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36,832 | 1,094,604,250 | Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons | [
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"plaintext": "The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) is an intergovernmental organisation and the implementing body for the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), which entered into force on 29 April 1997. The OPCW, with its 193 member states, has its seat in The Hague, Netherlands; it oversees the global endeavour for the permanent and verifiable elimination of chemical weapons.",
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"plaintext": "The organisation promotes and verifies the adherence to the Chemical Weapons Convention, which prohibits the use of chemical weapons and requires their destruction. Verification consists both of evaluation of declarations by member states and onsite inspections.",
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"plaintext": "The organisation was awarded the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize \"for its extensive efforts to eliminate chemical weapons\". Nobel Committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland said, \"The conventions and the work of the OPCW have defined the use of chemical weapons as a taboo under international law\".",
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"plaintext": "The Hague was chosen as the location for the seat of the organisation after a successful lobby of the Dutch government, competing against Vienna and Geneva. The organisation has its headquarters next to the World Forum Convention Centre (where it holds its yearly Conference of States Parties) and an equipment store and laboratory facility in Rijswijk. The headquarters were officially opened by Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands on 20 May 1998. and consist of an eight-story building built in a semi-circle. A permanent memorial to all victims is present at the back of the building and is open to the public.",
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"plaintext": "The OPCW headquarters building was designed by American architect Gerhard Kallmann of Kallmann McKinnell & Wood.",
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"plaintext": "The first Director-General only served about one year of his second term, after which, in April 2002, he was removed from office on grounds of lack of confidence by the member states. It was argued by The Guardians columnist George Monbiot that Director-General José Bustani was being forced out by the U.S. government, despite the convention insisting the OPCW \"shall not seek or receive instructions from any government\"; the US had tried to persuade Brazil to recall Bustani. Monbiot wrote that the U.S. had tried other measures, although the convention also indicates that states should \"not seek to influence\" staff. In line with his mandate, Bustani wanted Iraq to sign the convention thus allowing international chemical weapons monitors into Iraq and thus potentially impeding the U.S. push for war against Iraq. The U.S. gave three main arguments for the removal of Bustani's from his position: \"polarising and confrontational conduct\", \"mismanagement issues\" and \"advocacy of inappropriate roles for the OPCW\". The removal was subsequently determined to be improper by an Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization and consequently Bustani was awarded €50,000 in moral damages, his pay for the remainder of his second term, and his legal costs.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 October 2013, the Norwegian Nobel Committee announced that the OPCW had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for \"extensive work to eliminate chemical weapons\". The committee further indicated how \"Recent events in Syria, where chemical weapons have again been put to use, have underlined the need to enhance the efforts to do away with such weapons.\" In the year ending September 2014, the OPCW had overseen the destruction of some 97 percent of Syria's declared chemical weapons.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, The OPCW–The Hague Award was established to honour select individuals and institutions by highlighting their exceptional contributions towards the goal of a world permanently free of chemical weapons. The award was created as a legacy of the OPCW winning the 2013 Nobel Peace Prize. The OPCW—The Hague Award fund was created using the approximately €900,000 monetary prize which accompanied the Nobel Peace Prize, and is also supported financially by the City of The Hague, where the OPCW is based.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2018, the OPCW voted to expand its own powers, allowing itself to assign blame for a contravention of its regulations.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2019, a unanimous agreement of OPCW member states allowed the addition of the Novichok agents to \"list of controlled substances\" of the CWC \"in one of the first major changes to the treaty since it was agreed in the 1990s\" in response to the 2018 poisonings in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "The activities of the OPCW and its core organisational structure are described in the Chemical Weapons Convention (whose members are all in OPCW). The principal body is the Conference of the States Parties (CSP), which normally is convened yearly, and in which all countries can participate, with equal voting rights. Countries are generally represented in the conference by a permanent representative to the organisation, which in most cases is also the ambassador to the Netherlands. The conference decides on all main topics regarding the organisation (for example, taking retaliation measures) and the convention (approving guidelines, imposing retaliating measures against members).",
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"plaintext": "The Executive Council (EC) is the executive organ of the organisation and consists of 41 states parties, which are appointed by the conference on a two-year term. The council amongst others oversees the budget and cooperates with the General Secretariat on all matters related to the convention.",
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"plaintext": "The Technical Secretariat (TS) applies most of the activities mandated by the council and is the body where most of the employees of the organisation work. The main activities of the OPCW are performed by the inspection and the verification divisions.",
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"plaintext": "All states parties make contributions to the OPCW budget, based on a modified UN scale of assessments. The OPCW budget for 2020 is €70,958,760",
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"plaintext": "The OPCW has the power to report on whether chemical weapons were used in an attack it has investigated.",
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"plaintext": "\"The OPCW has the power to send inspectors to any signatory country to search for evidence of production of banned chemicals. It also can send experts to help countries to investigate crime scenes where chemical agents may have been used.\"",
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"plaintext": "In June 2018 following the Skripal poisoning the UK convinced other members despite the Russian opposition that the OPCW needed to grant itself new powers to assign blame for attacks. The vote was won by a margin of 82 to 24, which exceeded the two-thirds majority needed for the motion to pass.",
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"plaintext": "At all operational chemical weapons destruction facilities, 24/7 inspections by the OPCW take place on site to verify the success of the destruction as well as the amounts of weapons being destroyed. In light of the hazardous environment in which the inspections take place, they are generally performed by evaluation via CCTV-systems.",
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"plaintext": "Inspections are designed to verify compliance of States Parties with the requirements imposed on production and use of scheduled chemicals and to verify that industrial activities of member states have been correctly declared according to the obligation set by the CWC. The intensity and frequency of the inspections is dependent on the type of chemical produced (in descending order: Schedule 1, Schedule 2, Schedule 3 or DOC, see Scheduled Chemicals), but is regardless of the standing of the member state.",
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"plaintext": "For Schedule 1 and 2 facilities, a mass balance is prepared to identify whether all produced chemicals can be accounted for and whether the amounts are consistent with the declarations made by member states. Furthermore, at Schedule 2 and 3 facilities clues are investigated whether, contrary to the declaration and to the rules in the convention, Schedule 1 chemicals are produced. At Schedule 3 and DOC, the main aim is to check the declaration and to verify the absence of Schedule 2 and Schedule 1 production units. The time limit Schedule 2 inspections is 96 hours while Schedule 3 and DOC inspections can take a maximum of 24 hours. There is no time limit on Schedule 1 inspections.",
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"plaintext": "In case of allegation of use of chemical weapons or the prohibited production, a fact-finding inspection can be employed according to the convention. None of those activities have taken place, although the OPCW contributed to investigations of alleged use of chemical weapons in Syria as part of a United Nations mission. The OPCW only undertakes these inspections on request of another member state, after verification of the presented proof. To avoid misuse, a majority of three-quarters can block a challenge inspection request.",
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"plaintext": "While the OPCW is not a specialised agency of the United Nations, it cooperates both on policy and practical issues as a related organisation. On 7 September 2000 the OPCW and the United Nations signed a cooperation agreement outlining how they were to coordinate their activities. The inspectors furthermore travel on the United Nations Laissez-Passer in which a sticker is placed explaining their position, and privileges and immunities. The United Nations Regional Groups also operate at the OPCW to govern the rotations on the Executive Council and provide informal discussion platform.",
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"plaintext": "All 193 parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention are automatically members of the OPCW. Other states which are eligible to become members are UN member states: Israel is a signatory state that has not ratified the Convention; and Egypt, North Korea and South Sudan, which have neither signed nor acceded to the Convention. Palestine was the most recent state to submit its instrument of accession to the Convention. On 21 April 2021, Syria was stripped of its voting rights at the OPCW after Syrian forces were found to have repeatedly used poison gas during the Syrian civil war. A two-thirds majority of members voted to immediately revoke Syria's privileges at the agency.",
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"plaintext": "The Organisation is currently led by Director-General Ambassador Fernando Arias of Spain.",
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"plaintext": "The Director-General is directly appointed by the Conference for a maximum of two four-year terms. A historical list of Directors-General is shown below.",
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"plaintext": "The appointment of Ambassador Arias followed a consensus recommendation by the OPCW Executive Council in October 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Ambassador Arias is a career diplomat with extensive experience in multilateral diplomacy. Previously, he served as Ambassador of Spain to the Netherlands and the Permanent Representative of Spain to the OPCW. He also has served as Permanent Representative of Spain to the United Nations in New York and Ambassador of Spain to Mali, Mauritania, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Bulgaria.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, the United States convened an extraordinary session of the Conference of the States Parties of the OPCW to request the dismissal of José Bustani, then Director General of the OPCW. Bustani was dismissed following the vote, held on 22 April 2002, with 48 states voting in favor, 7 against and 43 abstaining. Subsequently, Bustani accused the United States of having provoked his impeachment because he had succeeded in convincing Saddam Hussein to ratify the Chemical Weapons Convention, which implied inspection of the Iraqi arsenal by OPCW investigators and would have thwarted the American plan of an invasion of Iraq. He also lodged a complaint before the Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization, which, by a judgment of 16 July 2003, quashed the dismissal and condemned the OPCW to compensation for material and moral damage. Bustani did not seek to be reinstated in office.",
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"plaintext": "1990 Chemical Weapons Accord",
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"plaintext": "Auger electron spectroscopy (AES; pronounced in French) is a common analytical technique used specifically in the study of surfaces and, more generally, in the area of materials science. It is a form of electron spectroscopy that relies on the Auger effect, based on the analysis of energetic electrons emitted from an excited atom after a series of internal relaxation events. The Auger effect was discovered independently by both Lise Meitner and Pierre Auger in the 1920s. Though the discovery was made by Meitner and initially reported in the journal Zeitschrift für Physik in 1922, Auger is credited with the discovery in most of the scientific community. Until the early 1950s Auger transitions were considered nuisance effects by spectroscopists, not containing much relevant material information, but studied so as to explain anomalies in X-ray spectroscopy data. Since 1953 however, AES has become a practical and straightforward characterization technique for probing chemical and compositional surface environments and has found applications in metallurgy, gas-phase chemistry, and throughout the microelectronics industry.",
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"plaintext": "The Auger effect is an electronic process at the heart of AES resulting from the inter- and intrastate transitions of electrons in an excited atom. When an atom is probed by an external mechanism, such as a photon or a beam of electrons with energies in the range of severaleV to50 keV, a core state electron can be removed leaving behind a hole. As this is an unstable state, the core hole can be filled by an outer shell electron, whereby the electron moving to the lower energy level loses an amount of energy equal to the difference in orbital energies. The transition energy can be coupled to a second outer shell electron, which will be emitted from the atom if the transferred energy is greater than the orbital binding energy. An emitted electron will have a kinetic energy of:",
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"plaintext": "where , , are respectively the core level, first outer shell, and second outer shell electron binding energies (measured from the vacuum level) which are taken to be positive. The apostrophe (tic) denotes a slight modification to the binding energy of the outer shell electrons due to the ionized nature of the atom; often however, this energy modification is ignored in order to ease calculations. Since orbital energies are unique to an atom of a specific element, analysis of the ejected electrons can yield information about the chemical composition of a surface. Figure 1 illustrates two schematic views of the Auger process.",
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"plaintext": "The types of state-to-state transitions available to electrons during an Auger event are dependent on several factors, ranging from initial excitation energy to relative interaction rates, yet are often dominated by a few characteristic transitions. Because of the interaction between an electron's spin and orbital angular momentum (spin-orbit coupling) and the concomitant energy level splitting for various shells in an atom, there are a variety of transition pathways for filling a core hole. Energy levels are labeled using a number of different schemes such as the j-j coupling method for heavy elements (Z ≥ 75), the Russell-Saunders L-S method for lighter elements (Z < 20), and a combination of both for intermediate elements. The j-j coupling method, which is historically linked to X-ray notation, is almost always used to denote Auger transitions. Thus for a transition, represents the core level hole, the relaxing electron's initial state, and the emitted electron's initial energy state. Figure 1(b) illustrates this transition with the corresponding spectroscopic notation. The energy level of the core hole will often determine which transition types will be favored. For single energy levels, i.e. K, transitions can occur from the L levels, giving rise to strong KLL type peaks in an Auger spectrum. Higher level transitions can also occur, but are less probable. For multi-level shells, transitions are available from higher energy orbitals (different n, ℓ quantum numbers) or energy levels within the same shell (same n, different ℓ number). The result are transitions of the type LMM and KLL along with faster Coster–Kronig transitions such as LLM. While Coster–Kronig transitions are faster, they are also less energetic and thus harder to locate on an Auger spectrum. As the atomic number Z increases, so too does the number of potential Auger transitions. Fortunately, the strongest electron-electron interactions are between levels that are close together, giving rise to characteristic peaks in an Auger spectrum. KLL and LMM peaks are some of the most commonly identified transitions during surface analysis. Finally, valence band electrons can also fill core holes or be emitted during KVV-type transitions.",
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"plaintext": "Several models, both phenomenological and analytical, have been developed to describe the energetics of Auger transitions. One of the most tractable descriptions, put forth by Jenkins and Chung, estimates the energy of Auger transition ABC as:",
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"plaintext": " are the binding energies of the th level in element of atomic number Z and are the energies of the same levels in the next element up in the periodic table. While useful in practice, a more rigorous model accounting for effects such as screening and relaxation probabilities between energy levels gives the Auger energy as:",
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"plaintext": "where is the energy of interaction between the B and C level holes in a final atomic state x and the R'''s represent intra- and extra-atomic transition energies accounting for electronic screening. Auger electron energies can be calculated based on measured values of the various and compared to peaks in the secondary electron spectrum in order to identify chemical species. This technique has been used to compile several reference databases used for analysis in current AES setups.",
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"plaintext": "Surface sensitivity in AES arises from the fact that emitted electrons usually have energies ranging from 50eV to 3keV and at these values, electrons have a short mean free path in a solid. The escape depth of electrons is therefore localized to within a few nanometers of the target surface, giving AES an extreme sensitivity to surface species. Because of the low energy of Auger electrons, most AES setups are run under ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions. Such measures prevent electron scattering off of residual gas atoms as well as the formation of a thin \"gas (adsorbate) layer\" on the surface of the specimen, which degrades analytical performance. A typical AES setup is shown schematically in figure 2. In this configuration, focused electrons are incident on a sample and emitted electrons are deflected into a cylindrical mirror analyzer (CMA). In the detection unit, Auger electrons are multiplied and the signal sent to data processing electronics. Collected Auger electrons are plotted as a function of energy against the broad secondary electron background spectrum. The detection unit and data processing electronics are collectively referred to as the electron energy analyzer.",
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"plaintext": "Since the intensity of the Auger peaks may be small compared to the noise level of the background, AES is often run in a derivative mode that serves to highlight the peaks by modulating the electron collection current via a small applied AC voltage. Since this , the collection current becomes . Taylor expanding gives:",
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"plaintext": "Using the setup in figure 2, detecting the signal at frequency ω will give a value for or . Plotting in derivative mode also emphasizes Auger fine structure, which appear as small secondary peaks surrounding the primary Auger peak. These secondary peaks, not to be confused with high energy satellites, which are discussed later, arise from the presence of the same element in multiple different chemical states on a surface (i.e. Adsorbate layers) or from relaxation transitions involving valence band electrons of the substrate. Figure 3 illustrates a derivative spectrum from a copper nitride film clearly showing the Auger peaks. The peak in derivative mode is not the true Auger peak, but rather the point of maximum slope of N(E), but this concern is usually ignored.",
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"plaintext": "Semi-quantitative compositional and element analysis of a sample using AES is dependent on measuring the yield of Auger electrons during a probing event. Electron yield, in turn, depends on several critical parameters such as electron-impact cross-section and fluorescence yield. Since the Auger effect is not the only mechanism available for atomic relaxation, there is a competition between radiative and non-radiative decay processes to be the primary de-excitation pathway. The total transition rate, ω, is a sum of the non-radiative (Auger) and radiative (photon emission) processes. The Auger yield, , is thus related to the fluorescence (x-ray) yield, , by the relation,",
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"plaintext": "where is the X-ray transition probability and is the Auger transition probability. Attempts to relate the fluorescence and Auger yields to atomic number have resulted in plots similar to figure 4. A clear transition from electron to photon emission is evident in this chart for increasing atomic number. For heavier elements, x-ray yield becomes greater than Auger yield, indicating an increased difficulty in measuring the Auger peaks for large Z-values. Conversely, AES is sensitive to the lighter elements, and unlike X-ray fluorescence, Auger peaks can be detected for elements as light as lithium (Z = 3). Lithium represents the lower limit for AES sensitivity since the Auger effect is a \"three state\" event necessitating at least three electrons. Neither H nor He can be detected with this technique. For K-level based transitions, Auger effects are dominant for Z < 15 while for L- and M-level transitions, AES data can be measured for Z ≤ 50. The yield limits effectively prescribe a cutoff for AES sensitivity, but complex techniques can be utilized to identify heavier elements, such as uranium and americium, using the Auger effect.",
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"plaintext": "Another critical quantity that determines yield of Auger electrons at a detector is the electron impact cross-section. Early approximations (in cm2) of the cross-section were based on the work of Worthington and Tomlin,",
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"plaintext": "with b acting as a scaling factor between 0.25 and 0.35, and C a function of the primary electron beam energy, . While this value of is calculated for an isolated atom, a simple modification can be made to account for matrix effects:",
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"plaintext": "where α is the angle to the surface normal of the incident electron beam; rm can be established empirically and encompasses electron interactions with the matrix such as ionization due to backscattered electrons. Thus the total yield can be written as:",
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"plaintext": "Here Nx is the number of x atoms per volume, λ the electron escape depth, θ the analyzer angle, T the transmission of the analyzer, I(t) the electron excitation flux at depth t, dΩ the solid angle, and δt is the thickness of the layer being probed. Encompassed in these terms, especially the Auger yield, which is related to the transition probability, is the quantum mechanical overlap of the initial and final state wave functions. Precise expressions for the transition probability, based on first-order perturbation Hamiltonians, can be found in Thompson and Baker. Often, all of these terms are not known, so most analyses compare measured yields with external standards of known composition. Ratios of the acquired data to standards can eliminate common terms, especially experimental setup characteristics and material parameters, and can be used to determine element composition. Comparison techniques work best for samples of homogeneous binary materials or uniform surface layers, while elemental identification is best obtained from comparison of pure samples.",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of electron microscopes that have been specifically designed for use in Auger spectroscopy; these are termed scanning Auger microscopes (SAMs) and can produce high resolution, spatially resolved chemical images. SAM images are obtained by stepping a focused electron beam across a sample surface and measuring the intensity of the Auger peak above the background of scattered electrons. The intensity map is correlated to a gray scale on a monitor with whiter areas corresponding to higher element concentration. In addition, sputtering is sometimes used with Auger spectroscopy to perform depth profiling experiments. Sputtering removes thin outer layers of a surface so that AES can be used to determine the underlying composition. Depth profiles are shown as either Auger peak height vs. sputter time or atomic concentration vs. depth. Precise depth milling through sputtering has made profiling an invaluable technique for chemical analysis of nanostructured materials and thin films. AES is also used extensively as an evaluation tool on and off fab lines in the microelectronics industry, while the versatility and sensitivity of the Auger process makes it a standard analytical tool in research labs. Theoretically, Auger spectra can also be utilized to distinguish between protonation states. When a molecule is protonated or deprotonated, the geometry and electronic structure is changed, and AES spectra reflect this. In general, as a molecule becomes more protonated, the ionization potentials increase and the kinetic energy of the emitted outer shell electrons decreases.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the advantages of high spatial resolution and precise chemical sensitivity attributed to AES, there are several factors that can limit the applicability of this technique, especially when evaluating solid specimens. One of the most common limitations encountered with Auger spectroscopy are charging effects in non-conducting samples. Charging results when the number of secondary electrons leaving the sample is different from the number of incident electrons, giving rise to a net positive or negative electric charge at the surface. Both positive and negative surface charges severely alter the yield of electrons emitted from the sample and hence distort the measured Auger peaks. To complicate matters, neutralization methods employed in other surface analysis techniques, such as secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), are not applicable to AES, as these methods usually involve surface bombardment with either electrons or ions (i.e. flood gun). Several processes have been developed to combat the issue of charging, though none of them is ideal and still make quantification of AES data difficult. One such technique involves depositing conductive pads near the analysis area to minimize regional charging. However, this type of approach limits SAM applications as well as the amount of sample material available for probing. A related technique involves thinning or \"dimpling\" a non-conductive layer with Ar+ ions and then mounting the sample to a conductive backing prior to AES. This method has been debated, with claims that the thinning process leaves elemental artifacts on a surface and/or creates damaged layers that distort bonding and promote chemical mixing in the sample. As a result, the compositional AES data is considered suspect. The most common setup to minimize charging effects includes use of a glancing angle (~10°) electron beam and a carefully tuned bombarding energy (between 1.5 keV and 3 keV). Control of both the angle and energy can subtly alter the number of emitted electrons vis-à-vis the incident electrons and thereby reduce or altogether eliminate sample charging.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to charging effects, AES data can be obscured by the presence of characteristic energy losses in a sample and higher order atomic ionization events. Electrons ejected from a solid will generally undergo multiple scattering events and lose energy in the form of collective electron density oscillations called plasmons. If plasmon losses have energies near that of an Auger peak, the less intense Auger process may become dwarfed by the plasmon peak. As Auger spectra are normally weak and spread over many eV of energy, they are difficult to extract from the background and in the presence of plasmon losses; deconvolution of the two peaks becomes extremely difficult. For such spectra, additional analysis through chemical sensitive surface techniques like x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is often required to disentangle the peaks. Sometimes an Auger spectrum can also exhibit \"satellite\" peaks at well-defined off-set energies from the parent peak. Origin of the satellites is usually attributed to multiple ionization events in an atom or ionization cascades in which a series of electrons is emitted as relaxation occurs for core holes of multiple levels. The presence of satellites can distort the true Auger peak and/or small peak shift information due to chemical bonding at the surface. Several studies have been undertaken to further quantify satellite peaks.",
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"plaintext": "Despite these sometimes substantial drawbacks, Auger electron spectroscopy is a widely used surface analysis technique that has been successfully applied to many diverse fields ranging from gas phase chemistry to nanostructure characterization. Very new class of high-resolving electrostatic energy analyzers recently developed – the face-field analyzers (FFA) can be used for remote electron spectroscopy of distant surfaces or surfaces with large roughness or even with deep dimples. These instruments are designed as if to be specifically used in combined scanning electron microscopes (SEMs). \"FFA\" in principle have no perceptible end-fields, which usually distort focusing in most of analysers known, for example, well known CMA.",
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"plaintext": "Sensitivity, quantitative detail, and ease of use have brought AES from an obscure nuisance effect to a functional and practical characterization technique in just over fifty years. With applications both in the research laboratory and industrial settings, AES will continue to be a cornerstone of surface-sensitive electron-based spectroscopies.",
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"plaintext": "List of materials analysis methods",
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"plaintext": "An Introduction to Surface Analysis by XPS and AES'', J.F.Watts, J.Wolstenholme, published by Wiley & Sons, 2003, Chichester, UK, ",
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"plaintext": "\"Auger Electron Spectroscopy\", J. Wolstenholme, published by Momentum Press, LLC, 2015, New York, (print), 978-1-60650-682-0 (e-book)",
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| 28,087 | 2,546 | 59 | 46 | 0 | 0 | Auger electron spectroscopy | analytical technique used specifically in the study of surfaces | []
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"plaintext": "Patrick Jake O'Rourke (November 14, 1947 – February 15, 2022) was an American libertarian political satirist and journalist. O'Rourke was the H. L. Mencken Research Fellow at the libertarian Cato Institute and a regular correspondent for The Atlantic Monthly, The American Spectator, and The Weekly Standard, and frequent panelist on National Public Radio's game show Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me! He was a columnist at The Daily Beast from 2011 to 2016.",
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"plaintext": "O'Rourke wrote articles for several publications, including \"A.J. at N.Y.U.\" for The Rip Off Review of Western Culture, an underground magazine/comic book, in 1972, as well as pieces for the Baltimore underground newspaper Harry and the New York Ace, before joining National Lampoon in 1973, where he served as editor-in-chief, among other roles, and authored articles such as \"Foreigners Around the World\" and \"How to Drive Fast on Drugs While Getting Your Wing-Wang Squeezed and Not Spill Your Drink\".",
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"plaintext": "O'Rourke received a writing credit for National Lampoon's Lemmings which helped launch the careers of Chevy Chase, and Christopher Guest. He also co-wrote National Lampoon's 1964 High School Yearbook with Douglas Kenney. This inspired the cult comedy, Animal House, which launched the career of John Belushi.",
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"plaintext": "Going freelance in 1981, O'Rourke had his work published in Playboy, Vanity Fair, Car and Driver, and Rolling Stone. He became foreign-affairs desk chief at Rolling Stone, where he remained until 2001. In 1996, he served as the conservative commentator in the point-counterpoint segment of 60 Minutes. During the Bosnian genocide, O'Rourke referred to the American public's lack of interest in Bosnia as a way to joke about \"the unspellables killing the unpronounceables\". ",
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"plaintext": "O'Rourke published over 20 books, including three New York Times bestsellers. Parliament of Whores and Give War a Chance reached No. 1 on The New York Times Best Seller list. He also wrote Modern Manners and Holidays in Hell. O'Rourke was a \"Real Time Real Reporter\" for Real Time with Bill Maher covering the 2008 presidential election. In the UK, he was known as the face of a long-running series of television advertisements for British Airways in the 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2008, O'Rourke announced that he had been diagnosed with treatable rectal cancer, from which he expected \"a 95% chance of survival\". O'Rourke died from lung cancer at his home in Sharon, New Hampshire, on February 15, 2022, at the age of 74.",
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"plaintext": " Age and Guile Beat Youth, Innocence, and a Bad Haircut (1995); ",
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"plaintext": " The American Spectator's Enemies List (1996); ",
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"plaintext": " Eat the Rich (1999); ",
