction up to the railhead, with mule or horse-drawn wagons carrying it the rest of the ways if required. Ties were typically unloaded from horse-drawn or mule-drawn wagons and then placed on the track ballast and leveled to get ready for the rails. Rails, which weighed the most, were often kicked off the flatcars and carried by gangs of men on each side of the rail to where needed. The rails just in front of the rail car would be placed first, measured for the correct gauge with gauge sticks and then nailed down on the ties with spike mauls. The fishplates connecting the ends of the rails would be bolted on and then the car pushed by hand to the end of the rail and rail installation repeated.",
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"plaintext": "Track ballast was put between the ties as they progressed. Where a proper railbed had already been prepared, the work progressed rapidly. Constantly needed supplies included \"food, water, ties, rails, spikes, fishplates, nuts and bolts, track ballast, telegraph poles, wire, firewood (or coal on the Union Pacific) and water for the steam train locomotives, etc.\" After a flatcar was unloaded, it would usually be hooked to a small locomotive and pulled back to a siding, so another flatcar with rails etc. could be advanced to the railhead. Since juggling railroad cars took time on flat ground, where wagon transport was easier, the rail cars would be brought to the end of the line by steam locomotive, unloaded, and the flat car returned immediately to a siding for another loaded car of either ballast or rails. Temporary sidings were often installed where it could be easily done to expedite getting needed supplies to the railhead.",
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"plaintext": "The railroad tracks, spikes, telegraph wire, locomotives, railroad cars, supplies etc. were imported from the east on sailing ships that sailed the nearly , 200-day trip around Cape Horn. Some freight was put on Clipper ships which could do the trip in about 120 days. Some passengers and high-priority freight were shipped over the newly completed (as of 1855) Panama Railroad across the Isthmus of Panama. Using paddle steamers to and from Panama, this shortcut could be traveled in as little as 40 days. Supplies were normally offloaded at the Sacramento, California, docks where the railroad started.",
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"plaintext": "On January 8, 1863, Governor Leland Stanford ceremonially broke ground in Sacramento, California, to begin construction of the Central Pacific Railroad. After great initial progress along the Sacramento Valley, construction was slowed, first by the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, then by cutting a railroad bed up the mountains themselves. As they progressed higher in the mountains, winter snowstorms and a shortage of reliable labor compounded the problems. On January 7, 1865, a want ad for 5,000 laborers was placed in the Sacramento Union. Consequently, after a trial crew of Chinese workers was hired and found to work successfully, the Central Pacific expanded its efforts to hire more emigrant laborers—mostly Chinese. Emigrants from poverty stricken regions of China, many of which suffered from the strife of the Taiping Rebellion, seemed to be more willing to tolerate the living and working conditions on the railroad construction, and progress on the railroad continued. The increasing necessity for tunneling as they proceeded up the mountains then began to slow progress of the line yet again.",
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"plaintext": "The first step of construction was to survey the route and determine the locations where large excavations, tunnels and bridges would be needed. Crews could then start work in advance of the railroad reaching these locations. Supplies and workers were brought up to the work locations by wagon teams and work on several different sections proceeded simultaneously. One advantage of working on tunnels in winter was that tunnel work could often proceed since the work was nearly all \"inside\". Unfortunately, living quarters would have to be built outside and getting new supplies was difficult. Working and living in winter in the presence of snow slides and avalanches caused some deaths.",
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"plaintext": "To carve a tunnel, one worker held a rock drill on the granite face while one to two other workers swung eighteen-pound sledgehammers to sequentially hit the drill which slowly advanced into the rock. Once the hole was about deep, it would be filled with black powder, a fuse set and then ignited from a safe distance. Nitroglycerin, which had been invented less than two decades before the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, was used in relatively large quantities during its construction. This was especially true on the Central Pacific Railroad, which owned its own nitroglycerin plant to ensure it had a steady supply of the volatile explosive. This plant was operated by Chinese laborers as they were willing workers even under the most trying and dangerous of conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Chinese laborers were also crucial in the construction of 15 tunnels along the railroad's line through the Sierra Nevada mountains. These were about 32 feet (10 m) high and 16 feet (5 m) wide. When tunnels with vertical shafts were dug to increase construction speed, and tunneling began in the middle of the tunnel and at both ends simultaneously. At first hand-powered derricks were used to help remove loose rocks up the vertical shafts. These derricks were later replaced with steam hoists as work progressed. By using vertical shafts, four faces of the tunnel could be worked at the same time, two in the middle and one at each end. The average daily progress in some tunnels was only 0.85 feet (26cm) a day per face, which was very slow, or 1.18 feet (36cm) daily according to historian George Kraus. J. O. Wilder, a Central Pacific-Southern Pacific employee, commented that \"The Chinese were as steady, hard-working a set of men as could be found. With the exception of a few whites at the west end of Tunnel No. 6, the laboring force was entirely composed of Chinamen with white foremen and a \"boss/translator\". A single foreman (often Irish) with a gang of 30 to 40 Chinese men generally constituted the force at work at each end of a tunnel; of these, 12 to 15 men worked on the heading, and the rest on the bottom, removing blasted material. When a gang was small or the men were needed elsewhere, the bottoms were worked with fewer men or stopped so as to keep the headings going.\" The laborers usually worked three shifts of 8 hours each per day, while the foremen worked in two shifts of 12 hours each, managing the laborers. Once out of the Sierra, construction was much easier and faster. Under the direction of construction superintendent James Harvey Strobridge, Central Pacific tracklaying crews set a record with of track laid in one day on April 28, 1869. Horace Hamilton Minkler, track foreman for the Central Pacific, laid the last rail and tie before the Last Spike was driven.",
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"plaintext": "In order to keep the CPRR's Sierra grade open during the winter months, beginning in 1867, of massive wooden snow sheds and galleries were built between Blue Cañon and Truckee, covering cuts and other points where there was danger of avalanches. 2,500 men and six material trains were employed in this work, which was completed in 1869. The sheds were built with two sides and a steep peaked roof, mostly of locally cut hewn timber and round logs. Snow galleries had one side and a roof that sloped upward until it met the mountainside, thus permitting avalanches to slide over the galleries, some of which extended up the mountainside as much as . Masonry walls such as the \"Chinese Walls\" at Donner Summit were built across canyons to prevent avalanches from striking the side of the vulnerable wooden construction. A few concrete sheds (mostly at crossovers) are still in use today.",
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"plaintext": "The major investor in the Union Pacific was Thomas Clark Durant, who had made his stake money by smuggling Confederate cotton with the aid of Grenville M. Dodge. Durant chose routes that would favor places where he held land, and he announced connections to other lines at times that suited his share dealings. He paid an associate to submit the construction bid to another company he controlled, Crédit Mobilier, manipulating the finances and government subsidies and making himself another fortune. Durant hired Dodge as chief engineer and Jack Casement as construction boss.",
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"plaintext": "In the East, the progress started in Omaha, Nebraska, by the Union Pacific Railroad which initially proceeded very quickly because of the open terrain of the Great Plains. This changed, however, as the work entered Indian-held lands, as the railroad was a violation of Native American treaties with the United States. War parties began to raid the moving labor camps that followed the progress of the line. Union Pacific responded by increasing security and hiring marksmen to kill American Bison, which were both a physical threat to trains and the primary food source for many of the Plains Indians. The Native Americans then began killing laborers when they realized that the so-called \"Iron Horse\" threatened their existence. Security measures were further strengthened, and progress on the railroad continued.",
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"plaintext": "Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman’s first postwar command (Military Division of the Mississippi) covered the territory west of the Mississippi and east of the Rocky Mountains, and his top priority was to protect the construction of the railroads. In 1867, he wrote to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, “we are not going to let thieving, ragged Indians check and stop the progress” of the railroads.",
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"plaintext": "\"On the ground in the West, Gen. Philip Henry Sheridan, assuming Sherman’s command, took to his task much as he had done in the Shenandoah Valley during the Civil War, when he ordered the “scorched earth” tactics that presaged Sherman's March to the Sea.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"The devastation of the buffalo population signalled the end of the Indian Wars, and Native Americans were pushed into reservations. In 1869, the Comanche chief Tosawi was reported to have told Sheridan, “Me Tosawi. Me good Indian,” and Sheridan allegedly replied, “The only good Indians I ever saw were dead.” The phrase was later misquoted, with Sheridan supposedly stating, “The only good Indian is a dead Indian.” Sheridan denied he had ever said such a thing.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"By the end of the 19th century, only 300 buffalo were left in the wild. Congress finally took action, outlawing the killing of any birds or animals in Yellowstone National Park, where the only surviving buffalo herd could be protected. Conservationists established more wildlife preserves, and the species slowly rebounded. Today, there are more than 200,000 bison in North America.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"Sheridan acknowledged the role of the railroad in changing the face of the American West, and in his Annual Report of the General of the U.S. Army in 1878, he acknowledged that the Native Americans were scuttled to reservations with no compensation beyond the promise of religious instruction and basic supplies of food and clothing—promises, he wrote, which were never fulfilled.\"",
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"plaintext": "\" 'We took away their country and their means of support, broke up their mode of living, their habits of life, introduced disease and decay among them, and it was for this and against this they made war. Could any one expect less? Then, why wonder at Indian difficulties? ' ”",
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"plaintext": "Six years after the groundbreaking, laborers of the Central Pacific Railroad from the west and the Union Pacific Railroad from the east met at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. On the Union Pacific side was Union Pacific No 119,a 1868 4-4-0 type. Thrusting westward, the last two rails were laid by Irishmen;. On the Central Pacific side was their Central Pacific No 60 Jupiter, another 1868 4-4-0 type. Thrusting eastward, the last two rails were laid by the Chinese.",
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"plaintext": "It was at Promontory Summit on May 10, 1869, that the two engines met. Leland Stanford drove The Last Spike (or golden spike) that joined the rails of the transcontinental railroad. The spike is now on display at the Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University, while a second \"Last\" Golden Spike is also on display at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento. In perhaps the world's first live mass-media event, the hammers and spike were wired to the telegraph line so that each hammer stroke would be heard as a click at telegraph stations nationwide—the hammer strokes were missed, so the clicks were sent by the telegraph operator. As soon as the ceremonial \"Last Spike\" had been replaced by an ordinary iron spike, a message was transmitted to both the East Coast and West Coast that simply read, \"DONE.\" Travel from coast to coast was reduced from six months or more to just one week.",
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"plaintext": " When the last spike was driven, the rail network was not yet connected to the Atlantic or Pacific but merely connected Omaha to Sacramento. To get from Sacramento to the Pacific, the Central Pacific purchased in 1867 the struggling Western Pacific Railroad (unrelated to the railroad of the same name that would later parallel its route) and in February 1868 resumed construction on it, which had halted in October 1866 because of funding troubles. On September 6, 1869, the first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus on the east side of San Francisco Bay at the Alameda Terminal, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. On November 8, 1869, the Central Pacific finally completed the rail connection to its western terminus at Oakland, California, also on the East Bay, where freight and passengers completed their transcontinental link to San Francisco by ferry.",
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"plaintext": "The original route from the Central Valley to the Bay skirted the Delta by heading south out of Sacramento through Stockton and crossing the San Joaquin River at Mossdale, then climbed over the Altamont Pass and reached the east side of the San Francisco Bay through Niles Canyon. The Western Pacific was originally chartered to go to San Jose, but the Central Pacific decided to build along the East Bay instead, as going from San Jose up the Peninsula to San Francisco itself would have brought it into conflict with competing interests. The railroad entered Alameda and Oakland from the south, roughly paralleling what would later become U.S. Route 50 and later still Interstates 5, 205, and 580. A more direct route was obtained with the purchase of the California Pacific Railroad, crossing the Sacramento River and proceeding southwest through Davis to Benicia, where it crossed the Carquinez Strait by means of an enormous train ferry, then followed the shores of the San Pablo and San Francisco bays to Richmond and the Port of Oakland (paralleling U.S. Route 40 which ultimately became Interstate 80). In 1930, a rail bridge across the Carquinez replaced the Benicia ferries.",
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"plaintext": "Very early on, the Central Pacific learned that it would have trouble maintaining an open track in winter across the Sierras. At first they tried plowing the road with special snowplows mounted on their steam engines. When this was only partially successful, an extensive process of building snow sheds over some of the track was instituted to protect it from deep snows and avalanches. These eventually succeeded at keeping the tracks clear for all but a few days of the year.",
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"plaintext": "Both railroads soon instituted extensive upgrade projects to build better bridges, viaducts and dugways as well as install heavier duty rails, stronger ties, better road beds etc. The original track had often been laid as fast as possible with only secondary attention to maintenance and durability. The primary incentive had been getting the subsidies, which meant that upgrades of all kinds were routinely required in the following years. The cost of making these upgrades was relatively small, however, once the railroad was operating. Once the railroad was complete supplies could be moved from distant factories directly to the construction site by rail.",
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"plaintext": "The Union Pacific would not connect Omaha to Council Bluffs until completing the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge in 1872.",
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"plaintext": "Several years after the end of the Civil War, the competing railroads coming from Missouri finally realized their initial strategic advantage and a building boom ensued. In July 1869, the Hannibal and St. Joseph Railroad finished the Hannibal Bridge in Kansas City which was the first bridge to cross the Missouri River. This in turn connected to Kansas Pacific trains going from Kansas City to Denver, which in turn had built the Denver Pacific Railway connecting to the Union Pacific. In August 1870, the Kansas Pacific drove the last spike connecting to the Denver Pacific line at Strasburg, Colorado and the first true Atlantic to Pacific United States railroad was completed.",
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"plaintext": "Kansas City's head start in connecting to a true transcontinental railroad contributed to it rather than Omaha becoming the dominant rail center west of Chicago.",
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"plaintext": "The Kansas Pacific became part of the Union Pacific in 1880.",
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"plaintext": "On June 4, 1876, an express train called the Transcontinental Express arrived in San Francisco via the first transcontinental railroad only 83 hours and 39 minutes after it had left New York City. Only ten years before, the same journey would have taken months over land or weeks on ship, possibly all the way around South America.",
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"plaintext": "The Central Pacific got a direct route to San Francisco when it was merged with the Southern Pacific Railroad to create the Southern Pacific Company in 1885. The Union Pacific initially took over the Southern Pacific in 1901 but was forced by the U.S. Supreme Court to divest it because of monopoly concerns. The two railroads would once again unite in 1996 when the Southern Pacific was sold to the Union Pacific.",
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"plaintext": "Having been bypassed with the completion of the Lucin Cutoff in 1904, the Promontory Summit rails were pulled up in 1942 to be recycled for the World War II effort. This process began with a ceremonial \"undriving\" at the Last Spike location.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the transcontinental success and millions in government subsidies, the Union Pacific faced bankruptcy less than three years after the Last Spike as details surfaced about overcharges that Crédit Mobilier had billed Union Pacific for the formal building of the railroad. The scandal hit epic proportions in the 1872 United States presidential election, which saw the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant and became the biggest scandal of the Gilded Age. It would not be resolved until the death of the congressman who was supposed to have reined in its excesses but instead wound up profiting from it.",
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"plaintext": "Durant had initially come up with the scheme to have Crédit Mobilier subcontract to do the actual track work. Durant gained control of the company after buying out employee Herbert Hoxie for $10,000. Under Durant's guidance, Crédit Mobilier was charging Union Pacific often twice or more the customary cost for track work. The process mired down Union Pacific work.",
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"plaintext": "Lincoln asked Massachusetts Congressman Oakes Ames, who was on the railroad committee, to clean things up and get the railroad moving. Ames got his brother Oliver Ames Jr. named president of the Union Pacific, while he himself became president of Crédit Mobilier.",
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"plaintext": "Ames then in turn gave stock options to other politicians while at the same time continuing the lucrative overcharges. The scandal was to implicate Vice President Schuyler Colfax (who was cleared) and future President James Garfield among others.",
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"plaintext": "The scandal broke in 1872 when the New York Sun published correspondence detailing the scheme between Henry S. McComb and Ames. In the ensuing Congressional investigation, it was recommended that Ames be expelled from Congress, but this was reduced to a censure and Ames died within three months.",
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"plaintext": "Durant later left the Union Pacific and a new rail baron, Jay Gould, became the dominant stockholder. As a result of the Panic of 1873, Gould was able to pick up bargains, among them the control of the Union Pacific Railroad and Western Union.",
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"plaintext": "Visible remains of the historic line are still easily located—hundreds of miles are still in service today, especially through the Sierra Nevada Mountains and canyons in Utah and Wyoming. While the original rail has long since been replaced because of age and wear, and the roadbed upgraded and repaired, the lines generally run on top of the original, handmade grade. Vista points on Interstate 80 through California's Truckee Canyon provide a panoramic view of many miles of the original Central Pacific line and of the snow sheds which made winter train travel safe and practical.",
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"plaintext": "In areas where the original line has been bypassed and abandoned, primarily because of the Lucin Cutoff re-route in Utah, the original road grade is still obvious, as are numerous cuts and fills, especially the Big Fill a few miles east of Promontory. The sweeping curve which connected to the east end of the Big Fill now passes a Thiokol rocket research and development facility.",
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"plaintext": "In 1957, Congress authorized the Golden Spike National Historic Site, which was redesignated the Golden Spike National Historical Park in 2019. Today the site features replica engines of Union Pacific No. 119 and Central Pacific Jupiter. The engines are fired up periodically by the National Park Service for the public. On May 10, 2006, on the anniversary of the driving of the spike, Utah announced that its state quarter design would be a representation of the driving of the Last Spike.",
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"plaintext": "Amtrak's California Zephyr, a daily passenger service from Emeryville, California (in the San Francisco Bay Area) to Chicago, uses the first transcontinental railroad from Sacramento to central Nevada. Because this rail line currently operates in a directional running setup across most of Nevada, the California Zephyr will switch to the Central Corridor at either Winnemucca or Wells.",
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"plaintext": "The joining of the Union Pacific line with the Central Pacific line in May 1869 at Promontory Summit, Utah, was one of the major inspirations for French writer Jules Verne's book entitled Around the World in Eighty Days, published in 1873.",
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"plaintext": "While not exactly accurate, John Ford's 1924 silent movie The Iron Horse captures the fervent nationalism that drove public support for the project. Among the cooks serving the film's cast and crew between shots were some of the Chinese laborers who worked on the Central Pacific section of the railroad.",
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"plaintext": "The construction of what presumably is – or is suggested to be – the transcontinental railroad provides the backdrop of the 1968 epic Spaghetti Western Once Upon a Time in the West, directed by Italian director Sergio Leone.",
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"plaintext": "Graham Masterton's 1981 novel A Man of Destiny (published in the UK as Railroad) is a fictionalized account of the line's construction.",
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"plaintext": "The 1993 children's book Ten Mile Day by Mary Ann Fraser tells the story of the record setting push by the Central Pacific in which they set a record by laying of track in a single day on April 28, 1869, to settle a $10,000 bet.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiana Gregory's 1999 book The Great Railroad Race (part of the \"Dear America\" series) is written as the fictional diary of Libby West, who chronicles the end of the railroad construction and the excitement that engulfed the country at the time.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2013 Walt Disney movie The Lone Ranger featured the transcontinental railroad being constructed & opened, but with a twist. Instead of Union Pacific No. 119, they used a made up steam locomotive called Constitution which was based off Illinois Central Railroad No. 382 which Casey Jones driven on his fateful trip in 1900.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, a Lego model depicting the Golden Spike Ceremony, the event that symbolically marked the completion of the first transcontinental railroad, was submitted to the Lego Ideas website.",
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"plaintext": " Chin Lin Sou",
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"plaintext": " Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad)",
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"plaintext": " Chang, Gordon H. (2019). Ghosts of Gold Mountain: The Epic Story of the Chinese Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.",
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"plaintext": " Cooper, Bruce C., \"Riding the Transcontinental Rails: Overland Travel on the Pacific Railroad 1865–1881\" (2005), Polyglot Press, Philadelphia ",
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"plaintext": " Cooper, Bruce Clement \"The Classic Western American Railroad Routes\". New York: Chartwell Books/Worth Press, 2010. ; ; BINC: 3099794.",
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"plaintext": " Duran, Xavier, \"The First U.S. Transcontinental Railroad: Expected Profits and Government Intervention,\" Journal of Economic History, 73 (March 2013), 177–200.",
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"plaintext": " White, Richard. Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (2010)",
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"plaintext": " Willumson, Glenn. Iron Muse: Photographing the Transcontinental Railroad (University of California Press; 2013) 242 pages; studies the production, distribution, and publication of images of the railroad in the 19th and early 20th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "For maps and railroad pictures of this era shortly after the advent of photography see:",
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"plaintext": " Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum",
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},
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"plaintext": " CPRR Railroad Map collection/museum",
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"plaintext": " 1871 CPRR & UPRR Overland Railroad Map \"Map of the Central Pacific Railroad and its Connections\" published in the California Mail Bag San Francisco News Letter and California Advertiser, Vol. 1, No. 4, Oct–Nov. 1871. accessed May 1, 2013.",
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"plaintext": " Union Pacific Railroad picture Museum Excursion to the 100th Meridian – 1866 accessed March 1, 2013.",
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"plaintext": " The Pacific Tourist Williams, Henry T.; published by Adams & Bishop, New York, 1881 ed. Gives insights to travel in the late 1880s on the transcontinental railroad.",
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"plaintext": " \"I Hear the Locomotives: The Impact of the Transcontinental Railroad\"",
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},
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"plaintext": " Golden Spike National Historical Park in Utah",
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"plaintext": " Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum",
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"plaintext": " Union Pacific Railroad History",
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"plaintext": " The Transcontinental Railroad",
"section_idx": 12,
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"plaintext": " Pacific Railway Act and related resources at the Library of Congress",
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},
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"plaintext": " Chinese-American Contribution to transcontinental railroad",
"section_idx": 12,
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"plaintext": " Linda Hall Library's Transcontinental Railroad educational site with free, full-text access to 19th century American railroad periodicals",
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"plaintext": " Newspaper articles and clippings about the Transcontinental Railroad at Newspapers.com",