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"plaintext": " Peace Kills: America's Fun New Imperialism (2004); ",
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"plaintext": " On the Wealth of Nations: Books That Changed the World (2007); ",
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"plaintext": " Driving Like Crazy (2009); ",
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"plaintext": " How the Hell Did This Happen? The Election of 2016 (2017); ",
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"plaintext": " None of My Business: P.J. Explains Money, Banking, Debt, Equity, Assets, Liabilities, and Why He's Not Rich and Neither Are You (2018); ",
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"plaintext": " A Cry from the Far Middle: Dispatches from a Divided Land (2020); ",
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"plaintext": " War Feels Like War, in which P.J. O'Rourke stars",
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| 730,017 | 11,534 | 136 | 81 | 0 | 0 | P. J. O'Rourke | American political satirist and journalist | [
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|
36,842 | 1,088,260,689 | Gossypium | [
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"plaintext": "Gossypium () is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Gossypieae of the mallow family, Malvaceae, from which cotton is harvested. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Old and New Worlds. There are about 50 Gossypium species, making it the largest genus in the tribe Gossypieae, and new species continue to be discovered. The name of the genus is derived from the Arabic word goz, which refers to a soft substance. ",
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"plaintext": "Cotton is the primary natural fibre used by modern humans, amounting to about 80% of world natural fibre production. Where cotton is cultivated, it is a major oilseed crop and a main protein source for animal feed. Cotton is thus of great importance for agriculture, industry and trade, especially for tropical and subtropical countries in Africa, South America and Asia. Consequently, the genus Gossypium has long attracted the attention of scientists.",
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"plaintext": "The origin of the genus Gossypium is dated to around 5–10million years ago. Gossypium species are distributed in arid to semiarid regions of the tropics and subtropics. Generally shrubs or shrub-like plants, the species of this genus are extraordinarily diverse in morphology and adaptation, ranging from fire-adapted, herbaceous perennials in Australia to trees in Mexico. Most wild cottons are diploid, but a group of five species from America and Pacific islands are tetraploid, apparently due to a single hybridization event around 1.5 to 2 million years ago. The tetraploid species are G. hirsutum, G. tomentosum, G. mustelinum, G. barbadense, and G. darwinii.",
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"plaintext": " Gossypium tomentosum – Maʻo or Hawaiian cotton (Hawaii)",
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"plaintext": "The public sector effort continues with the goal to create a high-quality, draft genome sequence from reads generated by all sources. The public-sector effort has generated Sanger reads of BACs, fosmids, and plasmids, as well as 454 reads. These later types of reads will be instrumental in assembling an initial draft of the D genome. In 2010, two companies (Monsanto and Illumina), completed enough Illumina sequencing to cover the D genome of G. raimondii about 50x. They announced they would donate their raw reads to the public. This public relations effort gave them some recognition for sequencing the cotton genome. Once the D genome is assembled from all of this raw material, it will undoubtedly assist in the assembly of the AD genomes of cultivated varieties of cotton, but a lot of hard work remains.",
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"plaintext": " Phytophthora boll rot, caused by Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica",
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"plaintext": " Stigmatomycosis, caused by the fungi Ashbya gossypii, Eremothecium coryli, (Nematospora coryli) and Aureobasidium pullulans",
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"plaintext": " Vegetable Lamb of Tartary, a European legendary plant remotely based on cotton.",
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"plaintext": " Central Institute for Cotton Research – located in India.",
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"Cotton",
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"Energy_crops",
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"Non-food_crops",
"Malvaceae_genera",
"Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus"
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| 719,312 | 6,061 | 161 | 99 | 0 | 0 | Gossypium | genus of plants | [
"the cotton genus",
"Cotton plant",
"Gossypium"
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|
36,843 | 994,290,404 | ICRM | [
{
"plaintext": "ICRM may refer to:",
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"plaintext": " International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, an international humanitarian movement",
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"plaintext": " International Cliff Richard Movement, a fan club for English musician Cliff Richard",
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{
"plaintext": " Institute of Certified Records Managers, a certifying body in the Records Management and Information Governance industry",
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| 5,969,719 | 147 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | ICRM | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,845 | 1,105,982,225 | Henry_Dunant | [
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"plaintext": "Henry Dunant (born Jean-Henri Dunant; 8 May 182830 October 1910), also known as Henri Dunant, was a Swiss humanitarian, businessman and social activist. He was the visionary, promoter and co-founder of the Red Cross. In 1901, he received the first Nobel Peace Prize together with Frédéric Passy, making Dunant the first Swiss Nobel laureate.",
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"plaintext": "During a business trip in 1859, Dunant was witness to the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino in modern-day Italy. He recorded his memories and experiences in the book A Memory of Solferino which inspired the creation of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863. The 1864 Geneva Convention was based on Dunant's idea for an independent organization to care for wounded soldiers.",
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"plaintext": "Dunant was born in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1828 as the first son of businessman Jean-Jacques Dunant and Antoinette Dunant-Colladon. His family was devoutly Calvinist and had significant influence in Geneva society. His parents stressed the value of social work, and his father was active helping orphans and parolees, while his mother worked with the sick and the poor.",
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"plaintext": "Dunant grew up during the period of religious awakening known as the Réveil, and at age 18 he joined the Geneva Society for Alms giving. In the following year, together with friends, he founded the so-called \"Thursday Association\", a loose band of young men that met to study the Bible and help the poor, and he spent much of his free time engaged in prison visits and social work. On 30 November 1852, he founded the Geneva chapter of the YMCA and three years later he took part in the Paris meeting devoted to the founding of its international organization.",
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"plaintext": "In 1849, at age 21, Dunant left the Collège de Genève due to poor grades and began an apprenticeship with the money-changing firm Lullin et Sautter. After its successful conclusion, he stayed as an employee of the bank.",
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"plaintext": "In 1853, Dunant visited Algeria, Tunisia, and Sicily, on assignment with a company devoted to the \"colonies of Setif\" (Compagnie genevoise des Colonies de Sétif). Despite little experience, he successfully fulfilled the assignment. Inspired by the trip, he wrote his first book with the title An Account of the Regency in Tunis (Notice sur la Régence de Tunis), published in 1858.",
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"plaintext": "In 1856, he created a business to operate in foreign colonies, and, after being granted a land concession by French-occupied Algeria, a corn-growing and trading company called the Financial and Industrial Company of Mons-Djémila Mills (Société financière et industrielle des Moulins des Mons-Djémila). However, the land and water rights were not clearly assigned, and the colonial authorities were not especially cooperative. As a result, Dunant decided to appeal directly to French emperor Napoléon III, who was with his army in Lombardy at the time. France was fighting on the side of Piedmont-Sardinia against Austria, who had occupied much of today's Italy. Napoleon's headquarters were located in the small city of Solferino. Dunant wrote a flattering book full of praise for Napoleon III with the intention to present it to the emperor, and then traveled to Solferino to meet with him personally.",
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"plaintext": "Dunant arrived in Solferino on the evening of 24 June 1859, on the same day a battle between the two sides had occurred nearby. Forty thousand wounded, dying and dead remained on the battlefield, and there appeared to be little attempt to provide care. Shocked, Dunant himself took the initiative to organize the civilian population, especially the women and girls, to provide assistance to the injured and sick soldiers. They lacked sufficient materials and supplies, and Dunant himself organized the purchase of needed materials and helped erect makeshift hospitals. He convinced the population to service the wounded without regard to their side in the conflict as per the slogan \"Tutti fratelli\" (All are brothers) coined by the women of nearby city Castiglione delle Stiviere. He also succeeded in gaining the release of Austrian doctors captured by the French.",
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"plaintext": "After returning to Geneva early in July, Dunant decided to write a book about his experiences, which he titled Un Souvenir de Solferino (A Memory of Solferino). It was published in 1862 in an edition of 1,600 copies and was printed at Dunant's own expense. In the book, he described the battle, its costs, and the chaotic circumstances afterwards. He also developed the idea that in the future a neutral organization should exist to provide care to wounded soldiers. He distributed the book to many leading political and military figures in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Dunant also began to travel through Europe to promote his ideas. His book was largely positively received, and the President of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare, jurist Gustave Moynier, made the book and its suggestions the topic of the 9 February 1863 meeting of the organization. Dunant's recommendations were examined and positively assessed by the members. They created a five-person Committee to further pursue the possibility of their implementation and made Dunant one of the members. The others were Moynier, the Swiss army general Henri Dufour, and doctors Louis Appia and Théodore Maunoir. Their first meeting on 17 February 1863 is now considered the founding date of the International Committee of the Red Cross.",
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"plaintext": "From early on, Moynier and Dunant had increasing disagreements and conflicts regarding their respective visions and plans. Moynier considered Dunant's idea to establish neutrality protections for care providers unfeasible and advised Dunant not to insist upon this concept. However, Dunant continued to advocate this position in his travels and conversations with high-ranking political and military figures. This intensified the personal conflict between Moynier, who took a rather pragmatic approach to the project, and Dunant, who was the idealist among the five.",
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"plaintext": "In October 1863, 14 states took part in a meeting in Geneva organized by the committee to discuss the improvement of care for wounded soldiers. Dunant was a protocol leader during the meeting. A year later on 22 August 1864, a diplomatic conference organized by the Swiss government led to the signing of the First Geneva Convention by 12 states. Dunant was in charge of organizing accommodation for the attendees.",
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"plaintext": "Dunant's businesses in Algeria had suffered. In April 1867, the bankruptcy of the financial firm Crédit Genevois led to a scandal involving Dunant. He declared bankruptcy. The social outcry in Geneva, a city deeply rooted in Calvinist traditions, also led to calls for him to separate himself from the International Committee. Already on 25 August 1867, he resigned as Secretary and, on 8 September 1867, he was fully removed from the committee. Dunant was condemned by the Geneva Trade Court on 17 August 1868 for deceptive practices in the bankruptcies. Due to their investments in the firm, his family and many of his friends were also heavily affected by the downfall of the company.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1868, Dunant's mother died. Later that year he was expelled from the YMCA. In March 1867, he left his home city Geneva and would not return for the rest of his life. In the following years, Moynier likely used his influence to attempt to ensure that Dunant would not receive assistance and support from his friends. For example, the gold medal prize of Sciences Morales at the Paris World's Fair did not go to Dunant as originally planned but to Moynier, Dufour, and Dunant together so that the prize money would only go to the committee as a whole. Napoléon III's offer to take over half of Dunant's debts if Dunant's friends would secure the other half was also thwarted by Moynier's efforts.",
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"plaintext": "Dunant moved to Paris, where he lived in meagre conditions. However, he continued to pursue his humanitarian ideas and plans. During the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871), he founded the Common Relief Society (Allgemeine Fürsorgegesellschaft) and soon after the Common Alliance for Order and Civilisation (Allgemeine Allianz für Ordnung und Zivilisation). He argued for disarmament negotiations and for the erection of an international court to mediate international conflicts. Later he worked for the creation of a world library, an idea which had echoes in future projects such as UNESCO.",
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"plaintext": "In his continued pursuit and advocacy of his ideas, he further neglected his personal situation and income, falling further in debt and being shunned by his acquaintances. Despite being appointed an honorary member of the national Red Cross societies of Austria, the Netherlands, Sweden, Prussia and Spain, he was nearly forgotten in the official discourse of the Red Cross Movement, even as it was rapidly expanding to new countries. He lived in poverty, moving to various places between 1874 and 1886, including Stuttgart, Rome, Corfu, Basel, and Karlsruhe. In Stuttgart he met the Tübingen University student Rudolf Müller with whom he would have a close friendship. In 1881, together with friends from Stuttgart, he went to the small Swiss resort village Heiden for the first time. In 1887 while living in London, he began to receive some monthly financial support from some distant family members. This enabled him to live a somewhat more secure existence, and he moved to Heiden in July. He spent the rest of his life there, and after 30 April 1892 he lived in a hospital and nursing home led by Dr. Hermann Altherr.",
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"plaintext": "In Heiden, he met the young teacher Wilhelm Sonderegger and his wife Susanna; they encouraged him to record his life experiences. Sonderegger's wife founded a branch of the Red Cross in Heiden and in 1890 Dunant became its honorary president. With Sonderegger, Dunant hoped to further promote his ideas, including publishing a new edition of his book. However, their friendship later was strained by Dunant's unjustified accusations that Sonderegger, with Moynier in Geneva, was somehow conspiring against Dunant. Sonderegger died in 1904 at age 42. Despite their strained relationship, Dunant was deeply moved by the unexpected death. Wilhelm and Susanna Sonderegger's admiration for Dunant, felt by both even after Dunant's allegations, was passed on to their children. In 1935, their son René published a compilation of letters from Dunant to his father.",
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"plaintext": "In September 1895, Georg Baumberger, the chief editor of the St. Gall newspaper Die Ostschweiz, wrote an article about the Red Cross founder, whom he had met and conversed with during a walk in Heiden a month earlier. The article entitled \"Henri Dunant, the founder of the Red Cross\", appeared in the German Illustrated Magazine Über Land und Meer, and the article was soon reprinted in other publications throughout Europe. The article struck a chord, and he received renewed attention and support. He received the Swiss Binet-Fendt Prize and a note from Pope Leo XIII. Because of support from Russian tsarist widow Maria Feodorovna and other donations, his financial situation improved remarkably.",
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"plaintext": "In 1897, Rudolf Müller, who was now working as a teacher in Stuttgart, wrote a book about the origins of the Red Cross, altering the official history to stress Dunant's role. The book also contained the text of A Memory of Solferino. Dunant began an exchange of correspondence with Bertha von Suttner and wrote numerous articles and writings. He was especially active in writing about women's rights, and in 1897 facilitated the founding of a \"Green Cross\" women's organization whose only section was briefly active in Brussels.",
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"plaintext": "In 1901, Dunant was awarded the first-ever Nobel Peace Prize for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention. By public and private means, Müller, and later Norwegian military physician Hans Daae (who had received a copy of Müller's book), advocated Dunant's case to the Nobel committee over the course of 4 years. The award was jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization. The official congratulations which he received from the International Committee finally represented the rehabilitation of Dunant's reputation:",
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"plaintext": "\"There is no man who more deserves this honour, for it was you, forty years ago, who set on foot the international organization for the relief of the wounded on the battlefield. Without you, the Red Cross, the supreme humanitarian achievement of the nineteenth century would probably have never been undertaken.\"",
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"plaintext": "Moynier and the International Committee as a whole had also been nominated for the prize. Although Dunant was supported by a broad spectrum in the selection process, he was still a controversial candidate. Some argued that the Red Cross and the Geneva Convention had made war more attractive and imaginable by eliminating some of its suffering. Therefore, Müller, in a letter to the committee, argued that the prize should be divided between Dunant and Passy, who for some time in the debate had been the leading candidate to be the sole recipient of the prize. Müller also suggested that if a prize were to be warranted for Dunant, it should be given immediately because of his advanced age and ill health.",
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"plaintext": "By dividing the prize between Passy, a pacifist, and Dunant, a humanitarian, the Nobel Committee set a precedent for the conditions of the Nobel Peace Prize selection which would have significant consequences in later years. A section of Nobel's will had indicated that the prize should go to an individual who had worked to reduce or eliminate standing armies, or directly to promote peace conferences, which made Passy a natural choice for his peace work. On the other hand, the arguably distinct bestowal for humanitarian effort alone was seen by some as a wide interpretation of Nobel's will. However, another part of Nobel's testament marked the prize for the individual who had best enhanced the \"brotherhood of people,\" which could be interpreted more generally as seeing humanitarian work like Dunant's as connected to peacemaking as well. Many recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize in later years can be assigned to either of these two categories first roughly established by the Nobel committee's decision in 1901.",
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"plaintext": "Hans Daae succeeded in placing Dunant's part of the prize money, 104,000 Swiss Francs, in a Norwegian Bank and preventing access by his creditors. Dunant himself never spent any of the money during his lifetime, continuing to live simply and reserving it for bequests in his will to those who cared for him and charitable causes.",
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"plaintext": "Among several other awards in the following years, in 1903 Dunant was given an honorary doctorate by the medical faculty of the University of Heidelberg. He lived in the nursing home in Heiden until his death. In the final years of his life, he suffered from depression and paranoia about pursuit by his creditors and Moynier. There were even days when Dunant insisted that the cook of the nursing home first taste his food before his eyes to protect him against possible poisoning. In his final years, he spurned and attacked Calvinism and organized religion generally. He was said to be agnostic.",
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"plaintext": "According to his nurses, the final act of his life was to send a copy of Müller's book to the Italian queen with a personal dedication. He died on 30 October 1910, and his final words were \"Where has humanity gone?\"",
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"plaintext": "According to his wishes, he was buried without ceremony in the Sihlfeld Cemetery in Zurich. In his will, he donated funds to secure a \"free bed\" in the Heiden nursing home always to be available for a poor citizen of the region and deeded some money to friends and charitable organizations in Norway and Switzerland. The remaining funds went to his creditors partially relieving his debt; his inability to fully erase his debts was a major burden to him until his death.",
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"plaintext": "His birthday, 8 May, is celebrated as the World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day. The former nursing home in Heiden now houses the Henry Dunant Museum. In Geneva and other places there are numerous streets, squares, and schools named after him. The Henry Dunant Medal, awarded every two years by the standing commission of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is its highest decoration.",
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"plaintext": "His life is represented, with some fictional elements, in the film D'homme à hommes (1948), starring Jean-Louis Barrault, and the period of his life when the Red Cross was founded in the international film coproduction Henry Dunant: Red on the Cross (2006). In 2010 the Takarazuka Revue staged a musical based on his time in Solferino and the founding of the Red Cross entitled Dawn at Solferino, or Where has Humanity Gone?.",
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"plaintext": " In honor of Henry Dunant, the second highest peak in Switzerland was renamed from to (Peak Dunant) by Swiss Federal President Didier Burkhalter on 6 October 2014.",
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"plaintext": " Henry Dunant Hospital is a general hospital in Athens, Greece.",
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"plaintext": " Henry Dunant: Red on the Cross (fr. Henry Dunant: Rouge sur la Croix), 2006. French/Swiss/Austria co-production starring Thomas Jouannet written by Claude-Michel Rome directed by Dominique Othenin-Girard.",
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"plaintext": " Man to Men (fr. D'homme à hommes) a 1948 French-Swiss historical drama film directed by Christian-Jaque and starring Jean-Louis Barrault, Bernard Blier and Hélène Perdrière.",
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"plaintext": "Libby, Violet Kelway, Henry Dunant: Prophet of Peace. Pageant Press, Inc., New York, 1964.",
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36,847 | 1,106,650,707 | Sports_governing_body | [
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"plaintext": "changes in the sport that they govern. Governing bodies have different scopes. They may cover a range of sport at an international level, such as the International Olympic Committee and the International Paralympic Committee, or only a single sport at a national level, such as the Rugby Football League. National bodies will largely have to be affiliated with international bodies for the same sport. The first international federations were formed at the end of the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "International sports federations are non-governmental non-profit organizations for a given sport (or a group of similar sport disciplines, such as aquatics or skiing) and administers its sport at the highest level. These federations work to create a common set of rules, promote their sport, and organize international competitions. International sports federations represent their sport at the Olympic level where applicable.",
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"plaintext": "Multi-sport event organizers are responsible for the organization of an event that includes more than one sport. The best-known example is the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the organizer of the modern Olympic Games. General sports organizations are responsible for sports-related topics, usually for a certain group, such as the Catholic or Jewish sports groups. General sports organizations can also exist for the army and other groups, but they usually are medium-sized, as they do not have that much of a budget to work with.",
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"plaintext": "A 2014 study by the Institute for Human Rights and Business criticized major sports governing bodies including the IOC and FIFA for not having sufficient provisions for human and labor rights.",
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"plaintext": "A Trans-ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, ECOWAS unveiled its Ecotour Action Plan 2019 – 2029. It focuses on tourism heritage protection and development, and on the development of standards, regulations and control systems.",
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"plaintext": "Paweł Jasienica was the pen name of Leon Lech Beynar (10 November 1909 – 19 August 1970), a Polish historian, journalist, essayist and soldier.",
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"plaintext": "Jasienica became an outspoken critic of the censorship in the People's Republic of Poland, and as a notable dissident, he was persecuted by the government. He was subject to significant invigilation (oversight) by the security services, and his second wife was in fact an agent of the communist secret police. For a brief period marking the end of his life, his books were prohibited from being distributed or printed.",
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"plaintext": "Beynar was born on 10 November 1909 in Simbirsk, Russia, to Polish parents, Mikołaj Beynar and Helena Maliszewska. His paternal grandfather, Ludwik Beynar, fought in the January Uprising and married a Spanish woman, Joanna Adela Feugas. His maternal grandfather, Wiktor Maliszewski, fought in the November uprising. Both of his grandfathers eventually settled in the Russian Empire. His father, Mikołaj, worked as an agronomist. Beynar's family lived in Russia and Ukrainethey moved from Simbirsk to a location near Bila Tserkva and Uman, then to Kyiv until the Russian Revolution of 1917, after which they decided to settle in the independent Poland. After brief stay in Warsaw, during the Polish–Soviet War, his family settled in Opatów, and in 1924, moved to Grodno.",
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"plaintext": "Beynar graduated from gymnasium (secondary school) in Wilno (Vilnius) and graduated in history from Stefan Batory University in Wilno (his thesis concerned the January Uprising). At the university he was an active member of several organizations including Klub Intelektualistów (Intellectuals' Club) and Akademicki Klub Włóczęgów (Academic Club of Vagabonds). After graduating, he finished training for the officer cadet (podchorąży) in the Polish Army. From 1928 to 1937 he lived in Grodno, where he worked as a history teacher in a gymnasium; later he was employed as an announcer for Polish Radio Wilno. Here also, Beynar embarked on his career as author and essayist, writing for a Vilnius conservative newspaper, Słowo (The Word). On 11 November 1934 he married Władysława Adamowicz, and in 1938 his daughter Ewa was born. In 1935 he published his first history book – about King Sigismund II Augustus, Zygmunt August na ziemiach dawnego Wielkiego Księstwa (Sigismund Augustus on the Lands of the Former Grand Duchy [of Lithuania]).",
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"plaintext": "In addition to historical books, Jasienica, wrote a series of essays about archeology – (Slavic genealogy; 1961) and (Archeological excerpts: reports; 1956), journalistic travel reports () and science and technology (). Those works were mostly created around the 1950s and 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Polish historian Henryk Samsonowicz echoes Michnik's essay in his introduction to a recent (2008) edition of Trzej kronikarze, describing Jasienica as a person who did much to popularize Polish history. Hungarian historian Balázs Trencsényi notes that \"Jasienica's impact of the formation of the popular interpretation of Polish history is hard to overestimate\". British historian Norman Davies, himself an author of a popular account of Polish history (God's Playground), notes that Jasienica, while more of \"a historical writer than an academic historian\", had \"formidable talents\", gained \"much popularity\" and that his works would find no equals in the time of communist Poland. Samsonowicz notes that Jasienica \"was a brave writer\", going against prevailing system, and willing to propose new hypotheses and reinterpret history in innovative ways. Michnik notes how Jasienica was willing to write about Polish mistakes, for example in the treatment of Cossacks. Ukrainian historian Stephen Velychenko also positively commented on Jasienica's extensive coverage of the Polish-Ukrainian history. Both Michnik and Samsonowicz note how Jasienica's works contain hidden messages in which Jasienica discusses more contemporary history, such as in his Rozważania....",
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"plaintext": " (It's about Poland; 1956)",
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"plaintext": " (Traces of battles; 1957; latest Polish edition 2009; )",
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"plaintext": " (Country at Yangtze; 1957; latest Polish edition from 2008 uses the Kraj na Jangcy title; )",
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"plaintext": " (1960; latest Polish edition 2007; ), translated as Piast Poland (1985; )",
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"plaintext": " (1963; latest Polish edition 2007; ), translated as Jagiellonian Poland (1978; )",
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"plaintext": " (1967–1972), translated as The Commonwealth of Both Nations; 1987, ), often published in three separate volumes:",
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"plaintext": " (1967; latest Polish edition 2007; ), translated as The Commonwealth of Both Nations I: The Silver Age (1992; )",
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"plaintext": " (1967; latest Polish edition 2007; )), translated as '''The Commonwealth of Both Nations II: Calamity of the Realm (1992; )",
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"plaintext": " (1972; latest Polish edition 2007; ), translated as The Commonwealth of Both Nations III: A Tale of Agony (1992; )",
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"plaintext": "Medals:",
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"plaintext": " Wiaderny, Bernard Paweł Jasienica: Fragment biografii, wrzesien 1939 – brygada Łupaszki, 1945 (Paweł Jasienica: Fragment of a Biography, September 1939 – Łupaszko's Brigade, 1945); Warsaw, Antyk",
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"plaintext": "Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () (chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, with currently about 69,963 species described. Vertebrates comprise such groups as the following:",
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"plaintext": "All basal vertebrates breathe with gills. The gills are carried right behind the head, bordering the posterior margins of a series of openings from the pharynx to the exterior. Each gill is supported by a cartilagenous or bony gill arch. The bony fish have three pairs of arches, cartilaginous fish have five to seven pairs, while the primitive jawless fish have seven. The vertebrate ancestor no doubt had more arches than this, as some of their chordate relatives have more than 50 pairs of gills.",
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"plaintext": "In amphibians and some primitive bony fishes, the larvae bear external gills, branching off from the gill arches. These are reduced in adulthood, their function taken over by the gills proper in fishes and by lungs in most amphibians. Some amphibians retain the external larval gills in adulthood, the complex internal gill system as seen in fish apparently being irrevocably lost very early in the evolution of tetrapods.",
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"plaintext": "While the more derived vertebrates lack gills, the gill arches form during fetal development, and form the basis of essential structures such as jaws, the thyroid gland, the larynx, the columella (corresponding to the stapes in mammals) and, in mammals, the malleus and incus.",
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"plaintext": "The central nervous system of vertebrates is based on a hollow nerve cord running along the length of the animal. Of particular importance and unique to vertebrates is the presence of neural crest cells. These are progenitors of stem cells, and critical to coordinating the functions of cellular components. Neural crest cells migrate through the body from the nerve cord during development, and initiate the formation of neural ganglia and structures such as the jaws and skull.",
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"plaintext": "The vertebrates are the only chordate group with neural cephalisation, the concentration of brain functions in the head. A slight swelling of the anterior end of the nerve cord is found in the lancelet, a chordate, though it lacks the eyes and other complex sense organs comparable to those of vertebrates. Other chordates do not show any trends towards cephalisation.",
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"plaintext": "A peripheral nervous system branches out from the nerve cord to innervate the various systems. The front end of the nerve tube is expanded by a thickening of the walls and expansion of the central canal of spinal cord into three primary brain vesicles: The prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencephalon (midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain), further differentiated in the various vertebrate groups. Two laterally placed eyes form around outgrowths from the midbrain, except in hagfish, though this may be a secondary loss. The forebrain is well-developed and subdivided in most tetrapods, while the midbrain dominates in many fish and some salamanders. Vesicles of the forebrain are usually paired, giving rise to hemispheres like the cerebral hemispheres in mammals.",
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"plaintext": "The resulting anatomy of the central nervous system, with a single hollow nerve cord topped by a series of (often paired) vesicles, is unique to vertebrates. All invertebrates with well-developed brains, such as insects, spiders and squids, have a ventral rather than dorsal system of ganglions, with a split brain stem running on each side of the mouth or gut.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the morphological characteristics used to define vertebrates (i.e. the presence of a notochord, the development of a vertebral column from the notochord, a dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal gills, a post-anal tail, etc.), molecular markers known as conserved signature indels (CSIs) in protein sequences have been identified and provide distinguishing criteria for the subphylum Vertebrata. Specifically, 5 CSIs in the following proteins: protein synthesis elongation factor-2 (EF-2), eukaryotic translational initiation factor 3 (Euk IF-3), adenosine kinase (AdK) and a protein related to ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase are exclusively shared by all vertebrates and reliably distinguish them from all other metazoan. The CSIs in these protein sequences are predicted to have important functionality in vertebrates.",
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"plaintext": "A specific relationship between Vertebrates and Tunicates is also strongly supported by two CSIs found in the proteins predicted exosome complex RRP44 and serine palmitoyltransferase, that are exclusively shared by species from these two subphyla but not Cephalochordates, indicating Vertebrates are more closely related to Tunicates than Cephalochordates. ",
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"plaintext": "Originally, the \"Notochordata hypothesis\" suggested that the Cephalochordata is the sister taxon to Craniata (Vertebrata). This group, called the Notochordata, was placed as sister group to the Tunicata (Urochordata). Although this was once the leading hypothesis, studies since 2006 analyzing large sequencing datasets strongly support Olfactores (tunicates + vertebrates) as a monophyletic clade, and the placement of Cephalochordata as sister-group to Olfactores (known as the \"Olfactores hypothesis\"). As chordates, they all share the presence of a notochord, at least during a stage of their life cycle.",
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"plaintext": "The following cladogram summarizes the systematic relationships between the Olfactores (vertebrates and tunicates) and the Cephalochordata.",
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"plaintext": "Vertebrates originated during the Cambrian explosion, which saw a rise in organism diversity. The earliest known vertebrates belongs to the Chengjiang biota and lived about 518 million years ago. These include Haikouichthys, Myllokunmingia, Zhongjianichthys, and probably Haikouella. Unlike the other fauna that dominated the Cambrian, these groups had the basic vertebrate body plan: a notochord, rudimentary vertebrae, and a well-defined head and tail. All of these early vertebrates lacked jaws in the common sense and relied on filter feeding close to the seabed. A vertebrate group of uncertain phylogeny, small eel-like conodonts, are known from microfossils of their paired tooth segments from the late Cambrian to the end of the Triassic.",
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"plaintext": "The first jawed vertebrates may have appeared in the late Ordovician (~445 mya) and became common in the Devonian, often known as the \"Age of Fishes\". The two groups of bony fishes, the actinopterygii and sarcopterygii, evolved and became common. The Devonian also saw the demise of virtually all jawless fishes save for lampreys and hagfish, as well as the Placodermi, a group of armoured fish that dominated the entirety of that period since the late Silurian as well as the eurypterids, dominant animals of the preceding Silurian, and the anomalocarids. By the middle of the Devonian, several droughts and anoxic events as well as oceanic competition will lead a lineage of sarcopterygii to leave water, eventually establishing themselves as terrestrial tetrapods in the succeeding Carboniferous.",
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"plaintext": "Amniotes branched from amphibious tetrapods early in the Carboniferous period. The synapsid amniotes were dominant during the late Paleozoic, the Permian, while diapsid amniotes became dominant during the Mesozoic. In the sea, the teleosts and sharks became dominant. Mesothermic synapsids called cynodonts gave rise to endothermic mammals and diapsids called dinosaurs eventually gave rise to endothermic birds, both in the Jurassic. After all dinosaurs except birds went extinct by the end of the Cretaceous, birds and mammals diversified and filled their niches.",
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"plaintext": "The Cenozoic world has seen great diversification of bony fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.",
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"plaintext": "Over half of all living vertebrate species (about 32,000 species) are fish (non-tetrapod craniates), a diverse set of lineages that inhabit all the world's aquatic ecosystems, from snow minnows (Cypriniformes) in Himalayan lakes at elevations over to flatfishes (order Pleuronectiformes) in the Challenger Deep, the deepest ocean trench at about . Fishes of myriad varieties are the main predators in most of the world's water bodies, both freshwater and marine. The rest of the vertebrate species are tetrapods, a single lineage that includes amphibians (with roughly 7,000 species); mammals (with approximately 5,500 species); and reptiles and birds (with about 20,000 species divided evenly between the two classes). Tetrapods comprise the dominant megafauna of most terrestrial environments and also include many partially or fully aquatic groups (e.g., sea snakes, penguins, cetaceans).",
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"plaintext": "There are several ways of classifying animals. Evolutionary systematics relies on anatomy, physiology and evolutionary history, which is determined through similarities in anatomy and, if possible, the genetics of organisms. Phylogenetic classification is based solely on phylogeny. Evolutionary systematics gives an overview; phylogenetic systematics gives detail. The two systems are thus complementary rather than opposed.",
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"plaintext": "Conventional classification has living vertebrates grouped into seven classes based on traditional interpretations of gross anatomical and physiological traits. This classification is the one most commonly encountered in school textbooks, overviews, non-specialist, and popular works. The extant vertebrates are:",
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"plaintext": " Subphylum Vertebrata",
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{
"plaintext": " Class Agnatha (jawless fishes)",
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"plaintext": " Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)",
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"plaintext": " Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes)",
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"plaintext": " Class Amphibia (amphibians)",
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"plaintext": " Class Reptilia (reptiles)",
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"plaintext": " Class Aves (birds)",
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"plaintext": " Class Mammalia (mammals)",
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"plaintext": "In addition to these, there are two classes of extinct armoured fishes, the Placodermi and the Acanthodii, both of which are considered paraphyletic.",
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"plaintext": "Other ways of classifying the vertebrates have been devised, particularly with emphasis on the phylogeny of early amphibians and reptiles. An example based on Janvier (1981, 1997), Shu et al. (2003), and Benton (2004) is given here († = extinct):",
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"plaintext": " Subphylum Vertebrata",
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{
"plaintext": "Palaeospondylus",
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"plaintext": " Infraphylum Agnatha or Cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys and other jawless fishes)",
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"plaintext": "Superclass Anaspidomorphi (anaspids and relatives)",
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"plaintext": " Infraphylum Gnathostomata (vertebrates with jaws)",
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"plaintext": " Class Placodermi (extinct armoured fishes)",
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"plaintext": " Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)",
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"plaintext": " Class Acanthodii (extinct spiny \"sharks\")",
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"plaintext": " Superclass Osteichthyes (bony vertebrates)",
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"plaintext": " Class Actinopterygii (ray-finned bony fishes)",
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"plaintext": " Class Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes, including the tetrapods)",
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"plaintext": " Superclass Tetrapoda (four-limbed vertebrates)",
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"plaintext": " Class Amphibia (amphibians, some ancestral to the amniotes)—now a paraphyletic group",
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"plaintext": " Class Synapsida (mammals and the extinct mammal-like reptiles)",
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"plaintext": " Class Sauropsida (reptiles and birds)",
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"plaintext": "While this traditional classification is orderly, most of the groups are paraphyletic, i.e. do not contain all descendants of the class's common ancestor. For instance, descendants of the first reptiles include modern reptiles as well as mammals and birds; the agnathans have given rise to the jawed vertebrates; the bony fishes have given rise to the land vertebrates; the traditional \"amphibians\" have given rise to the reptiles (traditionally including the synapsids or mammal-like \"reptiles\"), which in turn have given rise to the mammals and birds. Most scientists working with vertebrates use a classification based purely on phylogeny, organized by their known evolutionary history and sometimes disregarding the conventional interpretations of their anatomy and physiology.",
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"plaintext": "In phylogenetic taxonomy, the relationships between animals are not typically divided into ranks but illustrated as a nested \"family tree\" known as a phylogenetic tree. The cladogram below is based on studies compiled by Philippe Janvier and others for the Tree of Life Web Project and Delsuc et al., and complemented (based on, and ). A dagger (†) denotes an extinct clade, whereas all other clades have living descendants.",
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"plaintext": "Note that, as shown in the cladogram above, the †\"Acanthodii\" (\"spiny sharks\") were shown to be either a paraphyletic or a polyphyletic group, with some taxa being more closely related with cartilaginous fish, others more closely related with bony fish, and again others being more basal on the tree of life. Similarly, the †\"Ostracodermi\" (armoured jawless fishes) and †\"Placodermi\" (armoured jawed fishes) are not anymore considered monophyletic groups.",
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"plaintext": "Also note that Teleostei (Neopterygii) and Tetrapoda (amphibians, mammals, reptiles, birds) each make up about 50% of today's vertebrate diversity, while all other groups are either extinct or rare. The next cladogram shows the extant clades of tetrapods (the four-limbed vertebrates), and a selection of extinct (†) groups:",
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"plaintext": "Note that reptile-like amphibians, mammal-like reptiles, and non-avian dinosaurs are all paraphyletic.",
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"plaintext": "The placement of hagfish on the vertebrate tree of life has been controversial. Their lack of proper vertebrae (among with other characteristics found in lampreys and jawed vertebrates) led phylogenetic analyses based on morphology to place them outside Vertebrata. Molecular data, however, indicates they are vertebrates closely related to lampreys. A study by Miyashita et al. (2019), 'reconciliated' the two types of analysis as it supports the Cyclostomata hypothesis using only morphological data.",
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"plaintext": "The number of described vertebrate species are split between tetrapods and fish. The following table lists the number of described extant species for each vertebrate class as estimated in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, 2014.3.",
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"section_name": "Number of extant species",
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"plaintext": "The IUCN estimates that 1,305,075 extant invertebrate species have been described, which means that less than 5% of the described animal species in the world are vertebrates.",
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"plaintext": "The following databases maintain (more or less) up-to-date lists of vertebrate species:",
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},
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"plaintext": " Fish: Fishbase",
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"plaintext": " Amphibians: Amphibiaweb",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Reptiles: Reptile Database",
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"plaintext": " Birds: Avibase",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mammals: Mammal species of the World",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Nearly all vertebrates undergo sexual reproduction. They produce haploid gametes by meiosis. The smaller, motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger, non-motile gametes are ova. These fuse by the process of fertilisation to form diploid zygotes, which develop into new individuals.",
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"plaintext": "During sexual reproduction, mating with a close relative (inbreeding) often leads to inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is considered to be largely due to expression of deleterious recessive mutations. The effects of inbreeding have been studied in many vertebrate species.",
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"plaintext": "In several species of fish, inbreeding was found to decrease reproductive success.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Inbreeding was observed to increase juvenile mortality in 11 small animal species.",
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},
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"plaintext": "A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings). This practice generally has a negative effect on measures of reproductive success, including decreased litter size and puppy survival.",
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"plaintext": "Incestuous matings in birds result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (e.g. reduction in hatchability of eggs and reduced progeny survival).",
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"plaintext": "As a result of the negative fitness consequences of inbreeding, vertebrate species have evolved mechanisms to avoid inbreeding.",
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"plaintext": "Numerous inbreeding avoidance mechanisms operating prior to mating have been described. Toads and many other amphibians display breeding site fidelity. Individuals that return to natal ponds to breed will likely encounter siblings as potential mates. Although incest is possible, Bufo americanus siblings rarely mate. These toads likely recognize and actively avoid close kin as mates. Advertisement vocalizations by males appear to serve as cues by which females recognize their kin.",
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"plaintext": "Inbreeding avoidance mechanisms can also operate subsequent to copulation. In guppies, a post-copulatory mechanism of inbreeding avoidance occurs based on competition between sperm of rival males for achieving fertilization. In competitions between sperm from an unrelated male and from a full sibling male, a significant bias in paternity towards the unrelated male was observed.",
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"plaintext": "When female sand lizards mate with two or more males, sperm competition within the female's reproductive tract may occur. Active selection of sperm by females appears to occur in a manner that enhances female fitness. On the basis of this selective process, the sperm of males that are more distantly related to the female are preferentially used for fertilization, rather than the sperm of close relatives. This preference may enhance the fitness of progeny by reducing inbreeding depression.",
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"plaintext": "Mating with unrelated or distantly related members of the same species is generally thought to provide the advantage of masking deleterious recessive mutations in progeny (see heterosis). Vertebrates have evolved numerous diverse mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding and promoting outcrossing (see inbreeding avoidance).",
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"plaintext": "Outcrossing as a way of avoiding inbreeding depression has been especially well studied in birds. For instance, inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit (Parus major) when the offspring are produced as a result of a mating between close relatives. In natural populations of the great tit, inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace, which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative.",
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"plaintext": "Purple-crowned fairywren females paired with related males may undertake extra-pair matings that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding, despite ecological and demographic constraints.",
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"plaintext": "Southern pied babblers (Turdoides bicolor) appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways: through dispersal and by avoiding familiar group members as mates. Although both males and females disperse locally, they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered. Within their group, individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite-sex breeder is unrelated.",
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"plaintext": "Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently or to join unrelated groups.",
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"plaintext": "Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Reproduction in squamate reptiles is ordinarily sexual, with males having a ZZ pair of sex determining chromosomes, and females a ZW pair. However, various species, including the Colombian Rainbow boa (Epicrates maurus), Agkistrodon contortrix (copperhead snake) and Agkistrodon piscivorus (cotton mouth snake) can also reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis—that is, they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode—resulting in production of WW female progeny. The WW females are likely produced by terminal automixis.",
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"plaintext": "Mole salamanders are an ancient (2.4–3.8million year-old) unisexual vertebrate lineage. In the polyploid unisexual mole salamander females, a premeiotic endomitotic event doubles the number of chromosomes. As a result, the mature eggs produced subsequent to the two meiotic divisions have the same ploidy as the somatic cells of the female salamander. Synapsis and recombination during meiotic prophase I in these unisexual females is thought to ordinarily occur between identical sister chromosomes and occasionally between homologous chromosomes. Thus little, if any, genetic variation is produced. Recombination between homeologous chromosomes occurs only rarely, if at all. Since production of genetic variation is weak, at best, it is unlikely to provide a benefit sufficient to account for the long-term maintenance of meiosis in these organisms.",
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"plaintext": "Two killifish species, the mangrove killifish (Kryptolebias marmoratus) and Kryptolebias hermaphroditus, are the only known vertebrates to self-fertilize. They produce both eggs and sperm by meiosis and routinely reproduce by self-fertilisation. This capacity has apparently persisted for at least several hundred thousand years. Each individual hermaphrodite normally fertilizes itself through uniting inside the fish's body of an egg and a sperm that it has produced by an internal organ. In nature, this mode of reproduction can yield highly homozygous lines composed of individuals so genetically uniform as to be, in effect, identical to one another. Although inbreeding, especially in the extreme form of self-fertilization, is ordinarily regarded as detrimental because it leads to expression of deleterious recessive alleles, self-fertilization does provide the benefit of fertilization assurance (reproductive assurance) at each generation.",
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"plaintext": "The Living Planet Index, following 16,704 populations of 4,005 species of vertebrates, shows a decline of 60% between 1970 and 2014. Since 1970, freshwater species declined 83%, and tropical populations in South and Central America declined 89%. The authors note that, \"An average trend in population change is not an average of total numbers of animals lost.\" According to WWF, this could lead to a sixth major extinction event. The five main causes of biodiversity loss are land-use change, overexploitation of natural resources, climate change, pollution and invasive species.",
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"plaintext": " Exoskeleton",
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"plaintext": " Tree of Life",
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},
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"plaintext": " Tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates",
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},
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"plaintext": "Vertebrate Pests chapter in United States Environmental Protection Agency and University of Florida/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences National Public Health Pesticide Applicator Training Manual",
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"plaintext": " The Vertebrates",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Origin of Vertebrates Marc W. Kirschner, iBioSeminars, 2008.",
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| [
"Vertebrates",
"Terreneuvian_first_appearances",
"Extant_Cambrian_first_appearances"
]
| 25,241 | 36,585 | 3,024 | 333 | 0 | 0 | Vertebrata | subphylum of chordates | [
"animals with backbone",
"subphylum vertebrate",
"vertibrate",
"vertebrates",
"subphylum Vertebrata",
"vertebrate"
]
|
36,857 | 1,097,952,909 | Thrace | [
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"plaintext": "Thrace (; ; ; ) or Thrake is a geographical and historical region in Southeast Europe, now split among Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, which is bounded by the Balkan Mountains to the north, the Aegean Sea to the south, and the Black Sea to the east. It comprises southeastern Bulgaria (Northern Thrace), northeastern Greece (Western Thrace), and the European part of Turkey (East Thrace). The region's boundaries are based on that of the Roman Province of Thrace; the lands inhabited by the ancient Thracians extended in the north to modern-day Northern Bulgaria and Romania and to the west into the region of Macedonia.",
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"plaintext": "The word Thrace was first used by the Greeks when referring to the Thracian tribes, from ancient Greek Thrake (Θρᾴκη), descending from Thrāix (Θρᾷξ). It referred originally to the Thracians, an ancient people inhabiting Southeast Europe. The name Europe first referred to Thrace proper, prior to the term vastly extending to refer to its modern concept. The region could have been named after the principal river there, Hebros, possibly from the Indo-European arg \"white river\" (the opposite of Vardar, meaning \"black river\"), According to an alternative theory, Hebros means \"goat\" in Thracian.",
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"plaintext": "In Turkey, it is commonly referred to as Rumeli, Land of the Romans, owing to this region being the last part of the Eastern Roman Empire that was conquered by the Ottoman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of ancient Greek mythology the name appears to derive from the heroine and sorceress Thrace, who was the daughter of Oceanus and Parthenope, and sister of Europa.",
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"plaintext": "The historical boundaries of Thrace have varied. The ancient Greeks employed the term \"Thrace\" to refer to all of the territory which lay north of Thessaly inhabited by the Thracians,<ref>{{cite book |first=Thomas |last=Swinburne Carr |title=The history and geography of Greece |publisher=Simpkin, Marshall & Company |page=56 |url= |year=1838 }}</ref> a region which \"had no definite boundaries\" and to which other regions (like Macedonia and even Scythia) were added. In one ancient Greek source, the very Earth is divided into \"Asia, Libya, Europa and Thracia\". As the Greeks gained knowledge of world geography, \"Thrace\" came to designate the area bordered by the Danube on the north, by the Euxine Sea (Black Sea) on the east, by northern Macedonia in the south and by Illyria to the west. This largely coincided with the Thracian Odrysian kingdom, whose borders varied over time. After the Macedonian conquest, this region's former border with Macedonia was shifted from the Struma River to the Mesta River. This usage lasted until the Roman conquest. Henceforth, (classical) Thrace referred only to the tract of land largely covering the same extent of space as the modern geographical region. In its early period, the Roman province of Thrace was of this extent, but after the administrative reforms of the late 3rd century, Thracia's much reduced territory became the six small provinces which constituted the Diocese of Thrace. The medieval Byzantine theme of Thrace contained only what today is East Thrace.",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greek mythology provides the Thracians with a mythical ancestor Thrax, the son of the war-god Ares, who was said to reside in Thrace. The Thracians appear in Homer's Iliad as Trojan allies, led by Acamas and Peiros. Later in the Iliad, Rhesus, another Thracian king, makes an appearance. Cisseus, father-in-law to the Trojan elder Antenor, is also given as a Thracian king.",
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"plaintext": "Homeric Thrace was vaguely defined, and stretched from the River Axios in the west to the Hellespont and Black Sea in the east. The Catalogue of Ships mentions three separate contingents from Thrace: Thracians led by Acamas and Peiros, from Aenus; Cicones led by Euphemus, from southern Thrace, near Ismaros; and from the city of Sestus, on the Thracian (northern) side of the Hellespont, which formed part of the contingent led by Asius. Ancient Thrace was home to numerous other tribes, such as the Edones, Bisaltae, Cicones, and Bistones in addition to the tribe that Homer specifically calls the \"Thracians\".",
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"plaintext": "Greek mythology is replete with Thracian kings, including Diomedes, Tereus, Lycurgus, Phineus, Tegyrius, Eumolpus, Polymnestor, Poltys, and Oeagrus (father of Orpheus).",
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"plaintext": "Thrace is mentioned in Ovid's Metamorphoses, in the episode of Philomela, Procne, and Tereus: Tereus, the King of Thrace, lusts after his sister-in-law, Philomela. He kidnaps her, holds her captive, rapes her, and cuts out her tongue. Philomela manages to get free, however. She and her sister, Procne, plot to get revenge, by killing her son Itys (by Tereus) and serving him to his father for dinner. At the end of the myth, all three turn into birds Procne into a swallow, Philomela into a nightingale, and Tereus into a hoopoe.",
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"plaintext": "The Dicaea city in Thrace was named after, the son of Poseidon, Dicaeus.",
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"plaintext": "The indigenous population of Thrace was a people called the Thracians, divided into numerous tribal groups. Of the firsts to take control of Thracia, in part or whole, were the Achaemenian Persians late into the 6th century BC. The region was incorporated into the empire as the Satrapy of Skudra following the Scythian campaign of Darius the Great. Thracian soldiers were known to be used in the Persian armies and Thracian soldiers are depicted on the rock carvings of the Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam as well. Persians' presence in Thracia lasted for more than a century, but by the end of the 4th century BC, Alexander of Macedon had overthrown the Persians, dividing the acquired vast realm between his generals. Notably, Thracian troops are known to have accompanied Alexander when he crossed the Hellespont which abuts Thrace, during the invasion of the Persian Empire itself.",
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"plaintext": "The Thracians did not describe themselves by name; terms such as Thrace and Thracians are simply the names given them by the Greeks.",
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"plaintext": "Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not form any lasting political organizations until the founding of the Odrysian state in the 4th century BC. Like Illyrians, the locally ruled Thracian tribes of the mountainous regions maintained a warrior tradition, while the tribes based in the plains were purportedly more peaceable. Recently discovered funeral mounds in Bulgaria suggest that Thracian kings did rule regions of Thrace with distinct Thracian national identity.",
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"plaintext": "During this period, a subculture of celibate ascetics called the Ctistae lived in Thrace, where they served as philosophers, priests, and prophets.",
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"plaintext": "Sections of Thrace particularly in the south started to become hellenized before the Peloponnesian War as Athenian and Ionian colonies were set up in Thrace before the war. Spartan and other Doric colonists followed them after the war. The special interest of Athens to Thrace is underlined by the numerous finds of Athenian silverware in Thracian tombs. In 168 BC, after the Third Macedonian war and the subjugation of Macedonia to the Romans, Thrace also lost its independence and became tributary to Rome. Towards the end of the 1st century BC Thrace lost its status as a client kingdom as the Romans began to directly appoint their kings. This situation lasted until 46 AD, when the Romans finally turned Thrace into a Roman province (Romana provincia Thracia).",
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"plaintext": "During the Roman domination, within the geographical borders of ancient Thrace, there were two separate Roman provinces, namely Thrace (\"provincia Thracia\") and Lower Moesia (\"Moesia inferior\"). Later, in the times of Diocletian, the two provinces were joined and formed the so-called \"Dioecesis Thracia\". The establishment of Roman colonies and mostly several Greek cities, as was Nicopolis, Topeiros, Traianoupolis, Plotinoupolis, and Hadrianoupolis resulted from the Roman Empire's urbanization. The Roman provincial policy in Thrace favored mainly not the Romanization but the Hellenization of the country, which had started as early as the Archaic period through the Greek colonisation and was completed by the end of Roman antiquity. As regards the competition between the Greek and Latin language, the very high rate of Greek inscriptions in Thrace extending south of Haemus Mountains proves the complete language Hellenization of this region. The boundaries between the Greek and Latin speaking Thrace are placed just above the northern foothills of Haemus Mountains.",
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"plaintext": "During the imperial period many Thracians – particularly members of the local aristocracy of the cities – had been granted the right of the Roman citizenship (civitas Romana) with all its privileges. Epigraphic evidence show a large increase in such naturalizations in the times of Trajan and Hadrian, while in 212 AD the emperor Caracalla granted, with his well-known decree (constitutio Antoniniana), the Roman citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "During the same period (in the 1st-2nd century AD), a remarkable presence of Thracians is testified by the inscriptions outside the borders (extra fines) both in the Greek territory and in all the Roman provinces, especially in the provinces of Eastern Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "By the mid 5th century, as the Western Roman Empire began to crumble, Thracia fell from the authority of Rome and into the hands of Germanic tribal rulers. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Thracia turned into a battleground territory for the better part of the next 1,000 years. The surviving eastern portion of the Roman Empire in the Balkans, later known as the Byzantine Empire, retained control over Thrace until the 7th century when the northern half of the entire region was incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire and the remainder was reorganized in the Thracian theme. The Empire regained the lost regions in the late 10th century until the Bulgarians regained control of the northern half at the end of the 12th century. Throughout the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, the region was changing in the hands of the Bulgarian and the Byzantine Empire (excluding Constantinople). In 1265 the area suffered a Mongol raid from the Golden Horde, led by Nogai Khan, and between 1305 and 1307 was raided by the Catalan company.",
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"plaintext": "In 1352, the Ottoman Turks conducted their first incursion into the region subduing it completely within a matter of two decades and ruled it for five centuries in general peace. In 1821, several parts of Thrace, such as Lavara, Maroneia, Sozopolis, Aenos, Callipolis, and Samothraki rebelled during the Greek War of Independence.",