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"plaintext": " Route map at the Library of Congress",
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"plaintext": " Map of Union Pacific Railroad with Dates",
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"plaintext": " Abandoned route of the transcontinental railroad in Utah (with map)",
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"1869_in_the_United_States",
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"Railway_lines_in_Omaha,_Nebraska",
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| 1,753,108 | 15,480 | 691 | 522 | 0 | 0 | First Transcontinental Railroad | first railroad in the United States to reach the Pacific coast from the eastern states | [
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"plaintext": "Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy, and Germany west of the Rhine. It covered an area of . According to Julius Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts: Gallia Celtica, Belgica, and Aquitania.",
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"plaintext": "Archaeologically, the Gauls were bearers of the La Tène culture, which extended across all of Gaul, as well as east to Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia, and southwestern Germania during the 5th to 1st centuries BC.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule: Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 204 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded after 120BC by the Cimbri and the Teutons, who were in turn defeated by the Romans by 103BC. Julius Caesar finally subdued the remaining parts of Gaul in his campaigns of 58 to 51BC.",
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"plaintext": "Out of this Hallstatt background, during the 7th and 6th century BC presumably representing an early form of Continental Celtic culture, the La Tène culture arises, presumably under Mediterranean influence from the Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan civilizations, spread out in a number of early centers along the Seine, the Middle Rhine and the upper Elbe. By the late 5th century BC, La Tène influence spreads rapidly across the entire territory of Gaul.",
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"plaintext": "The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Hungary. Farther north extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany and Scandinavia.",
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"plaintext": "A major archaeogenetics study uncovered a migration into southern Britain in the Bronze Age, during the 500-year period 1,300–800 BC. The newcomers were genetically most similar to ancient individuals from Gaul. The authors describe this as a \"plausible vector for the spread of early Celtic languages into Britain\".",
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"plaintext": "The major source of materials on the Celts of Gaul was Poseidonios of Apamea, whose writings were quoted by Timagenes, Julius Caesar, the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus, and the Greek geographer Strabo.",
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"plaintext": "In the 4th and early 3rd century BC, Gallic clan confederations expanded far beyond the territory of what would become Roman Gaul (which defines usage of the term \"Gaul\" today), into Pannonia, Illyria, northern Italy, Transylvania and even Asia Minor.",
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"plaintext": "By the 2nd century BC, the Romans described Gallia Transalpina as distinct from Gallia Cisalpina. In his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar distinguishes among three ethnic groups in Gaul: the Belgae in the north (roughly between the Rhine and the Seine), the Celtae in the center and in Armorica, and the Aquitani in the southwest, the southeast being already colonized by the Romans.",
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"plaintext": "While some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the French historical interpretation during the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia (present-day Marseille) along the Mediterranean coast. Also, along the southeastern French Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a Celto-Ligurian culture.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2nd century BC Mediterranean Gaul had an extensive urban fabric and was prosperous. Archeologists know of cities in northern Gaul including the Biturigian capital of Avaricum (Bourges), Cenabum (Orléans), Autricum (Chartres) and the excavated site of Bibracte near Autun in Saône-et-Loire, along with a number of hill forts (or oppida) used in times of war. The prosperity of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance from the inhabitants of Massilia, who found themselves under attack by a coalition of Ligures and Gauls. The Romans intervened in Gaul in 154 BC and again in 125 BC. Whereas on the first occasion they came and went, on the second they stayed. In 122 BC Domitius Ahenobarbus managed to defeat the Allobroges (allies of the Salluvii), while in the ensuing year Quintus Fabius Maximus \"destroyed\" an army of the Arverni led by their king Bituitus, who had come to the aid of the Allobroges. Rome allowed Massilia to keep its lands, but added to its own territories the lands of the conquered tribes. As a direct result of these conquests, Rome now controlled an area extending from the Pyrenees to the lower Rhône river, and in the east up the Rhône valley to Lake Geneva. By 121 BC Romans had conquered the Mediterranean region called Provincia (later named Gallia Narbonensis). This conquest upset the ascendancy of the Gaulish Arverni peoples.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman proconsul and general Julius Caesar pushed his army into Gaul in 58 BC, ostensibly to assist Rome's Gaullish allies against the migrating Helvetii. With the help of various Gallic clans (e.g. the Aedui) he managed to conquer nearly all of Gaul. While their military was just as strong as the Romans', the internal division between the Gallic tribes guaranteed an easy victory for Caesar, and Vercingetorix's attempt to unite the Gauls against Roman invasion came too late. Julius Caesar was checked by Vercingetorix at a siege of Gergovia, a fortified town in the center of Gaul. Caesar's alliances with many Gallic clans broke. Even the Aedui, their most faithful supporters, threw in their lot with the Arverni but the ever-loyal Remi (best known for its cavalry) and Lingones sent troops to support Caesar. The Germani of the Ubii also sent cavalry, which Caesar equipped with Remi horses. Caesar captured Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia, which ended the majority of Gallic resistance to Rome.",
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"plaintext": "As many as a million people (probably 1 in 5 of the Gauls) died, another million were enslaved, 300 clans were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed during the Gallic Wars. The entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) were slaughtered. Before Julius Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii (Switzerland), the Helvetians had numbered 263,000, but afterwards only 100,000 remained, most of whom Caesar took as slaves.",
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"plaintext": "After Gaul was absorbed as Gallia, a set of Roman provinces, its inhabitants gradually adopted aspects of Roman culture and assimilated, resulting in the distinct Gallo-Roman culture. Citizenship was granted to all in 212 by the Constitutio Antoniniana. From the third to 5th centuries, Gaul was exposed to raids by the Franks. The Gallic Empire, consisting of the provinces of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania, including the peaceful Baetica in the south, broke away from Rome from 260 to 273. In addition to the large number of natives, Gallia also became home to some Roman citizens from elsewhere and also in-migrating Germanic and Scythian tribes such as the Alans.",
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"plaintext": "The religious practices of inhabitants became a combination of Roman and Celtic practice, with Celtic deities such as Cobannus and Epona subjected to interpretatio romana. The imperial cult and Eastern mystery religions also gained a following. Eventually, after it became the official religion of the Empire and paganism became suppressed, Christianity won out in the twilight days of the Western Roman Empire (while the Christianized Eastern Roman Empire lasted another thousand years, until the invasion of Constantinople by the Ottomans in 1453); a small but notable Jewish presence also became established.",
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"plaintext": "The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible concerned the destruction by Christians of a pagan shrine in Auvergne \"called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue\". Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French.",
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"plaintext": "The Vulgar Latin in the region of Gallia took on a distinctly local character, some of which is attested in graffiti, which evolved into the Gallo-Romance dialects which include French and its closest relatives. The influence of substrate languages may be seen in graffiti showing sound changes that matched changes that had earlier occurred in the indigenous languages, especially Gaulish. The Vulgar Latin in the north of Gaul evolved into the langues d'oil and Franco-Provencal, while the dialects in the south evolved into the modern Occitan and Catalan tongues. Other languages held to be \"Gallo-Romance\" include the Gallo-Italic languages and the Rhaeto-Romance languages.",
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"plaintext": "Following Frankish victories at Soissons (AD 486), Vouillé (AD 507) and Autun (AD 532), Gaul (except for Brittany and Septimania) came under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings of France. Gallo-Roman culture, the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire, persisted particularly in the areas of Gallia Narbonensis that developed into Occitania, Gallia Cisalpina and to a lesser degree, Aquitania. The formerly Romanized north of Gaul, once it had been occupied by the Franks, developed into Merovingian culture instead. Roman life, centered on the public events and cultural responsibilities of urban life in the res publica and the sometimes luxurious life of the self-sufficient rural villa system, took longer to collapse in the Gallo-Roman regions, where the Visigoths largely inherited the status quo in the early 5th century. Gallo-Roman language persisted in the northeast into the Silva Carbonaria that formed an effective cultural barrier, with the Franks to the north and east, and in the northwest to the lower valley of the Loire, where Gallo-Roman culture interfaced with Frankish culture in a city like Tours and in the person of that Gallo-Roman bishop confronted with Merovingian royals, Gregory of Tours.",
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"plaintext": "The Druids were not the only political force in Gaul, however, and the early political system was complex, if ultimately fatal to the society as a whole. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the clan, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called pagi. Each clan had a council of elders, and initially a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate. Among the Aedui, a clan of Gaul, the executive held the title of Vergobret, a position much like a king, but his powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council.",
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"plaintext": "The regional ethnic groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, \"region\" [a more accurate translation is 'country'], comes from this term), were organized into larger multi-clan groups, which the Romans called civitates. These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place—with slight changes—until the French Revolution.",
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"plaintext": "Although the clans were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various clans. Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were clear.",
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"plaintext": "The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern Gallia Comata (\"free Gaul\" or \"long-haired Gaul\"). Caesar divided the people of Gallia Comata into three broad groups: the Aquitani; Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and Belgae. In the modern sense, Gaulish peoples are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements.",
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"plaintext": "Julius Caesar, in his book, The Gallic Wars wrote,",
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"plaintext": "The Gauls practiced a form of animism, ascribing human characteristics to lakes, streams, mountains, and other natural features and granting them a quasi-divine status. Also, worship of animals was not uncommon; the animal most sacred to the Gauls was the boar which can be found on many Gallic military standards, much like the Roman eagle.",
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"plaintext": "Their system of gods and goddesses was loose, there being certain deities which virtually every Gallic person worshipped, as well as clan and household gods. Many of the major gods were related to Greek gods; the primary god worshipped at the time of the arrival of Caesar was Teutates, the Gallic equivalent of Mercury. The \"ancestor god\" of the Gauls was identified by Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico with the Roman god Dis Pater.",
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"plaintext": "Perhaps the most intriguing facet of Gallic religion is the practice of the Druids. The druids presided over human or animal sacrifices that were made in wooded groves or crude temples. They also appear to have held the responsibility for preserving the annual agricultural calendar and instigating seasonal festivals which corresponded to key points of the lunar-solar calendar. The religious practices of druids were syncretic and borrowed from earlier pagan traditions, with probably indo-European roots. Julius Caesar mentions in his Gallic Wars that those Celts who wanted to make a close study of druidism went to Britain to do so. In a little over a century later, Gnaeus Julius Agricola mentions Roman armies attacking a large druid sanctuary in Anglesey in Wales. There is no certainty concerning the origin of the druids, but it is clear that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the people of Gaul. Indeed, they claimed the right to determine questions of war and peace, and thereby held an \"international\" status. In addition, the Druids monitored the religion of ordinary Gauls and were in charge of educating the aristocracy. They also practiced a form of excommunication from the assembly of worshippers, which in ancient Gaul meant a separation from secular society as well. Thus the Druids were an important part of Gallic society. The nearly complete and mysterious disappearance of the Celtic language from most of the territorial lands of ancient Gaul, with the exception of Brittany, can be attributed to the fact that Celtic druids refused to allow the Celtic oral literature or traditional wisdom to be committed to the written letter.",
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"plaintext": " Ambiorix",
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"plaintext": " Asterix—a French comic about Gaul and Rome, mainly set in 50 BC",
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"plaintext": " Bog body",
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"plaintext": " Braccae—trousers, typical Gallic dress",
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"plaintext": " Cisalpine Gaul",
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"plaintext": " Galatia",
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"plaintext": " Lugdunum",
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"plaintext": " Roman Republic",
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},
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"plaintext": " Roman villas in northwestern Gaul",
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| [
"Gaul",
"Historical_regions"
]
| 38,060 | 44,228 | 2,324 | 209 | 0 | 0 | Gaul | historical region of Western Europe inhabited by Celtic tribes | [
"Gallia"
]
|
36,546 | 1,106,963,687 | Congress | [
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"plaintext": "A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of adversaries) during battle, from the Latin congressus.",
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"plaintext": "The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), which ended the War of Devolution",
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"plaintext": "where , , and are the scalar magnitude of their respective vectors, and is the angle between the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field. The vector is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law correctly describe the motion of a charged particle. In other words,",
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"plaintext": "The field can also be defined by the torque on a magnetic dipole, .",
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"plaintext": "In SI units, is measured in teslas (symbol: T). In Gaussian-cgs units, is measured in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10000 G.) One nanotesla is equivalent to 1 gamma (symbol: γ).",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic field is defined:",
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"plaintext": "Where is the vacuum permeability, and is the magnetization vector. In a vacuum, and are proportional to each other. Inside a material they are different (see H-field and magnetic materials). The -field is measured in amperes per metre (A/m) in SI units, and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.",
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"plaintext": "An instrument used to measure the local magnetic field is known as a magnetometer. Important classes of magnetometers include using induction magnetometers (or search-coil magnetometers) which measure only varying magnetic fields, rotating coil magnetometers, Hall effect magnetometers, NMR magnetometers, SQUID magnetometers, and fluxgate magnetometers. The magnetic fields of distant astronomical objects are measured through their effects on local charged particles. For instance, electrons spiraling around a field line produce synchrotron radiation that is detectable in radio waves. The finest precision for a magnetic field measurement was attained by Gravity Probe B at ().",
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"plaintext": "The field can be visualized by a set of magnetic field lines, that follow the direction of the field at each point. The lines can be constructed by measuring the strength and direction of the magnetic field at a large number of points (or at every point in space). Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the direction of the local magnetic field with its magnitude proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. Connecting these arrows then forms a set of magnetic field lines. The direction of the magnetic field at any point is parallel to the direction of nearby field lines, and the local density of field lines can be made proportional to its strength. Magnetic field lines are like streamlines in fluid flow, in that they represent a continuous distribution, and a different resolution would show more or fewer lines.",
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"plaintext": "An advantage of using magnetic field lines as a representation is that many laws of magnetism (and electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using simple concepts such as the \"number\" of field lines through a surface. These concepts can be quickly \"translated\" to their mathematical form. For example, the number of field lines through a given surface is the surface integral of the magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": "Various phenomena \"display\" magnetic field lines as though the field lines were physical phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field form lines that correspond to \"field lines\". Magnetic field \"lines\" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, in which plasma particle dipole interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the local direction of Earth's magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": "Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic forces. In ferromagnetic substances like iron and in plasmas, magnetic forces can be understood by imagining that the field lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band) along their length, and a pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. \"Unlike\" poles of magnets attract because they are linked by many field lines; \"like\" poles repel because their field lines do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other.",
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"plaintext": "Permanent magnets are objects that produce their own persistent magnetic fields. They are made of ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and nickel, that have been magnetized, and they have both a north and a south pole.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the magnet. The magnetic field of a small straight magnet is proportional to the magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment ). The equations are non-trivial and also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple magnets, points in the direction of a line drawn from the south to the north pole of the magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is equivalent to rotating its by 180 degrees.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic field of larger magnets can be obtained by modeling them as a collection of a large number of small magnets called dipoles each having their own . The magnetic field produced by the magnet then is the net magnetic field of these dipoles; any net force on the magnet is a result of adding up the forces on the individual dipoles.",
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"plaintext": "There were two simplified models for the nature of these dipoles. These two models produce two different magnetic fields, and . Outside a material, though, the two are identical (to a multiplicative constant) so that in many cases the distinction can be ignored. This is particularly true for magnetic fields, such as those due to electric currents, that are not generated by magnetic materials.",
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"plaintext": "A realistic model of magnetism is more complicated than either of these models; neither model fully explains why materials are magnetic. The monopole model has no experimental support. Ampere's model explains some, but not all of a material's magnetic moment. Like Ampere's model predicts, the motion of electrons within an atom are connected to those electrons' orbital magnetic dipole moment, and these orbital moments do contribute to the magnetism seen at the macroscopic level. However, the motion of electrons is not classical, and the spin magnetic moment of electrons (which is not explained by either model) is also a significant contribution to the total moment of magnets.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, early physics textbooks would model the force and torques between two magnets as due to magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other in the same manner as the Coulomb force between electric charges. At the microscopic level, this model contradicts the experimental evidence, and the pole model of magnetism is no longer the typical way to introduce the concept. However, it is still sometimes used as a macroscopic model for ferromagnetism due to its mathematical simplicity.",
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"plaintext": "In this model, a magnetic -field is produced by fictitious magnetic charges that are spread over the surface of each pole. These magnetic charges are in fact related to the magnetization field . The -field, therefore, is analogous to the electric field , which starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric charge. Near the north pole, therefore, all -field lines point away from the north pole (whether inside the magnet or out) while near the south pole all -field lines point toward the south pole (whether inside the magnet or out). Too, a north pole feels a force in the direction of the -field while the force on the south pole is opposite to the -field.",
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"plaintext": "In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic dipole is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole strength separated by a small distance vector , such that . The magnetic pole model predicts correctly the field both inside and outside magnetic materials, in particular the fact that is opposite to the magnetization field inside a permanent magnet.",
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"plaintext": "Since it is based on the fictitious idea of a magnetic charge density, the pole model has limitations. Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other as electric charges can, but always come in north–south pairs. If a magnetized object is divided in half, a new pole appears on the surface of each piece, so each has a pair of complementary poles. The magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents, nor the inherent connection between angular momentum and magnetism.",
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"plaintext": "The pole model usually treats magnetic charge as a mathematical abstraction, rather than a physical property of particles. However, a magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle (or class of particles) that physically has only one magnetic pole (either a north pole or a south pole). In other words, it would possess a \"magnetic charge\" analogous to an electric charge. Magnetic field lines would start or end on magnetic monopoles, so if they exist, they would give exceptions to the rule that magnetic field lines neither start nor end. Some theories (such as Grand Unified Theories) have predicted the existence of magnetic monopoles, but so far, none have been observed.",
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"plaintext": "In the model developed by Ampere, the elementary magnetic dipole that makes up all magnets is a sufficiently small Amperian loop of current I. The dipole moment of this loop is where is the area of the loop.",
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"plaintext": "These magnetic dipoles produce a magnetic -field.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole is depicted in the figure. From outside, the ideal magnetic dipole is identical to that of an ideal electric dipole of the same strength. Unlike the electric dipole, a magnetic dipole is properly modeled as a current loop having a current and an area . Such a current loop has a magnetic moment of:",
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"plaintext": "where the direction of is perpendicular to the area of the loop and depends on the direction of the current using the right-hand rule. An ideal magnetic dipole is modeled as a real magnetic dipole whose area has been reduced to zero and its current increased to infinity such that the product is finite. This model clarifies the connection between angular momentum and magnetic moment, which is the basis of the Einstein–de Haas effect rotation by magnetization and its inverse, the Barnett effect or magnetization by rotation. Rotating the loop faster (in the same direction) increases the current and therefore the magnetic moment, for example.",
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"plaintext": "Specifying the force between two small magnets is quite complicated because it depends on the strength and orientation of both magnets and their distance and direction relative to each other. The force is particularly sensitive to rotations of the magnets due to magnetic torque. The force on each magnet depends on its magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the other.",
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"plaintext": "To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magnetic pole model given above. In this model, the -field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles of a second magnet. If this -field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the magnetic field of the first magnet is nonuniform (such as the near one of its poles), each pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field and may also cause a net torque.",
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"plaintext": "This is a specific example of a general rule that magnets are attracted (or repulsed depending on the orientation of the magnet) into regions of higher magnetic field. Any non-uniform magnetic field, whether caused by permanent magnets or electric currents, exerts a force on a small magnet in this way.",
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"plaintext": "The details of the Amperian loop model are different and more complicated but yield the same result: that magnetic dipoles are attracted/repelled into regions of higher magnetic field. Mathematically, the force on a small magnet having a magnetic moment due to a magnetic field is:",
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"plaintext": "where the gradient is the change of the quantity per unit distance and the direction is that of maximum increase of . The dot product , where and represent the magnitude of the and vectors and is the angle between them. If is in the same direction as then the dot product is positive and the gradient points \"uphill\" pulling the magnet into regions of higher -field (more strictly larger ). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions each having their own then summing up the forces on each of these very small regions.",