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"plaintext": "With the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Northern Thrace was incorporated into the semi-autonomous Ottoman province of Eastern Rumelia, which united with Bulgaria in 1885. The rest of Thrace was divided among Bulgaria, Greece and Turkey at the beginning of the 20th century, following the Balkan Wars, World War I and the Greco-Turkish War. In Summer 1934, up to 10,000 Jews were maltreated, bereaved, and then forced to quit the region (see 1934 Thrace pogroms).",
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"plaintext": "Today, Thracian is a geographical term used in Greece, Turkey, and Bulgaria.",
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"plaintext": "Orpheus was, in Ancient Greek mythology, the chief representative of the art of song and playing the lyre.",
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"plaintext": "Protagoras was a Greek philosopher from Abdera, Thrace (c.490–420 BC.) An expert in rhetorics and subjects connected to virtue and political life, often regarded as the first sophist. He is known primarily for three claims: (1) that man is the measure of all things, often interpreted as a sort of moral relativism, (2) that he could make the \"worse (or weaker) argument appear the better (or stronger)\" (see Sophism), and (3) that one could not tell if the gods existed or not (see Agnosticism).",
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"plaintext": "Herodicus was a Greek physician of the fifth century BC who is considered the founder of sports medicine. He is believed to have been one of Hippocrates' tutors.",
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"plaintext": "Democritus was a Greek philosopher and mathematician from Abdera, Thrace (c.460–370 BC.) His main contribution is the atomic theory, the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable indivisible elements which he called atoms.",
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"plaintext": "Spartacus was a Thracian who led a large slave uprising in what is now Italy in 73–71 BC. His army of escaped gladiators and slaves defeated several Roman legions in what is known as the Third Servile War.",
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"plaintext": "A number of Roman emperors of the 3rd–5th century were of Thraco-Roman backgrounds (Maximinus Thrax, Licinius, Galerius, Aureolus, Leo the Thracian, etc.). These emperors were elevated via a military career, from the condition of common soldiers in one of the Roman legions to the foremost positions of political power.",
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"plaintext": "The Trakiya Heights in Antarctica \"are named after the historical region.\"",
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"plaintext": "1989 expulsion of Turks from Bulgaria",
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"plaintext": "Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe",
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"plaintext": "Dacia",
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"plaintext": "Dardania",
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"plaintext": "Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians in 1913",
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"plaintext": "Hawks of Thrace",
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"plaintext": "Macedon",
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"plaintext": "Moesia",
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"plaintext": "Music of Thrace",
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"plaintext": "Paionia",
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"plaintext": "Hoddinott, R. F., The Thracians, 1981.",
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"plaintext": "Ilieva, Sonya, Thracology'', 2001",
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"plaintext": "Ethnological Museum of Thrace, comprehensive website on Thracian history and culture.",
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"plaintext": " Bulgaria's most famous Thracian Treasure - The Panagyurishte Gold Treasure to return home after two years lapse",
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"plaintext": "Bulgaria's Thracian Heritage. including images of the comprehensive art collection of Thracian gold found on the territory of contemporary Bulgaria.",
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"plaintext": "Information on Ancient Thrace",
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},
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"plaintext": "The People of the God-Sun Ar and Areia (modern Thrace) ",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum; the most widely grown is common wheat (T. aestivum). The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600BCE. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop (, 2014). World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, world production of wheat was , making it the second most-produced cereal after maize. Since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st century. Global demand for wheat is increasing due to the unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten proteins, which facilitate the production of processed foods, whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide industrialization process and the westernization of the diet.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates. Globally, it is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals but relatively low in protein quality for supplying essential amino acids. When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber.",
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"plaintext": "In a small part of the general population, glutenthe major part of wheat proteincan trigger coeliac disease, noncoeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis.",
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"plaintext": "Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms ('sports') of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers. In domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (inside the spikelets) remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets. Selection for these traits by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier; nevertheless such 'incidental' selection was an important part of crop domestication. As the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant's natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat cannot survive in the wild.",
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"plaintext": "Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant, with finds dating back as far as 9600BCE. Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadaǧ Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria, suggest the domestication of einkorn near the Karacadag Mountain Range. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 yearsBCE.",
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"plaintext": "Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 (at Cayonu) and 8400BCE (Abu Hureyra), that is, in the Neolithic period. With the exception of Iraq ed-Dubb, the earliest carbon-14 dated remains of domesticated emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of Tell Aswad, in the Damascus basin, near Mount Hermon in Syria. These remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker-Heeres to 8800BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, but brought the domesticated grains with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and Indian subcontinent by 6500BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000BCE. \"The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large-scale food production industries.\" By 4000BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. Wheat likely appeared in China's lower Yellow River around 2600 Before Common Era (BCE).",
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"plaintext": "The oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400–6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350BCE at Assiros in Macedonia.",
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"plaintext": "From Asia, wheat continued to spread across Europe and to the Americas in the Columbian exchange. In the British Isles, wheat straw (thatch) was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "White wheat bread was historically a high status food, but during the nineteenth century it became in Britain an item of mass consumption, displacing oats, barley and rye from diets in the North of the country. It became \"a sign of a high degree of culture\". After 1860, the enormous expansion of wheat production in the United States flooded the world market, lowering prices by 40%, and (along with the expansion of potato growing) made a major contribution to the nutritional welfare of the poor.",
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"plaintext": "Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop. When the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred.",
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"plaintext": "Yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land, and the use of fertilizers became widespread. Improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines, reaper-binder machines (the 'combine harvester'), tractor-drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see Green Revolution and Norin 10 wheat). Great expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Leaves emerge from the shoot apical meristem in a telescoping fashion until the transition to reproduction i.e. flowering. The last leaf produced by a wheat plant is known as the flag leaf. It is denser and has a higher photosynthetic rate than other leaves, to supply carbohydrate to the developing ear. In temperate countries the flag leaf, along with the second and third highest leaf on the plant, supply the majority of carbohydrate in the grain and their condition is paramount to yield formation. Wheat is unusual among plants in having more stomata on the upper (adaxial) side of the leaf, than on the under (abaxial) side. It has been theorised that this might be an effect of it having been domesticated and cultivated longer than any other plant. Winter wheat generally produces up to 15 leaves per shoot and spring wheat up to 9 and winter crops may have up to 35 tillers (shoots) per plant (depending on cultivar).",
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"plaintext": "Wheat roots are among the deepest of arable crops, extending as far down as . While the roots of a wheat plant are growing, the plant also accumulates an energy store in its stem, in the form of fructans, which helps the plant to yield under drought and disease pressure, but it has been observed that there is a trade-off between root growth and stem non-structural carbohydrate reserves. Root growth is likely to be prioritised in drought-adapted crops, while stem non-structural carbohydrate is prioritised in varieties developed for countries where disease is a bigger issue. ",
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"plaintext": "Depending on variety, wheat may be awned or not awned. Producing awns incurs a cost in grain number, but wheat awns photosynthesise more efficiently than their leaves with regards to water usage, so awns are much more frequent in varieties of wheat grown in hot drought-prone countries than those generally seen in temperate countries. For this reason, awned varieties could become more widely grown due to climate change. In Europe, however, a decline in climate resilience of wheat has been observed.",
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"plaintext": "In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer-maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity. Although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America, they continue to be important elsewhere. The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties. Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics. The standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny. Selections are identified (shown to have the genes responsible for the varietal differences) ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar.",
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"plaintext": "Major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including mineral, moisture and heat tolerance. The major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of their significance from cooler to warmer climates: eyespot, Stagonospora nodorum blotch (also known as glume blotch), yellow or stripe rust, powdery mildew, Septoria tritici blotch (sometimes known as leaf blotch), brown or leaf rust, Fusarium head blight, tan spot and stem rust. In tropical areas, spot blotch (also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight) is also important.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding, with the use of gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and sometimes harsh chemicals. The varieties of wheat created through these methods are in the hundreds (going as far back as 1960), more of them being created in higher populated countries such as China. Bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content has been developed through gamma radiation breeding, and through conventional selection breeding.",
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"plaintext": "International wheat breeding is led by CIMMYT in Mexico. ICARDA is another major public sector international wheat breeder, but it was forced to relocate from Syria in the Syrian Civil War.",
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"plaintext": "The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields. Genes for the 'dwarfing' trait, first used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short-stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on wheat yields worldwide, and were major factors in the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico and Asia, an initiative led by Norman Borlaug. Dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help prevent the problem of lodging. \"Lodging\" occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem. By 1997, 81% of the developing world's wheat area was planted to semi-dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer.",
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"plaintext": "T. turgidum subsp. polonicum is known for its longer glumes and grains, has been bred into main wheat lines for its grain size effect, and likely has contributed these traits to T. petropavlovskyi and the Portuguese landrace group \"Arrancada\".",
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"plaintext": "As with many plants, MADS-box influences flower development, and more specifically, as with other agricultural Poaceae, heavily influences the total weight output at the end of the entire grain growing process. Despite that importance, little research has been done into MADS-box and other such spikelet and flower genetics in wheat specifically.",
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"plaintext": "The world record wheat yield is about , reached in New Zealand in 2017. A project in the UK, led by Rothamsted Research has aimed to raise wheat yields in the country to by 2020, but in 2018 the UK record stood at , and the average yield was just .",
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"plaintext": "Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease-resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s. Some resistance genes have been identified against Pyrenophora tritici-repentis, especially races 1 and 5, those most problematic in Kazakhstan. Wild relative, Aegilops tauschii is the source of several genes effective against TTKSK/Ug99 - Sr33, Sr45, Sr46, and SrTA1662 - of which Sr33 and SrTA1662 are the work of Olson et al. 2013, and Sr45 and Sr46 are also briefly reviewed therein.",
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"plaintext": " is an R gene, a dominant negative for partial adult resistance discovered and molecularly characterized by Moore et al. 2015. Lr67 is effective against all races of leaf, stripe, and stem rusts, and powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis). This is produced by a mutation of two aminos in what is predicted to be a hexose transporter. The product then heterodimerizes with the susceptible's product, with the downstream result of reducing glucose uptake.",
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"plaintext": " is widely deployed in cultivars due to its abnormally broad effectiveness, conferring resistance against leaf- and stripe-rusts, and powdery mildew. Krattinger et al. 2009 finds Lr34 to also be an ABC transporter and conclude that this is the probably means of its effectiveness and the reason that it produces a 'slow rusting'/adult resistance phenotype.",
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"plaintext": " (FHB, Fusarium ear blight) is also an important breeding target. Marker-assisted breeding panels involving kompetitive allele specific PCR can be used. Singh et al. 2019 identify a KASP genetic marker for a pore-forming toxin-like gene providing FHB resistance.",
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"plaintext": "Because wheat self-pollinates, creating hybrid seed is extremely labor-intensive; the high cost of hybrid wheat seed relative to its moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them widely despite nearly 90 years of effort.",
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"plaintext": "F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding, which may descend from hybrid crosses further back in its ancestry. Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are perfect in the botanical sense, meaning they have both male and female parts, and normally self-pollinate. Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii, and various other Aegilops, and various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats.",
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"plaintext": "In ancient times, wheat was often considered a luxury grain because it had lower yield but better taste and digestibility than competitors like rye. In the 19th century, efforts were made to hybridize the two to get a crop with the best traits of both. This produced triticale, a grain with high potential, but fraught with problems relating to fertility and germination. These have mostly been solved, so that in the 20th century millions of acres of triticale are being grown worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Modern bread wheat varieties have been cross-bred to contain greater amounts of gluten, which affords significant advantages for improving the quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view. However, a 2020 study that grew and analyzed 60 wheat cultivars from between 1891 and 2010 found no changes in albumin/globulin and gluten contents over time. \"Overall, the harvest year had a more significant effect on protein composition than the cultivar. At the protein level, we found no evidence to support an increased immunostimulatory potential of modern winter wheat.\"",
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"plaintext": "Stomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration. Basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water-use efficiency. These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain-fed dry-land wheat farms.",
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"plaintext": "The gene Sm1 protects against the orange wheat blossom midge.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, a team of UK scientists funded by BBSRC announced they had decoded the wheat genome for the first time (95% of the genome of a variety of wheat known as Chinese Spring line 42). This genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to use but was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media. On 29 November 2012, an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published. Random shotgun libraries of total DNA and cDNA from the T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (CS42) were sequenced in Roche 454 pyrosequencer using GS FLX Titanium and GS FLX+ platforms to generate 85 Gb of sequence (220million reads) and identified between 94,000 and 96,000 genes. The implications of the research in cereal genetics and breeding includes the examination of genome variation, analysis of population genetics and evolutionary biology, and further studying epigenetic modifications. In 2018 an even more complete Chinese Spring genome was released by a different team.",
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"plaintext": "Then in 2020 some of the same researchers produced 15 genome sequences from various locations and varieties around the world – the most complete and detailed so far – along with examples of their own use of the sequences to localize particular insect and disease resistance factors. The team expects these sequences will be useful in future cultivar breeding.",
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"plaintext": "For decades the primary genetic modification technique has been non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). However, since its introduction, the / tool has been extensively adopted, for example:",
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"plaintext": " To intentionally damage three homologs of TaNP1 (a glucose-methanol-choline oxidoreductase gene) to produce a novel male sterility trait, by Li et al. 2020",
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"plaintext": " Blumeria graminis f.sp. tritici resistance has been produced by Shan et al. 2013 and Wang et al. 2014 by editing one of the mildew resistance locus o genes (more specifically one of the Triticum aestivum MLO (TaMLO) genes)",
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"plaintext": " Triticum aestivum EDR1 (TaEDR1) (the EDR1 gene, which inhibits Bmt resistance) has been knocked out by Zhang et al. 2017 to improve that resistance",
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"plaintext": " Triticum aestivum HRC (TaHRC) has been disabled by Su et al. 2019 thus producing Gibberella zeae resistance.",
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"plaintext": " Triticum aestivum Ms1 (TaMs1) has been knocked out by Okada et al. 2019 to produce another novel male sterility",
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},
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"plaintext": " and Triticum aestivum acetolactate synthase (TaALS) and Triticum aestivum acetyl-CoA-carboxylase (TaACC) were subjected to base changes by Zhang et al. 2019 (in two publications) to confer herbicide resistance to ALS inhibitors and ACCase inhibitors respectively",
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"plaintext": " these examples illustrate the rapid deployment and results that CRISPR/Cas9 has shown in wheat disease resistance improvement.",
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"plaintext": "There are around 20 wheat varieties of 7 species grown throughout the world. In Canada different varieties are blended prior to sale. \"Identity preserved\" wheat that has been stored and transported separately (at extra cost) usually fetches a higher price.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication, there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics. Some wheat species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).",
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"plaintext": "Einkorn wheat (T. monococcum) is diploid (AA, two complements of seven chromosomes, 2n=14).",
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"plaintext": "Most tetraploid wheats (e.g. emmer and durum wheat) are derived from wild emmer, T. dicoccoides. Wild emmer is itself the result of a hybridization between two diploid wild grasses, T. urartu and a wild goatgrass such as Aegilops searsii or Ae. speltoides. The unknown grass has never been identified among non-extinct wild grasses, but the closest living relative is Aegilops speltoides. The hybridization that formed wild emmer (AABB) occurred in the wild, long before domestication, and was driven by natural selection.",
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"plaintext": "Hexaploid wheats evolved in farmers' fields. Either domesticated emmer or durum wheat hybridized with yet another wild diploid grass (Aegilops tauschii) to make the hexaploid wheats, spelt wheat and bread wheat. These have three sets of paired chromosomes, three times as many as in diploid wheat.",
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"plaintext": "At the point of the end userthe farmer who is sowing and reapingthe exact variety they have in their field is usually not known. The development of genetic assays which can distinguish the small differences between cultivars is allowing that question to be answered field-by-field, for the first time.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Hexaploid species",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Common wheat or bread wheat (T. aestivum)– A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.",
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1,
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46,
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"plaintext": " Spelt (T. spelta)– Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (T. aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be T. aestivum ssp. spelta.",
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"plaintext": "Tetraploid species",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Durum (T. durum)– A tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.",
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"section_name": "Varieties",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
6
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]
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"plaintext": " Emmer (T. dicoccum)– A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.",
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"section_name": "Varieties",
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1,
6
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24,
34
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]
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"plaintext": " Khorasan (T. turgidum ssp. turanicum, also called T. turanicum) is a tetraploid wheat species. It is an ancient grain type; Khorasan refers to a historical region in modern-day Afghanistan and the northeast of Iran. This grain is twice the size of modern-day wheat and is known for its rich nutty flavor.",
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"plaintext": "Diploid species",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Einkorn (T. monococcum)– A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat.",
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"section_name": "Varieties",
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57522,
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1,
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"plaintext": " The four wild species of wheat, along with the domesticated varieties einkorn, emmer and spelt, have hulls. This more primitive morphology (in evolutionary terms) consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and (in domesticated wheats) a semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing.",
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"plaintext": "The result is that when threshed, the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets. To obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding, is needed to remove the hulls or husks. Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain.",
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"plaintext": "In free-threshing (or naked) forms, such as durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough. On threshing, the chaff breaks up, releasing the grains.",
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},
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"plaintext": "There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on wheat taxonomy. The name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another.",
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"plaintext": "Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of:",
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"plaintext": " Growing season, such as winter wheat vs. spring wheat.",
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25,
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"plaintext": " Protein content. Bread wheat protein content ranges from 10% in some soft wheats with high starch contents, to 15% in hard wheats.",
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"plaintext": " The quality of the wheat protein gluten. This protein can determine the suitability of a wheat to a particular dish. A strong and elastic gluten present in bread wheats enables dough to trap carbon dioxide during leavening, but elastic gluten interferes with the rolling of pasta into thin sheets. The gluten protein in durum wheats used for pasta is strong but not elastic.",
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"plaintext": " Grain color (red, white or amber). Many wheat varieties are reddish-brown due to phenolic compounds present in the bran layer which are transformed to pigments by browning enzymes. White wheats have a lower content of phenolics and browning enzymes, and are generally less astringent in taste than red wheats. The yellowish color of durum wheat and semolina flour made from it is due to a carotenoid pigment called lutein, which can be oxidized to a colorless form by enzymes present in the grain.",
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"plaintext": "The named classes of wheat in English are more or less the same in Canada as in the US, as broadly the same commercial cash crop strains can be found in both.",
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},
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"plaintext": "The classes used in the United States are:",
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"plaintext": " Durum– Very hard, translucent, light-colored grain used to make semolina flour for pasta and bulghur; high in protein, specifically, gluten protein.",
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"plaintext": " Hard Red Spring– Hard, brownish, high-protein wheat used for bread and hard baked goods. Bread flour and high-gluten flours are commonly made from hard red spring wheat. It is primarily traded on the Minneapolis Grain Exchange.",
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"plaintext": " Hard Red Winter– Hard, brownish, mellow high-protein wheat used for bread, hard baked goods and as an adjunct in other flours to increase protein in pastry flour for pie crusts. Some brands of unbleached all-purpose flours are commonly made from hard red winter wheat alone. It is primarily traded on the Kansas City Board of Trade. Many varieties grown from Kansas south are descendant from a variety known as \"turkey red\", which was brought to Kansas by Mennonite immigrants from Russia. Marquis wheat was developed to prosper in the shorter growing season in Canada, and is grown as far south as southern Nebraska.",
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"plaintext": " Soft Red Winter– Soft, low-protein wheat used for cakes, pie crusts, biscuits, and muffins. Cake flour, pastry flour, and some self-rising flours with baking powder and salt added, for example, are made from soft red winter wheat. It is primarily traded on the Chicago Board of Trade.",
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"plaintext": " Hard White– Hard, light-colored, opaque, chalky, medium-protein wheat planted in dry, temperate areas. Used for bread and brewing.",
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"plaintext": " Soft White– Soft, light-colored, very low protein wheat grown in temperate moist areas. Used for pie crusts and pastry. Pastry flour, for example, is sometimes made from soft white winter wheat.",
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"plaintext": "Red wheats may need bleaching; therefore, white wheats usually command higher prices than red wheats on the commodities market.",
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"plaintext": "Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats. If the raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used in several ways.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, muesli, pancakes, pasta and noodles, pies, pastries, pizza, semolina, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, beer, vodka, boza (a fermented beverage), and breakfast cereals.",
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"plaintext": "In manufacturing wheat products, gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities in dough, enabling the preparation of diverse processed foods such as breads, noodles, and pasta that facilitate wheat consumption.",
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"plaintext": "In 100 grams, wheat provides of food energy and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin (table). Several B vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content. Wheat is 13% water, 71% carbohydrates, and 1.5% fat. Its 13% protein content is mostly gluten (75–80% of the protein in wheat).",
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"plaintext": "Wheat proteins have a low quality for human nutrition, according to the new protein quality method (DIAAS) promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Though they contain adequate amounts of the other essential amino acids, at least for adults, wheat proteins are deficient in the essential amino acid, lysine. Because the proteins present in the wheat endosperm (gluten proteins) are particularly poor in lysine, white flours are more deficient in lysine compared with whole grains. Significant efforts in plant breeding are being made to develop lysine-rich wheat varieties, without success . Supplementation with proteins from other food sources (mainly legumes) is commonly used to compensate for this deficiency, since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break down and become excreted, which is especially important during the period of growth.",
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"plaintext": " of hard red winter wheat contain about 12.6g of protein, 1.5g of total fat, 71g of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2g of dietary fiber, and 3.2mg of iron (17% of the daily requirement); the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about 15.4g of protein, 1.9g of total fat, 68g of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2g of dietary fiber, and 3.6mg of iron (20% of the daily requirement).",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is grown on more than .",
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"plaintext": "The most common forms of wheat are white and red wheat. However, other natural forms of wheat exist. Other commercially minor but nutritionally promising species of naturally evolved wheat species include black, yellow and blue wheat.",
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"plaintext": "Consumed worldwide by billions of people, wheat is a significant food for human nutrition, particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods. When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber recommended for children and adults, in several daily servings containing a variety of foods that meet whole grain-rich criteria. Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight. Further, wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.",
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"plaintext": "Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a health claim for marketing purposes in the United States, stating: \"low fat diets rich in fiber-containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors\" and \"diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly soluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors\". The scientific opinion of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) related to health claims on gut health/bowel function, weight control, blood glucose/insulin levels, weight management, blood cholesterol, satiety, glycaemic index, digestive function and cardiovascular health is \"that the food constituent, whole grain, (...) is not sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed health effects\" and \"that a cause and effect relationship cannot be established between the consumption of whole grain and the claimed effects considered in this opinion.\"",
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"plaintext": "In genetically susceptible people, gluten – a major part of wheat protein – can trigger coeliac disease. Coeliac disease affects about 1% of the general population in developed countries. There is evidence that most cases remain undiagnosed and untreated. The only known effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten-free diet.",
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"plaintext": "While coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as a wheat allergy. Other diseases triggered by eating wheat are non-coeliac gluten sensitivity (estimated to affect 0.5% to 13% of the general population), gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis.",
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"plaintext": "It has been speculated that FODMAPs present in wheat (mainly fructans) are the cause of non-coeliac gluten sensitivity. , reviews have concluded that FODMAPs only explain certain gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloating, but not the extra-digestive symptoms that people with non-coeliac gluten sensitivity may develop, such as neurological disorders, fibromyalgia, psychological disturbances, and dermatitis.",
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"plaintext": "Other proteins present in wheat called amylase-trypsin inhibitors (ATIs) have been identified as the possible activator of the innate immune system in coeliac disease and non-coeliac gluten sensitivity. ATIs are part of the plant's natural defense against insects and may cause toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-mediated intestinal inflammation in humans. These TLR4-stimulating activities of ATIs are limited to gluten-containing cereals. A 2017 study in mice demonstrated that ATIs exacerbate preexisting inflammation and might also worsen it at extraintestinal sites. This may explain why there is an increase of inflammation in people with preexisting diseases upon ingestion of ATIs-containing grains.",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents.",
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"plaintext": "Raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these staples is remarkably different from that of the raw form, as reported in this table.",
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"plaintext": "In cooked form, the nutrition value for each staple depends on the cooking method (for example: baking, boiling, steaming, frying, etc.).",
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"plaintext": "Harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the purposes of the commodity- and international trade markets. Wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to buy, as each class has special uses, and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat will be most profitable to cultivate.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high-quality flour that is widely used in baking. Most breads are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the other grains they contain, for example, most rye and oat breads. The popularity of foods made from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain, even in economies with significant food surpluses.",
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"plaintext": "In recent years, low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the United States to change to more profitable crops. In 1998, the price at harvest of a bushel was $2.68 per. Some information providers, following CBOT practice, quote the wheat market in per ton denomination. A USDA report revealed that in 1998, average operating costs were $1.43 per bushel and total costs were $3.97 per bushel. In that study, farm wheat yields averaged 41.7 bushels per acre (2.2435 metric ton/hectare), and typical total wheat production value was $31,900 per farm, with total farm production value (including other crops) of $173,681 per farm, plus $17,402 in government payments. There were significant profitability differences between low- and high-cost farms, due to crop yield differences, location, and farm size.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, world wheat production was 761 million tonnes, led by China, India, and Russia collectively providing 38% of the world total. , the largest exporters were Russia (32million tonnes), United States (27), Canada (23) and France (20), while the largest importers were Indonesia (11million tonnes), Egypt (10.4) and Turkey (10.0).",
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"plaintext": "Wheat became a central agriculture endeavor in the worldwide British Empire in the 19th century, and remains of great importance in Australia, Canada and India. In Australia, with vast lands and a limited work force, expanded production depended on technological advances, especially regarding irrigation and machinery. By the 1840s there were 900 growers in South Australia. They used the \"Ridley's Stripper\", to remove the heads of grain, and the reaper-harvester perfected by John Ridley in 1843. By 1850 South Australia had become the granary for the region; soon wheat farming spread to Victoria and New South Wales, with heavy exports to Great Britain. In Canada modern farm implements made large scale wheat farming possible from the late 1840s on. By the 1879s Saskatchewan was the center, followed by Alberta, Manitoba and Ontario, as the spread of railway lines allowed easy exports to Britain. By 1910 wheat made up 22% of Canada's exports, rising to 25% in 1930 despite the sharp decline in prices during the worldwide Great Depression. Efforts to expand wheat production in South Africa, Kenya and India were stymied by low yields and disease. However by 2000 India had become the second largest producer of wheat in the world.",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th century the American wheat frontier moved rapidly westward. By the 1880s 70% of American exports went to British ports. The first successful grain elevator was built in Buffalo in 1842. The cost of transport fell rapidly. In 1869 it cost 37 cents to transport a bushel of wheat from Chicago to Liverpool. In 1905 it was 10 cents.",
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"plaintext": "In the 20th century, global wheat output expanded by about 5-fold, but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area, with lesser (about 20%) increases in crop yields per unit area. After 1955 however, there was a ten-fold increase in the rate of wheat yield improvement per year, and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase. Thus technological innovation and scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth in the second half of the century. There were some significant decreases in wheat crop area, for instance in North America.",
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"plaintext": "Better seed storage and germination ability (and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year's seed) is another 20th-century technological innovation. In Medieval England, farmers saved one-quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving only three-quarters for food and feed consumption. By 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6% of output.",
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"plaintext": "Several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production: population growth rates are falling while wheat yields continue to rise. There is evidence, however, that rising temperatures associated with climate change are reducing wheat yield in several locations. In addition, the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize, linked with investment in modern genetic technologies, has promoted shifts to other crops.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, the most productive crop yields for wheat were in Ireland, producing 10 tonnes per hectare. In addition to gaps in farming system technology and knowledge, some large wheat grain-producing countries have significant losses after harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmers' inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. Various studies in India, for example, have concluded that about 10% of total wheat production is lost at farm level, another 10% is lost because of poor storage and road networks, and additional amounts lost at the retail level.",
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"plaintext": "In the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, as well as North China, irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output. More widely over the last 40 years, a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi-dwarf varieties in developing countries, has greatly increased yields per hectare. In developing countries, use of (mainly nitrogenous) fertilizer increased 25-fold in this period. However, farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity. A good illustration of this is Australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone, where, despite low rainfall (300mm), wheat cropping is successful even with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer. This is achieved by 'rotation cropping' (traditionally called the ley system) with leguminous pastures and, in the last decade, including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25%. In these low rainfall areas, better use of available soil-water (and better control of soil erosion) is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by minimizing tillage.",
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"plaintext": "There are substantial differences in wheat farming, trading, policy, sector growth, and wheat uses in different regions of the world. The largest exporters of wheat in 2016 were, in order of exported quantities: Russian Federation (25.3 million tonnes), United States (24.0 million tonnes), Canada (19.7 million tonnes), France (18.3 million tonnes), and Australia (16.1 million tonnes). The largest importers of wheat in 2016 were, in order of imported quantities: Indonesia (10.5 million tonnes), Egypt (8.7 million tonnes), Algeria (8.2 million tonnes), Italy (7.7 million tonnes) and Spain (7.0 million tonnes).",
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"plaintext": "In the rapidly developing countries of Asia and Africa, westernization of diets associated with increasing prosperity is leading to growth in per capita demand for wheat at the expense of the other food staples.",
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"plaintext": "The average annual world farm yield for wheat in 2014 was 3.3 tonnes per hectare (330 grams per square meter). Ireland's wheat farms were the most productive in 2014, with a nationwide average of 10.0 tonnes per hectare, followed by the Netherlands (9.2), and Germany, New Zealand and the United Kingdom (each with 8.6).",
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"plaintext": "Wheat futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade, Kansas City Board of Trade, and Minneapolis Grain Exchange, and have delivery dates in March (H), May (K), July (N), September (U), and December (Z).",
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"plaintext": "Wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between sowing and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions (winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze). Optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each stage of development in the growing plants. In particular, spring fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators are typically applied only at specific stages of plant development. For example, it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is best done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also important to identify periods of higher risk from the climate. For example, pollen formation from the mother cell, and the stages between anthesis and maturity, are susceptible to high temperatures, and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress. Farmers also benefit from knowing when the 'flag leaf' (last leaf) appears, as this leaf represents about 75% of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period, and so should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.",
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"plaintext": "Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.",
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"plaintext": "Pests – or pests and diseases, depending on the definition – consume 21.47% of the world's wheat crop annually.",
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"plaintext": "There are many wheat diseases, mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Plant breeding to develop new disease-resistant varieties, and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease. Fungicides, used to prevent the significant crop losses from fungal disease, can be a significant variable cost in wheat production. Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between 10 and 25% in Missouri. A wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi.",
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"plaintext": "The main wheat-disease categories are:",
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"plaintext": " Seed-borne diseases: these include seed-borne scab, seed-borne Stagonospora (previously known as Septoria), common bunt (stinking smut), and loose smut. These are managed with fungicides.",
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"plaintext": " Leaf- and head- blight diseases: Powdery mildew, leaf rust, Septoria tritici leaf blotch, Stagonospora (Septoria) nodorum leaf and glume blotch, and Fusarium head scab.",
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"plaintext": " Crown and root rot diseases: Two of the more important of these are 'take-all' and Cephalosporium stripe. Both of these diseases are soil borne.",
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"plaintext": " Stem rust diseases: Caused by basidiomycete fungi e.g. Ug99",
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"plaintext": " Viral diseases: Wheat spindle streak mosaic (yellow mosaic) and barley yellow dwarf are the two most common viral diseases. Control can be achieved by using resistant varieties.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the flame, rustic shoulder-knot, setaceous Hebrew character and turnip moth.",
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"plaintext": "Early in the season, many species of birds, including the long-tailed widowbird, and rodents feed upon wheat crops. These animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants. They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike. Recent post-harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the United States alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no exception. Rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food. To reduce the amount of wheat lost to post-harvest pests, Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed an \"insect-o-graph\", which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to the naked eye. The device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled. The new technology is so precise that it can detect 5–10 infested seeds out of 30,000 good ones. Tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as for the marketing value of the crop.",
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"plaintext": " Bran",
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"plaintext": " Chaff",
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"plaintext": " Effects of climate change on agriculture",
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47512577
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1,
41
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},
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"plaintext": " Gluten-free diet",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mushroom production on wheat stalks",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Intermediate wheatgrass: a perennial alternative to wheat",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Taxonomy of wheat",
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3759584
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wheatberry",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12046819
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wheat germ oil",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wheat production in the United States",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Wheat middlings",
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"plaintext": " Aparicio, Gema, and Vicente Pinilla. \"International trade in wheat and other cereals and the collapse of the first wave of globalization, 1900–38.\" Journal of Global History 14.1 (2019): 44–67.",
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"plaintext": " Bonjean, A.P., and W.J. Angus (editors). The World Wheat Book: a history of wheat breeding ( Lavoisier Publ., Paris. 1131 pp.2001). ",
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"plaintext": " Erenstein, Olaf, Jordan Chamberlin, and Kai Sonder. \"Estimating the global number and distribution of maize and wheat farms.\" Global Food Security 30 (2021): 100558. online",
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"plaintext": " Garnsey Peter. \"Grain for Rome\", in Garnsey P., Hopkin K., Whittaker C. R. (editors), Trade in the Ancient Economy, Chatto & Windus, London 1983",
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"plaintext": " Head L., Atchison J., and Gates A. Ingrained: A Human Bio-geography of Wheat. Ashgate Publ., Burlington. 246 pp. (2012). ",
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{
"plaintext": " Jasny Naum, The daily bread of ancient Greeks and Romans, Ex Officina Templi, Brugis 1950",
"section_idx": 14,
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"plaintext": " Jasny Naum, The Wheats of Classical Antiquity, J. Hopkins Press, Baltimore 1944",
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{
"plaintext": " Heiser Charles B., Seed to civilisation. The story of food, (Harvard University Press, 1990)",
"section_idx": 14,
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{
"plaintext": " Harlan Jack R., Crops and man, American Society of Agronomy, Madison 1975",
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{
"plaintext": " Nelson, Scott Reynolds. Oceans of Grain: How American Wheat Remade the World (2022) excerpt",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Raimondo, Maria, et al. \"Land degradation and climate change: Global impact on wheat yields.\" Land Degradation & Development 32.1 (2021): 387-398.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Sauer Jonathan D., Geography of Crop Plants. A Select Roster, CRC Press, Boca Raton",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Shiferaw B, et al. \"Crops that feed the world 10. Past successes and future challenges to the role played by wheat in global food security\" Food Security 2013;5:291-317. DOI: 10.1007/s12571-013-0263-y",
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{
"plaintext": " Triticum species at Purdue University",
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"Wheat",
"Crops",
"Energy_crops",
"Poaceae_genera",
"Staple_foods",
"Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus"
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| 15,645,384 | 72,932 | 4,451 | 366 | 0 | 0 | wheat | cereal grain | [
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]
|
36,859 | 1,090,120,668 | Celtic | [
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| 295,147 | 3,598 | 3 | 50 | 0 | 0 | Celtic | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,860 | 1,106,596,980 | Zooarchaeology | [
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"plaintext": "Zooarchaeology (sometimes called archaeozoology), also known as faunal analysis, is a branch of archaeology that studies remains of animals from archaeological sites. Faunal remains are the items left behind when an animal dies. These include bones, shells, hair, chitin, scales, hides, proteins and DNA. Of these items, bones and shells are the ones that occur most frequently at archaeological sites where faunal remains can be found. Most of the time, a majority of these faunal remains do not survive. They often decompose or break because of various circumstances. This can cause difficulties in identifying the remains and interpreting their significance.",
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"plaintext": "Zooarchaeology serves as a \"hybrid\" discipline: combining the studies of archaeology and zoology, which are the study of past human culture and the study of animals respectively. Therefore, zooarchaeologists may also be: anthropologists, paleontologists, archaeologists, zoologists, ecologists, etc. However, the main focus of Zoo-archaeology is to not only find remnants of past animals, but to then identify and understand how humans and their environment (mainly animal populations) coexisted. Zooarchaeology allows researchers to have a more holistic understanding of past human-environment interactions, thus making this topic a sub-field of environmental archaeology. Whether it is diet, domestication, tool use, or ritual; the study of animal remains provides a great amount of information about the groups that interacted with them. Archaeology provides information on the past which often proves invaluable for understanding the present and preparing for the future. Zoo archaeology plays a valuable part in contributing to a holistic understanding of the animals themselves, the nearby groups, and the local environments.",
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"plaintext": "Faunal remains are parts of animals that have been left in the material record, which archaeologists study. These remains are important to the record because they can show cultural practices, such as what food they are eating, based on the remains left behind. Zooarcheologists can find out information like the species the animal is, the age the animal was when it died, and what its sex was.",
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"plaintext": "Some common faunal remains found at sites include, as stated above, bones, shells, hair, chitin, scales, hides, proteins and DNA. These are often found in piles of waste that have been left behind. There, as well as in other places, the pieces of bone, scales, teeth, etc. may be mixed together where the archaeologist will have to sort through and identify where the remains came from (what animal/ what species) and where on that species the remain is from. The types of fauna that leave behind these remains will depend on where the archaeological site is located. These animals can be domesticated or wild, and sometimes they find both types of remains at sites.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to helping us understand the past, zooarchaeology can also help us to improve the present and the future. Studying how people dealt with animals, and their effects can help avoid many potential ecological problems. This specifically includes problems involving wildlife management. For example, one of the questions that wildlife preservationists ask is whether they should keep animals facing extinction in several smaller areas, or in one larger area. Based on zooarchaeological evidence, they found that animals that are split up into several smaller areas are more likely to go extinct.",
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"plaintext": "One of the issues to which zooarchaeologists pay close attention is taphonomy. Techniques used in the study of taphonomy include researching how items are buried and deposited at an archaeological site, what the conditions are that aid in the preservation of these items, and how these items get destroyed, all a part of what is referred to by archaeologist Michael Brian Schiffer as behavioral archaeology. One important aspect of taphonomy is assessing how a specimen became damaged; understanding the taphonomy of a faunal assemblage can explain how and why bones were damaged. One source of damage to animal bones is humans. Cut marks on animal bones provide evidence for butchering. Fractures, such as by percussion impact and spiral fracture on a bone can suggest that it was processed by humans for its marrow, minerals, and nutrients. Other human processes that affect bones include burning and damage that occurs during archaeological excavations. Non-human damage to bones includes interspecies damage, damage from raptors, damage from rodents, damage from fungi, environmental weathering, and polishing. Distinguishing different types of damage to animal bones is a tedious and complex process that requires background in multiple scientific fields. Some of the physical damage on bones can be seen with the naked eye, but a lens with 10x magnification and good lighting is necessary for seeing most damage.",
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"plaintext": "Identification is integral to the archaeological analysis of animal remains. Identification of animal remains requires a combination of anatomy, taxonomy, and studies of archaeological context. The ability to identify a piece of bone requires knowing what element (bone in the body) it is, and to what animal the bone belongs. The latter is referred to as taxonomy, which is used to sort animals into different groups. Zooarchaeology uses Linnean nomenclature, which includes varying degrees of specificity in regards to the species. Linnaean nomenclature (Linnaean taxonomy) is used because it allows archaeologists to identify and show the genetic and morphological relationships between species. These relationships are based on species evolution, which can often be subject to interpretation. While more specific identification is preferable, it is better to be less specific in the identification rather than identify a specimen incorrectly. When examining animal remains, it is common that there are bones that are too small or too damaged to be able to accurately identify it. Archaeological context can be used to help with assumptions about species identification. Skeletal classification is the other half of properly identifying animal remains. Bones can be classified by the material it is made of and by its shape. (7) Three categories of bone shapes include long bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Bones are structured differently depending on where they are located and what part of the bone it is; the main structural differences are found between spongy bone and compact bone. Spongy bone and compact bone both serve different purposes in regards to bone function; for example, the outside layer of the bone that provides structure is made of compact bone, whereas the inside of the bone is made of spongy bone. The study of bones is useful to zooarchaeology because certain morphological aspects of a bone are associated with particular periods of growth, which can help narrow down the age the specimen was at death. The analysis of teeth require a slightly different approach than bone, but retain the same level of importance when it comes to analysis. The wear pattern and tooth morphology provides information about a species diet and age; the enamel also has biochemical remains of what the animal ate. While animal remains can include more than just bones and teeth, the nature of things like hair and muscle cause it to deteriorate quickly after death, leaving the skeleton behind; this is why most of zooarchaeology revolves around skeletal morphology. Laboratory analysis can include comparing the skeletons found on site with already identified animal skeletons. This not only helps to identify what the animal is, but also whether the animal was domesticated or not.",
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"plaintext": "Genetic analysis using ancient DNA is an important tool used by zooarchaeologists. Genetic history of an animal can give information on population movement over time and environmental adaptations necessary to live in an area. It can also give context to how animals may or may not have been domesticated over time by a group of people. Ancient DNA is critical to the genetic analysis of animals remains. Whereas modern DNA has very long fragments in samples, ancient DNA has very short fragments, making it very easily contaminated. The extraction and sampling of ancient DNA requires highly specialized training, as well as intensive protocol to prevent it from being contaminated by modern DNA. The paper :Ancient DNA Analysis of the Oldest Canid Species from the Siberian Arctic and Genetic Contribution to the Domestic Dog\" by Lee et al. gives a description of claws and teeth were sampled for ancient DNA. In a facility specially designed for ancient DNA extraction, with the use of personal protective equipment and regular bleaching of surfaces and tools, the claws and teeth were wiped with bleach to destroy all modern DNA on the surface, and were then drilled into a powder. The DNA fragments were extracted from the bone powder using an ancient DNA extraction protocol. After using several processes to replicate the DNA fragments and verify the results (PCR and gel electrophoresis), the ancient DNA from the bone powder was sequenced and then analyzed.",
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"plaintext": "With ZooMS analysis (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry), the animal species behind a bone fragment or bone artefact can be determined even when no morphological traits survive. The method makes use of interspecies differences in the structure of collagen.",
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"plaintext": "Yet another technique that zooarchaeologists use is quantification. They make interpretations based on the number and size of the bones. These interpretations include how important different animals might have been to the diet.",
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"plaintext": "Human-animal relationships and interactions were diverse during prehistory from being a food source to playing a more intimate role in society. Animals have been used in non-economical ways such as being part of a human burial. However, the majority of zooarchaeology has focused on who was eating what by looking at various remains such as bones, teeth, and fish scales. In the twenty-first century researchers have begun to interpret animals in prehistory in wider cultural and social patterns, focusing on how the animals have affected humans and possible animal agency. There is evidence of animals such as the mountain lion or the jaguar being used for ritualistic purposes, but not being eaten as a food source.",
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"plaintext": "Analyses of faunal remains are important to show how prehistoric and hunter-gatherer civilizations interacted with the animals in their environment. This information can be used to help reconstruct Paleolithic environments. Faunal remains with cut marks, teeth marks, burns, or butchering can signify human interaction which can be important to archaeological data. Sometimes these analyses can be difficult due to decomposition and weathering, which can cause damage to the remains. Not only do faunal remains help reconstruct environments from the past they can show other cultural practices as well. These remains are not always from food, but can be found in jewelry, tools, spiritual practices, and more. This information can show the fauna located in the area of analyses, as well as cultural significance.",
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"plaintext": "Animal burials date back to prehistory with examples emerging from the Mesolithic period. In Sweden at the site of Skateholm I, dogs were found buried with children under eight years old or were found buried by themselves. Some of the dogs who were buried alone have grave goods similar to their human contemporaries such as flint weapons and deer antlers. Meanwhile, during the same time period Skateholm II emerged and was very different from Skateholm I, as dogs were buried along on the North and West boundaries of the grave area. Another burial site in Siberia near Lake Biakal known as the \"Lokomotiv\" cemetery had a wolf burial among human graves. Buried together with, but slightly beneath the wolf was a male human skull. The wolf breed was not native to this area as it was warm and other research for the area shows no other wolf habitation. Bazaliiskiy and Savelyev suggests that the presence and significance of the wolf could possibly reflect human interaction. Another example occurred in 300 B.C. in Pazyryk known as the Pazyryk burials where ten horses were buried alongside a human male, the horses were fully adorned with saddles, pendants, among other valuables. The oldest horse as also the horse with the grandest attachments. Erica Hill, a professor in archaeology, suggests that the burials of prehistory animals can shed light on human-animal relationships.",
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"plaintext": "Zooarchaeology overlaps significantly with other areas of study. These include:",
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"plaintext": " OpenContext.org (Zooarchaeology data) Multiple zooarchaeological datasets and media published in Open Context.",
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"Ethnobiology",
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"zooarcheology"
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|
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"plaintext": "Each lung is divided into sections called lobes by the infoldings of the visceral pleura as fissures. Lobes are divided into segments, and segments have further divisions as lobules. There are three lobes in the right lung and two lobes in the left lung. ",
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"plaintext": "The fissures are formed in early prenatal development by invaginations of the visceral pleura that divide the lobar bronchi, and section the lungs into lobes that helps in their expansion. The right lung is divided into three lobes by a horizontal fissure, and an oblique fissure. The left lung is divided into two lobes by an oblique fissure which is closely aligned with the oblique fissure in the right lung. In the right lung the upper horizontal fissure, separates the upper (superior) lobe from the middle lobe. The lower, oblique fissure separates the lower lobe from the middle and upper lobes.",
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"plaintext": "Variations in the fissures are fairly common being either incompletely formed ",
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"plaintext": "or present as an extra fissure as in the azygos fissure, or absent. Incomplete fissures are responsible for interlobar collateral ventilation, airflow between lobes which is unwanted in some lung volume reduction procedures.",
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"plaintext": "The main or primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum and initially branch into secondary bronchi also known as lobar bronchi that supply air to each lobe of the lung. The lobar bronchi branch into tertiary bronchi also known as segmental bronchi and these supply air to the further divisions of the lobes known as bronchopulmonary segments. Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own (segmental) bronchus and arterial supply. Segments for the left and right lung are shown in the table. The segmental anatomy is useful clinically for localising disease processes in the lungs. A segment is a discrete unit that can be surgically removed without seriously affecting surrounding tissue.",