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"plaintext": "If two like poles of two separate magnets are brought near each other, and one of the magnets is allowed to turn, it promptly rotates to align itself with the first. In this example, the magnetic field of the stationary magnet creates a magnetic torque on the magnet that is free to rotate. This magnetic torque tends to align a magnet's poles with the magnetic field lines. A compass, therefore, turns to align itself with Earth's magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": " In terms of the pole model, two equal and opposite magnetic charges experiencing the same also experience equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are in different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance (perpendicular to the force) between them. With the definition of as the pole strength times the distance between the poles, this leads to , where is a constant called the vacuum permeability, measuring V·s/(A·m) and is the angle between and .",
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"plaintext": "Mathematically, the torque on a small magnet is proportional both to the applied magnetic field and to the magnetic moment of the magnet:",
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"plaintext": "where × represents the vector cross product. This equation includes all of the qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if is in the same direction as the magnetic field, since the cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the same direction. Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the direction of magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": "Currents of electric charges both generate a magnetic field and feel a force due to magnetic B-fields.",
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"plaintext": "All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges, such as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetic field lines form in concentric circles around a cylindrical current-carrying conductor, such as a length of wire. The direction of such a magnetic field can be determined by using the \"right-hand grip rule\" (see figure at right). The strength of the magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire. (For an infinite length wire the strength is inversely proportional to the distance.)",
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"plaintext": "Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field inside the loop while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely spaced loops to form a coil or \"solenoid\" enhances this effect. A device so formed around an iron core may act as an electromagnet, generating a strong, well-controlled magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic field generated by a steady current (a constant flow of electric charges, in which charge neither accumulates nor is depleted at any point) is described by the Biot–Savart law:",
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"plaintext": "where the integral sums over the wire length where vector is the vector line element with direction in the same sense as the current , is the magnetic constant, is the distance between the location of and the location where the magnetic field is calculated, and is a unit vector in the direction of . For example, in the case of a sufficiently long, straight wire, this becomes:",
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"plaintext": "where . The direction is tangent to a circle perpendicular to the wire according to the right hand rule.",
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"plaintext": "A slightly more general way of relating the current to the -field is through Ampère's law:",
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"plaintext": "where the line integral is over any arbitrary loop and is the current enclosed by that loop. Ampère's law is always valid for steady currents and can be used to calculate the -field for certain highly symmetric situations such as an infinite wire or an infinite solenoid.",
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"plaintext": "In a modified form that accounts for time varying electric fields, Ampère's law is one of four Maxwell's equations that describe electricity and magnetism.",
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"plaintext": "A charged particle moving in a -field experiences a sideways force that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the component of the velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the charge of the particle. This force is known as the Lorentz force, and is given by",
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"plaintext": "where is the force, is the electric charge of the particle, is the instantaneous velocity of the particle, and is the magnetic field (in teslas).",
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"plaintext": "The Lorentz force is always perpendicular to both the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field that created it. When a charged particle moves in a static magnetic field, it traces a helical path in which the helix axis is parallel to the magnetic field, and in which the speed of the particle remains constant. Because the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic field can do no work on an isolated charge. It can only do work indirectly, via the electric field generated by a changing magnetic field. It is often claimed that the magnetic force can do work to a non-elementary magnetic dipole, or to charged particles whose motion is constrained by other forces, but this is incorrect because the work in those cases is performed by the electric forces of the charges deflected by the magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": "The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a moving charge as expected since a current carrying wire is a collection of moving charges. A current-carrying wire feels a force in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often referred to as the Laplace force.",
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"plaintext": "Consider a conductor of length , cross section , and charge due to electric current . If this conductor is placed in a magnetic field of magnitude that makes an angle with the velocity of charges in the conductor, the force exerted on a single charge is",
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"plaintext": "so, for charges where",
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"plaintext": "the force exerted on the conductor is",
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"plaintext": "where .",
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"plaintext": "The formulas derived for the magnetic field above are correct when dealing with the entire current. A magnetic material placed inside a magnetic field, though, generates its own bound current, which can be a challenge to calculate. (This bound current is due to the sum of atomic sized current loops and the spin of the subatomic particles such as electrons that make up the material.) The -field as defined above helps factor out this bound current; but to see how, it helps to introduce the concept of magnetization first.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetization vector field represents how strongly a region of material is magnetized. It is defined as the net magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of that region. The magnetization of a uniform magnet is therefore a material constant, equal to the magnetic moment of the magnet divided by its volume. Since the SI unit of magnetic moment is A⋅m2, the SI unit of magnetization is ampere per meter, identical to that of the -field.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetization field of a region points in the direction of the average magnetic dipole moment in that region. Magnetization field lines, therefore, begin near the magnetic south pole and ends near the magnetic north pole. (Magnetization does not exist outside the magnet.)",
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"plaintext": "In the Amperian loop model, the magnetization is due to combining many tiny Amperian loops to form a resultant current called bound current. This bound current, then, is the source of the magnetic field due to the magnet. Given the definition of the magnetic dipole, the magnetization field follows a similar law to that of Ampere's law:",
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"plaintext": "where the integral is a line integral over any closed loop and is the bound current enclosed by that closed loop.",
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"plaintext": "In the magnetic pole model, magnetization begins at and ends at magnetic poles. If a given region, therefore, has a net positive \"magnetic pole strength\" (corresponding to a north pole) then it has more magnetization field lines entering it than leaving it. Mathematically this is equivalent to:",
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"plaintext": "where the integral is a closed surface integral over the closed surface and is the \"magnetic charge\" (in units of magnetic flux) enclosed by . (A closed surface completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape.) The negative sign occurs because the magnetization field moves from south to north.",
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"plaintext": "In SI units, the H-field is related to the B-field by",
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"plaintext": "In terms of the H-field, Ampere's law is",
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"plaintext": "where represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of does not depend at all on the bound currents.",
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"plaintext": "For the differential equivalent of this equation see Maxwell's equations. Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition",
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"plaintext": "where is the surface free current density and the unit normal points in the direction from medium 2 to medium 1.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, a surface integral of over any closed surface is independent of the free currents and picks out the \"magnetic charges\" within that closed surface:",
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"plaintext": "which does not depend on the free currents.",
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"plaintext": "The -field, therefore, can be separated into two independent parts:",
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"plaintext": "where is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and is the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents.",
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"plaintext": "The magnetic -field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of \"magnetic charges\". The field lines loop only around \"free current\" and, unlike the magnetic field, begins and ends near magnetic poles as well.",
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"plaintext": "Most materials respond to an applied -field by producing their own magnetization and therefore their own -fields. Typically, the response is weak and exists only when the magnetic field is applied. The term magnetism describes how materials respond on the microscopic level to an applied magnetic field and is used to categorize the magnetic phase of a material. Materials are divided into groups based upon their magnetic behavior:",
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"plaintext": " Diamagnetic materials produce a magnetization that opposes the magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": " Paramagnetic materials produce a magnetization in the same direction as the applied magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": " Ferromagnetic materials and the closely related ferrimagnetic materials and antiferromagnetic materials can have a magnetization independent of an applied B-field with a complex relationship between the two fields.",
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"plaintext": " Superconductors (and ferromagnetic superconductors) are materials that are characterized by perfect conductivity below a critical temperature and magnetic field. They also are highly magnetic and can be perfect diamagnets below a lower critical magnetic field. Superconductors often have a broad range of temperatures and magnetic fields (the so-named mixed state) under which they exhibit a complex hysteretic dependence of on .",
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"plaintext": "In the case of paramagnetism and diamagnetism, the magnetization is often proportional to the applied magnetic field such that:",
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"plaintext": "where is a material dependent parameter called the permeability. In some cases the permeability may be a second rank tensor so that may not point in the same direction as . These relations between and are examples of constitutive equations. However, superconductors and ferromagnets have a more complex -to- relation; see magnetic hysteresis.",
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"plaintext": "Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that a changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material within the magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials, this same energy is released when the magnetic field is destroyed so that the energy can be modeled as being stored in the magnetic field.",
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"plaintext": "For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that where is frequency-independent), the energy density is:",
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"plaintext": "If there are no magnetic materials around then can be replaced by . The above equation cannot be used for nonlinear materials, though; a more general expression given below must be used.",
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"plaintext": "In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume needed to cause a small change of magnetic field is:",
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"plaintext": "Once the relationship between and is known this equation is used to determine the work needed to reach a given magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as ferromagnets and superconductors, the work needed also depends on how the magnetic field is created. For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly to the simpler energy density equation given above.",
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"plaintext": "Like all vector fields, a magnetic field has two important mathematical properties that relates it to its sources. (For the sources are currents and changing electric fields.) These two properties, along with the two corresponding properties of the electric field, make up Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell's Equations together with the Lorentz force law form a complete description of classical electrodynamics including both electricity and magnetism.",
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"plaintext": "The first property is the divergence of a vector field , , which represents how \"flows\" outward from a given point. As discussed above, a -field line never starts or ends at a point but instead forms a complete loop. This is mathematically equivalent to saying that the divergence of is zero. (Such vector fields are called solenoidal vector fields.) This property is called Gauss's law for magnetism and is equivalent to the statement that there are no isolated magnetic poles or magnetic monopoles.",
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"plaintext": "The second mathematical property is called the curl, such that represents how curls or \"circulates\" around a given point. The result of the curl is called a \"circulation source\". The equations for the curl of and of are called the Ampère–Maxwell equation and Faraday's law respectively.",
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"plaintext": "One important property of the -field produced this way is that magnetic -field lines neither start nor end (mathematically, is a solenoidal vector field); a field line may only extend to infinity, or wrap around to form a closed curve, or follow a never-ending (possibly chaotic) path. Magnetic field lines exit a magnet near its north pole and enter near its south pole, but inside the magnet -field lines continue through the magnet from the south pole back to the north. If a -field line enters a magnet somewhere it has to leave somewhere else; it is not allowed to have an end point.",
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"plaintext": "More formally, since all the magnetic field lines that enter any given region must also leave that region, subtracting the \"number\" of field lines that enter the region from the number that exit gives identically zero. Mathematically this is equivalent to Gauss's law for magnetism:",
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"plaintext": "where the integral is a surface integral over the closed surface (a closed surface is one that completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape). Since points outward, the dot product in the integral is positive for -field pointing out and negative for -field pointing in.",
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"plaintext": "A changing magnetic field, such as a magnet moving through a conducting coil, generates an electric field (and therefore tends to drive a current in such a coil). This is known as Faraday's law and forms the basis of many electrical generators and electric motors. Mathematically, Faraday's law is:",
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"plaintext": "where is the electromotive force (or EMF, the voltage generated around a closed loop) and is the magnetic flux—the product of the area times the magnetic field normal to that area. (This definition of magnetic flux is why is often referred to as magnetic flux density.) The negative sign represents the fact that any current generated by a changing magnetic field in a coil produces a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic field that induced it. This phenomenon is known as Lenz's law. This integral formulation of Faraday's law can be converted into a differential form, which applies under slightly different conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to the way that a changing magnetic field generates an electric field, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. This fact is known as Maxwell's correction to Ampère's law and is applied as an additive term to Ampere's law as given above. This additional term is proportional to the time rate of change of the electric flux and is similar to Faraday's law above but with a different and positive constant out front. (The electric flux through an area is proportional to the area times the perpendicular part of the electric field.)",
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"plaintext": "The full law including the correction term is known as the Maxwell–Ampère equation. It is not commonly given in integral form because the effect is so small that it can typically be ignored in most cases where the integral form is used.",
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"plaintext": "The Maxwell term is critically important in the creation and propagation of electromagnetic waves. Maxwell's correction to Ampère's Law together with Faraday's law of induction describes how mutually changing electric and magnetic fields interact to sustain each other and thus to form electromagnetic waves, such as light: a changing electric field generates a changing magnetic field, which generates a changing electric field again. These, though, are usually described using the differential form of this equation given below.",
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"plaintext": "where is the complete microscopic current density.",
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"plaintext": "As discussed above, materials respond to an applied electric field and an applied magnetic field by producing their own internal \"bound\" charge and current distributions that contribute to and but are difficult to calculate. To circumvent this problem, and fields are used to re-factor Maxwell's equations in terms of the free current density :",
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"plaintext": "These equations are not any more general than the original equations (if the \"bound\" charges and currents in the material are known). They also must be supplemented by the relationship between and as well as that between and . On the other hand, for simple relationships between these quantities this form of Maxwell's equations can circumvent the need to calculate the bound charges and currents.",
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"plaintext": "According to the special theory of relativity, the partition of the electromagnetic force into separate electric and magnetic components is not fundamental, but varies with the observational frame of reference: An electric force perceived by one observer may be perceived by another (in a different frame of reference) as a magnetic force, or a mixture of electric and magnetic forces.",
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"plaintext": "Formally, special relativity combines the electric and magnetic fields into a rank-2 tensor, called the electromagnetic tensor. Changing reference frames mixes these components. This is analogous to the way that special relativity mixes space and time into spacetime, and mass, momentum, and energy into four-momentum. Similarly, the energy stored in a magnetic field is mixed with the energy stored in an electric field in the electromagnetic stress–energy tensor.",
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"plaintext": "In advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and relativity it is often easier to work with a potential formulation of electrodynamics rather than in terms of the electric and magnetic fields. In this representation, the magnetic vector potential , and the electric scalar potential , are defined such that:",
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"plaintext": "The vector potential may be interpreted as a generalized potential momentum per unit charge just as is interpreted as a generalized potential energy per unit charge.",
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"plaintext": "Maxwell's equations when expressed in terms of the potentials can be cast into a form that agrees with special relativity with little effort. In relativity together with forms the four-potential, analogous to the four-momentum that combines the momentum and energy of a particle. Using the four potential instead of the electromagnetic tensor has the advantage of being much simpler—and it can be easily modified to work with quantum mechanics.",
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"plaintext": "In modern physics, the electromagnetic field is understood to be not a classical field, but rather a quantum field; it is represented not as a vector of three numbers at each point, but as a vector of three quantum operators at each point. The most accurate modern description of the electromagnetic interaction (and much else) is quantum electrodynamics (QED), which is incorporated into a more complete theory known as the Standard Model of particle physics.",
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"plaintext": "In QED, the magnitude of the electromagnetic interactions between charged particles (and their antiparticles) is computed using perturbation theory. These rather complex formulas produce a remarkable pictorial representation as Feynman diagrams in which virtual photons are exchanged.",
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"plaintext": "Predictions of QED agree with experiments to an extremely high degree of accuracy: currently about 10−12 (and limited by experimental errors); for details see precision tests of QED. This makes QED one of the most accurate physical theories constructed thus far.",
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"plaintext": "All equations in this article are in the classical approximation, which is less accurate than the quantum description mentioned here. However, under most everyday circumstances, the difference between the two theories is negligible.",
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"plaintext": "The Earth's magnetic field is produced by convection of a liquid iron alloy in the outer core. In a dynamo process, the movements drive a feedback process in which electric currents create electric and magnetic fields that in turn act on the currents.",
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"plaintext": "The field at the surface of the Earth is approximately the same as if a giant bar magnet were positioned at the center of the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 11° off the rotational axis of the Earth (see the figure). The north pole of a magnetic compass needle points roughly north, toward the North Magnetic Pole. However, because a magnetic pole is attracted to its opposite, the North Magnetic Pole is actually the south pole of the geomagnetic field. This confusion in terminology arises because the pole of a magnet is defined by the geographical direction it points.",
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"plaintext": "Earth's magnetic field is not constant—the strength of the field and the location of its poles vary. Moreover, the poles periodically reverse their orientation in a process called geomagnetic reversal. The most recent reversal occurred 780,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "The rotating magnetic field is a key principle in the operation of alternating-current motors. A permanent magnet in such a field rotates so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was conceptualized by Nikola Tesla, and later utilized in his and others' early AC (alternating current) electric motors.",
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"plaintext": "Magnetic torque is used to drive electric motors. In one simple motor design, a magnet is fixed to a freely rotating shaft and subjected to a magnetic field from an array of electromagnets. By continuously switching the electric current through each of the electromagnets, thereby flipping the polarity of their magnetic fields, like poles are kept next to the rotor; the resultant torque is transferred to the shaft.",
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"plaintext": "A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents.",
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"plaintext": "This inequality would cause serious problems in standardization of the conductor size and so, to overcome it, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-phase system to create a rotating field, utilized in electric motors, is one of the main reasons why three-phase systems dominate the world's electrical power supply systems.",
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"plaintext": "The charge carriers of a current-carrying conductor placed in a transverse magnetic field experience a sideways Lorentz force; this results in a charge separation in a direction perpendicular to the current and to the magnetic field. The resultant voltage in that direction is proportional to the applied magnetic field. This is known as the Hall effect.",
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"plaintext": "The Hall effect is often used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It is used as well to find the sign of the dominant charge carriers in materials such as semiconductors (negative electrons or positive holes).",
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"plaintext": "An important use of is in magnetic circuits where inside a linear material. Here, is the magnetic permeability of the material. This result is similar in form to Ohm's law , where is the current density, is the conductance and is the electric field. Extending this analogy, the counterpart to the macroscopic Ohm's law () is:",
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"plaintext": "where is the magnetic flux in the circuit, is the magnetomotive force applied to the circuit, and is the reluctance of the circuit. Here the reluctance is a quantity similar in nature to resistance for the flux. Using this analogy it is straightforward to calculate the magnetic flux of complicated magnetic field geometries, by using all the available techniques of circuit theory.",
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"plaintext": "As of October 2018, The largest magnetic field produced over a macroscopic volume outside a lab setting is 2.8kT (VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998). As of October 2018, the largest magnetic field produced in a laboratory over a macroscopic volume was 1.2kT by researchers at the University of Tokyo in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "In 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic poles attract and repel in accordance with an inverse square law Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that north and south poles cannot be separated. Building on this force between poles, Siméon Denis Poisson (1781–1840) created the first successful model of the magnetic field, which he presented in 1824. In this model, a magnetic -field is produced by magnetic poles and magnetism is due to small pairs of north–south magnetic poles.",
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"plaintext": "Three discoveries in 1820 challenged this foundation of magnetism. Hans Christian Ørsted demonstrated that a current-carrying wire is surrounded by a circular magnetic field. Then André-Marie Ampère showed that parallel wires with currents attract one another if the currents are in the same direction and repel if they are in opposite directions. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart announced empirical results about the forces that a current-carrying long, straight wire exerted on a small magnet, determining the forces were inversely proportional to the perpendicular distance from the wire to the magnet. Laplace later deduced a law of force based on the differential action of a differential section of the wire, which became known as the Biot–Savart law, as Laplace did not publish his findings.",