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"plaintext": "The right lung has both more lobes and segments than the left. It is divided into three lobes, an upper, middle, and a lower lobe by two fissures, one oblique and one horizontal. The upper, horizontal fissure, separates the upper from the middle lobe. It begins in the lower oblique fissure near the posterior border of the lung, and, running horizontally forward, cuts the anterior border on a level with the sternal end of the fourth costal cartilage; on the mediastinal surface it may be traced back to the hilum. The lower, oblique fissure, separates the lower from the middle and upper lobes and is closely aligned with the oblique fissure in the left lung.",
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"plaintext": "The mediastinal surface of the right lung is indented by a number of nearby structures. The heart sits in an impression called the cardiac impression. Above the hilum of the lung is an arched groove for the azygos vein, and above this is a wide groove for the superior vena cava and right brachiocephalic vein; behind this, and close to the top of the lung is a groove for the brachiocephalic artery. There is a groove for the esophagus behind the hilum and the pulmonary ligament, and near the lower part of the esophageal groove is a deeper groove for the inferior vena cava before it enters the heart.",
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"plaintext": "The weight of the right lung varies between individuals, with a standard reference range in men of and in women of .",
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"plaintext": "The left lung is divided into two lobes, an upper and a lower lobe, by the oblique fissure, which extends from the costal to the mediastinal surface of the lung both above and below the hilum. The left lung, unlike the right, does not have a middle lobe, though it does have a homologous feature, a projection of the upper lobe termed the lingula. Its name means \"little tongue\". The lingula on the left lung serves as an anatomic parallel to the middle lobe on the right lung, with both areas being predisposed to similar infections and anatomic complications. There are two bronchopulmonary segments of the lingula: superior and inferior.",
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"plaintext": "The mediastinal surface of the left lung has a large cardiac impression where the heart sits. This is deeper and larger than that on the right lung, at which level the heart projects to the left.",
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"plaintext": "On the same surface, immediately above the hilum, is a well-marked curved groove for the aortic arch, and a groove below it for the descending aorta. The left subclavian artery, a branch off the aortic arch, sits in a groove from the arch to near the apex of the lung. A shallower groove in front of the artery and near the edge of the lung, lodges the left brachiocephalic vein. The esophagus may sit in a wider shallow impression at the base of the lung.",
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"plaintext": "The weight of the left lung, by standard reference range, in men is in women .",
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"plaintext": "The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract, and accommodate the bronchial airways when they branch from the trachea. The bronchial airways terminate in alveoli which make up the functional tissue (parenchyma) of the lung, and veins, arteries, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. The trachea and bronchi have plexuses of lymph capillaries in their mucosa and submucosa. The smaller bronchi have a single layer of lymph capillaries, and they are absent in the alveoli. The lungs are supplied with the largest lymphatic drainage system of any other organ in the body. Each lung is surrounded by a serous membrane of visceral pleura, which has an underlying layer of loose connective tissue attached to the substance of the lung.",
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"plaintext": "The connective tissue of the lungs is made up of elastic and collagen fibres that are interspersed between the capillaries and the alveolar walls. Elastin is the key protein of the extracellular matrix and is the main component of the elastic fibres. Elastin gives the necessary elasticity and resilience required for the persistent stretching involved in breathing, known as lung compliance. It is also responsible for the elastic recoil needed. Elastin is more concentrated in areas of high stress such as the openings of the alveoli, and alveolar junctions. The connective tissue links all the alveoli to form the lung parenchyma which has a sponge-like appearance. The alveoli have interconnecting air passages in their walls known as the pores of Kohn.",
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"plaintext": "All of the lower respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is lined with respiratory epithelium. This is a ciliated epithelium interspersed with goblet cells which produce mucin the main component of mucus, ciliated cells, basal cells, and in the terminal bronchioles–club cells with actions similar to basal cells, and macrophages. The epithelial cells, and the submucosal glands throughout the respiratory tract secrete airway surface liquid (ASL), the composition of which is tightly regulated and determines how well mucociliary clearance works.",
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"plaintext": "Pulmonary neuroendocrine cells are found throughout the respiratory epithelium including the alveolar epithelium, though they only account for around 0.5 per cent of the total epithelial population. PNECs are innervated airway epithelial cells that are particularly focused at airway junction points. These cells can produce serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, as well as polypeptide products. Cytoplasmic processes from the pulmonary neuroendocrine cells extend into the airway lumen where they may sense the composition of inspired gas.",
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"plaintext": "In the bronchi there are incomplete tracheal rings of cartilage and smaller plates of cartilage that keep them open. Bronchioles are too narrow to support cartilage and their walls are of smooth muscle, and this is largely absent in the narrower respiratory bronchioles which are mainly just of epithelium. The absence of cartilage in the terminal bronchioles gives them an alternative name of membranous bronchioles.",
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"plaintext": "The conducting zone of the respiratory tract ends at the terminal bronchioles when they branch into the respiratory bronchioles. This marks the beginning of the terminal respiratory unit called the acinus which includes the respiratory bronchioles, the alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli. An acinus measures up to 10mm in diameter. A primary pulmonary lobule is that part of the acinus that includes the alveolar ducts, sacs, and alveoli but does not include the respiratory bronchioles. The unit described as the secondary pulmonary lobule is the lobule most referred to as the pulmonary lobule or respiratory lobule. This lobule is a discrete unit that is the smallest component of the lung that can be seen without aid. The secondary pulmonary lobule is likely to be made up of between 30 and 50 primary lobules. The lobule is supplied by a terminal bronchiole that branches into respiratory bronchioles. The respiratory bronchioles supply the alveoli in each acinus and is accompanied by a pulmonary artery branch. Each lobule is enclosed by an interlobular septa. Each acinus is incompletely separated by an interlobular septa.",
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"plaintext": "The respiratory bronchiole gives rise to the alveolar ducts that lead to the alveolar sacs, which contain two or more alveoli. The walls of the alveoli are extremely thin allowing a fast rate of diffusion. The alveoli have interconnecting small air passages in their walls known as the pores of Kohn.",
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"plaintext": "Alveoli consist of two types of alveolar cell and an alveolar macrophage. The two types of cell are known as type I and type II cells (also known as pneumocytes). Types I and II make up the walls and alveolar septa. Type I cells provide 95% of the surface area of each alveoli and are flat (\"squamous\"), and Type II cells generally cluster in the corners of the alveoli and have a cuboidal shape. Despite this, cells occur in a roughly equal ratio of 1:1 or 6:4.",
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"plaintext": "Type I are squamous epithelial cells that make up the alveolar wall structure. They have extremely thin walls that enable an easy gas exchange. These type I cells also make up the alveolar septa which separate each alveolus. The septa consist of an epithelial lining and associated basement membranes. Type I cells are not able to divide, and consequently rely on differentiation from Type II cells.",
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"plaintext": "Type II are larger and they line the alveoli and produce and secrete epithelial lining fluid, and lung surfactant. Type II cells are able to divide and differentiate to Type I cells.",
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"plaintext": "The alveolar macrophages have an important role in the immune system. They remove substances which deposit in the alveoli including loose red blood cells that have been forced out from blood vessels.",
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"plaintext": "There is a large presence of microorganisms in the lungs known as the lung microbiota that interacts with the airway epithelial cells; an interaction of probable importance in maintaining homeostasis. The microbiota is complex and dynamic in healthy people, and altered in diseases such as asthma and COPD. For example significant changes can take place in COPD following infection with rhinovirus. Fungal genera that are commonly found as mycobiota in the microbiota include Candida, Malassezia, Saccharomyces, and Aspergillus.",
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"plaintext": "The lower respiratory tract is part of the respiratory system, and consists of the trachea and the structures below this including the lungs. The trachea receives air from the pharynx and travels down to a place where it splits (the carina) into a right and left primary bronchus. These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the respiratory bronchioles. These in turn supply air through alveolar ducts into the alveoli, where the exchange of gases take place. Oxygen breathed in, diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping capillaries and into the circulation, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs to be breathed out.",
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"plaintext": "Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from ; although this is often quoted in textbooks and the media being \"the size of a tennis court\", it is actually less than half the size of a singles court.",
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"plaintext": "The bronchi in the conducting zone are reinforced with hyaline cartilage in order to hold open the airways. The bronchioles have no cartilage and are surrounded instead by smooth muscle. Air is warmed to , humidified and cleansed by the conducting zone. Particles from the air being removed by the cilia on the respiratory epithelium lining the passageways, in a process called mucociliary clearance.",
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"plaintext": "Pulmonary stretch receptors in the smooth muscle of the airways initiate a reflex known as the Hering–Breuer reflex that prevents the lungs from over-inflation, during forceful inspiration.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs have a dual blood supply provided by a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the airways of the lungs, through the bronchial arteries that leave the aorta. There are usually three arteries, two to the left lung and one to the right, and they branch alongside the bronchi and bronchioles. The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns the oxygenated blood to the heart to supply the rest of the body.",
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"plaintext": "The blood volume of the lungs is about 450 millilitres on average, about 9% of the total blood volume of the entire circulatory system. This quantity can easily fluctuate from between one-half and twice the normal volume. Also, in the event of blood loss through hemorrhage, blood from the lungs can partially compensate by automatically transferring to the systemic circulation.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs are supplied by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Input from the parasympathetic nervous system occurs via the vagus nerve. When stimulated by acetylcholine, this causes constriction of the smooth muscle lining the bronchus and bronchioles, and increases the secretions from glands. The lungs also have a sympathetic tone from norepinephrine acting on the beta 2 adrenoceptors in the respiratory tract, which causes bronchodilation.",
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"plaintext": "The action of breathing takes place because of nerve signals sent by the respiratory center in the brainstem, along the phrenic nerve from the cervical plexus to the diaphragm.",
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"plaintext": "The lobes of the lung are subject to anatomical variations. A horizontal interlobar fissure was found to be incomplete in 25% of right lungs, or even absent in 11% of all cases. An accessory fissure was also found in 14% and 22% of left and right lungs, respectively. An oblique fissure was found to be incomplete in 21% to 47% of left lungs. In some cases a fissure is absent, or extra, resulting in a right lung with only two lobes, or a left lung with three lobes.",
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"plaintext": "A variation in the airway branching structure has been found specifically in the central airway",
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"plaintext": "branching. This variation is associated with the development of COPD in adulthood.",
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"plaintext": "The development of the human lungs arise from the laryngotracheal groove and develop to maturity over several weeks in the foetus and for several years following birth.",
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"plaintext": "The larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs that make up the respiratory tract, begin to form during the fourth week of embryogenesis from the lung bud which appears ventrally to the caudal portion of the foregut.",
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"plaintext": "The respiratory tract has a branching structure, and is also known as the respiratory tree. In the embryo this structure is developed in the process of branching morphogenesis, and is generated by the repeated splitting of the tip of the branch. In the development of the lungs (as in some other organs) the epithelium forms branching tubes. The lung has a left-right symmetry and each bud known as a bronchial bud grows out as a tubular epithelium that becomes a bronchus. Each bronchus branches into bronchioles. The branching is a result of the tip of each tube bifurcating. The branching process forms the bronchi, bronchioles, and ultimately the alveoli. The four genes mostly associated with branching morphogenesis in the lung are the intercellular signalling protein – sonic hedgehog (SHH), fibroblast growth factors FGF10 and FGFR2b, and bone morphogenetic protein BMP4. FGF10 is seen to have the most prominent role. FGF10 is a paracrine signalling molecule needed for epithelial branching, and SHH inhibits FGF10. The development of the alveoli is influenced by a different mechanism whereby continued bifurcation is stopped and the distal tips become dilated to form the alveoli.",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the fourth week the lung bud divides into two, the right and left primary bronchial buds on each side of the trachea. During the fifth week the right bud branches into three secondary bronchial buds and the left branches into two secondary bronchial buds. These give rise to the lobes of the lungs, three on the right and two on the left. Over the following week, the secondary buds branch into tertiary buds, about ten on each side. From the sixth week to the sixteenth week, the major elements of the lungs appear except the alveoli. From week 16 to week 26, the bronchi enlarge and lung tissue becomes highly vascularised. Bronchioles and alveolar ducts also develop. By week 26 the terminal bronchioles have formed which branch into two respiratory bronchioles. During the period covering the 26th week until birth the important blood–air barrier is established. Specialised type I alveolar cells where gas exchange will take place, together with the type II alveolar cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant, appear. The surfactant reduces the surface tension at the air-alveolar surface which allows expansion of the alveolar sacs. The alveolar sacs contain the primitive alveoli that form at the end of the alveolar ducts,",
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"plaintext": "and their appearance around the seventh month marks the point at which limited respiration would be possible, and the premature baby could survive.",
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"plaintext": "The developing lung is particularly vulnerable to changes in the levels of vitamin A. Vitamin A deficiency has been linked to changes in the epithelial lining of the lung and in the lung parenchyma. This can disrupt the normal physiology of the lung and predispose to respiratory diseases. Severe nutritional deficiency in vitamin A results in a reduction in the formation of the alveolar walls (septa) and to notable changes in the respiratory epithelium; alterations are noted in the extracellular matrix and in the protein content of the basement membrane. The extracellular matrix maintains lung elasticity; the basement membrane is associated with alveolar epithelium and is important in the blood-air barrier. The deficiency is associated with functional defects and disease states. Vitamin A is crucial in the development of the alveoli which continues for several years after birth.",
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"plaintext": "At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the lungs and are not inflated. After birth the infant's central nervous system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment. This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery. Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid. After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The resistance in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies other changes which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.",
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"plaintext": "At birth the lungs are very undeveloped with only around one sixth of the alveoli of the adult lung present. The alveoli continue to form into early adulthood, and their ability to form when necessary is seen in the regeneration of the lung. Alveolar septa have a double capillary network instead of the single network of the developed lung. Only after the maturation of the capillary network can the lung enter a normal phase of growth. Following the early growth in numbers of alveoli there is another stage of the alveoli being enlarged.",
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"plaintext": "The major function of the lungs is gas exchange between the lungs and the blood. The alveolar and pulmonary capillary gases equilibrate across the thin blood–air barrier. This thin membrane (about 0.5 –2μm thick) is folded into about 300 million alveoli, providing an extremely large surface area (estimates varying between 70 and 145m2) for gas exchange to occur.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs are not capable of expanding to breathe on their own, and will only do so when there is an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity. This is achieved by the muscles of respiration, through the contraction of the diaphragm, and the intercostal muscles which pull the rib cage upwards as shown in the diagram. During breathing out the muscles relax, returning the lungs to their resting position. At this point the lungs contain the functional residual capacity (FRC) of air, which, in the adult human, has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 litres.",
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"plaintext": "During heavy breathing as in exertion, a large number of accessory muscles in the neck and abdomen are recruited, that during exhalation pull the ribcage down, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The FRC is now decreased, but since the lungs cannot be emptied completely there is still about a litre of residual air left. Function testing is carried out to evaluate lung volumes and capacities.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs possess several characteristics which protect against infection. The respiratory tract is lined by respiratory epithelium or respiratory mucosa, with hair-like projections called cilia that beat rhythmically and carry mucus. This mucociliary clearance is an important defence system against air-borne infection. The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucosal surface of the airways, and are moved up towards the pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia. The lining of the lung also secretes immunoglobulin A which protects against respiratory infections; goblet cells secrete mucus which also contains several antimicrobial compounds such as defensins, antiproteases, and antioxidants. A rare type of specialised cell called a pulmonary ionocyte that is suggested may regulate mucus viscosity has been described. In addition, the lining of the lung also contains macrophages, immune cells which engulf and destroy debris and microbes that enter the lung in a process known as phagocytosis; and dendritic cells which present antigens to activate components of the adaptive immune system such as T cells and B cells.",
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"plaintext": "The size of the respiratory tract and the flow of air also protect the lungs from larger particles. Smaller particles deposit in the mouth and behind the mouth in the oropharynx, and larger particles are trapped in nasal hair after inhalation.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs have a number of other functions. They are involved in maintaining homeostasis, helping in the regulation of blood pressure as part of the renin–angiotensin system. The inner lining of the blood vessels secretes angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. The lungs are involved in the blood's acid–base homeostasis by expelling carbon dioxide when breathing.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs also serve a protective role. Several blood-borne substances, such as a few types of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, serotonin and bradykinin, are excreted through the lungs. Drugs and other substances can be absorbed, modified or excreted in the lungs. The lungs filter out small blood clots from veins and prevent them from entering arteries and causing strokes.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs also play a pivotal role in speech by providing air and airflow for the creation of vocal sounds, and other paralanguage communications such as sighs and gasps.",
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"plaintext": "Research suggests a role of the lungs in the production of blood platelets.",
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"plaintext": "About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 75% of these genes are expressed in the normal lung. A little less than 200 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the lung with less than 20 genes being highly lung specific. The highest expression of lung specific proteins are different surfactant proteins, such as SFTPA1, SFTPB and SFTPC, and napsin, expressed in type II pneumocytes. Other proteins with elevated expression in the lung are the dynein protein DNAH5 in ciliated cells, and the secreted SCGB1A1 protein in mucus-secreting goblet cells of the airway mucosa.",
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"plaintext": "Lungs can be affected by a number of diseases and disorders. Pulmonology is the medical speciality that deals with respiratory diseases involving the lungs and respiratory system. Cardiothoracic surgery deals with surgery of the lungs including lung volume reduction surgery, lobectomy, pneumectomy and lung transplantation.",
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"plaintext": "Inflammatory conditions of the lung tissue are pneumonia, of the respiratory tract are bronchitis and bronchiolitis, and of the pleurae surrounding the lungs pleurisy. Inflammation is usually caused by infections due to bacteria or viruses. When the lung tissue is inflamed due to other causes it is called pneumonitis. One major cause of bacterial pneumonia is tuberculosis. Chronic infections often occur in those with immunodeficiency and can include a fungal infection by Aspergillus fumigatus that can lead to an aspergilloma forming in the lung.",
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"plaintext": "Alcohol affects the lungs and can cause inflammatory alcoholic lung disease. Acute exposure to alcohol stimulates the beating of cilia in the respiratory epithelium. However, chronic exposure has the effect of desensitising the ciliary response which reduces mucociliary clearance (MCC). MCC is an innate defense system protecting against pollutants and pathogens, and when this is disrupted the numbers of alveolar macrophages are decreased. A subsequent inflammatory response is the release of cytokines. Another consequence is the susceptibility to infection.",
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"plaintext": "A pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that becomes lodged in the pulmonary arteries. The majority of emboli arise because of deep vein thrombosis in the legs. Pulmonary emboli may be investigated using a ventilation/perfusion scan, a CT scan of the arteries of the lung, or blood tests such as the D-dimer. Pulmonary hypertension describes an increased pressure at the beginning of the pulmonary artery that has a large number of differing causes. Other rarer conditions may also affect the blood supply of the lung, such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis, which causes inflammation of the small blood vessels of the lungs and kidneys.",
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"plaintext": "A lung contusion is a bruise caused by chest trauma. It results in hemorrhage of the alveoli causing a build-up of fluid which can impair breathing, and this can be either mild or severe.",
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"plaintext": "The function of the lungs can also be affected by compression from fluid in the pleural cavity pleural effusion, or other substances such as air (pneumothorax), blood (hemothorax), or rarer causes. These may be investigated using a chest X-ray or CT scan, and may require the insertion of a surgical drain until the underlying cause is identified and treated.",
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"plaintext": "Asthma, bronchiectasis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) that includes chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, are all obstructive lung diseases characterised by airway obstruction. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with pulmonary function tests such as spirometry. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as dust mites or smoking), with symptom control such as bronchodilators, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through corticosteroids) in severe cases. A common cause of chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, is smoking; and common causes of bronchiectasis include severe infections and cystic fibrosis. The definitive cause of asthma is not yet known.",
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"plaintext": "The breakdown of alveolar tissue, often as a result of tobacco-smoking leads to emphysema, which can become severe enough to develop into COPD. Elastase breaks down the elastin in the lung's connective tissue that can also result in emphysema. Elastase is inhibited by the acute-phase protein, alpha-1 antitrypsin, and when there is a deficiency in this, emphysema can develop. With persistent stress from smoking, the airway basal cells become disarranged and lose their regenerative ability needed to repair the epithelial barrier. The disorganised basal cells are seen to be responsible for the major airway changes that are characteristic of COPD, and with continued stress can undergo a malignant transformation. Studies have shown that the initial development of emphysema is centred on the early changes in the airway epithelium of the small airways. Basal cells become further deranged in a smoker's transition to clinically defined COPD.",
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"plaintext": "Some types of chronic lung diseases are classified as restrictive lung disease, because of a restriction in the amount of lung tissue involved in respiration. These include pulmonary fibrosis which can occur when the lung is inflamed for a long period of time. Fibrosis in the lung replaces functioning lung tissue with fibrous connective tissue. This can be due to a large variety of occupational lung diseases such as Coalworker's pneumoconiosis, autoimmune diseases or more rarely to a reaction to medication. Severe respiratory disorders, where spontaneous breathing is not enough to maintain life, may need the use of mechanical ventilation to ensure an adequate supply of air.",
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"plaintext": "Lung cancer can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of metastasis from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either small-cell or non-small-cell lung carcinomas. The major risk factor for cancer is smoking. Once a cancer is identified it is staged using scans such as a CT scan and a sample of tissue from a biopsy is taken. Cancers may be treated surgically by removing the tumour, the use of radiotherapy, chemotherapy or a combination, or with the aim of symptom control. Lung cancer screening is being recommended in the United States for high-risk populations.",
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"plaintext": "Congenital disorders include cystic fibrosis, pulmonary hypoplasia (an incomplete development of the lungs)congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and infant respiratory distress syndrome caused by a deficiency in lung surfactant. An azygos lobe is a congenital anatomical variation which though usually without effect can cause problems in thoracoscopic procedures.",
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"plaintext": "A pneumothorax (collapsed lung) is an abnormal collection of air in the pleural space that causes an uncoupling of the lung from the chest wall. The lung cannot expand against the air pressure inside the pleural space. An easy to understand example is a traumatic pneumothorax, where air enters the pleural space from outside the body, as occurs with puncture to the chest wall. Similarly, scuba divers ascending while holding their breath with their lungs fully inflated can cause air sacs (alveoli) to burst and leak high pressure air into the pleural space.",
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"plaintext": "As part of a physical examination in response to respiratory symptoms of shortness of breath, and cough, a lung examination may be carried out. This exam includes palpation and auscultation. The areas of the lungs that can be listened to using a stethoscope are called the lung fields, and these are the posterior, lateral, and anterior lung fields. The posterior fields can be listened to from the back and include: the lower lobes (taking up three quarters of the posterior fields); the anterior fields taking up the other quarter; and the lateral fields under the axillae, the left axilla for the lingual, the right axilla for the middle right lobe. The anterior fields can also be auscultated from the front. An area known as the triangle of auscultation is an area of thinner musculature on the back which allows improved listening. Abnormal breathing sounds heard during a lung exam can indicate the presence of a lung condition; wheezing for example is commonly associated with asthma and COPD.",
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"plaintext": "Lung function testing is carried out by evaluating a person's capacity to inhale and exhale in different circumstances. The volume of air inhaled and exhaled by a person at rest is the tidal volume (normally 500-750mL); the inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume are the additional amounts a person is able to forcibly inhale and exhale respectively. The summed total of forced inspiration and expiration is a person's vital capacity. Not all air is expelled from the lungs even after a forced breath out; the remainder of the air is called the residual volume. Together these terms are referred to as lung volumes.",
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"plaintext": "Pulmonary plethysmographs are used to measure functional residual capacity. Functional residual capacity cannot be measured by tests that rely on breathing out, as a person is only able to breathe a maximum of 80% of their total functional capacity. The total lung capacity depends on the person's age, height, weight, and sex, and normally ranges between 4 and 6 litres. Females tend to have a 20–25% lower capacity than males. Tall people tend to have a larger total lung capacity than shorter people. Smokers have a lower capacity than nonsmokers. Thinner persons tend to have a larger capacity. Lung capacity can be increased by physical training as much as 40% but the effect may be modified by exposure to air pollution.",
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"plaintext": "Other lung function tests include spirometry, measuring the amount (volume) and flow of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. The maximum volume of breath that can be exhaled is called the vital capacity. In particular, how much a person is able to exhale in one second (called forced expiratory volume (FEV1)) as a proportion of how much they are able to exhale in total (FEV). This ratio, the FEV1/FEV ratio, is important to distinguish whether a lung disease is restrictive or obstructive. Another test is that of the lung's diffusing capacity – this is a measure of the transfer of gas from air to the blood in the lung capillaries.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of birds are relatively small, but are connected to 8 or 9 air sacs that extend through much of the body, and are in turn connected to air spaces within the bones. On inhalation, air travels through the trachea of a bird into the air sacs. Air then travels continuously from the air sacs at the back, through the lungs, which are relatively fixed in size, to the air sacs at the front. From here, the air is exhaled. These fixed size lungs are called \"circulatory lungs\", as distinct from the \"bellows-type lungs\" found in most other animals.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of birds contain millions of tiny parallel passages called parabronchi. Small sacs called atria radiate from the walls of the tiny passages; these, like the alveoli in other lungs, are the site of gas exchange by simple diffusion. The blood flow around the parabronchi and their atria forms a cross-current process of gas exchange (see diagram on the right).",
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"plaintext": "The air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.",
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"plaintext": "Parabronchi in which the air flow is unidirectional are called paleopulmonic parabronchi and are found in all birds. Some birds, however, have, in addition, a lung structure where the air flow in the parabronchi is bidirectional. These are termed neopulmonic parabronchi.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of most reptiles have a single bronchus running down the centre, from which numerous branches reach out to individual pockets throughout the lungs. These pockets are similar to alveoli in mammals, but much larger and fewer in number. These give the lung a sponge-like texture. In tuataras, snakes, and some lizards, the lungs are simpler in structure, similar to that of typical amphibians.",
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"plaintext": "Snakes and limbless lizards typically possess only the right lung as a major respiratory organ; the left lung is greatly reduced, or even absent. Amphisbaenians, however, have the opposite arrangement, with a major left lung, and a reduced or absent right lung.",
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"plaintext": "Both crocodilians and monitor lizards have lungs similar to those of birds, providing a unidirectional airflow and even possessing air sacs. The now extinct pterosaurs have seemingly even further refined this type of lung, extending the airsacs into the wing membranes and, in the case of lonchodectids, tupuxuara, and azhdarchoids, the hindlimbs.",
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"plaintext": "Reptilian lungs typically receive air via expansion and contraction of the ribs driven by axial muscles and buccal pumping. Crocodilians also rely on the hepatic piston method, in which the liver is pulled back by a muscle anchored to the pubic bone (part of the pelvis) called the diaphragmaticus, which in turn creates negative pressure in the crocodile's thoracic cavity, allowing air to be moved into the lungs by Boyle's law. Turtles, which are unable to move their ribs, instead use their forelimbs and pectoral girdle to force air in and out of the lungs.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of most frogs and other amphibians are simple and balloon-like, with gas exchange limited to the outer surface of the lung. This is not very efficient, but amphibians have low metabolic demands and can also quickly dispose of carbon dioxide by diffusion across their skin in water, and supplement their oxygen supply by the same method. Amphibians employ a positive pressure system to get air to their lungs, forcing air down into the lungs by buccal pumping. This is distinct from most higher vertebrates, who use a breathing system driven by negative pressure where the lungs are inflated by expanding the rib cage. In buccal pumping, the floor of the mouth is lowered, filling the mouth cavity with air. The throat muscles then presses the throat against the underside of the skull, forcing the air into the lungs.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the possibility of respiration across the skin combined with small size, all known lungless tetrapods are amphibians. The majority of salamander species are lungless salamanders, which respirate through their skin and tissues lining their mouth. This necessarily restricts their size: all are small and rather thread-like in appearance, maximising skin surface relative to body volume. Other known lungless tetrapods are the Bornean flat-headed frog and Atretochoana eiselti, a caecilian.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of amphibians typically have a few narrow internal walls (septa) of soft tissue around the outer walls, increasing the respiratory surface area and giving the lung a honeycomb appearance. In some salamanders even these are lacking, and the lung has a smooth wall. In caecilians, as in snakes, only the right lung attains any size or development.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of lungfish are similar to those of amphibians, with few, if any, internal septa. In the Australian lungfish, there is only a single lung, albeit divided into two lobes. Other lungfish and Polypterus, however, have two lungs, which are located in the upper part of the body, with the connecting duct curving around and above the esophagus. The blood supply also twists around the esophagus, suggesting that the lungs originally evolved in the ventral part of the body, as in other vertebrates.",
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"plaintext": "Some invertebrates have lung-like structures that serve a similar respiratory purpose as, but are not evolutionarily related to, vertebrate lungs. Some arachnids, such as spiders and scorpions, have structures called book lungs used for atmospheric gas exchange. Some species of spider have four pairs of book lungs but most have two pairs. Scorpions have spiracles on their body for the entrance of air to the book lungs.",
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"plaintext": "The coconut crab is terrestrial and uses structures called branchiostegal lungs to breathe air. They cannot swim and would drown in water, yet they possess a rudimentary set of gills. They can breathe on land and hold their breath underwater. The branchiostegal lungs are seen as a developmental adaptive stage from water-living to enable land-living, or from fish to amphibian.",
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"plaintext": "Pulmonates are mostly land snails and slugs that have developed a simple lung from the mantle cavity. An externally located opening called the pneumostome allows air to be taken into the mantle cavity lung.",
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"plaintext": "The lungs of today's terrestrial vertebrates and the gas bladders of today's fish are believed to have evolved from simple sacs, as outpocketings of the esophagus, that allowed early fish to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions. These outpocketings first arose in the bony fish. In most of the ray-finned fish the sacs evolved into closed off gas bladders, while a number of carp, trout, herring, catfish, and eels have retained the physostome condition with the sac being open to the esophagus. In more basal bony fish, such as the gar, bichir, bowfin and the lobe-finned fish, the bladders have evolved to primarily function as lungs. The lobe-finned fish gave rise to the land-based tetrapods. Thus, the lungs of vertebrates are homologous to the gas bladders of fish (but not to their gills).",
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"plaintext": " Atelectasis",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
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},
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"plaintext": " Drowning",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Interstitial lung disease",
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1483290
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liquid breathing",
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"target_page_ids": [
863712
],
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lung abscess",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
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2452670
],
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1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lung-on-a-chip",
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],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Secarecytosis",
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14018120
],
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1,
14
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of terms of lung size and activity",
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31238643
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1,
40
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},
{
"plaintext": " Dr D.R. Johnson: Introductory anatomy, respiratory system, leeds.ac.uk",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Franlink Institute Online: The Respiratory System, sln.fi.edu",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Avian lungs and respiration, people.eku.edu",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Lung at the Human Protein Atlas",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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}
]
| [
"Lung",
"Human_anatomy_by_organ",
"Articles_containing_video_clips"
]
| 7,886 | 33,811 | 2,216 | 553 | 1 | 0 | lung | essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals | [
"lungs",
"Borders of the lung",
"Lung"
]
|
36,865 | 1,103,043,343 | Hepburn_romanization | [
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"plaintext": " is the most widely used system of romanization for the Japanese language. Originally published in 1867 by American missionary James Curtis Hepburn as the standard in the first edition of his Japanese–English dictionary, the system is distinct from other romanization methods in its use of English orthography to phonetically transcribe sounds: for example, the syllable (し) is written as shi and (ちゃ) is written as cha, reflecting their spellings in English (compare to si and tya in the more-systematic Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki systems).",
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"plaintext": "In 1886, Hepburn published the third edition of his dictionary, codifying a revised version of the system that is known today as \"traditional Hepburn\". A version with additional revisions, known as \"modified Hepburn\", was published in 1908.",
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"plaintext": "Although Kunrei-shiki romanization is the style favored by the Japanese government, Hepburn remains the most popular method of Japanese romanization. It is learned by most foreign students of the language, and is used within Japan for romanizing personal names, locations, and other information, such as train tables and road signs. Because the system's orthography is based on English phonology instead of a systematic transcription of the Japanese syllabary, individuals who only speak English or a Romance language will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.",
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"plaintext": "In 1867, American Presbyterian missionary doctor James Curtis Hepburn published the first Japanese–English dictionary, in which he introduced a new system for the romanization of Japanese into Latin script. He published a second edition in 1872 and a third edition in 1886, which introduced minor changes. The third edition's system had been adopted in the previous year by the , a group of Japanese and foreign scholars who promoted a replacement of the Japanese script with a romanized system.",
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"plaintext": "Hepburn romanization, loosely based on the conventions of English orthography (spelling), stood in opposition to Nihon-shiki romanization, which had been developed in Japan in 1881 as a script replacement. Compared to Hepburn, Nihon-shiki is more systematic in its representation of the Japanese syllabary (kana), as each symbol corresponds to a phoneme. However, the notation requires further explanation for accurate pronunciation by non-Japanese speakers: for example, the syllables and , which are written as shi and cha in Hepburn, are rendered as si and tya in Nihon-shiki. After Nihon-shiki was presented to the Rōmaji-kai in 1886, a dispute began between the supporters of the two systems, which resulted in a standstill and an eventual halt to the organization's activities in 1892.",
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"plaintext": "After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, the two factions resurfaced as the , which supported Hepburn's style, and the , which supported Nihon-shiki. In 1908, Hepburn was revised by educator Kanō Jigorō and others of the Rōmaji Hirome-kai, which began calling it the or .",
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"plaintext": "In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission, headed by the Minister of Education, was appointed by the government to devise a standardized form of romanization. The Commission eventually decided on a slightly modified \"compromise\" version of Nihon-shiki, which was chosen for official use by cabinet ordinance on September 21, 1937; this system is known today as Kunrei-shiki romanization. On September 3, 1945, at the beginning of the occupation of Japan after World War II, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers Douglas MacArthur issued a directive mandating the use of modified Hepburn by occupation forces. The directive had no legal force, however, and a revised version of Kunrei-shiki was reissued by cabinet ordinance on December 9, 1954, after the end of occupation.",
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"plaintext": "Although it lacks de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard for some applications in Japan. As of 1977, many government organizations used Hepburn, including the Ministry of International Trade and Industry; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs requires the use of Hepburn on passports, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport requires its use on transport signs, including road signs and railway station signs. Hepburn is also used by private organizations, including The Japan Times and the Japan Travel Bureau.",
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"plaintext": "American National Standard System for the Romanization of Japanese (ANSI Z39.11-1972), based on modified Hepburn, was approved in 1971 and published in 1972 by the American National Standards Institute. In 1989, it was proposed for International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standard 3602, but was rejected in favor of Kunrei-shiki. ANSI Z39.11-1972 was deprecated as a standard in 1994.",
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"plaintext": "There are many variants of the Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are as follows:",
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},
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"plaintext": " Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburn's dictionary, with the third edition (1886) often considered authoritative (although changes in kana usage must be accounted for). It is characterized by the rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonants b, m and p: for example, Shimbashi for .",
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"plaintext": " Modified Hepburn, also known as Revised Hepburn, in which (among other changes) the rendering of syllabic n as m before certain consonants is no longer used: Shinbashi for . The version of the system published in the third (1954) and later editions of Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary are often considered authoritative; it was adopted in 1989 by the Library of Congress as one of its ALA-LC romanizations, and is the most common variant of Hepburn romanization used today.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses:",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " , which mostly follows Modified Hepburn, except syllabic n is rendered as in Traditional. Japan Railways and other major railways use it for station names.",
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"plaintext": " Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Standard, ",
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"plaintext": " , a permissive standard that renders the syllabic n as m before b, m and p. Most of the long vowels are not rendered. Moreover, this standard explicitly allows the use of in personal names, notably for passports. In particular, the long vowel ō can be romanized oh, oo or ou (Satoh, Satoo or Satou for ).",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
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"plaintext": "Details of the variants can be found below.",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburn's dictionary are primarily of historical interest. Notable differences from the third and later versions include:",
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"plaintext": " and were written as ye: Yedo",
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"plaintext": " and were written as dzu: kudzu, tsudzuku",
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"plaintext": " , , and were written as kiya, kiyo and kiu",
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"plaintext": " (modern: ) was written as kuwa",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "The following differences are in addition to those in the second version:",
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{
"plaintext": " was written as sz.",
"section_idx": 2,
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{
"plaintext": " was written as tsz.",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " and were written as du.",
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"plaintext": "The main feature of Hepburn is that its orthography is based on English phonology. More technically, when syllables that are constructed systematically according to the Japanese syllabary contain an \"unstable\" consonant in the modern spoken language, the orthography is changed to something that better matches the real sound as an English-speaker would pronounce it. For example, is written shi not si. This transcription is thus only partly phonological.",
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"plaintext": "Some linguists such as Harold E. Palmer, Daniel Jones and Otto Jespersen object to Hepburn since the pronunciation-based spellings can obscure the systematic origins of Japanese phonetic structures, inflections, and conjugations. Supporters of Hepburn argue that it is not intended as a linguistic tool, and that individuals who only speak English or a Romance language will generally be more accurate when pronouncing unfamiliar words romanized in the Hepburn style compared to other systems.",
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{
"plaintext": "In Hepburn, vowel combinations that form a long sound are usually indicated with a macron (◌̄). Other adjacent vowels, such as those separated by a morpheme boundary, are written separately:",
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"plaintext": "All other vowel combinations are always written separately:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " E + I: – sei + fuku – seifuku 'uniform' (despite E + I is often pronounced as a long E)",
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"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " U + I: – karu + i – karui 'light (in weight)'",
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"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " O + I: – oi – oi 'nephew'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In foreign loanwords, long vowels followed by a chōonpu (ー) are indicated with macrons:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " : se + (ー) + ra + (ー) = sērā 'sailor'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : ta + ku + shi + (ー) = takushī 'taxi'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : ko + n + ku + (ー) + ru = konkūru 'competition'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : ba + re + (ー) + bo + (ー) + ru = barēbōru 'volleyball'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : so + (ー) + ru = sōru 'sole (of a shoe, etc.)'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Adjacent vowels in loanwords are written separately:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : ba + re + e – baree 'ballet'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : mi + i + ra – miira 'mummy'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : so + u + ru – souru 'soul', 'Seoul'",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "There are many variations on the Hepburn system for indicating long vowels with a macron. For example, () is properly romanized as Tōkyō, but can also be written as:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tokyo – not indicated at all. Common for Japanese words that have been adopted into English, and the de facto convention for Hepburn used in signs and other English-language information around Japan.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tôkyô – indicated with circumflex accents, as in the alternative Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanizations. They are often used when macrons are unavailable or difficult to input, due to their visual similarity.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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],
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tohkyoh – indicated with an h (only applies after o). This is sometimes known as \"passport Hepburn\", as the Japanese Foreign Ministry has authorized (but not required) it in passports.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Toukyou – written using kana spelling: ō as ou or oo (depending on the kana). This is also known as wāpuro style, as it reflects how text is entered into a Japanese word processor by using a keyboard with Roman characters. Wāpuro more accurately represents the way that ō is written in kana by differentiating between (as in (), Toukyou in wāpuro) and (as in (), tooi in wāpuro); however, it fails to differentiate between long vowels and vowels separated by a morpheme boundary.",
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"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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],
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Tookyoo – written by doubling the long vowels. Some dictionaries such as the Pocket Kenkyusha Japanese Dictionary and Basic English Writers' Japanese-English Wordbook follow this style, and it is also used in the JSL form of romanization.",
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"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "In traditional and modified:",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " When is used as a particle, it is written wa.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In traditional Hepburn:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " When is used as a particle, Hepburn originally recommended ye. This spelling is obsolete, and it is commonly written as e (Romaji-Hirome-Kai, 1974).",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " When is used as a particle, it is written wo.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In modified Hepburn:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " When is used as a particle, it is written e.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " When is used as a particle, it is written o.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In traditional Hepburn:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Syllabic n () is written as n before consonants, but as m before labial consonants: b, m, and p. It is sometimes written as n- (with a hyphen) before vowels and y (to avoid confusion between, for example, n + a and na, and n + ya and nya), but its hyphen usage is not clear. ",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
39011
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " : annai – guide",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : Gumma – Gunma",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " : kan-i – simple",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : shin-yō – trust",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In modified Hepburn:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The rendering m before labial consonants is not used and is replaced with n. It is written n (with an apostrophe) before vowels and y.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : annai – guide",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : Gunma – Gunma",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : kan'i – simple",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : shin'yō – trust",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Elongated (or \"geminate\") consonant sounds are marked by doubling the consonant following a sokuon, ; for consonants that are digraphs in Hepburn (sh, ch, ts), only the first consonant of the set is doubled, except for ch, which is replaced by tch.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " : kekka – result",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : sassato – quickly",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : zutto – all the time",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : kippu – ticket",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : zasshi – magazine",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : issho – together",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : kotchi (not kocchi) – this way",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " : matcha (not maccha) – matcha",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " : mittsu – three",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Features",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Each entry contains hiragana, katakana, and Hepburn romanization, in that order.",
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"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [
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16851
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " † — The characters in are historical characters and are obsolete in modern Japanese. In modern Hepburn romanization, they are often undefined.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " ‡ — The characters in are rarely used outside of their status as a particle in modern Japanese, and romanization follows the rules Particles.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "These combinations are used mainly to represent the sounds in words in other languages.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Digraphs with backgrounds are the general ones used for loanwords or foreign places or names, and those with backgrounds are used for more accurate transliterations of foreign sounds, both suggested by the Cabinet of Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. Katakana combinations with backgrounds are suggested by the American National Standards Institute and the British Standards Institution as possible uses. Ones with backgrounds appear on the 1974 version of the Hyōjun-shiki formatting.",
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"section_name": "Romanization charts",
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398,
427
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{
"plaintext": " * — The use of in these two cases to represent w is rare in modern Japanese except for Internet slang and transcription of the Latin sound [w] into katakana. E.g.: ミネルウァ (Mineruwa \"Minerva\", from Latin MINERVA [mɪˈnɛrwa]); ウゥルカーヌス (Wurukānusu \"Vulcan\", from Latin VVLCANVS, Vu'lcānus [wʊlˈkaːnʊs]). The wa-type of foreign sounds (as in watt or white) is usually transcribed to ワ (wa), while the wu-type (as in wood or woman) is usually to ウ (u) or ウー (ū).",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " ⁑ — has a rarely used hiragana form in that is also vu in Hepburn romanization systems.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [
13804
],
"anchor_spans": [
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24,
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},
{
"plaintext": " ⁂ — The characters in are obsolete in modern Japanese and very rarely used.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Romanization charts",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " List of ISO romanizations",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4472674
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[
1,
26
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Preface of first edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Preface of third edition of Hepburn's original dictionary, explaining romanization",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Romanization_of_Japanese",
"Japanese_writing_system"
]
| 667,558 | 39,274 | 272 | 75 | 0 | 0 | Hepburn romanization | system of Japanese romanization | [
"Hepburn romanisation"
]
|
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"plaintext": "The game sold well initially and critical reception was positive. Two sequels were released: Double Helix (2002) and Payback (2007). Soldier of Fortune Online, a massively multiplayer online first-person shooter game, was published in Korea in 2010, but it servers were shut down shortly after its release.",
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"plaintext": "Soldier of Fortune is best known for its graphic depictions of firearms dismembering the human body. This graphic violence is the game's main stylistic attraction, much like the destructible environments of Red Faction or bullet time of Max Payne. The GHOUL engine enables depiction of extreme graphic violence, in which character models are based on body parts that can each independently sustain damage (gore zones). There are 26 zones in total: a shot to the head with a powerful gun will often make the target's head explode, leaving nothing but the bloody stump of the neck remaining; a close-range shot to the stomach with a shotgun will leave an enemy's bowels in a bloody mess, and a shot to the nether regions will cause the victims to clutch their groin in agony for a few seconds before kneeling over dead. It is possible to shoot off an enemy's limbs (head, arms, legs) leaving nothing left but a bloody torso. In the last mission there is also a fictional microwave weapon, causing the enemies to fry or explode, depending on the firing mode. However, nonviolence is a possibility, if the player is a good shot it is possible to shoot an enemy's weapon out of their hand, causing them to cower on the floor to surrender. The game also came with password-protected options to disable all gore and there is even a version of the game with the extreme violence permanently locked-out, titled Soldier of Fortune: Tactical Low-Violence Version.",
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"plaintext": "Raven Software acquired a license from the mercenary magazine Soldier of Fortune to produce a video game based on the publication. The game was built around a modified version of the Quake II game engine. It was the first game to utilize the GHOUL damage model engine developed by Raven Software. This introduced the ability to dismember enemies in combat, adding to the realism of the game. Upgraded versions of the GHOUL system were later used in other Raven titles, such as Double Helix and Jedi Outcast.",
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"plaintext": "The game was originally supposed to be much more realistic, featuring mostly real weapons, and the players taking damage would impede their movement and dexterity, depending on where and how many times they were hit. In 1998 (prior to the Kosovo War) the game was also supposed to be partially based in Bosnia instead of Kosovo.",
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"plaintext": "The game is AMD Eyefinity validated. The game also made use of the Aureal Semiconductor A3D and Creative Labs EAX technology.",
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"plaintext": "The Dreamcast version and the Gold Edition received \"mixed or average reviews\" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Robert Howarth of GameFan wrote of the PC version, \"for those adults looking for extreme action, Soldier of Fortune could be just what the doctor ordered.\" Howarth considered its story to be \"on par\" with many action movies; he also commented that the GHOUL damage model rendering system was \"an amazing technology\".",
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"plaintext": "Chris Kramer of NextGens June 2000 issue wrote of the PC original, \"Sure, it's not for kids, but it's as good an FPS as you could ever ask for.\" 15 issues later, Jim Preston called the Dreamcast version \"An OK port of an OK game.\"",
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"plaintext": "Robert Mayer of Computer Games Strategy Plus gave the PC version four stars out of five, saying, \"Raven Software set out to make a shooter, and they've made a damn fine one. Just be sure you're up to it before you dive in. It gets mighty bloody in there.\" Edge gave the same PC version seven out of ten, calling it \"an above-average firstperson shooter. It doesn't bring much to the genre, save for its gory depiction of violence.\"",
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"plaintext": "Cal Nguyen of AllGame gave the PC version four-and-a-half stars out of five, saying, \"If you're bent on eliminating terrorist threats by skinheads, Saddam Hussein's army, Russian mafias or even New York mobsters, then take a lesson from the Soldier of Fortune and tear open a new one.\" Later, J.C. Barnes gave the Dreamcast version three-and-a-half stars out of five, calling it \"a solid shooter that doesn't break new ground in graphics, sound or artificial intelligence, but it's a solid shooter worth some attention. Aside from the tricky controls and lighting issues, FPS fans shouldn't be too disappointed with this single-player adventure.\"",
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"plaintext": "Nash Werner of GamePro said of the PC version, \"With its well-written storyline and thought-provoking missions, SoFs singleplayer will keep you thrilled for hours, and you'll probably be playing the Assassin mode for months. Despite ridiculously long load times, Soldier of Fortune is recommended for everyone who appreciates a good FPS.\" Jake the Snake said of the Dreamcast version, \"If you're longing for some over-the-top shooting with real weapons, Soldier of Fortune hits its mark with extreme prejudice, but less crazed gamers should steer clear.\" However, The D-Pad Destroyer said of the PlayStation 2 version, \"with all its faults, Fortune is fairly fun for hardcore soldier types, but everyone else will just want to keep their membership in Red Faction.\" Nick Valentino of GameZone gave the same console version 6 out of 10, saying that it was \"just another FPS trying to jump on the bandwagon of other successful titles and sorely misses the mark. With very little to offer in terms of design or new features, it fails to capture the right FPS feel which other games have effectively achieved. In other words, look someplace else.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, after receiving a complaint from a member of the public about the explicit content of the game, the British Columbia Film Classification Office investigated and decided the violence, gore and acts of torture were not suitable for persons under 18 years of age. In a controversial decision, the game was labeled an \"adult motion picture\" and was rated as a pornographic film. In Germany, the game was placed on the Index List of the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons.",
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| 1,427,606 | 6,257 | 35 | 68 | 0 | 0 | Soldier of Fortune | 2000 video game | [
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36,869 | 1,099,391,762 | Cell_division | [
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"plaintext": "Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides, when a mother cell divides into two or more daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle. In eukaryotes, there are two distinct types of cell division; a vegetative division, whereby each daughter cell is genetically identical to the parent cell (mitosis), and a reproductive cell division, whereby the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is reduced by half to produce haploid gametes (meiosis). In cell biology, mitosis (/maɪˈtoʊsɪs/) is a part of the cell cycle, in which, replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA replication occurs) and is often followed by telophase and cytokinesis; which divides the cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane of one cell into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define the mitotic (M) phase of animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. Meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. Homologous chromosomes are separated in the first division, and sister chromatids are separated in the second division. Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor.",