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"plaintext": "Extending these experiments, Ampère published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. In it, he showed the equivalence of electrical currents to magnets and proposed that magnetism is due to perpetually flowing loops of current instead of the dipoles of magnetic charge in Poisson's model. Further, Ampère derived both Ampère's force law describing the force between two currents and Ampère's law, which, like the Biot–Savart law, correctly described the magnetic field generated by a steady current. Also in this work, Ampère introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism.",
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"plaintext": "In 1850, Lord Kelvin, then known as William Thomson, distinguished between two magnetic fields now denoted and . The former applied to Poisson's model and the latter to Ampère's model and induction. Further, he derived how and relate to each other and coined the term permeability.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1861 and 1865, James Clerk Maxwell developed and published Maxwell's equations, which explained and united all of classical electricity and magnetism. The first set of these equations was published in a paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force in 1861. These equations were valid but incomplete. Maxwell completed his set of equations in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrated the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz published papers in 1887 and 1888 experimentally confirming this fact.",
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"plaintext": "In 1887, Tesla developed an induction motor that ran on alternating current. The motor used polyphase current, which generated a rotating magnetic field to turn the motor (a principle that Tesla claimed to have conceived in 1882). Tesla received a patent for his electric motor in May 1888. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched rotating magnetic fields and subsequently published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin, just two months before Tesla was awarded his patent, in March 1888. ",
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"plaintext": "The twentieth century showed that classical electrodynamics is already consistent with special relativity, and extended classical electrodynamics to work with quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in his paper of 1905 that established relativity, showed that both the electric and magnetic fields are part of the same phenomena viewed from different reference frames. Finally, the emergent field of quantum mechanics was merged with electrodynamics to form quantum electrodynamics, which first formalized the notion that electromagnetic field energy is quantized in the form of photons.",
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"plaintext": " SI electromagnetism units– common units used in electromagnetism",
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"plaintext": " Orders of magnitude (magnetic field)– list of magnetic field sources and measurement devices from smallest magnetic fields to largest detected",
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"plaintext": " Upward continuation",
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"plaintext": " Magnetic helicity– extent to which a magnetic field wraps around itself",
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"plaintext": " Dynamo theory– a proposed mechanism for the creation of the Earth's magnetic field",
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"plaintext": " Helmholtz coil– a device for producing a region of nearly uniform magnetic field",
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"plaintext": " Magnetic field viewing film– Film used to view the magnetic field of an area",
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"plaintext": " Magnetic pistol– a device on torpedoes or naval mines that detect the magnetic field of their target",
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"plaintext": " Stellar magnetic field– a discussion of the magnetic field of stars",
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"plaintext": " Teltron tube– device used to display an electron beam and demonstrates effect of electric and magnetic fields on moving charges",
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"plaintext": " Crowell, B., \"Electromagnetism\".",
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"plaintext": " Nave, R., \"Magnetic Field\". HyperPhysics.",
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"plaintext": " \"Magnetism\", The Magnetic Field. theory.uwinnipeg.ca.",
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"plaintext": " Hoadley, Rick, \"What do magnetic fields look like?\" 17 July 2005.",
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| [
"Magnetism",
"Physical_quantities"
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| 11,408 | 42,056 | 2,460 | 284 | 0 | 0 | magnetic field | spatial distribution of vectors allowing the calculation of the magnetic force on a test particle | [
"magnetic force",
"magnetic fields"
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36,567 | 1,101,485,626 | Nuraghe | [
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"plaintext": "The nuraghe (, ; plural: Logudorese Sardinian , Campidanese Sardinian , Italian ), or also nurhag in English, is the main type of ancient megalithic edifice found in Sardinia, developed during the Nuragic Age between 1900 and 730B.C. Today it has come to be the symbol of Sardinia and its distinctive culture known as the Nuragic civilization. More than 7,000 nuraghes have been found, though archeologists believe that originally there were more than 10,000.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Oxford English Dictionary the etymology is \"uncertain and disputed\": \"The word is perhaps related to the Sardinian place names Nurra, Nurri, Nurru, and to Sardinian nurra 'heap of stones, cavity in earth' (although these senses are difficult to reconcile). A connection with the Semitic base of Arabic nūr 'light, fire, etc.' is now generally rejected.\" The Latin word murus ('wall') may be related to it, being a result of the derivation: murus–*muraghe–nuraghe. However, such theory is debated.",
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"plaintext": "An etymological theory suggests a Proto-Basque origin by the term *nur (stone) with the common -ak plural ending; the Paleo-Sardinian suffix -ake, also found in some Indo-European languages such as Latin and Greek. Another possible explanation is that the term nuraghe came from the name of the Iberian mythological hero Norax, and the root *nur would be an adaptation of the Indo-European root *nor.",
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"plaintext": "The typical nuraghe is situated in areas where previous prehistoric Sardinian cultures had been distributed, that is not far from alluvial plains (though few nuraghes appear in plains currently as they were destroyed by human activities such as agriculture, dams, road building etc.) and has the outer shape of a truncated conical tower, thus resembling a medieval tower, with a tholos-like vault inside.",
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"plaintext": "The structure's walls consist of three components: an outer layer (tilted inwards and made of many layers of stones whose size diminishes with increasing height: mostly, lower layers consist of rubble masonry, while upper layers tend to be of ashlar masonry); an inner layer, made of smaller stones (to form a corbelled dome of the bullet-shaped tholos type, and where ashlar masonry is used more frequently); and an intermediate layer of very small pieces and dirt, which makes the whole construction very sturdy: it stands only by virtue of the weight of its stones, which may each amount to several tons. Some nuraghes are about 20meters (60ft) in height, the tallest one known, Nuraghe Arrubiu, reached a height of 25–30meters.",
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"plaintext": "The entrance leads into a corridor, on whose sides are often open niches, that leads to the round chamber. A spiral stone stair, leading to upper floors (if present) and/or to a terrace, was built within the thick walls and it was illuminated by embrasures. The Nuragic towers might have as much as three corbel chambers one on top of the other. In complex Nuraghes corridors were often present, sometimes corbelled, such as at Santu Antine, in which the corbelled arch corridors were superimposed on two levels, and reached a length of 27meters.",
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"plaintext": "Today fewer than 7,000nuraghes remain standing; their number was originally larger. Nuraghes are most prevalent in the northwest and south-central parts of the island.",
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"plaintext": "There is no consensus on the function of the nuraghes: they could have been rulers' residences, military strongholds, meeting halls, religious temples, ordinary dwellings or a combination of any of these things. Some of the nuraghes are, however, located in strategic places – such as hills – from which important passages could be easily controlled. They might have been something between a \"status symbol\" and a \"passive defence\" building, meant to be a deterrent for possible enemies.",
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"plaintext": "Nuraghes could also have been the \"national\" symbol of the Nuragic peoples. Small-scale models of nuraghe have often been excavated at religious sites (e.g. in the \"maze\" temple at the Su Romanzesu site near Bitti in central Sardinia). Nuraghes may have just connoted wealth or power, or they may have been an indication that a site had its owners. Recent unconfirmed theories tend to suggest that Sardinian towns were independent entities (such as the city-states, although in a geographical sense they were not cities) that formed federations and that the building of these monuments might have depended on agreed-on distributions of territory among federated unities.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Juan Belmonte and Mauro Zedda measured the entrance orientations (declinations and azimuths) of 272 simple nuraghes and of the central towers of 180complex ones. The data revealed clear peaks corresponding to orientations pointing to the sunrise at winter solstice and to the Moon at its southernmost rising position. These alignments remained constant throughout the history of nuraghe. The most common declinations revealed were of around 43° for the earlier nuraghes, shifting to just 45½° for the later. Zedda has suggested that the target is likely a star, quite possibly Alpha Centauri.",
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"plaintext": "Protonuraghe are considered to be the most archaic type; they differ somewhat from the \"classical\" (tholos vaulted) Nuraghes in their stockier look. Protonuraghes generally follow an irregular plan and lack the large circular room present in presumed later forms; instead, they are laid out along one or more corridors or long rooms. Although lacking the central circular room, they are sometimes similar sizes as later nuraghe.",
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"plaintext": "This type is distinguished by the restorations made in later times, supposedly due to a change of the Protonuraghes design, or for other needs.",
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"plaintext": "This is considered to be the predominant type of Nuraghe, and it represents the most diffused typology. The single tower, of a truncated conical shape, accommodates within itself one or more superimposed chambers, covered by a tholos-shaped chamber. The access, generally located at the ground level, leads into a passageway that leads, in the front, into the central chamber and in one side (usually the left) in the helical staircase, built inside the wall mass, that lead to the terrace or to the upper-floor chamber.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the usual circular rooms, in their inside can be found other smaller environments such as niches.",
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"plaintext": "A \"tancadu\" Nuraghe (Sardinian term for courtyard) represents the evolution of the single tower Nuraghe; another circular building was later added to the main tower, with two enclosing curtain walls connecting the two. A courtyard was present within the structure, sometimes provided with a well.",
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"plaintext": "Also called Nuragic royal palaces, the polylobed Nuraghes are the least frequent typology. Very elaborate and often designed in a unified manner, they look like veritable fortresses with several towers linked by high ramparts, whose function was to offer more useful space and perhaps to reinforce the central tower. These \"Megalithic castles\" were surrounded by additional walls, sometimes also provided with towers (the so-called bulwark).",
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"plaintext": "Nuraghes are inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list. Su Nuraxi di Barumini, in the south of the island, has been chosen to represent all the nuragic patrimony, but one of the highest and most complex Nuraghes is the Nuraghe Santu Antine near the village of Torralba, in northern Sardinia. Other famous nuraghes are near Alghero (Nuraghe Palmavera), Macomer, Abbasanta (see Losa), Orroli (Nuraghe Arrubiu), Gonnesa (Nuraghe Seruci) and Villanovaforru (Nuraghe Genna Maria).",
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"plaintext": "The nuraghes were built between the middle of the Bronze Age (18th-15thcenturiesBCE) and the Late Bronze Age. The claim that the El-Ahwat structures from Israel might be related have been contested; those are dated to either the 12th or the 11th century BCE. The only buildings widely accepted as being related to nuraghes are the torri (plural of torre) from southern Corsica and the talaiots from Menorca and Majorca.",
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"plaintext": "According to Massimo Pallottino, an Italian archaeologist specialized in Etruscology, the architecture produced by the Nuragic civilization was the most advanced of any in the western Mediterranean during this epoch, including those in the regions of Magna Graecia. Of the 7,000 extant nuraghes, only a few have been scientifically excavated.",
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"plaintext": "Beehive tomb",
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"plaintext": "Giants' grave",
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"plaintext": "Motillas ",
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"plaintext": " Giovanni Lilliu, I nuraghi. Torri preistoriche della Sardegna, Nuoro, Edizioni Ilisso, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": " Paolo Melis, Civiltà Nuragica, Sassari, Delfino editore, 2003. ",
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"plaintext": " Giovanni Ugas, L'alba dei Nuraghi, Cagliari, Fabula, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": "Aerial photograph of Su Nuraxi",
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"plaintext": "Another map providing the location of each Nuraghe - Nurnet",
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| 688,292 | 5,017 | 158 | 69 | 0 | 0 | nuraghe | ancient type of tower common in Sardinia | []
|
36,568 | 1,076,745,978 | List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia | [
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36,579 | 1,107,596,428 | Clovis_I | [
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"plaintext": "Clovis (; reconstructed Frankish: ; – 27 November 511) was the first king of the Franks to unite all of the Frankish tribes under one ruler, changing the form of leadership from a group of petty kings to rule by a single king and ensuring that the kingship was passed down to his heirs. He is considered to have been the founder of the Merovingian dynasty, which ruled the Frankish kingdom for the next two centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis succeeded his father, Childeric I, as a king of Salian Franks in 481, and eventually came to rule an area extending from what is now the southern Netherlands to northern France, corresponding in Roman terms to Gallia Belgica (northern Gaul). At the Battle of Soissons (486) he established his military dominance of the rump state of the fragmenting Western Roman Empire which was then under the command of Syagrius. By the time of his death in either 511 or 513, Clovis had conquered several smaller Frankish kingdoms in the northeast of Gaul including some northern parts of what is now France. Clovis also conquered the Alemanni tribes in eastern Gaul, and the Visigothic kingdom of Aquitania in the southwest. These campaigns added significantly to Clovis's domains, and established his dynasty as a major political and military presence in western Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis is important in the historiography of France as \"the first king of what would become France\".",
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"plaintext": "Clovis is also significant due to his conversion to Catholicism in 496, largely at the behest of his wife, Clotilde, who would later be venerated as a saint for this act, celebrated today in both the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church. Clovis was baptized on Christmas Day in 508. The adoption by Clovis of Catholicism (as opposed to the Arianism of most other Germanic tribes) led to widespread conversion among the Frankish peoples; to religious unification across what is now modern-day France, the Low Countries and Germany; three centuries later, to Charlemagne's alliance with the Bishop of Rome; and in the middle of the 10th century under Otto I the Great, to the consequent birth of the early Holy Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the attested forms, the original name is reconstructed in the Frankish language as *Hlōdowik or *Hlōdowig and is traditionally considered to be composed of two elements, deriving from both Proto-Germanic: *hlūdaz (\"loud, famous\") and *wiganą (\"to battle, to fight\"), resulting in the traditional practice of translating Clovis' name as meaning \"famous warrior\" or \"renowned in battle\".",
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"plaintext": "However, scholars have pointed out that Gregory of Tours consequently transcribes the names of various Merovingian royal names containing the first element as chlodo-. The use of a close-mid back protruded vowel (o), rather than the expected close back rounded vowel (u) which Gregory does use in various other Germanic names (i.e. Fredegundis, Arnulfus, Gundobadus, etc.) opens up the possibility that the first element instead derives from Proto-Germanic *hlutą (\"lot, share, portion\"), giving the meaning of the name as \"loot bringer\" or \"plunder (bringing) warrior\". This hypothesis is supported by the fact that if the first element is taken to mean \"famous\", then the name of Chlodomer (one of Clovis' sons) would contain two elements (*hlūdaz and *mērijaz) both meaning \"famous\", which would be highly uncommon within the typical Germanic name structure.",
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"plaintext": "In Middle Dutch, a language closely related to Frankish, the name was rendered as Lodewijch (cf. modern Dutch Lodewijk). The name is found in other West Germanic languages, with cognates including Old English Hloðwig, Old Saxon Hluduco, and Old High German Hludwīg (variant Hluotwīg). The latter turned into Ludwig in Modern German, although the king Clovis himself is generally named Chlodwig. The Old Norse form Hlǫðvér was most likely borrowed from a West Germanic language.",
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"plaintext": "The Frankish name *Hlodowig is at the origin of the French given name Louis (variant Ludovic), borne by 18 kings of France, via the Latinized form Hludovicus (variants Ludhovicus, Lodhuvicus, or Chlodovicus). The English Lewis stems from the Anglo-French Louis. In Spanish, the name became Luis, in Italian Luigi (variants Ludovico and Venetian Alvise, rarer Aligi and Aloisio), and in Hungarian Lajos.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis was the son of Childeric I, a Merovingian king of the Salian Franks, and Basina, a Thuringian princess. The dynasty he founded is, however, named after his supposed ancestor, Merovich. Clovis succeeded his father to become king at the age of 15 in 481, as deduced from Gregory of Tours placing the Battle of Tolbiac (Zülpich) in the fifteenth year of Clovis's reign.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous small Frankish petty kingdoms existed during the 5th century. The Salian Franks were the first-known Frankish tribe that settled with official Roman permission within the empire, first in Batavia in the Rhine-Maas delta, and then in 375 in Toxandria, roughly the current province of North Brabant in the Netherlands and parts of neighbouring Belgian provinces of Antwerp and Limburg in current Belgium. This put them in the north part of the Roman civitas Tungrorum, with Romanized population still dominant south of the military highway Boulogne-Cologne. Later, Chlodio seems to have attacked westwards from this area to take control of the Roman populations in Tournai, then southwards to Artois, and Cambrai, eventually controlling an area stretching to the Somme river.",
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"plaintext": "Childeric I, Clovis's father, was reputed to be a relative of Chlodio, and was known as the king of the Franks that fought as an army within northern Gaul. In 463 he fought in conjunction with Aegidius, the magister militum of northern Gaul, to defeat the Visigoths in Orléans. Childeric died in 481 and was buried in Tournai; Clovis succeeded him as king, aged just 15. Historians believe that Childeric and Clovis were both commanders of the Roman military in the Province of Belgica Secunda and were subordinate to the magister militum. The Franks of Tournai came to dominate their neighbours, initially aided by the association with Aegidius.",
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"plaintext": "The death of Flavius Aetius in 454 led to the decline of imperial power in the Gaul; leaving the Visigoths and the Burgundians competing for predominance in the area. The part of Gaul still under Roman control emerged as a kingdom under Syagrius, Aegidius's son.",
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"plaintext": "Though no primary sources expounding on the language spoken by Clovis exist, historical linguist consider it likely that, based on his family history and core territories, he spoke a form of Old Dutch. In this, the early Merovingians can be contrasted with the later Carolingians, such as Charlemagne, of the late 8th century and onward, who probably spoke various forms of Old High German.",
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"plaintext": "The ruler of Tournai died in 481 and was succeeded by his sixteen-year-old son, Clovis. His band of warriors probably numbered no more than half a thousand. In 486 he began his efforts to expand the realm by allying himself with his relative, Ragnachar, regulus of Cambrai and another Frankish regulus, Chalaric. Together the triumvirate marched against Syagrius and met the Gallo-Roman commander at Soissons. During the battle Chalaric betrayed his comrades by refusing to take part in the fighting. Despite the betrayal, the Franks landed a decisive victory, forcing Syagrius to flee to the court of Alaric II. This battle is viewed as bringing about the end of the rump state of the Western Roman Empire outside of Italy. Following the battle, Clovis invaded the traitor Chararic's territory and was able to imprison him and his son.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to the battle, Clovis did not enjoy the support of the Gallo-Roman clergy, so he proceeded to pillage the Roman territory, including the churches. The Bishop of Reims requested Clovis return everything taken from the Church of Reims, and, as the young king aspired to establish cordial relationships with the clergy, he returned a valuable ewer taken from the church. Despite his position, some Roman cities refused to yield to the Franks, namely Verdun‒which surrendered after a brief siege‒and Paris, which stubbornly resisted a few years, perhaps as many as five. He made Paris his capital and established an abbey dedicated to Saints Peter and Paul on the south bank of the Seine.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis came to the realisation that he wouldn't be able to rule Gaul without the help of the clergy and aimed to please the clergy by taking a Catholic wife. He also integrated many of Syagrius's units into his own army. The Roman kingdom was probably under Clovis's control by 491, because in the same year Clovis successfully moved against a small number of Thuringians in the eastern Gaul, near the Burgundian border.",
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"plaintext": "Around 493 AD, he secured an alliance with the Ostrogoths through the marriage of his sister Audofleda to their king, Theodoric the Great.",
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"plaintext": "In the same year, the neighboring King of the Burgundians was slain by his brother, Gundobad; bringing civil strife to that kingdom. He proceeded to drown his sister-in-law and force his niece, Chrona, into a convent; another niece, Clotilde, fled to the court of her other uncle. Finding himself in a precarious position this uncle, Godegisel, decided to ally himself to Clovis by marrying his exiled niece to the Frankish king.",
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"plaintext": "In 496, the Alamanni invaded and some Salians and Ripuarians reguli defected to their side. Clovis met his enemies near the strong fort of Tolbiac. During the fighting, the Franks suffered heavy losses. Clovis, together with over three thousand Frankish companions, may have converted to Christianity around this time. With the help of the Ripuarian Franks he narrowly defeated the Alamanni in the Battle of Tolbiac in 496. Now Christian, Clovis confined his prisoners, Chararic and his son, to a monastery.",
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"plaintext": "In 500 or 501, the relationship between the Burgundian brothers took a turn for the worse when Godegisel began scheming against his brother Gundobad. He promised his brother-in-law territory and annual tribute for defeating his brother. Clovis was eager to subdue the political threat to his realm and crossed to the Burgundian territory. After hearing about the incident, Gundobad moved against Clovis and called his brother. The three armies met near Dijon, where both the Franks and Godegisel's forces defeated the host of dumbfounded Gundobad, who was able to escape to Avignon. Clovis proceeded to follow the Burgundian king and laid siege to the city; however, after some months he was convinced to abandon the siege and settled for an annual tribute from Gundobad.",
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"plaintext": "In 501, 502 or 503 Clovis led his troops to Armorica. He had previously restricted his operations to minor raids, yet this time the goal was subjugation. Clovis failed to complete his objective via military means; therefore, he was constrained to statecraft, which proved fruitful, for the Armonici shared Clovis's disdain for the Arian Visigoths. And thus Armorica and her fighters were integrated into the Frankish realm.",
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"plaintext": "In 507 Clovis was allowed by the magnates of his realm to invade the remaining threat of the Kingdom of the Visigoths. King Alaric had previously tried to establish a cordial relationship with Clovis by serving him the head of exiled Syagrius on a silver plate in 486 or 487. However, Clovis was no longer able to resist the temptation to move against the Visigoths, for many Catholics under Visigoth yoke were unhappy and implored Clovis to make a move. But just to be absolutely certain about retaining the loyalties of the Catholics under Visigoths, Clovis ordered his troops to omit raiding and plunder, for this was not a foreign invasion, but a liberation.",
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"plaintext": "Armonici assisted him in defeating the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507, eliminating Visigothic power in Gaul. The battle added most of Aquitaine to Clovis's kingdom and resulted in the death of the Visigothic king Alaric II.",
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"plaintext": "According to Gregory of Tours, following the battle the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I made Clovis a patrician and honorary consul.",
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"plaintext": "In 507, following Vouillé, Clovis heard about Chararic's plan to escape from his monastic prison and had him murdered.",
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"plaintext": "In the same year, Clovis convinced Prince Chlodoric to murder his father, earning him his nickname as Chlodoric the Parricide. Following the murder, Clovis betrayed Chlodoric and had his envoys strike him down.",
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"plaintext": "In 509, Clovis visited his old ally, Ragnachar in Cambrai. Following his conversion, many of his pagan retainers had defected to Ragnachar's side, making him a political threat. Ragnachar denied Clovis's entry, prompting Clovis to make a move against him. He bribed Ragnachar's retainers and soon, Ragnachar and his brother, Ricchar were captured and executed.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly before his death, Clovis called a synod of Gallic bishops to meet in Orléans to reform the Church and create a strong link between the Crown and the Catholic episcopate. This was the First Council of Orléans. Thirty-three bishops assisted and passed 31 decrees on the duties and obligations of individuals, the right of sanctuary, and ecclesiastical discipline. These decrees, equally applicable to Franks and Romans, first established equality between conquerors and conquered.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis I is traditionally said to have died on 27 November 511; however, the Liber Pontificalis suggests that he was still alive in 513, so the exact date of his death is not known. After his death, Clovis was laid to rest in the Abbey of St Genevieve in Paris. His remains were relocated to Saint Denis Basilica in the mid- to late 18th century.",
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"plaintext": "When Clovis died, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, Theuderic, Chlodomer, Childebert and Clotaire. This partition created the new political units of the Kingdoms of Rheims, Orléans, Paris and Soissons, and inaugurated a tradition that would lead to disunity lasting until the end of the Merovingian dynasty in 751. Clovis had been a king with no fixed capital and no central administration beyond his entourage. By deciding to be interred at Paris, Clovis gave the city symbolic weight. When his grandchildren divided royal power 50 years after his death in 511, Paris was kept as a joint property and a fixed symbol of the dynasty.",
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"plaintext": "The disunity continued under the Carolingians until, after a brief unity under Charlemagne, the Franks splintered into distinct spheres of cultural influence that coalesced around Eastern and Western centers of royal power. These later political, linguistic, and cultural entities became the Kingdom of France, the myriad German States, and the semi-autonomous kingdoms of Burgundy and Lotharingia.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis was born a pagan but later became interested in converting to Arian Christianity, whose followers believed that Jesus was a distinct and separate being from God the Father, both subordinate to and created by him. This contrasted with Nicene Christianity, whose followers believe that God the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit are three persons of one being (consubstantiality). While the theology of the Arians was declared a heresy at the First Council of Nicea in 325, the missionary work of Bishop Ulfilas converted a significant portion of the pagan Goths to Arian Christianity in the 4th century. By the time of the ascension of Clovis, Gothic Arians dominated Christian Gaul, and Catholics were in the minority.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis's wife Clotilde, a Burgundian princess, was a Catholic despite the Arianism that surrounded her at court. Her persistence eventually persuaded Clovis to convert to Catholicism, which he initially resisted. Clotilde had wanted her son to be baptized, but Clovis refused, so she had the child baptized without Clovis's knowledge. Shortly after his baptism, their son died, which further strengthened Clovis's resistance to conversion. Clotilde also had their second son baptized without her husband's permission, and this son became ill and nearly died after his baptism. Clovis eventually converted to Catholicism following the Battle of Tolbiac on Christmas Day 508 in a small church in the vicinity of the subsequent Abbey of Saint-Remi in Reims; a statue of his baptism by Saint Remigius can still be seen there. The details of this event have been passed down by Gregory of Tours, who recorded them many years later in the 6th century.",
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"plaintext": "The king's Catholic baptism was of immense importance in the subsequent history of Western and Central Europe in general, as Clovis expanded his dominion over almost all of Gaul. Catholicism offered certain advantages to Clovis as he fought to distinguish his rule among many competing power centers in Western Europe. His conversion to the Roman Catholic form of Christianity served to set him apart from the other Germanic kings of his time, such as those of the Visigoths and the Vandals, who had converted from Germanic paganism to Arian Christianity. His embrace of the Roman Catholic faith may have also gained him the support of the Catholic Gallo-Roman aristocracy in his later campaign against the Visigoths, which drove them from southern Gaul in 507 and resulted in a great many of his people converting to Catholicism as well.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, Bernard Bachrach has argued that his conversion from Frankish paganism alienated many of the other Frankish sub-kings and weakened his military position over the next few years. In the , Saint Gregory of Tours gave the Germanic gods that Clovis abandoned the names of roughly equivalent Roman gods, such as Jupiter and Mercury. William Daly, more directly assessing Clovis's allegedly barbaric and pagan origins, ignored the Gregory of Tours version and based his account on the scant earlier sources, a sixth-century of Saint Genevieve and letters to or concerning Clovis from bishops (now in the ) and Theodoric.",
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"plaintext": "Clovis and his wife were buried in the Abbey of St Genevieve (St. Pierre) in Paris; the original name of the church was the Church of the Holy Apostles.",
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"plaintext": "Under Clovis, the first codification of the Salian Frank law took place. The Roman Law was written with the assistance of Gallo-Romans to reflect the Salic legal tradition and Christianity, while containing much from Roman tradition. The Roman Law lists various crimes as well as the fines associated with them.",
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"plaintext": "The legacy of Clovis's conquests, a Frankish kingdom that included most of Roman Gaul and parts of western Germany, survived long after his death. To the French people, he is the founder of France.",
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"plaintext": "Detracting, perhaps, from this legacy, is his aforementioned division of the state. This was done not along national or even largely geographical lines, but primarily to assure equal income amongst his sons after his death. While it may or may not have been his intention, this division was the cause of much internal discord in Gaul. This precedent led in the long run to the fall of his dynasty, for it was a pattern repeated in future reigns. Clovis did bequeath to his heirs the support of both people and Church such that, when the magnates were ready to do away with the royal house, the sanction of the Pope was sought first.",
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"plaintext": "By his conversion to Christianity he made himself the ally of the papacy and its protector as well as that of the people, who were mostly Catholics.",
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"plaintext": "In later centuries, Clovis was venerated as a saint in France. The Benedictine Abbey of Saint-Denis (where Clovis was buried) had a shrine to St. Clovis to the east of the main altar. There was also a shrine to him in the Abbey of Saint Genevieve in Paris. This shrine had a statue and a number of epitaphs and was probably where the veneration of St. Clovis began. Despite Clovis's presence in Paris, his cultus was largely based in the south of France. Abbot Aymeric de Peyrat (d. 1406), the author of the History of the Moissac Abbey, claimed that his own monastery was founded by St. Clovis and there were many monasteries named in his honour. Aymeric not only referred to Clovis as a saint but also prayed for St. Clovis's intercession. There were also known to be shrines dedicated to Clovis in Église Sainte-Marthe de Tarascon and Saint-Pierre-du-Dorât. Boniface Symoneta, Jacques Almain and Paulus Aemilius Veronensis gave hagiographic accounts of Clovis's life and at the time it was common to include Clovis's life in collections of the lives of the saints.",
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"plaintext": "It has been suggested that the reason that the French state promoted the veneration of Clovis in the south was to establish a border cult that would cause Occitans to venerate the northern-led French state by venerating its founder. Another reason could be that Clovis was a preferable foundation figure for the House of Valois as their predecessors were the Direct Capetians who looked back to Charlemagne whose veneration had been widely recognised. In contrast to the theory of St. Clovis's cult being a primarily northern-supported movement, Amy Goodrich Remensnyder suggests that St. Clovis was used by Occitans to reject the northern concept of the monarchy and to reinstate their autonomy as something granted by the saint.",
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"plaintext": "St. Clovis had the role of a more militarised royal saint than the pious Louis IX of France. As a saint, Clovis was important as he represented the spiritual birth of the nation and provided a chivalrous and ascetic model for French political leaders to follow. The veneration of St. Clovis was not exclusive to France as a print by the Holy Roman woodcut designer Leonhard Beck made for the Habsburg monarchs depicts Clovis as St. Chlodoveus, St. Boniface's Abbey in Munich depicted St. Chlodoveus as a saint worthy of emulation because of his advocacy, and the Florentine Baroque painter Carlo Dolci painted a large depiction of St. Clovis for the Imperial Apartment in the Uffizi Gallery.",
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"plaintext": "St. Clovis had no known official canonisation, neither was he beatified, so his sainthood was only ever recognised by popular acclaim. Following the example of the monks of St. Geneviève, St. Clovis's feast day in France was held on 27 November. St. Clovis enjoyed a persistent campaign from French royal authorities that few non-French national or dynastic saints did. French monarchs, beginning in the 14th century at the latest, attempted to officially canonise Clovis a number of times. The most notable attempt, led by King Louis XI and modelled on the successful canonisation campaign of Louis IX, occurred during a conflict with the Burgundians. The cause for Clovis's canonisation was taken up once again in the 17th century, with Jesuit support, a vita and an account of posthumous miracles, in opposition to the controversial historical works of Calvinist pastor Jean de Serres who portrayed Clovis as a cruel and bloodthirsty king.",
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"plaintext": "The Jesuit attempt to formally canonize Clovis came after a rediscovery of Clovis's cultus in the 16th century. During this period, the dual role St. Clovis could have for modern France was clarified as that of a deeply sinful man who attained sainthood by submitting himself to the will of God, as well as being the founder of the Gallican Church. He also attained an essentially mystic reputation. St. Clovis role in calling for the First Council of Orléans was understood to be strongly Gallican as he called it without Papal authority and with the understanding that he and his bishops had the authority to call councils that were binding for the Frankish people. For Protestant Gallicans, St. Clovis represented the role of the monarchy in governing the Church and curbing its abuses and was contrasted positively against the Papacy of his time. Protestants were unlikely to mention any of the miracles attributed to St. Clovis, sometimes even writing lengthy rejections of their existence. Instead, they saw his sainthood as evident from his creation of a state more holy and Christian than that of Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Catholic writers in the 16th century expanded upon the lists of St. Clovis's attributed miracles, but in the early 17th century they also began to minimize their use of the miraculous elements of his hagiography. Mid-to-late-17th-century Jesuit writers resisted this trend and allowed for no doubt as to the miraculous nature of St. Clovis life or his sainthood. Jesuit writers stressed the more extreme elements of his hagiography, and that of other saints associated with him, even claiming that St. Remigius lived for five hundred years. These hagiographies would still be quoted and widely believed as late as 1896, the fourteenth centenary of his baptism, as a speech from Cardinal Langénieux demonstrates. Another factor that led to a resurgence in St. Clovis's veneration was the Spanish Monarchy's use of the title Catholic Monarchs, a title French Monarchs hoped to usurp by attributing it to the much earlier figure of St. Clovis.",
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"plaintext": " c. 466: Clovis is born in Tournai.",
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"plaintext": " c. 467: Clovis's sister, Audofleda is born.",
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"plaintext": " c. 468: Clovis's sister, Lenteild is born.",
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"plaintext": " c. 470: Clovis's sister Albofledis is born.",
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"plaintext": " c. 477: Clovis's mother Basina dies.",
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"plaintext": " c. 481: Clovis's father Childeric I dies and is succeeded by Clovis.",
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"plaintext": " c. 486: Clovis defeats Syagrius in Soissons and begins the takeover of the kingdom.",
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"plaintext": " c. 487: Clovis's son Theuderic I is born.",
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"plaintext": " c. 491: Clovis completes the conquest of the kingdom and turns his attention elsewhere.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " c. 493:Clovis marries Audofleda to Theoderic the Great.Clovis marries a Burgundian princess, Clotilde.",
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"plaintext": " c. 494: Clovis's and Clotilde's first child, Ingomer is born and dies.",
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},
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"plaintext": " c. 495:Clovis's and Clotilde's second son Chlodomer is born.Clovis becomes an uncle as Audofleda gives birth to an Ostrogothic princess, Amalasuntha.",
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"plaintext": " c. 496:Clovis is baptised (early estimate)Clovis defeats the Alamanni threat.Clovis's and Clotilde's third son Childebert I is born.",
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"plaintext": " c. 497. Clovis's and Clotilde's fourth son Chlothar I is born.",
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"plaintext": " c. 500:Clovis subjugates Burgundy.Clovis's and Clotilde's only daughter Clotilde is born.Albofledis dies.",
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},
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"plaintext": " c. 501: Clovis's ally and brother-in-law Godegisel is murdered.",
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"plaintext": " c. 502:Clovis allies himself with the Armonici.Theuderic marries Suavegotha.",
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"plaintext": " c. 503: Clovis becomes a grandfather, when Theuderic secures a son of his own, Theudebert I.",
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"plaintext": " c. 507: Clovis liberates Aquitainia and murders various Frankish reguli.",
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"plaintext": " c. 508: Clovis baptized by the Bishop of Reims (late estimate).",
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{
"plaintext": " c. 509:Clovis executes the last pagan regulus.Clovis is declared the king of all the Franks.",
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"plaintext": " 511 November 27 or 513: Clovis dies in Paris",
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"plaintext": "Footnotes",
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"plaintext": "Sources",
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"plaintext": " Daly, William M. (1994) \"Clovis: How Barbaric, How Pagan?\" Speculum, 69:3 (1994), 619–664",
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"plaintext": " James, Edward (1982) The Origins of France: Clovis to the Capetians, 500–1000. London: Macmillan, 1982",
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"plaintext": " Kaiser, Reinhold (2004) \"Das römische Erbe und das Merowingerreich\", in: Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte; 26. Munich ",
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"plaintext": " Oman, Charles (1914) The Dark Ages 476–918. London: Rivingtons",
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"plaintext": " Wallace-Hadrill, J. M. (1962) The Long-haired Kings. London",
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"plaintext": "The term fishing broadly includes catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as crustaceans (shrimp/lobsters/crabs), shellfish, cephalopods (octopus/squid) and echinoderms (starfish/sea urchins). The term is not normally applied to harvesting fish raised in controlled cultivations (fish farming). Nor is it normally applied to hunting aquatic mammals, where terms like whaling and sealing are used instead.",
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"plaintext": "Fishing has been an important part of human culture since hunter-gatherer times, and is one of the few food production activities that have persisted from prehistory into modern age, surviving both the Neolithic Revolution and successive Industrial Revolutions. In addition to being caught to be eaten for food, fish are caught as recreational pastimes. Fishing tournaments are held, and caught fish are sometimes kept long-term as preserved or living trophies. When bioblitzes occur, fish are typically caught, identified, and then released.",
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"plaintext": "According to the United Nations FAO statistics, the total number of commercial fishers and fish farmers is estimated to be 38 million. Fishing industries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries. In 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was , with an additional harvested from fish farms.",
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"plaintext": "Fishing is an ancient practise that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40,000-year-old modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish. Archaeology features such as shell middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival and consumed in significant quantities. Fishing in Africa is evident very early on in human history. Neanderthals were fishing by about 200,000 BC. People could have developed basketry for fish traps, and spinning and early forms of knitting in order to make fishing nets to be able to catch more fish in larger quantities.",
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"plaintext": "During this period, most people lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and were, of necessity, constantly on the move. However, where there are early examples of permanent settlements (though not necessarily permanently occupied) such as those at Lepenski Vir, they are almost always associated with fishing as a major source of food.",
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"plaintext": "The British dogger was a very early type of sailing trawler from the 17th century, but the modern fishing trawler was developed in the 19th century, at the English fishing port of Brixham. By the early 19th century, the fishers at Brixham needed to expand their fishing area further than ever before due to the ongoing depletion of stocks that was occurring in the overfished waters of South Devon. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a sleek build and had a tall gaff rig, which gave the vessel sufficient speed to make long-distance trips out to the fishing grounds in the ocean. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water. The great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham earned the village the title of 'Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries'.",
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"plaintext": "This revolutionary design made large scale trawling in the ocean possible for the first time, resulting in a massive migration of fishers from the ports in the South of England, to villages further north, such as Scarborough, Hull, Grimsby, Harwich and Yarmouth, that were points of access to the large fishing grounds in the Atlantic Ocean.",
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"plaintext": "The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century. An Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in 1846, with the tremendous expansion in the fishing industry, that the Grimsby Dock Company was formed. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849. The dock covered and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port.",
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"plaintext": "The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishers around Europe, including from the Netherlands and Scandinavia. Twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest steam-powered fishing boats first appeared in the 1870s and used the trawl system of fishing as well as lines and drift nets. These were large boats, usually in length with a beam of around . They weighed 40–50 tons and travelled at . The earliest purpose-built fishing vessels were designed and made by David Allan in Leith, Scotland in March 1875, when he converted a drifter to steam power. In 1877, he built the first screw propelled steam trawler in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Steam trawlers were introduced at Grimsby and Hull in the 1880s. In 1890 it was estimated that there were 20,000 men on the North Sea. The steam drifter was not used in the herring fishery until 1897. The last sailing fishing trawler was built in 1925 in Grimsby. Trawler designs adapted as the way they were powered changed from sail to coal-fired steam by World War I to diesel and turbines by the end of World War II.",
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"plaintext": "In 1931, the first powered drum was created by Laurie Jarelainen. The drum was a circular device that was set to the side of the boat and would draw in the nets. Since World War II, radio navigation aids and fish finders have been widely used. The first trawlers fished over the side, rather than over the stern. The first purpose-built stern trawler was Fairtry built-in 1953 at Aberdeen, Scotland. The ship was much larger than any other trawlers then in operation and inaugurated the era of the 'super trawler'. As the ship pulled its nets over the stern, it could lift out a much greater haul of up to 60 tons. The ship served as a basis for the expansion of 'super trawlers' around the world in the following decades.",
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"plaintext": "The early evolution of fishing as recreation is not clear. For example, there is anecdotal evidence for fly fishing in Japan, however, fly fishing was likely to have been a means of survival, rather than recreation. The earliest English essay on recreational fishing was published in 1496, by Dame Juliana Berners, the prioress of the Benedictine Sopwell Nunnery. The essay was titled Treatyse of Fysshynge wyth an Angle, and included detailed information on fishing waters, the construction of rods and lines, and the use of natural baits and artificial flies.",
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"plaintext": "Recreational fishing took a great leap forward after the English Civil War, where a newly found interest in the activity left its mark on the many books and treatises that were written on the subject at the time. Leonard Mascall in 1589 wrote A booke of Fishing with Hooke and Line along with many others he produced in his life on game and wildlife in England at the time. The Compleat Angler was written by Izaak Walton in 1653 (although Walton continued to add to it for a quarter of a century) and described the fishing in the Derbyshire Wye. It was a celebration of the art and spirit of fishing in prose and verse. A second part to the book was added by Walton's friend Charles Cotton.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Kirby designed an improved fishing hook in 1655 that remains relatively unchanged to this day. He went on to invent the Kirby bend, a distinctive hook with an offset point, still commonly used today.",
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"plaintext": "The 18th century was mainly an era of consolidation of the techniques developed in the previous century. Running rings began to appear along the fishing rods, which gave anglers greater control over the cast line. The rods themselves were also becoming increasingly sophisticated and specialised for different roles. Jointed rods became common from the middle of the century and bamboo came to be used for the top section of the rod, giving it a much greater strength and flexibility.",
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"plaintext": "The industry also became commercialised – rods and tackle were sold at the haberdashers store. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, artisans moved to Redditch which became a centre of production of fishing related products from the 1730s. Onesimus Ustonson established his shop in 1761, and his establishment remained as a market leader for the next century. He received a Royal Warrant from three successive monarchs starting with King George IV. He also invented the multiplying winch. The commercialization of the industry came at a time of expanded interest in fishing as a recreational hobby for members of the aristocracy.",
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"plaintext": "The impact of the Industrial Revolution was first felt in the manufacture of fly lines. Instead of anglers twisting their lines – a laborious and time-consuming process – the new textile spinning machines allowed for a variety of tapered lines to be easily manufactured and marketed.",
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"plaintext": "British fly-fishing continued to develop in the 19th Century, with the emergence of fly fishing clubs, along with the appearance of several books on the subject of fly tying and fly fishing techniques.",
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"plaintext": "By the mid to late 19th century, expanding leisure opportunities for the middle and lower classes began to have its effect on fly fishing, which steadily grew in mass appeal. The expansion of the railway network in Britain allowed the less affluent for the first time to take weekend trips to the seaside or rivers for fishing. Richer hobbyists ventured further abroad. The large rivers of Norway replete with large stocks of salmon began to attract fishers from England in large numbers in the middle of the century – Jones's guide to Norway, and salmon-fisher's pocket companion, published in 1848, was written by Frederic Tolfrey and was a popular guide to the country.",
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"plaintext": "Modern reel design had begun in England during the latter part of the 18th century, and the predominant model in use was known as the 'Nottingham reel'. The reel was a wide drum that spooled out freely and was ideal for allowing the bait to drift a long way out with the current. Geared multiplying reels never successfully caught on in Britain, but had more success in the United States, where similar models were modified by George Snyder of Kentucky into his bait-casting reel, the first American-made design in 1810.",
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"plaintext": "The material used for the rod itself changed from the heavy woods native to England to lighter and more elastic varieties imported from abroad, especially from South America and the West Indies. Bamboo rods became the generally favoured option from the mid 19th century, and several strips of the material were cut from the cane, milled into shape, and then glued together to form the light, strong, hexagonal rods with a solid core that were superior to anything that preceded them. George Cotton and his predecessors fished their flies with long rods, and light lines allowing the wind to do most of the work of getting the fly to the fish.",
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"plaintext": "Tackle design began to improve from the 1880s. The introduction of new woods to the manufacture of fly rods made it possible to cast flies into the wind on silk lines, instead of horse hair. These lines allowed for a much greater casting distance. However, these early fly lines proved troublesome as they had to be coated with various dressings to make them float and needed to be taken off the reel and dried every four hours or so to prevent them from becoming waterlogged. Another negative consequence was that it became easy for the much longer line to get into a tangle – this was called a 'tangle' in Britain, and a 'backlash' in the US. This problem spurred the invention of the regulator to evenly spool the line out and prevent tangling.",
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"plaintext": "The American, Charles F. Orvis, designed and distributed a novel reel and fly design in 1874, described by reel historian Jim Brown as the \"benchmark of American reel design,\" and the first fully modern fly reel.",
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"plaintext": "Albert Illingworth, 1st Baron Illingworth a textiles magnate, patented the modern form of fixed-spool spinning reel in 1905. When casting Illingworth's reel design, the line was drawn off the leading edge of the spool but was restrained and rewound by a line pickup, a device which orbits around the stationary spool. Because the line did not have to pull against a rotating spool, much lighter lures could be cast than with conventional reels.",
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"plaintext": "The development of inexpensive fiberglass rods, synthetic fly lines, and monofilament leaders in the early 1950s, that revived the popularity of fly fishing.",
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"plaintext": "There are many fishing techniques and tactics for catching fish. The term can also be applied to methods for catching other aquatic animals such as molluscs (shellfish, squid, octopus) and edible marine invertebrates.",
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"plaintext": "Fishing techniques include hand gathering, spearfishing, netting, angling and trapping. Recreational, commercial and artisanal fishers use different techniques, and also, sometimes, the same techniques. Recreational fishers fish for pleasure, sport, or to provide food for themselves, while commercial fishers fish for profit. Artisanal fishers use traditional, low-tech methods, for survival in third-world countries, and as a cultural heritage in other countries. Usually, recreational fishers use angling methods and commercial fishers use netting methods. A modern development is to fish with the assistance of a drone.",
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"plaintext": "Why a fish bites a baited hook or lure involves several factors related to the sensory physiology, behaviour, feeding ecology, and biology of the fish as well as the environment and characteristics of the bait/hook/lure. There is an intricate link between various fishing techniques and knowledge about the fish and their behaviour including migration, foraging and habitat. The effective use of fishing techniques often depends on this additional knowledge. Some fishers follow fishing folklores which claim that fish feeding patterns are influenced by the position of the sun and the moon.",
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"plaintext": "Fishing tackle is the equipment used by fishers when fishing. Almost any equipment or gear used for fishing can be called fishing tackle. Some examples are hooks, lines, sinkers, floats, rods, reels, baits, lures, spears, nets, gaffs, traps, waders and tackle boxes.",
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"plaintext": "Tackle that is attached to the end of a fishing line is called terminal tackle. This includes hooks, sinkers, floats, leaders, swivels, split rings and wire, snaps, beads, spoons, blades, spinners and clevises to attach spinner blades to fishing lures. People also tend to use dead or live fish as another form of bait.",
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"plaintext": "Fishing tackle refers to the physical equipment that is used when fishing, whereas fishing techniques refers to the ways the tackle is used when fishing.",
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"plaintext": "A fishing vessel is a boat or ship used to catch fish in the sea, or on a lake or river. Many different kinds of vessels are used in commercial, artisanal and recreational fishing.",
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"plaintext": "According to the FAO, in 2004 there were four million commercial fishing vessels. About 1.3 million of these are decked vessels with enclosed areas. Nearly all of these decked vessels are mechanised, and 40,000 of them are over 100 tons. At the other extreme, two-thirds (1.8 million) of the undecked boats are traditional craft of various types, powered only by sail and oars. These boats are used by artisan fishers.",
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"plaintext": "It is difficult to estimate how many recreational fishing boats there are, although the number is high. The term is fluid since some recreational boats may also be used for fishing from time to time. Unlike most commercial fishing vessels, recreational fishing boats are often not dedicated just to fishing. Just about anything that will stay afloat can be called a recreational fishing boat, so long as a fisher periodically climbs aboard with the intent to catch a fish. Fish are caught for recreational purposes from boats which range from dugout canoes, float tubes, kayaks, rafts, stand up paddleboards, pontoon boats and small dinghies to runabouts, cabin cruisers and cruising yachts to large, hi-tech and luxurious big game rigs. Larger boats, purpose-built with recreational fishing in mind, usually have large, open cockpits at the stern, designed for convenient fishing.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional fishing is any kind of small scale, commercial or subsistence fishing practices using traditional techniques such as rod and tackle, arrows and harpoons, throw nets and drag nets, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Recreational and sport fishing are fishing primarily for pleasure or competition. Recreational fishing has conventions, rules, licensing restrictions and laws that limit how fish may be caught; typically, these prohibit the use of nets and the catching of fish with hooks not in the mouth. The most common form of recreational fishing is done with a rod, reel, line, hooks and any one of a wide range of baits or lures such as artificial flies. The practice of catching or attempting to catch fish with a hook is generally known as angling. In angling, it is sometimes expected or required that fish be returned to the water (catch and release). Recreational or sport fishermen may log their catches or participate in fishing competitions.",
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"plaintext": "The estimated global number of recreational fishers varies from 220 million to a maximum number of 700 million fishers globally, which is thought to be double the amount of individuals working as commercial fishers. In the United States alone it was estimated that 50.1 million people engaged in fishing activities in both saltwater and freshwater environments.",
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"plaintext": "Big-game fishing is fishing from boats to catch large open-water species such as tuna, sharks, and marlin. Sportfishing (sometimes game fishing) is recreational fishing where the primary reward is the challenge of finding and catching the fish rather than the culinary or financial value of the fish's flesh. Fish sought after include tarpon, sailfish, mackerel and many others.",
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"plaintext": "The fishing industry includes any industry or activity concerned with taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing or selling fish or fish products. It is defined by the FAO as including recreational, subsistence and commercial fishing, and the harvesting, processing, and marketing sectors. The commercial activity is aimed at the delivery of fish and other seafood products for human consumption or use as raw material in other industrial processes.",
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"plaintext": "There are three principal industry sectors:",
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},
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"plaintext": " The commercial sector comprises enterprises and individuals associated with wild-catch or aquaculture resources and the various transformations of those resources into products for sale.",
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"plaintext": " The traditional sector comprises enterprises and individuals associated with fisheries resources from which aboriginal people derive products following their traditions.",
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"plaintext": " The recreational sector comprises enterprises and individuals associated with the purpose of recreation, sport or sustenance with fisheries resources from which products are derived that are not for sale.",
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"plaintext": "Commercial fishing is the capture of fish for commercial purposes. Those who practice it must often pursue fish far from the land under adverse conditions. Commercial fishermen harvest almost all aquatic species, from tuna, cod and salmon to shrimp, krill, lobster, clams, squid and crab, in various fisheries for these species. Commercial fishing methods have become very efficient using large nets and sea-going processing factories. Individual fishing quotas and international treaties seek to control the species and quantities caught.",
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"plaintext": "A commercial fishing enterprise may vary from one man with a small boat with hand-casting nets or a few pot traps, to a huge fleet of trawlers processing tons of fish every day.",
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"plaintext": "Commercial fishing gear includes weights, nets (e.g. purse seine), seine nets (e.g. beach seine), trawls (e.g. bottom trawl), dredges, hooks and line (e.g. long line and handline), lift nets, gillnets, entangling nets and traps.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the total world capture fisheries production in 2000 was 86 million tons (FAO 2002). The top producing countries were, in order, the People's Republic of China (excluding Hong Kong and Taiwan), Peru, Japan, the United States, Chile, Indonesia, Russia, India, Thailand, Norway, and Iceland. Those countries accounted for more than half of the world's production; China alone accounted for a third of the world's production. Of that production, over 90% was marine and less than 10% was inland.",
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"plaintext": "A small number of species support the majority of the world's fisheries. Some of these species are herring, cod, anchovy, tuna, flounder, mullet, squid, shrimp, salmon, crab, lobster, oyster and scallops. All except these last four provided a worldwide catch of well over a million tonnes in 1999, with herring and sardines together providing a catch of over 22 million metric tons in 1999. Many other species as well are fished in smaller numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or to supplement a species' natural population is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Fish species raised by fish farms include salmon, carp, tilapia, catfish and trout.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Increased demands on wild fisheries by commercial fishing has caused widespread overfishing. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing market demand for fish.",
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"plaintext": "Fish and fish products are consumed as food all over the world. With other seafoods, it provides the world's prime source of high-quality protein: 14–16 percent of the animal protein consumed worldwide. Over one billion people rely on fish as their primary source of animal protein.",
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{
"plaintext": "Fish and other aquatic organisms are also processed into various food and non-food products, such as sharkskin leather, pigments made from the inky secretions of cuttlefish, isinglass used for the clarification of wine and beer, fish emulsion used as a fertiliser, fish glue, fish oil and fish meal.",
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"section_name": "Fishing industry",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fish are also collected live for research and the aquarium trade.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Fisheries management draws on fisheries science to find ways to protect fishery resources so sustainable exploitation is possible. Modern fisheries management is often referred to as a governmental system of (hopefully appropriate) management rules based on defined objectives and a mix of management means to implement the rules, which are put in place by a system of monitoring control and surveillance.",
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"section_name": "Fisheries management",
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"plaintext": "Fisheries science is the academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of oceanography, marine biology, marine conservation, ecology, population dynamics, economics and management in an attempt to provide an integrated picture of fisheries. In some cases new disciplines have emerged, such as bioeconomics.",
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"section_name": "Fisheries management",
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"plaintext": "Issues involved in the long term sustainability of fishing include overfishing, by-catch, marine pollution, environmental effects of fishing, climate change and fish farming.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Fisheries management",
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"plaintext": "Conservation issues are part of marine conservation, and are addressed in fisheries science programs. There is a growing gap between how many fish are available to be caught and humanity's desire to catch them, a problem that gets worse as the world population grows.",
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"plaintext": "Similar to other environmental issues, there can be conflict between the fishermen who depend on fishing for their livelihoods and fishery scientists who realise that if future fish populations are to be sustainable then some fisheries must limit fishing or cease operations.",
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"section_name": "Fisheries management",
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"plaintext": "Historically, some doubted that fish could experience pain. Laboratory experiments have shown that fish do react to painful stimuli (e.g., injections of bee venom) in a similar way to mammals. This is controversial and has been disputed. The expansion of fish farming as well as animal welfare concerns in society has led to research into more humane and faster ways of killing fish.",
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"section_name": "Animal welfare concerns",
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},
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"plaintext": "In large-scale operations like fish farms, stunning fish with electricity or putting them into water saturated with nitrogen so that they cannot breathe, results in death more rapidly than just taking them out of the water. For sport fishing, it is recommended that fish be killed soon after catching them by hitting them on the head followed by bleeding out or by stabbing the brain with a sharp object (called pithing or ike jime in Japanese). Some believe it is not cruel if you release the catch back to where it was caught however a study in 2018 states that the hook damages an important part of the feeding mechanism by which the fish sucks in food, ignoring the issue of pain.",
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"section_name": "Animal welfare concerns",
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},
{
"plaintext": "When fishing there are high chances of catching other marine wildlife in a fishing net. There are over 100 different fishing regulations on paper for reducing this bycatch. ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Animal welfare concerns",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear includes netting, mono/multifilament lines, hooks, ropes, floats, buoys, sinkers, anchors, metallic materials and fish aggregating devices (FADs) made of non-biodegradable materials such as concrete, metal and polymers. It has been estimated that global fishing gear losses each year include 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps and 29% of all lines used. Abandoned, lost, or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) can have serious impacts on marine organisms through entanglement and ingestion. The potential for fishing gear to become ALDFG depends on a number of factors including:",
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"section_name": "Plastic pollution",
"target_page_ids": [
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23001
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"anchor_spans": [
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243,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Environmental factors are mostly related to seafloor topography and obstructions, although tides, currents, waves, winds, and interaction with wildlife are also important.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Plastic pollution",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Operational losses and operator errors can occur even during normal fishing operations.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Plastic pollution",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Problems such as inadequate fisheries management and regulations that do not include adequate controls can hamper collection of ALDFG (e.g. there may be poor access to collection facilities).",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Plastic pollution",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gear loss resulting from conflicts primarily occurs (intentionally or unintentionally) in areas with high concentrations of fishing activities, leading to gear being towed away, fouled, sabotaged or vandalized. Passive and unattended gear such as pots, set gillnets and traps are particularly prone to conflict damage. In the Arctic, conflicts are the most common reason for lost gear.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Plastic pollution",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Community For communities like fishing villages, fisheries provide not only a source of food and work but also a community and cultural identity.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Cultural impact",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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31,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Economic Some locations may be regarded as fishing destinations, which anglers visit on vacation or for competitions. The economic impact of fishing by visitors may be a significant, or even primary driver of tourism revenue for some destinations.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Cultural impact",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Semantic A \"fishing expedition\" is a situation where an interviewer implies they know more than they do to trick their target into divulging more information than they wish to reveal. Other examples of fishing terms that carry a negative connotation are: \"fishing for compliments\", \"to be fooled hook, line and sinker\" (to be fooled beyond merely \"taking the bait\"), and the internet scam of phishing, in which a third party will duplicate a website where the user would put sensitive information (such as bank codes).",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Cultural impact",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Religious Fishing has had an effect on major religions, including Christianity, Hinduism, and the various new age religions. Jesus was said to participate in fishing excursions, and a number of the miracles and many parables and stories reported in the Bible involve fish or fishing. Since the Apostle Peter was a fisherman, the Catholic Church has adopted the use of the fishermans ring into the Pope's traditional vestments.",
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"section_name": "Cultural impact",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Angling",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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223418
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},
{
"plaintext": " Artisanal fishing",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " History of fishing",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of fishing villages",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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46310807
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Recreational fishing",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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705225
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " .",
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"plaintext": "Svante August Arrhenius ( , ; 19 February 1859 – 2 October 1927) was a Swedish scientist. Originally a physicist, but often referred to as a chemist, Arrhenius was one of the founders of the science of physical chemistry. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1903, becoming the first Swedish Nobel laureate. In 1905, he became director of the Nobel Institute, where he remained until his death.",
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"plaintext": "if the quantity of carbonic acid increases in geometric progression, the augmentation of the temperature will increase nearly in arithmetic progression.",
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"plaintext": "where is the concentration of CO2 at the beginning (time-zero) of the period being studied (if the same concentration unit is used for both and , then it doesn't matter which concentration unit is used); is the CO2 concentration at end of the period being studied; ln is the natural logarithm (= log base e ()); and is the augmentation of the temperature, in other words the change in the rate of heating Earth's surface (radiative forcing), which is measured in Watts per square meter. Derivations from atmospheric radiative transfer models have found that (alpha) for CO2 is 5.35 (± 10%) W/m2 for Earth's atmosphere.",
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"plaintext": " \"That the atmospheric envelopes limit the heat losses from the planets had been suggested about 1800 by the great French physicist Fourier. His ideas were further developed afterwards by Pouillet and Tyndall. Their theory has been styled the hot-house theory, because they thought that the atmosphere acted after the manner of the glass panes of hot-houses.\" (p. 51)",
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"plaintext": " \"If the quantity of carbonic acid [ CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid) ] in the air should sink to one-half its present percentage, the temperature would fall by about 4°; a diminution to one-quarter would reduce the temperature by 8°. On the other hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth's surface by 4°; and if the carbon dioxide were increased fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8°.\" (p. 53)",
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"plaintext": " \"Although the sea, by absorbing carbonic acid, acts as a regulator of huge capacity, which takes up about five-sixths of the produced carbonic acid, we yet recognize that the slight percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere may by the advances of industry be changed to a noticeable degree in the course of a few centuries.\" (p. 54)",
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"plaintext": " \"Since, now, warm ages have alternated with glacial periods, even after man appeared on the earth, we have to ask ourselves: Is it probable that we shall in the coming geological ages be visited by a new ice period that will drive us from our temperate countries into the hotter climates of Africa? There does not appear to be much ground for such an apprehension. The enormous combustion of coal by our industrial establishments suffices to increase the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air to a perceptible degree.\" (p. 61)",
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"plaintext": " \"We often hear lamentations that the coal stored up in the earth is wasted by the present generation without any thought of the future, and we are terrified by the awful destruction of life and property which has followed the volcanic eruptions of our days. We may find a kind of consolation in the consideration that here, as in every other case, there is good mixed with the evil. By the influence of the increasing percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, we may hope to enjoy ages with more equable and better climates, especially as regards the colder regions of the earth, ages when the earth will bring forth much more abundant crops than at present, for the benefit of rapidly propagating mankind.\" (p. 63)",
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"plaintext": "At this time, the accepted consensus explanation is that, historically, orbital forcing has set the timing for ice ages, with CO2 acting as an essential amplifying feedback. However, CO2 releases since the industrial revolution have increased CO2 to a level not found since 10 to 15 million years ago, when the global average surface temperature was up to warmer than now and almost all ice had melted, raising world sea-levels to about 100 feet (30 m.) higher than today's.",
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"plaintext": "1884, Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes, doctoral dissertation, Stockholm, Royal publishing house, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 155 pages.",
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"plaintext": "1896a, Ueber den Einfluss des Atmosphärischen Kohlensäurengehalts auf die Temperatur der Erdoberfläche, in the Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm 1896, Volume 22, I N. 1, pages 1–101.",
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"plaintext": "1896b, On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground, London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science (fifth series), April 1896. vol 41, pages 237–275.",
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"plaintext": "1901a, Ueber die Wärmeabsorption durch Kohlensäure, Annalen der Physik, Vol 4, 1901, pages 690–705.",
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"plaintext": "1901b, Über Die Wärmeabsorption Durch Kohlensäure Und Ihren Einfluss Auf Die Temperatur Der Erdoberfläche. Abstract of the proceedings of the Royal Academy of Science, 58, 25–58.",
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"plaintext": " Arrhenius, Svante. Die Verbreitung des Lebens im Weltenraum. Die Umschau, Frankfurt a. M., 7, 1903, 481–486.",
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"plaintext": "1906, Die vermutliche Ursache der Klimaschwankungen, Meddelanden från K. Vetenskapsakademiens Nobelinstitut, Vol 1 No 2, pages 1–10",
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"plaintext": "1908, Das Werden der Welten (Worlds in the making; the evolution of the universe), Academic Publishing House, Leipzig, 208 pages.",
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"plaintext": "Activation energy",
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"plaintext": "Viscosity models for mixtures",
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"plaintext": " including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1903 Development of the Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation",
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"plaintext": " A Tribute to the Memory of Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) – a scientist ahead of his time, published in 2008 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences",
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"plaintext": " Obs 50 (1927) 363 – Obituary (one paragraph)",
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"plaintext": " PASP 39 (1927) 385 – Obituary (one paragraph)",
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"plaintext": " \"On the influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground\", Arrhenius, 1896, online and analyzed on BibNum ",
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"plaintext": "The Santiago Conference, 15 April 1972, was the third occasion on which the developing countries have confronted the rich with the need to use trade and aid measures more effectively to improve living standards in the developing world. Discussion centred on the international monetary system and specifically on the South's proposal that a higher proportion of new special drawing rights (SDRs) should be allocated to LDCs as a form of aid (the so-called 'link'). In Santiago, substantial disagreements arose within the Group of 77 (G77) despite preconference meetings. There was disagreement over the SDR proposal and between those in the G77 who wanted fundamental changes such as a change in the voting allocations in the South's favour at the IMF and those (mainly the Latin American countries) who wanted much milder reforms. This internal dissent seriously weakened the group's negotiating position and led to a final agreed motion which recommended that the IMF should examine the link and that further research be conducted into general reforms. This avoided firm commitments to act on the 'link' or general reform, and the motion was passed by conference.",
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"plaintext": "UNCTAD IV, held in Nairobi May 1976, showed relative success compared to its predecessors. An Overseas Development Institute briefing paper of April 1979 highlights one reason for success as being down to the 1973 Oil Crisis and the encouragement of LDCs to make gains through producers of other commodities. The principal result of the conference was the adoption of the Integrated Programme for Commodities. The programme covered the principal commodity exports and its objectives aside from the stabilisation of commodity prices were: \"Just and remunerative pricing, taking into account world inflation\", the expansion of processing, distribution and control of technology by LDCs and improved access to markets.",
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"plaintext": "UNCTAD V in the wake of the Nairobi Conference, held in Manila 1979 focused on the key issues of: protectionism in developing countries and the need for structural change, trade in commodities and manufactures aid and international monetary reform, technology, shipping, and economic co-operation among developing countries. An Overseas Development Institute briefing paper written in 1979 focuses its attention on the key issues regarding the LDCs' role as the Group of 77 in the international community.",
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"plaintext": "The sixth UN conference on trade and development in Belgrade, 6–30 June 1983 was held against the background of earlier UNCTADs which have substantially failed to resolve many of the disagreements between the developed and developing countries and of a world economy in its worst recession since the early 1930s. The key issues of the time were finance and adjustment, commodity price stabilisation and trade.",
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"plaintext": "The fifteenth session of UNCTAD was originally scheduled in 2020 but was delayed until 2021 due to COVID-19.",
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"plaintext": "This is the first time that the UNCTAD is held in a small island developing state (SIDS).",
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"plaintext": "UNCTAD produces a number of topical reports, including:",
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"plaintext": " The Trade and Development Report",
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"plaintext": " The Trade and Environment Review",
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"plaintext": " The World Investment Report",
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"plaintext": " The Economic Development in Africa Report",
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"plaintext": " The Least Developed Countries Report",
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"plaintext": " UNCTAD Statistics",
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"plaintext": " Digital Economy Report (formerly known as the Information Economy Report)",
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"plaintext": " The International Accounting and Reporting Issues Annual Review",
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"plaintext": " The Technology and Innovation Report",
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"plaintext": "UNCTAD conducts technical cooperation programmes such as ASYCUDA, DMFAS, EMPRETEC and WAIPA.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, UNCTAD conducts certain technical cooperation in collaboration with the World Trade Organization through the joint International Trade Centre (ITC), a technical cooperation agency targeting operational and enterprise-oriented aspects of trade development.",
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"plaintext": "UNCTAD is a founding member of the United Nations Sustainable Stock Exchanges (SSE) initiative along with the Principles for Responsible Investment, the United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative (UNEP-FI), and the UN Global Compact.",
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"plaintext": " Foreign direct investment",
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"plaintext": " Global System of Trade Preferences among Developing Countries (GSTP)",
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"plaintext": " List of countries by received FDI",
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"plaintext": " worked with UNCTAD and offers testimony from the inside.",
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"plaintext": " United Nations Conference on Trade and Development",
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"plaintext": " UNCTAD member states",
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"plaintext": " Research Guide about UNCTAD (UN Library at Geneva)",
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"plaintext": " International Trade Centre",
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"plaintext": "World War II began while Grissom was still in high school, but he was eager to join the military upon graduation. Grissom enlisted as an aviation cadet in the U.S. Army Air Forces during his senior year in high school, and completed an entrance exam in November 1943. Grissom was inducted into the U.S. Army Air Forces on August 8, 1944, at Fort Benjamin Harrison, Indiana. He was sent to Sheppard Field in Wichita Falls, Texas, for five weeks of basic flight training, and was later stationed at Brooks Field in San Antonio, Texas. In January 1945 Grissom was assigned to Boca Raton Army Airfield in Florida. Although he was interested in becoming a pilot, most of Grissom's time before his discharge in 1945 was spent as a clerk.",
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"plaintext": "After flying his quota of one hundred missions, Grissom asked to remain in Korea to fly another twenty-five flights, but his request was denied. Grissom returned to the United States to serve as a flight instructor at Bryan AFB in Bryan, Texas, where he was joined by his wife, Betty, and son, Scott. The Grissoms' second child, Mark, was born there in 1953. Grissom soon learned that flight instructors faced their own set of on-the-job risks. During a training exercise with a cadet, the trainee pilot caused a flap to break off from their two-seat trainer, sending it into a roll. Grissom quickly climbed from the rear seat of the small aircraft to take over the controls and safely land it.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1955, Grissom was reassigned to the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. After completing the year-long course he earned a bachelor's degree in aeromechanics in 1956. In October 1956, he entered the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California, and returned to Wright-Patterson AFB in Ohio in May 1957, after attaining the rank of captain. Grissom served as a test pilot assigned to the fighter branch.",
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"plaintext": "In 1959, Grissom received an official teletype message instructing him to report to an address in Washington, D.C., wearing civilian clothes. The message was classified \"Top Secret\" and Grissom was ordered not to discuss its contents with anyone. Of the 508 military candidates who were considered, he was one of 110 test pilots whose credentials had earned them an invitation to learn more about the U.S. space program in general and its Project Mercury. Grissom was intrigued by the program, but knew that competition for the final spots would be fierce.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom passed the initial screening in Washington, D.C., and was among the thirty-nine candidates sent to the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and the Aeromedical Laboratory of the Wright Air Development Center in Dayton, Ohio, to undergo extensive physical and psychological testing. He was nearly disqualified when doctors discovered that he suffered from hay fever, but was permitted to continue after he argued that his allergies would not be a problem due to the absence of ragweed pollen in space.",
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"plaintext": "On April 13, 1959, Grissom received official notification that he had been selected as one of the seven Project Mercury astronauts. Grissom and the six other men, after taking a leave of absence from their respective branches of the military service, reported to the Special Task Group at Langley Air Force Base in Virginia on April 27, 1959, to begin their astronaut training.",
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"plaintext": "On July 21, 1961, Grissom was pilot of the second Project Mercury flight, Mercury-Redstone 4. Grissom's spacecraft, which he named Liberty Bell 7, was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida, a sub-orbital flight that lasted 15 minutes and 37 seconds. After splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean, the Liberty Bell 7s emergency explosive bolts unexpectedly fired, blowing off the hatch and causing water to flood into the spacecraft. Grissom quickly exited through the open hatch and into the ocean. While waiting for recovery helicopters from to pick him up, Grissom struggled to keep from drowning after his spacesuit began losing buoyancy due to an open air inlet. Grissom managed to stay afloat until he was pulled from the water by a helicopter and taken to the U.S. Navy ship. In the meantime another recovery helicopter tried to lift and retrieve the Liberty Bell 7, but the flooding spacecraft became too heavy, forcing the recovery crew to cut it loose, and it ultimately sank.",
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"plaintext": "When reporters at a news conference surrounded Grissom after his space flight to ask how he felt, Grissom replied, \"Well, I was scared a good portion of the time; I guess that's a pretty good indication.\" Grissom stated he had done nothing to cause the hatch to blow, and no definitive explanation for the incident was found. Robert F. Thompson, director of Mercury operations, was dispatched to by Space Task Group Director Robert Gilruth and spoke with Grissom upon his arrival on the aircraft carrier. Grissom explained that he had gotten ahead in the mission timeline and had removed the detonator cap, and also pulled the safety pin. Once the pin was removed, the trigger was no longer held in place and could have inadvertently fired as a result of ocean wave action, bobbing as a result of helicopter rotor wash, or other activity. NASA officials concluded Grissom had not necessarily initiated the firing of the explosive hatch, which would have required pressing a plunger that required five pounds of force to depress. Initiating the explosive egress system called for pushing, or hitting, a metal trigger with the hand, which would have left an unavoidably large obvious bruise, but Grissom was found not to have any of the telltale hand bruising.",
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"plaintext": "While the debate continued about the premature detonation of Liberty Bell 7'''s hatch bolts, precautions were initiated for subsequent flights. Fellow Mercury astronaut Wally Schirra, at the end of his October 3, 1962, flight, remained inside his spacecraft until it was safely aboard the recovery ship, and made a point of deliberately blowing the hatch to get out of the spacecraft, bruising his hand.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom's spacecraft was recovered in 1999, but no further evidence was found that could conclusively explain how the explosive hatch release had occurred. Later, Guenter Wendt, pad leader for the early American crewed space launches, wrote that he believed a small cover over the external release actuator was accidentally lost sometime during the flight or splashdown. Another possible explanation was that the hatch's T-handle may have been tugged by a stray parachute suspension line, or was perhaps damaged by the heat of re-entry, and after cooling upon splashdown it contracted and caught fire. It has also been suggested that static electricity caused by initial contact between the spacecraft and the rescue helicopter may have caused the hatch release charge to blow.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1964, Alan Shepard was grounded after being diagnosed with Ménière's disease and Grissom was designated command pilot for Gemini 3, the first crewed Project Gemini flight, which flew on March 23, 1965. This mission made Grissom the first NASA astronaut to fly into space twice. The two-man flight on Gemini 3 with Grissom and John W. Young made three revolutions of the Earth and lasted for 4 hours, 52 minutes and 31 seconds. Grissom was one of the eight pilots of the NASA paraglider research vehicle (Paresev).",
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"plaintext": "In a joking nod to the sinking of his Mercury craft, Grissom named the first Gemini spacecraft Molly Brown (after the popular Broadway show, The Unsinkable Molly Brown). Some NASA publicity officials were unhappy with this name and asked Grissom and his pilot, John Young, to come up with a new one. When they offered Titanic as an alternate, NASA executives decided to allow them to use the name of Molly Brown for Gemini 3, but did not use it in official references. Much to the agency's chagrin, CAPCOM Gordon Cooper gave Gemini 3 its sendoff on launch with the remark to Grissom and Young, \"You're on your way, Molly Brown!\" Ground controllers also used it to refer to the spacecraft throughout its flight.",
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"plaintext": "After the safe return of Gemini 3, NASA announced new spacecraft would not be nicknamed. Hence, Gemini 4 was not called American Eagle as its crew had planned. The practice of nicknaming spacecraft resumed in 1967, when managers realized that the Apollo flights needed a name for each of two flight elements, the Command Module (CSM) and the Lunar Module. Lobbying by the astronauts and senior NASA administrators also had an effect. Apollo 9 used the name Gumdrop for the Command Module and Spider for the Lunar Module. However, Wally Schirra was prevented from naming his Apollo 7 spacecraft Phoenix in honor of the Apollo 1 crew because some believed that its nickname as a metaphor for \"fire\" might be misunderstood.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom was backup command pilot for Gemini 6A when he was transferred to the Apollo program and was assigned as commander of the first crewed mission, AS-204, with Senior Pilot Ed White, who had flown in space on the Gemini 4 mission, when he became the first American to make a spacewalk, and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee. The three men were granted permission to refer to their flight as \"Apollo 1\" on their mission insignia patch.",
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"plaintext": "Problems with the simulator proved extremely annoying to Grissom, who told a reporter the problems with Apollo 1 came \"in bushelfuls\" and that he was skeptical of its chances to complete its fourteen-day mission. Grissom earned the nickname \"Gruff Gus\" by being outspoken about the technical deficiencies of the spacecraft. The engineers who programmed the Apollo training simulator had a difficult time keeping the simulator in sync with the continuous changes being made to the spacecraft. According to backup astronaut Walter Cunningham, \"We knew that the spacecraft was, you know, in poor shape relative to what it ought to be. We felt like we could fly it, but let's face it, it just wasn't as good as it should have been for the job of flying the first crewed Apollo mission.\"",
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"plaintext": "NASA pressed on. In mid-January 1967, \"preparations were being made for the final pre-flight tests of Spacecraft 012.\" On January 22, 1967, before returning to Cape Kennedy to conduct the January 27 plugs-out test that ended his life, Grissom's wife, Betty, later recalled that he took a lemon from a tree in his back yard and explained that he intended to hang it on that spacecraft, although he actually hung the lemon on the simulator (a duplicate of the Apollo spacecraft).",
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"plaintext": "Before Apollo 1's planned launch on February 21, 1967, the Command Module interior caught fire and burned on January 27, 1967, during a pre-launch test on Launch Pad 34 at Cape Kennedy. Astronauts Grissom, White, and Chaffee, who were working inside the closed Command Module, were asphyxiated. The fire's ignition source was found to be damaged wiring. Their deaths were attributed to a wide range of lethal hazards in the early CSM design and conditions of the test, including a pressurized 100 percent oxygen prelaunch atmosphere, wiring and plumbing flaws, flammable materials used in the cockpit and in the astronauts' flight suits, and an inward-opening hatch that could not be opened quickly in an emergency and not at all with full internal pressure.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom's funeral services and burial at Arlington National Cemetery were held on January 31, 1967. Dignitaries in attendance included President Lyndon B. Johnson, members of the U.S. Congress, and fellow NASA astronauts, among others. Grissom was interred at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia, beside Roger Chaffee. White's remains are interred at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York.",
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"plaintext": "After the accident, NASA decided to give the flight the official designation of Apollo 1 and skip to Apollo 4 for the first uncrewed flight of the Saturn V, counting the two uncrewed suborbital tests, AS-201 and 202, as part of the sequence. The Apollo spacecraft problems were corrected, with Apollo 7, commanded by Wally Schirra, launched on October 11, 1968, more than a year after the Apollo 1 accident. The Apollo program reached its objective of successfully landing men on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with Apollo 11.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of his death, Grissom had attained the rank of lieutenant colonel and had logged a total of 4,600 hours flying time, including 3,500 hours in jet airplanes. Some contend that Grissom could have been selected as one of the astronauts to walk on the Moon. Deke Slayton wrote that he had hoped for one of the original Mercury astronauts to go to the Moon, noting: \"It wasn't just a cut-and-dried decision as to who should make the first steps on the Moon. If I had to select on that basis, my first choice would have been Gus, which both Chris Kraft and Bob Gilruth seconded.\" Ultimately, Alan Shepard, one of the original seven NASA astronauts, would receive the honor of commanding the Apollo 14 lunar landing.",
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"plaintext": "When the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame opened in 1990, his family lent it the spacesuit worn by Grissom during Mercury 4 along with other personal artifacts belonging to the astronaut. In 2002, the museum went into bankruptcy and was taken over by a NASA contractor, whereupon the family sought the exhibit's return. All the artifacts were returned to them except the spacesuit, which NASA claimed was government property. NASA insisted Grissom got authorization to use the spacesuit for a show and tell at his son's school in 1965 and never returned it, but some of Grissom family members claimed the astronaut rescued the spacesuit from a scrap heap. the space suit was part of the Kennedy Space Center Hall of Fame's Heroes and Legends exhibit.",
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"plaintext": " John J. Montgomery Award",
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"plaintext": "To celebrate his spaceflight in 1961, Grissom was made honorary Mayor of Newport News, Virginia, and a new library was dubbed the Virgil I. Grissom Library in the Denbigh section of Newport News, Virginia.",
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"plaintext": "The airport in Bedford, Indiana, where Grissom flew as a teenager was renamed Virgil I. Grissom Municipal Airport in 1965. A three-ton piece of limestone, inscribed with his name, was unveiled at the airport. His fellow astronauts ribbed him about the name, saying that airports were normally named for dead aviators. Grissom replied, \"But this time they've named one for a live one.\" Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Old Bridge, New Jersey, was named for Grissom the year before his death. His death forced the cancellation of a student project to design a flag to represent Grissom and their school, which would have flown on the mission.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his Mercury flight and was awarded it a second time for his role in Gemini 3. The Apollo 1 crew was awarded the medal posthumously in a 1969 presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the Apollo 11 crew.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom's family received the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978 from President Carter (White's and Chaffee's families received it in 1997).",
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"plaintext": "Grissom was granted an honorary doctorate from Florida Institute of Technology in 1962, the first-ever awarded by the university. Grissom was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1981, and the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1987. Grissom was posthumously inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990. His wife, Betty Lavonne Moore, donated his Congressional Space Medal of Honor to the accompanying museum.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom posthumously received AIAA's Haley Astronautics Award for 1968.",
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"plaintext": "The dismantled Launch Pad 34 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station bears two memorial plaques to the crew of Apollo 1. The Kennedy Space Center features a memorial exhibit honoring the Apollo 1 crew in the Apollo/Saturn V Center, which includes artifacts and personal mementos of Grissom, Chaffee, and White. Grissom's name is included on the plaque left on the Moon with the Fallen Astronaut statue in 1971 by the crew of Apollo 15.",
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"plaintext": "The Grissom Memorial, a tall limestone monument representing the Redstone rocket and his Mercury space capsule was dedicated in downtown Mitchell, Indiana, in 1981. The Virgil I. Grissom Memorial in Spring Mill State Park, near Grissom's hometown of Mitchell, Indiana, was dedicated in 1971, the tenth anniversary of his Mercury flight. The governor declared it a state holiday for the second year in a row. The Gus Grissom Stakes is a thoroughbred horse race run in Indiana each fall; originally held at Hoosier Park in Anderson, it was moved to Horseshoe Indianapolis in Shelbyville in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Grissom Island is an artificial island off of Long Beach, California, created in 1966 for drilling oil (along with White, Chaffee and Freeman Islands). Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom Park opened in 1971 in Fullerton, California. His widow and son were invited to the dedication ceremony and planted the first large tree in the park. Grissom is named with his Apollo 1 crewmates on the Space Mirror Memorial, which was dedicated in 1991. His son, Gary Grissom, said, \"When I was younger, I thought NASA would do something. It's a shame it has taken this long\".",
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"plaintext": "Bunker Hill Air Force Base in Peru, Indiana, was renamed on May 12, 1968, to Grissom Air Force Base. During the dedication ceremony, his son said, \"Of all the honors he won, none would please him more than this one today.\" In 1994, it was again renamed to Grissom Air Reserve Base following the USAF's realignment program. The three-letter identifier of the VHF Omni Directional Radio Range (VOR) located at Grissom Air Reserve Base is GUS. In 2000, classes of the United States Air Force Academy began selecting a Class Exemplar who embodies the type of person they strive to be. The class of 2007 selected Grissom. An academic building was renamed Grissom Hall in 1968 at the former Chanute Air Force Base, Rantoul, Illinois, where Minuteman missile maintenance training was conducted. It was one of five buildings renamed for deceased Air Force personnel.",
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"plaintext": "The Virgil I. Grissom Museum, dedicated in 1971 by Governor Edgar Whitcomb, is located just inside the entrance to Spring Mill State Park in Mitchell, Indiana. The Molly Brown was transferred to be displayed in the museum in 1974. His boyhood home in Mitchell, Indiana, is located on Grissom Avenue. The street was renamed in his honor after his Mercury flight.",
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"plaintext": "Florida Institute of Technology dedicated Grissom Hall, a residence hall, in 1967. State University of New York at Fredonia dubbed their new residence hall Grissom Hall in 1967. Grissom Hall, dedicated in 1968 at Purdue University, was the home of the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics for several decades. It is currently home of the Purdue department of Industrial Engineering.",
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"plaintext": "Virgil I. Grissom Elementary School was built in Houston, Texas, in 1967. Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Princeton, Iowa was one of four schools in Iowa named after astronauts in late 1967. Grissom's family members attended the 1968 dedication of Virgil I. Grissom Middle School in Mishawaka, Indiana. School No. 7 in Rochester, New York, was named for Grissom in April 1968. Devault Elementary School in Gary, Indiana, was renamed Grissom Elementary School in 1969 after Devault was convicted of conspiring to forge purchase orders. Virgil I. Grissom Middle School was dedicated in November 1969 in Sterling Heights, Michigan. Virgil I. Grissom High School was built in 1969 in Huntsville, Alabama. The school board in the Hegewisch community of Chicago, Illinois, voted to name their new school under construction Virgil I. Grissom Elementary School in March 1969. Grissom Elementary School in Tulsa, Oklahoma, was founded in 1969 and dedicated by Betty Grissom in 1970. Grissom Memorial Elementary School was dedicated in 1973 in Muncie, Indiana. Virgil I. Grissom Middle School was founded in Tinley Park, Illinois, in 1975.",
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"plaintext": "Virgil I. \"Gus\" Grissom Elementary School was operated by the Department of Defense Dependents Schools at the former Clark Air Base, Philippines. Originally named the Wurtsmith Hill School, it was renamed on November 14, 1968. It housed 3rd and 4th grade students. The school was severely damaged by the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991.",
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"plaintext": " Virgil I. Grissom Junior High School 226, South Ozone Park, Queens, New York City",
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"plaintext": "Grissom has been noted and remembered in many film and television productions. Before he became widely known as an astronaut, the film Air Cadet (1951) starring Richard Long and Rock Hudson briefly featured Grissom early in the movie as a U.S. Air Force candidate for flight school at Randolph Field, San Antonio, Texas. Grissom was depicted by Fred Ward in the film The Right Stuff (1983) and (very briefly) in the film Apollo 13 (1995) by Steve Bernie. He was portrayed in the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon (1998) by Mark Rolston. Actor Kevin McCorkle played Grissom in the third-season finale of the NBC television show American Dreams. Bryan Cranston played Grissom as a variety-show guest in the film That Thing You Do! Actor Joel Johnstone portrays Gus Grissom in the 2015 ABC TV series The Astronaut Wives Club. In 2016 Gus Grissom was included in the narrative of the movie Hidden Figures. In 2018, he was portrayed by Shea Whigham in First Man. In 2020's Disney+ miniseries The Right Stuff, Grissom is portrayed by Michael Trotter.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1984 film The Search for Spock, the Federation starship is named for Grissom. Another USS Grissom was featured in a 1990 episode of the TV series The Next Generation, and was mentioned in a 1999 episode of Deep Space Nine. The character Gil Grissom in the CBS television series Crime Scene Investigation and the character Virgil Tracy in the British television series Thunderbirds are also named after the astronaut. NASA footage, including Grissom's Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo missions, was released in high definition on the Discovery Channel in June 2008 in the television series The NASA Missions''.",
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"plaintext": " Letter from Grissom thanking students for naming their school after him",
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"plaintext": " Grissom's Gemini G3-C Pressure Suit, National Air and Space Museum",
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"plaintext": " Grissom's Liberty Bell 7 Pressure Suit, National Air and Space Museum",
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"plaintext": " Virgil (Gus) I. Grissom collection at the Smithsonian, National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C.",
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"plaintext": "Edward Higgins White II was born on November 14, 1930, in San Antonio, Texas, the son of Edward Higgins White Sr. (1901–1978), a West Point graduate (Class of 1924) who later rose to become major general in the United States Air Force (USAF), and Mary Rosina White (; 1900–1983). He had a younger brother, James Blair White (1942–1969), and an older sister, Jeanne. His interest in aviation was sparked at the age of twelve when his father took him for a ride in a North American T-6 Texan trainer. He became a member of the Boy Scouts of America, where he earned the rank of Second Class Scout.",
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"plaintext": "On June 3, 1965, the Gemini 4 crew was launched into space to begin its four-day mission. After separation from the Titan II upper stage, McDivitt attempted to rendezvous with the booster. However, this was unsuccessful since the astronauts were not adequately trained to rendezvous in orbit. The objective had to be abandoned since the allocated propellant had been used up, and the maneuvers had pushed the spacecraft's orbit too far away from Earth. The mission also included 11 different scientific experiments, including the use of a sextant for celestial navigation.",
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"plaintext": "After the failed rendezvous attempt, White appeared tired and hot, so the EVA was postponed from the second revolution to the third revolution. At 19:46 UTC, White became the first American to make an EVA. During his spacewalk, White used an oxygen-propelled gun called the Hand-Held Maneuvering Unit to propel himself. White found the experience so exhilarating that he was reluctant to terminate the EVA at the allotted time, and had to be ordered back into the spacecraft.",
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"plaintext": "While White was outside, a spare thermal glove floated away through the open hatch of the spacecraft, becoming an early piece of space debris in low Earth orbit, until it burned up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. There was a mechanical problem with the hatch mechanism, which made it difficult to open and to relatch. McDivitt was able to get the door locked by using his glove to push on the gears that controlled the mechanism. This added to the time constraint of the spacewalk and could have threatened the lives of both men if McDivitt had been unable to get the hatch latched, as they could not re-enter the atmosphere with an unsealed hatch.",
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"plaintext": "When they returned to Earth, the two astronauts found that they were now celebrities. President Lyndon B. Johnson came to Houston to congratulate them, and he promoted them to the rank of lieutenant colonel. Later that week they traveled to the White House where Johnson presented them the NASA Exceptional Service Medal. They were given a ticker tape parade in Chicago, and went to the 1965 Paris Air Show, where they met cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin.",
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"plaintext": "White's next assignment after Gemini 4 was as the backup for Gemini 7 command pilot Frank Borman, with Collins assigned as his pilot. He was also named the astronaut specialist for the flight control systems of the Apollo command module. Under the usual procedure of crew rotation in the Gemini program, White would have been in line for a second flight as the command pilot of Gemini 10 in July 1966, which would have made him the first of his group to fly twice. He instead would be selected for the Apollo I program.",
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"plaintext": "In March 1966, White was selected as senior pilot (second seat) for the first crewed Apollo flight, designated AS-204. His fellow astronauts would be Command Pilot Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom, who had flown in space on the Mercury-Redstone 4 mission in 1961 and as Commander of the Gemini 3 in 1965, and Pilot Roger Chaffee, who had yet to fly into space. The mission, which the men named Apollo 1 in June, was originally planned for late 1966 to coincide with the last Gemini mission, but the impracticality of making the Gemini capsule and systems compatible with Apollo and delays in the spacecraft development pushed the launch into 1967.",
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"plaintext": "The launch of Apollo 1 was planned for February 21, 1967. The crew entered the spacecraft at 13:00 on January 27, mounted atop its Saturn IB booster on Launch Pad 34 at Cape Kennedy, for a \"plugs-out\" test of the spacecraft. The test was to demonstrate all of the space vehicle systems and procedures, which included an abbreviated countdown and flight simulation. It was not classified as hazardous since the rocket would not be fueled during the test. The test's progress was delayed by problems with a cabin odor and poor communications between the ground stations and the crew. At 18:31, a fire broke out in the pure oxygen-filled cabin, killing all three crewmen.",
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"plaintext": "Emergency roles had called for White to actuate the inner hatch release handle; then, Grissom would assist him in the removal of the cover, while Chaffee would maintain communications. White had apparently tried to do his part: his body was found in his center seat, with his arms reaching over his head toward the hatch. Removing the cover to open the hatch was impossible because the plug door design required venting normally slightly greater-than-atmospheric pressure and pulling the cover into the cabin. Grissom was unable to reach the cabin vent control to his left, where the fire's source was located. The intense heat raised the cabin pressure even more, to , at which point the cabin walls ruptured. The astronauts were killed by asphyxiation, smoke inhalation, and thermal burns.",
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"plaintext": "The fire's ignition source was determined to be a spark that jumped from a wire on the far left of the spacecraft, under Grissom's seat. Their deaths were attributed to a wide range of lethal hazards in the early Apollo Command Module design: workmanship and conditions of the test, including the highly pressurized 100% oxygen pre-launch atmosphere, many wiring and plumbing flaws, flammable materials used in the cockpit and the astronauts' flight suits, and a hatch which could not be quickly opened in an emergency. After the incident, these problems were fixed, and the Apollo program carried on successfully to reach its objective of landing men on the Moon.",
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"plaintext": "White was buried with full military honors at West Point Cemetery while Grissom and Chaffee are both buried in Arlington National Cemetery. NASA officials attempted to pressure Patricia White, his widow, into allowing her husband also to be buried at Arlington, against what she knew to be his wishes; their efforts were foiled by astronaut Frank Borman. Patricia received $100,000 from the life insurance portion of the contract the astronauts signed to give two publishing firms exclusive rights to the stories and photographs of the astronauts and their families. She also received $16,250 annually for the life of the contract. Patricia later remarried and continued to reside in Houston. On September 6, 1983, she took her own life after surgery earlier in the year to remove a tumor.",
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"plaintext": "White's younger brother James resolved to follow in his older brother's footsteps. He graduated from the Air Force Academy and became a fighter pilot. He set his sights on becoming a test pilot and then an astronaut. He thought that air combat experience would facilitate this, so he volunteered for service in the Vietnam War. While flying a combat mission on November 24, 1969, with 357th Tactical Fighter Squadron, he was killed when his aircraft crashed. Nearly half a century later his remains were identified, and they were buried adjacent to White's in West Point Cemetery on June 19, 2018.",
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"plaintext": "White was a member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots; associate member of Institute of Aerospace Sciences; Tau Delta Phi (Engineering Honorary); and Sigma Delta Psi (Athletic Honorary).",
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"plaintext": " Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1965",
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"plaintext": " Medalha Bandeirantes va Cosmonautica",
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"plaintext": " Firefly Club Award",
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"plaintext": " Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Nation, 1965",
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"plaintext": " National Aviation Club's Achievement Award, 1966",
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"plaintext": "White and McDivitt were presented honorary doctorate degrees in astronautical science by the University of Michigan after their Gemini 4 flight. The duo were also awarded the Arnold Air Society's John F. Kennedy Trophy. White received the 1965 General Thomas D. White National Defense Award for his spacewalk. It is a trophy given by the National Geographic Society to outstanding air force personnel. He was inducted into the Aerospace Primus Club (the \"most exclusive club on Earth\") for his EVA. He was awarded the AIAA Haley Astronautics Award for 1967. The Apollo 1 crew was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal posthumously in a 1969 presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the Apollo 11 crew. President Clinton presented the White and Chaffee families with the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1997 (Grissom's family received the medal in 1978).",
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"plaintext": " Edward White Elementary Career Academy in Chicago",
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"plaintext": " Ed White Middle School in Huntsville, Alabama. Huntsville is home to NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and has strong community ties to the space program. At the same time, the Huntsville City Schools named Roger B. Chaffee Elementary School and Virgil I. Grissom High School for White's fallen Apollo 1 crewmates.",
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"plaintext": " Edward H. White II Park in Fullerton, California. Fullerton has also named parks in honor of Chaffee and Grissom.",
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"plaintext": " Island White, an artificial island in Long Beach Harbor off Southern California.",
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"plaintext": " Edward H. White Hall was a dormitory at Sheppard Air Force Base in Wichita Falls, Texas.",
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"plaintext": " McDivitt-White Plaza is located outside West Hall at the University of Michigan. West Hall formerly housed the College of Engineering and counts James McDivitt and Ed White among its alumni (McDivitt earned his B.S. and White earned his M.S. at the University of Michigan).",
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"plaintext": " The dismantled Launch Pad 34 at Cape Canaveral bears two memorial plaques. One reads, \"They gave their lives in service to their country in the ongoing exploration of humankind's final frontier. Remember them not for how they died but for those ideals for which they lived.\" and the other \"In memory of those who made the ultimate sacrifice so others could reach for the stars. Ad astra per aspera, (a rough road leads to the stars). God speed to the crew of Apollo 1.\"",
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"plaintext": " Edward H. White II American Legion Post 521; Pasadena, Texas.",
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"plaintext": " Edward White Park in Garland, Texas.",
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"plaintext": " Edward White Way in Oakland, California, a service road which runs along the Southern edge of Oakland International Airport. The airport has multiple roads named after NASA astronauts.",
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"plaintext": " The star Iota Ursae Majoris was nicknamed \"Dnoces\" (\"Second\", as in \"Edward Higgins White the Second\", spelled backwards).",
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"plaintext": " White Hill, 11.2km (7.0mi) northwest of Columbia Memorial Station on Mars, is a part of the Apollo 1 Hills.",
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"plaintext": " A photograph of White performing his Gemini 4 space walk is included as one of several images on the Voyager Golden Record.",
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"plaintext": " Eight months after his death, in September 1967, a postage stamp was issued by the United States Post Office, commemorating White's spacewalk. It was the first time in USPO history that the design was actually spread over two stamps (one which featured White, the other his Gemini capsule, the two connected by a tether), which was considered befitting the \"twins\" aspect of the Gemini mission.",
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"plaintext": "The Omega Speedmaster wristwatch reference 105.003 has come to be known as the \"Ed White\" as this reference was worn by White during his spacewalk. The Speedmaster remains the only watch qualified by NASA for EVA use.",
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"plaintext": "White was played by Steven Ruge in the 1995 film Apollo 13, by Chris Isaak in the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, and by Matt Lanter in the 2015 ABC TV series The Astronaut Wives Club. In 2018, he was portrayed by Jason Clarke in First Man.",
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| 216,726 | 13,919 | 168 | 213 | 1 | 0 | Ed White | American astronaut (1930-1967) | [
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"Edward White"
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|
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"plaintext": "Along with thirteen other pilots, Chaffee was selected to be an astronaut as part of NASA Astronaut Group 3 in 1963. He served as capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for the Gemini 3 and Gemini 4 missions and received his first spaceflight assignment in 1966 as the third-ranking pilot on Apollo 1. In 1967, he died in a fire along with fellow astronauts Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom and Ed White during a pre-launch test for the mission at what was then the Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34, Florida. He was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and a second Air Medal.",
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"plaintext": "Roger Bruce Chaffee was born on February 15, 1935, in Grand Rapids, Michigan, the second child of Donald Lynn Chaffee (1910–1998) and Blanche May (Mike) Chaffee (; 1912–1996). He had an older sister, Donna, born two years earlier. In January 1935, in their hometown of Greenville, Michigan, his father was diagnosed with scarlet fever, so his mother moved in with her parents in Grand Rapids, where Roger was born. The family spent the next seven years in Greenville before moving to Grand Rapids, where his father took a job as the chief Army Ordnance inspector at the Doehler-Jarvis plant. Chaffee's interest in aerospace was sparked at a young age when his father, a former barnstorming pilot, took him on his first flight at the age of seven. Chaffee was thrilled by the flight and soon after started building model airplanes with his father.",
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"plaintext": "In 1955, Chaffee took four flying lessons, but he did not have enough money to get his private pilot's license. Two years later, the NROTC sponsored flight training for him to become a naval aviator. He soloed on March 29, 1957, and obtained his private pilot's license on May 24, 1957. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree, with distinction, in aeronautical engineering at Purdue in 1957.",
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"plaintext": "Chaffee was transferred to Naval Air Station Jacksonville, Florida, to continue his training. His first project was not flying, but repairing an A3D twin-engine jet photo reconnaissance plane. This plane was typically flown by pilots with the rank of lieutenant commander or above, but Chaffee became so familiar with the plane from repairing it he became one of the youngest pilots ever to fly it. He joined Attack Squadron 44 (VA-44) in September 1959, and from October 1959 to March 1960 he trained with Heavy Attack Squadron 3 (VAH-3).",
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"plaintext": "Chaffee received a variety of assignments and participated in multiple training duties over the next several years, spending most of his time in photo reconnaissance squadrons. He was stationed at NAS Jacksonville as safety officer and quality control officer for Heavy Photographic Squadron 62 (VAP-62) flying the A3D. He wrote a quality control manual for the squadron, although some of his peers saw this as too demanding. By coincidence, he was assigned to a mission where he flew over Cape Canaveral, during which aerial photographs of future launch sites were taken.",
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"plaintext": "Between April 4, 1960, and October 25, 1962, including during the critical time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, Chaffee flew 82 missions over Cuba, sometimes up to three per day, and achieved over 100 flight hours each month. Some of these trips included shuttling three men per plane back and forth to Guantanamo Bay, including the pilot, co-pilot, and the photographer. Some biographies credit him with flying the U-2 plane to spy on Cuba, but this is erroneous since he was a Navy pilot and the U-2 was an Air Force plane.",
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"plaintext": "After this, Chaffee undertook aircraft carrier flight training, including time spent on performing both day and night flights. He said of day flying, \"Setting that big bird down on the flight deck was like landing on a postage stamp\"; and of night flying, \"Getting catapulted off that flight deck at night is like getting shot into a bottle of ink!\" While working in Jacksonville, he concurrently worked on a master's degree. He was on a cruise to Africa when his son Stephen was born in Oklahoma City.",
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"plaintext": "During Chaffee's Navy service he logged more than 2,300 hours flying time, including more than 2,000 hours in jet aircraft. On February 1, 1966, he was promoted to lieutenant commander.",
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"plaintext": "In August 1962, Chaffee confided in his family that he had submitted an application for the NASA astronaut training program, and informed his superiors of his desire to train as a test pilot for astronaut status. In mid-1962, he was accepted in the initial pool of 1,800 applicants for the third group of NASA astronauts. After his naval tour was over, and he had racked up over 1,800 hours of flying time, the Navy offered him the opportunity to continue work on his master's degree. In January 1963, he entered the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology (AFIT) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, to work on his Master of Science degree in reliability engineering.",
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"plaintext": "While at AFIT, Chaffee continued participating in astronaut candidate testing as the pool of candidates dropped to 271 in mid-1963. It was noted during testing that he had a very small lung capacity but he used it better than most people with greater capacity. On his return from a hunting trip to Fairborn, Ohio, on October 14, 1963, he found a message from NASA in Houston, Texas. He called them back, and discovered he had been chosen as an astronaut. On October 18, 1963, it was officially announced that he was one of fourteen chosen for NASA's third group of astronauts. He said, \"I was very pleased with the appointment. I've always wanted to fly and perform adventurous flying tasks all my life. Ever since the first seven Mercury astronauts were named, I've been keeping my studies up.\"",
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"plaintext": "Phase one of training for the third group of astronauts began in 1964 in lecture halls. Lectures in several fields were supplemented with trips to locations with geological significance so the astronauts gained hands-on experience. As well as piloting the spacecraft, the astronauts were to perform scientific experiments and measurements on the Moon. The astronauts traveled to the Grand Canyon to learn about geography and to Alaska, Iceland, and Hawaii to learn about rock formations and lava flows.",
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"plaintext": "The second phase was contingency training, which focused on astronauts learning the skills required to survive if the landing did not occur where planned. The group started their training by being dropped off in the middle of the jungle in Panama. They performed the survival training in pairs, carrying only their parachutes and survival kits. Chaffee, with help from his Boy Scout training, foraged for enough food to survive during the three-day training mission. Following the jungle training, the astronauts traveled to an entirely different environment: the desert of Reno, Nevada. For clothing, the astronauts had only long underwear, shoes, and robes they manufactured from their parachutes. Lizards and snakes were the main source of food, and the astronauts used their parachutes as makeshift tents for shelter for the two days of desert training.",
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"plaintext": "The third and final phase was operational training for the astronauts. This focused on giving them hands-on experience using the instruments and equipment required during their spaceflight. They received training in the effects of microgravity and rapid acceleration. The astronauts spent time in simulators, aboard cargo planes that simulated weightlessness, underwater to practice extravehicular activities (EVAs), and on visits to manufacturing plants to check on the progress of the hardware.",
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"plaintext": "Every astronaut was required to have a specialty, and Chaffee's specialty was communications. He focused on the Deep Space Instrumentation Facility (DSIF), which the astronauts needed for navigation in space.",
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"plaintext": "At the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Chaffee served as capsule communicator (CAPCOM) in March 1965 for Gemini 3. Later that year, he was CAPCOM, along with Virgil \"Gus\" Grissom and Eugene Cernan, for the Gemini 4 mission, in which Ed White performed the first spacewalk by an American. As CAPCOM, Chaffee relayed information between the crew members and the Director of Flight Operations, Chris Kraft. He never got a seat on a Gemini mission, but was assigned to work on flight control, communications, instrumentation, and attitude and translation control systems in the Apollo program. During this time, along with Grissom, he also flew chase planes at an altitude of between to take motion pictures of the launch of an uncrewed Saturn 1B rocket.",
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"plaintext": "Chaffee received his first spaceflight assignment in January 1966, when he was selected for the first crewed Apollo-Saturn flight, AS-204. At the time, he was the youngest American astronaut to be selected for a mission. Joining Command Pilot Grissom and Senior Pilot White, he replaced the injured Donn F. Eisele in the third-ranked pilot position. Eisele required surgery for a dislocated shoulder, which he sustained aboard the KC-135 weightlessness training aircraft. He was reassigned to a second Apollo crew, commanded by Wally Schirra.",
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"plaintext": "The crew announcement was made public on March 21, 1966. The two-week flight of Apollo1 was to test the spacecraft systems and the control and ground tracking facilities. While Chaffee had monitored the manufacture of the Gemini spacecraft, he had not witnessed the building of the Apollo spacecraft. Three days after being selected for the Apollo1 crew, he flew to the North American Aviation Plant in Downey, California, to see it.",
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"plaintext": "Later in April, the crew traveled to Chapel Hill, North Carolina, to study stars that were programmed into their flight computer. In October, the six crewmembers planned to test the spacecraft in sea level and altitude conditions. The failure of an oxygen regulator prevented them from performing the vacuum test, but they managed to complete the sea level test. They also performed egress tests, where capsule simulators were dropped in the Gulf of Mexico under various conditions and the crew had to exit the spacecraft. The crew was able to spend time with their families at Christmas. Chaffee entered a local Christmas decoration contest and he received first prize. Four Purdue astronauts were requested to attend the Rose Bowl as guests of honor. Grissom, Gene Cernan, Armstrong, and Chaffee attended the game on January 2. Progress on pre-mission activities was nearing completion; NASA announced on January 23, 1967, that February 21 would be the target launch date. The primary and backup crews moved back to the Cape for the last few weeks of training. They had their own living quarters, a private waiter and chef, and gymnasium to remain fit.",
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"plaintext": "On January 27, 1967, Grissom, White and Chaffee were participating in a \"plugs-out\" countdown demonstration test at Cape Kennedy in preparation for the planned February 21 launch. Chaffee was sitting at the right side of the cabin. His main role was to maintain communications with the blockhouse. A momentary power surge was detected at 23:30:55 GMT, which was believed to accompany an electrical short in equipment located on the lower left side of the cabin, the presumed ignition source for the fire. At 23:31:04 GMT, a voice was heard declaring, \"[We]'ve got a fire in the cockpit.\" Most investigative listeners believe that voice was Chaffee's.",
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"plaintext": "Assigned emergency roles called for Grissom, in the left-hand seat, to open the cabin pressure vent valve, after which White in the center seat was to open the plug door hatch, while Chaffee in the right-hand seat was to maintain communications. Grissom was prevented from opening the valve by the intensity of the fire, which started in that region and spread from left to right. Despite this, White removed his restraints and apparently tried in vain to open the hatch, which was held closed by the cabin pressure. The increasing pressure finally burst the inner cabin wall on the right-hand side at 23:31:19 GMT. After approximately thirty seconds of being fed by a cabin atmosphere of pure oxygen at pressures of , and now fed by nitrogen-buffered ambient air, the primary fire decreased in intensity and started producing large amounts of smoke, which killed the astronauts. Chaffee lost consciousness because of a lack of oxygen which sent him into cardiac arrest. He died from asphyxia due to the toxic gases from the fire, with burns contributing to his death.",
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"plaintext": "Failed oxygen and ethylene glycol pipes near the fire's origin point continued burning an intense secondary fire which melted through the cabin floor. By the time firefighters were able to open the hatch, the fire had extinguished itself. The back of Chaffee's couch was found in the horizontal position, with the lower portion angled towards the floor. His helmet was closed and locked, his restraints were undone, and the hoses and electrical connections to the suit remained connected. As he was farthest from the origin of the fire, he suffered the least burn and suit damage.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after the AS-204 fire in 1967, NASA Associate Administrator for Manned Spaceflight George Mueller announced the mission would be officially designated as Apollo 1. The capsule underwent a significant redesign as a result of the disaster. The atmosphere in the cabin was changed from 100% oxygen to a 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen environment at launch. The astronauts' spacesuits, originally made of nylon, were changed to beta cloth, a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from fiberglass and coated with Teflon. There were other changes, including replacing flammable cabin materials with self-extinguishing ones, and covering plumbing and wiring with protective insulation.",
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"plaintext": "Chaffee and Grissom were buried in Arlington National Cemetery, while White was buried at West Point Cemetery. Chaffee's widow received $100,000 from the life insurance portion of the contract the astronauts signed with two publishing firms so they would have exclusive rights to stories and photographs of the astronauts and their families. She also received $16,250 per year for the life of the contract.",
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"plaintext": "Chaffee is memorialized in many ways, from the Chaffee Crater on the far side of the Moon, to the Roger B. Chaffee Planetarium in his hometown of Grand Rapids, Michigan. Another memorial is a hill on Mars, Chaffee Hill, south-southwest of Columbia Memorial Station, part of the Apollo 1 Hills. Regor (Roger spelled backwards), is a seldom-used nickname for the star Gamma Velorum. Grissom used this name, plus two others for White and himself, on his Apollo1 mission planning star charts as a joke, and the succeeding Apollo astronauts kept using the names as a memorial. A terrestrial memorial is Chaffee Island, an artificial island off Long Beach, California, created in 1966 for drilling oil (along with White, Grissom and Freeman Islands). A park in Fullerton, California, was named after Chaffee; parks were also named after his fellow Apollo1 comrades. Chaffee is named with his Apollo1 crewmates on the Space Mirror Memorial, which was dedicated in 1991. Chaffee's name is included on the plaque left on the Moon with the Fallen Astronaut statue in 1971 by the crew of Apollo 15.",
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1527574,
21837
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95,
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350,
359
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{
"plaintext": "Accepted nomenclature is to designate the number of components of the rotaxane in brackets as a prefix. Therefore, the a rotaxane consisting of a single dumbbell-shaped axial molecule with a single macrocycle around its shaft is called a [2]rotaxane, and two cyanostar molecules around the central phosphate group of dialkylphosphate is a [3]rotaxane.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Nomenclature",
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{
"plaintext": "Catenane",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1225171
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"anchor_spans": [
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0,
8
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mechanically interlocked molecular architecture",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4048455
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
47
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Molecular Borromean rings",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2401526
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
25
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},
{
"plaintext": "Molecular knots",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1557358
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Polyrotaxane",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
53989605
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
}
]
| [
"Supramolecular_chemistry",
"Molecular_electronics",
"Nanoelectronics",
"Organic_semiconductors",
"Molecular_topology",
"Articles_containing_video_clips"
]
| 901,292 | 1,398 | 44 | 41 | 0 | 0 | rotaxane | class of chemical compounds | [
"rotaxanes"
]
|
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