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"plaintext": "Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) usually undergo a vegetative cell division known as binary fission, where their genetic material is segregated equally into two daughter cells. While binary fission may be the means of division by most prokaryotes, there are alternative manners of division, such as budding, that have been observed. All cell divisions, regardless of organism, are preceded by a single round of DNA replication.",
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"plaintext": "For simple unicellular microorganisms such as the amoeba, one cell division is equivalent to reproduction – an entire new organism is created. On a larger scale, mitotic cell division can create progeny from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. Mitotic cell division enables sexually reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote, which itself is produced by meiotic cell division from gametes. After growth, cell division by mitosis allows for continual construction and repair of the organism. The human body experiences about 10 quadrillion cell divisions in a lifetime.",
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"plaintext": "The primary concern of cell division is the maintenance of the original cell's genome. Before division can occur, the genomic information that is stored in chromosomes must be replicated, and the duplicated genome must be cleanly divided between progeny cells. A great deal of cellular infrastructure is involved in ensuring consistency of genomic information among generations.",
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"plaintext": "Bacterial cell division happens through binary fission or budding. The divisome is a protein complex in bacteria that is responsible for cell division, constriction of inner and outer membranes during division, and peptidoglycan (PG) synthesis at the division site. A tubulin-like protein, FtsZ plays a critical role in formation of a contractile ring for the cell division.",
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"plaintext": "Depending upon chromosomal number reduced or not; Eukaryotic cell divisions can be classified as mitosis (equational division) and meiosis (reductional division). A primitive form of cell division is also found which is called amitosis. The amitotic or mitotic cell division is more atypical and diverse in the various groups of organisms such as protists (namely diatoms, dinoflagellates etc.) and fungi.",
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"plaintext": "In mitotic metaphase (see below), typically the chromosomes (each with 2 sister chromatids that they developed due to replication in the S phase of interphase) arranged and sister chromatids split and distributed toward daughter cells.",
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"plaintext": "In meiosis, typically in Meiosis-I the homologous chromosomes are paired and then separated and distributed into daughter cells. Meiosis-II is like mitosis where the chromatids are separated.",
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"plaintext": "In human and other higher animals and many other organisms, the meiosis is called gametic meiosis, that is meiosis gives rise to gametes. Whereas in many groups of organisms, especially in plants (observable in lower plants, meiosis but vestigial stage in higher plants), the meiosis gives rise to the kind of spores that germinate into haploid vegetative phase (gametophyte). This kind of meiosis is called sporic meiosis.",
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"plaintext": "Interphase is the process through which a cell must go before mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis. Interphase consists of three main phases: G1, S, and G2. G1 is a time of growth for the cell where specialized cellular functions occur in order to prepare the cell for DNA replication. There are checkpoints during interphase that allow the cell to either advance or halt further development. One of the checkpoint is between G1 and S, the purpose for this checkpoint is to check for appropriate cell size and any DNA damage . The second check point is in the G2 phase, this checkpoint also checks for cell size but also the DNA replication. The last check point is located at the site of metaphase, where it checks that the chromosomes are correctly connected to the mitotic spindles. In S phase, the chromosomes are replicated in order for the genetic content to be maintained. During G2, the cell undergoes the final stages of growth before it enters the M phase, where spindles are synthesized. The M phase can be either mitosis or meiosis depending on the type of cell. Germ cells, or gametes, undergo meiosis, while somatic cells will undergo mitosis. After the cell proceeds successfully through the M phase, it may then undergo cell division through cytokinesis. The control of each checkpoint is controlled by cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases. The progression of interphase is the result of the increased amount of cyclin. As the amount of cyclin increases, more and more cyclin dependent kinases attach to cyclin signaling the cell further into interphase. At the peak of the cyclin, attached to the cyclin dependent kinases this system pushes the cell out of interphase and into the M phase, where mitosis, meiosis, and cytokinesis occur. There are three transition checkpoints the cell has to go through before entering the M phase. The most important being the G1-S transition checkpoint. If the cell does not pass this checkpoint, it results in the cell exiting the cell cycle.",
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"plaintext": "Prophase is the first stage of division. The nuclear envelope is broken down in this stage, long strands of chromatin condense to form shorter more visible strands called chromosomes, the nucleolus disappears, and microtubules attach to the chromosomes at the disc-shaped kinetochores present in the centromere. Microtubules associated with the alignment and separation of chromosomes are referred to as the spindle and spindle fibers. Chromosomes will also be visible under a microscope and will be connected at the centromere. During this condensation and alignment period in meiosis, the homologous chromosomes undergo a break in their double-stranded DNA at the same locations, followed by a recombination of the now fragmented parental DNA strands into non-parental combinations, known as crossing over. This process is evidenced to be caused in a large part by the highly conserved Spo11 protein through a mechanism similar to that seen with toposomerase in DNA replication and transcription.",
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"plaintext": "In metaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene themselves on the metaphase plate (or equatorial plate), an imaginary line that is at equal distances from the two centrosome poles and held together by complexes known as cohesins. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell by microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs) pushing and pulling on centromeres of both chromatids thereby causing the chromosome to move to the center. At this point the chromosomes are still condensing and are currently one step away from being the most coiled and condensed they will be, and the spindle fibers have already connected to the kinetochores. During this phase all the microtubules, with the exception of the kinetochores, are in a state of instability promoting their progression toward anaphase. At this point, the chromosomes are ready to split into opposite poles of the cell toward the spindle to which they are connected.",
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"plaintext": "Anaphase is a very short stage of the cell cycle and it occurs after the chromosomes align at the mitotic plate. Kinetochores emit anaphase-inhibition signals until their attachment to the mitotic spindle. Once the final chromosome is properly aligned and attached the final signal dissipates and triggers the abrupt shift to anaphase. This abrupt shift is caused by the activation of the anaphase-promoting complex and its function of tagging degradation of proteins important toward the metaphase-anaphase transition. One of these proteins that is broken down is securin which through its breakdown releases the enzyme separase that cleaves the cohesin rings holding together the sister chromatids thereby leading to the chromosomes separating. After the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell, the spindle fibers will pull them apart. The chromosomes are split apart while the sister chromatids move to opposite sides of the cell. As the sister chromatids are being pulled apart, the cell and plasma are elongated by non-kinetochore microtubules.",
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"plaintext": "Telophase is the last stage of the cell cycle in which a cleavage furrow splits the cells cytoplasm (cytokinesis) and chromatin. This occurs through the synthesis of a new nuclear envelope that forms around the chromatin gathered at each pole. The nucleolus reforms as the chromatin reverts back to the loose state it possessed during interphase. The division of the cellular contents is not always equal and can vary by cell type as seen with oocyte formation where one of the four daughter cells possess the majority of the cytoplasm.",
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"plaintext": "The last stage of the cell division process is cytokinesis. In this stage there is a cytoplasmic division that occurs at the end of either mitosis or meiosis. At this stage there is a resulting irreversible separation leading to two daughter cells. Cell division plays an important role in determining the fate of the cell. This is due to there being the possibility of an asymmetric division. This as a result leads to cytokinesis producing unequal daughter cells containing completely different amounts or concentrations of fate-determining molecules.",
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"plaintext": "In animals the cytokinesis ends with formation of a contractile ring and thereafter a cleavage. But in plants it happen differently. At first a cell plate is formed and then a cell wall develops between the two daughter cells.",
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"plaintext": "In Fission yeast (S. pombe) the cytokinesis happens in G1 phase ",
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"plaintext": "Cells are broadly classified into two main categories: simple non-nucleated prokaryotic cells and complex nucleated eukaryotic cells. Due to their structural differences, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells do not divide in the same way. Also, the pattern of cell division that transforms eukaryotic stem cells into gametes (sperm cells in males or egg cells in females), termed meiosis, is different from that of the division of somatic cells in the body. Image of the mitotic spindle in a human cell showing microtubules in green, chromosomes (DNA) in blue, and kinetochores in red.",
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"plaintext": "Multicellular organisms replace worn-out cells through cell division. In some animals, however, cell division eventually halts. In humans this occurs, on average, after 52 divisions, known as the Hayflick limit. The cell is then referred to as senescent. With each division the cells telomeres, protective sequences of DNA on the end of a chromosome that prevent degradation of the chromosomal DNA, shorten. This shortening has been correlated to negative effects such as age-related diseases and shortened lifespans in humans. Cancer cells, on the other hand, are not thought to degrade in this way, if at all. An enzyme complex called telomerase, present in large quantities in cancerous cells, rebuilds the telomeres through synthesis of telomeric DNA repeats, allowing division to continue indefinitely.",
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"plaintext": "A cell division under microscope was first discovered by German botanist Hugo von Mohl in 1835 as he worked over the green alga Cladophora glomerata.",
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"plaintext": " gametic fusion",
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"plaintext": " Cyclin-dependent kinase",
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"plaintext": " Labile cells, cells that constantly divide",
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"plaintext": " Morgan HI. (2007). \"The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control\" London: New Science Press.",
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"plaintext": " J.M.Turner Fetus into Man (1978, 1989). Harvard University Press. ",
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"plaintext": " Cell division: binary fission and mitosis",
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"plaintext": " McDougal, W. Scott, et al. Campbell-Walsh Urology Eleventh Edition Review. Elsevier, 2016.",
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"plaintext": " The Mitosis and Cell Cycle Control Section from the Landmark Papers in Cell Biology (Gall JG, McIntosh JR, eds.) contains commentaries on and links to seminal research papers on mitosis and cell division. Published online in the Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology",
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"plaintext": " The Image & Video Library of The American Society for Cell Biology contains many videos showing the cell division.",
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{
"plaintext": " The Cell Division of the Cell Image Library",
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"plaintext": " Images : Calanthe discolor Lindl. - Flavon's Secret Flower Garden",
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"plaintext": " Tyson's model of cell division and a Description on BioModels Database",
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"plaintext": " WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Cell Lineage - Visualize the entire set of cell divisions of the nematode C. elegans",
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| 188,909 | 16,675 | 781 | 116 | 0 | 0 | cell division | process resulting in division and partitioning of components of a cell to form more cells | [
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36,870 | 1,107,713,262 | Commonwealth_of_Independent_States | [
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"plaintext": "The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a regional intergovernmental organization in Eastern Europe and Asia. It was formed following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It covers an area of and has an estimated population of 239,796,010. The CIS encourages cooperation in economic, political and military affairs and has certain powers relating to the coordination of trade, finance, lawmaking, and security. It has also promoted cooperation on cross-border crime prevention.",
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"plaintext": "The CIS has its origins with the Russian Empire, which was replaced in 1917 by the Russian Republic after the February Revolution earlier that year. Following the October Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the leading republic in the Soviet Union (USSR) upon its creation with the 1922 Treaty and Declaration of the Creation of the USSR along with Byelorussian SSR, Ukrainian SSR and Transcaucasian SFSR. When the USSR began to fall in 1991, the founding republics signed the Belavezha Accords on 8 December 1991, declaring that the Soviet Union would cease to exist and proclaimed the CIS in its place. A few days later the Alma-Ata Protocol was signed, which declared that the Soviet Union was dissolved. The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), which regard their membership in the Soviet Union as an illegal occupation, chose not to participate. Georgia withdrew its membership in 2008 following the Russo-Georgian War. Ukraine formally ended its participation in CIS statutory bodies in 2018, although it had stopped participating in the organization much earlier.",
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"plaintext": "Eight of the nine CIS member states participate in the CIS Free Trade Area. Three organizations originated from the CIS, namely the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Eurasian Economic Union (alongside subdivisions, the Eurasian Customs Union and the Eurasian Economic Space); and the Union State. While the first and the second are military and economic alliances, the third aims to reach a supranational union of Russia and Belarus with a common government, flag, currency and so on.",
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"plaintext": "Armenian: Անկախ պետությունների Համագործակցություն (ԱՊՀ); Ankakh petut’yunneri Hamagortsakts’ut’yun (APH)",
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"plaintext": "Azerbaijani: Müstəqil Dövlətlər Birliyi (MDB), Мүстәгил Дөвләтләр Бирлији (МДБ)",
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"plaintext": "Belarusian: Садружнасць Незалежных Дзяржаў (СНД), Sadružnasć Niezaležnych Dziaržaŭ (SND)",
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{
"plaintext": "Hungarian: Független Államok Közössége (FÁK)",
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"plaintext": "Kazakh: Täuelsız Memleketter Dostastyğy (TMD), Тәуелсіз Мемлекеттер Достастығы (ТМД)",
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"plaintext": "Kyrgyz: Көзкарандысыз мамлекеттердин шериктештиги (КМШ), Közkarandısız mamleketterdin şerikteştigi (KMŞ)",
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"plaintext": "Romanian: Comunitatea Statelor Independente (CSI), Комунитатеа Стателор Индепенденте (КСИ)",
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"plaintext": "Russian: Содружество Независимых Государств (СНГ), Sodruzhestvo Nezavisimykh Gosudarstv (SNG)",
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"plaintext": "Tajik: Иттиҳоди Давлатҳои Мустақил (ИДМ), Ittihodi Davlathoi Mustaqil (IDM)",
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"plaintext": "Turkmen: Garaşsyz Döwletleriň Arkalaşygy (GDA), Гарашсыз Дөвлетлериң Аркалашыгы (ГДА)",
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"plaintext": "Uzbek: Mustaqil Davlatlar Hamdoʻstligi (MDH), Мустақил Давлатлар Ҳамдўстлиги (МДҲ)",
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"plaintext": "In March 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev, the president of the Soviet Union, proposed a federation by holding a referendum to preserve the Union as a union of sovereign republics. The new treaty signing never happened as the Communist Party hardliners staged an attempted coup in August that year. Often considered as the successors of the USSR, it is one of the largest intergovernmental organizations in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Following the events of August's failed coup, the republics of the USSR had declared their independence fearing another coup. A week after the Ukrainian independence referendum was held, which kept the chances of the Soviet Union staying together low, the Commonwealth of Independent States was founded in its place on 8 December 1991 by the Byelorussian SSR, the Russian SFSR, and the Ukrainian SSR, when the leaders of the three republics met at the Belovezhskaya Pushcha Natural Reserve, about north of Brest in Belarus, and signed the \"Agreement Establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States\", known as the Creation Agreement ().",
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"plaintext": "The CIS announced that the new organization would be open to all republics of the former Soviet Union, and to other nations sharing the same goals. The CIS charter stated that all the members were sovereign and independent nations and thereby effectively abolished the Soviet Union. On 21 December 1991, the leaders of eight additional former Soviet Republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) signed the Alma-Ata Protocol which can either be interpreted as expanding the CIS to these states or the proper foundation or foundation date of the CIS, thus bringing the number of participating countries to 11. Georgia joined two years later, in December 1993. At this point, 12 of the 15 former Soviet Republics participated in the CIS. The three Baltic states did not, reflecting their governments' and people's view that the post-1940 Soviet occupation of their territory was illegitimate. The CIS and Soviet Union also legally co-existed briefly with each other until 26 December 1991, when the Soviet of the Republics formally dissolved the Soviet Union. This was followed by Ivan Korotchenya becoming Executive Secretary of the CIS on the same day.",
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"plaintext": "After the end of the dissolution process of the Soviet Union, Russia and the Central Asian republics were weakened economically and faced declines in GDP. Post-Soviet states underwent economic reforms and privatisation. The process of Eurasian integration began immediately after the break-up of the Soviet Union to salvage economic ties with Post-Soviet republics.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 January 1993, the Charter (Statutes) of the CIS were signed, setting up the different institutions of the CIS, their functions, the rules and statutes of the CIS. The Charter also defined that all countries have ratified the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS and its relevant (Alma-Ata) Protocol would be considered to be founding states of the CIS, as well as those only countries ratifying the Charter would be considered to be member states of the CIS (art. 7). Other states can participate as associate members or observers if accepted as such by a decision of the Council of Heads of State to the CIS (art. 8). All the founding states, apart from Ukraine and Turkmenistan, ratified the Charter of the CIS and became member states of it. Nevertheless, Ukraine and Turkmenistan kept participating in the CIS, without being member states of it. Ukraine became an associate member of the CIS Economic Union in April 1994, and Turkmenistan became an associate member of the CIS in August 2005. Georgia left the CIS altogether in 2009 and Ukraine stopped participating in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "During a speech at Moscow State University in 1994, the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, suggested the idea of creating a \"common defense\" space within the CIS. Nazarbayev's idea was quickly seen as a way to bolster trade, boost investments in the region, and serve as a counterweight to the West and East Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2003 and 2005, three CIS member states experienced a change of government in a series of colour revolutions: Eduard Shevardnadze was overthrown in Georgia; Viktor Yushchenko was elected in Ukraine; and Askar Akayev was toppled in Kyrgyzstan. In February 2006, Georgia withdrew from the Council of Defense Ministers, with the statement that \"Georgia has taken a course to join NATO and it cannot be part of two military structures simultaneously\", but it remained a full member of the CIS until August 2009, one year after officially withdrawing in the immediate aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War. In March 2007, Igor Ivanov, the secretary of the Russian Security Council, expressed his doubts concerning the usefulness of the CIS, emphasizing that the Eurasian Economic Community was becoming a more competent organization to unify the largest countries of the CIS. Following the withdrawal of Georgia, the presidents of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan skipped the October 2009 meeting of the CIS, each having their own issues and disagreements with the Russian Federation.",
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"plaintext": "The Council of Foreign Ministers met in Dushanbe, Tajikistan on 11 April 2003 to discuss the war in Iraq and consider a draft program for the fight against terrorism and extremism, highlighting the particular need for an international role in post-war Iraq, to be further addressed at the May summit in St. Petersburg.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2009, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine joined the Eastern Partnership, a project which was initiated by the European Union (EU).",
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"plaintext": "There are nine full member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States.",
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"plaintext": "The Creation Agreement remained the main constituent document of the CIS until January 1993, when the CIS Charter (, Ustav) was adopted. The charter formalized the concept of membership: a member country is defined as a country that ratifies the CIS Charter (sec. 2, art. 7). Parties to CIS Creation Agreement but not the Charter are considered to be \"The Founding States\" but not full members.",
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"plaintext": "Turkmenistan has not ratified the Charter and therefore is not formally a member of the CIS. Nevertheless, it has consistently participated in the CIS as if it were a member state. Turkmenistan changed its CIS standing to associate member as of 26 August 2005. The cited reason was to be consistent with its 1995-proclaimed, UN-recognised, international neutrality status, but experts have cited the country no longer needing Russia to provide natural gas access, as well as the country's declining faith in the confederation's ability to maintain internal stability in light of the Colour Revolutions.",
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"plaintext": "Although Ukraine was one of the states which ratified the Creation Agreement in December 1991, making it a Founding State of the CIS, it chose not to ratify the CIS Charter as it disagrees with Russia being the only legal successor state to the Soviet Union. Thus it has never been a full member of the CIS. However, Ukraine kept participating in the CIS, despite not being a member. In 1993, Ukraine became an associate member of the Economic Union of the CIS.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Russian military intervention in Ukraine and annexation of Crimea, relations between Ukraine and Russia deteriorated, leading Ukraine to consider ending its participation in the CIS. As Ukraine never ratified the Charter, it could cease its informal participation in the CIS. However, to fully terminate its relationship with the CIS, it would need to legally withdraw from the Creation Agreement, as Georgia did previously. On 14 March 2014, a bill was introduced to Ukraine's parliament to denounce their ratification of the CIS Creation Agreement, but it was never approved. Following the 2014 parliamentary election, a new bill to denounce the CIS agreement was introduced. In September 2015, the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed Ukraine will continue taking part in the CIS \"on a selective basis\". Since that month, Ukraine has had no representatives in the CIS Executive Committee building. In April 2018, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko indicated that Ukraine would formally leave the CIS. As of 1 June, the CIS secretariat had not received formal notice from Ukraine of its withdrawal from the CIS, a process that will take one year to complete, following notice being given.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 May 2018, President Poroshenko signed a decree formally ending Ukraine's participation in CIS statutory bodies. The CIS secretariat stated that it will continue inviting Ukraine to participate. Ukraine has further stated that it intends to review its participation in all CIS agreements and only continue in those that are in its interests.",
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"plaintext": "In light of Russia's support for the independence of occupied regions within Moldova, Georgia, and Ukraine, as well as its violation of the Istanbul Agreement (see Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty), legislative initiatives to denounce the agreement on the creation of CIS were tabled in Moldova's parliament on 25 March 2014, though they were not approved. A similar bill was proposed in January 2018.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 June 2022, Moldovan Minister of Foreign Affairs Nicu Popescu said the Moldovan government was considering the prospect of leaving the CIS, although at the end of May President Maia Sandu had said the country would not leave for the time being. An August 2021 poll conducted in Moldova (prior to the start of Russia's invasion of neighbouring Ukraine) found that 48.1% of respondents supported Moldova's withdrawal from the CIS.",
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"plaintext": "Two states, Ukraine and Turkmenistan, have ratified the CIS Creation Agreement, making them \"founding states of the CIS\", but did not ratify the subsequent Charter that would make them members of the CIS. These states, while not being formal members of the CIS, were allowed to participate in CIS. They were also allowed to participate in various CIS initiatives, e.g. the Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area, which were, however, formulated mostly as independent multilateral agreements, and not as internal CIS agreements. Additionally, Ukraine became an associate member state of the CIS Economic Union in 1994 and Turkmenistan an associate member state of the CIS in 2005. However, the Verkhovna Rada did not ratify the agreement on associate membership in accordance with the CIS Charter. As a result, De jure Ukraine only had the status of a \"founding state\", without even being an associate member.",
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"plaintext": "The Interparliamentary Assembly was established on 27 March 1992 in Kazakhstan. On 26 May 1995 CIS leaders signed the Convention on the Interparliamentary Assembly of Member Nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States eventually ratified by nine parliaments. Under the terms of the convention, the IPA was invested with international legitimacy and is housed in the Tauride Palace in St Petersburg and acts as the consultative parliamentary wing of the CIS created to discuss problems of parliamentary cooperation and reviews draft documents of common interest and passes model laws to the national legislatures in the CIS (as well as recommendations) for their use in the preparation of new laws and amendments to existing legislation too which have been adopted by more than 130 documents that ensure the convergence of laws in the CIS to the national legislation. The Assembly is actively involved in the development of integration processes in the CIS and also sends observers to the national elections. The Assembly held its 32nd Plenary meeting in Saint Petersburg on 14 May 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Since its inception, one of the primary goals of the CIS has been to provide a forum for discussing issues related to the social and economic development of the newly independent states. To achieve this goal member states have agreed to promote and protect human rights. Initially, efforts to achieve this goal consisted merely of statements of goodwill, but on 26 May 1995, the CIS adopted a Commonwealth of Independent States Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, four years before the 1995 human rights treaty, article 33 of the Charter of the CIS created a Human Rights Commission with its seat in Minsk, Belarus. This was confirmed by the decision of the Council of Heads of States of the CIS in 1993. In 1995, the CIS adopted a human rights treaty that includes civil and political as well as social and economic human rights. This treaty entered into force in 1998. The CIS treaty is modelled on the European Convention on Human Rights, but lacking the strong implementation mechanisms of the latter. In the CIS treaty, the Human Rights Commission has very vaguely defined authority. The Statute of the Human Rights Commission, however, also adopted by the CIS Member States as a decision, gives the commission the right to receive inter-state as well as individual communications.",
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"plaintext": "The CIS Charter establishes the Council of Ministers of Defence, which is vested with the task of coordinating military cooperation of the CIS member states. To this end, the Council develops conceptual approaches to the questions of military and defence policy of the CIS member states; develops proposals aimed to prevent armed conflicts on the territory of the member states or with their participation; gives expert opinions on draft treaties and agreements related to the questions of defence and military developments; issues related suggestions and proposals to the attention of the CIS Council of the Heads of State. Also important is the council's work on the approximation of the legal acts in the area of defence and military development.",
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"plaintext": "An important manifestation of integration processes in the area of military and defense collaboration of the CIS member states is the creation, in 1995, of the joint CIS Air Defense System. Over the years, the military personnel of the joint CIS Air Defense System grew twofold along the western, European border of the CIS, and by 1.5 times on its southern borders.",
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"plaintext": "When Boris Yeltsin became Russian Defence Minister on 7 May 1992, Yevgeny Shaposhnikov, was appointed as Commander-in-Chief of the CIS Armed Forces (), and his staff were ejected from the MOD and General Staff buildings and given offices in the former Warsaw Pact Headquarters at 41 Leningradsky Prospekt on the northern outskirts of Moscow. Shaposhnikov resigned in June 1993.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1993, the CIS Armed Forces Headquarters was abolished. Instead, \"the CIS Council of Defence Ministers created a CIS Military Cooperation Coordination Headquarters (MCCH) in Moscow, with 50 percent of the funding provided by Russia.\" General Viktor Samsonov was appointed as Chief of Staff. The headquarters has now moved to 101000, Москва, Сверчков переулок, 3/2, and 41 Leningradsky Prospekt has now been taken over by another Russian MOD agency.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the chiefs of the CIS general staffs spoke in favour of integrating their national armed forces.",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, negotiations were initiated between the CIS countries on establishing a free trade area (FTA), but no agreement was signed. A proposed free trade agreement would have covered all twelve then CIS members and treaty parties except Turkmenistan.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, a new agreement was begun to create a FTA, the CIS Free Trade Agreement (CISFTA). In October 2011, the new free trade agreement was signed by eight of the eleven CIS prime ministers; Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine at a meeting in St. Petersburg. Initially, the treaty was only ratified by Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine, however by the end of 2012, Kazakhstan, Armenia, and Moldova had also completed ratification. In December 2013, Uzbekistan, signed and then ratified the treaty, while the remaining two signatories, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan later both ratified the treaty in January 2014 and December 2015 respectively. Azerbaijan is the only full CIS member state not to participate in the free trade area.",
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"plaintext": "The free trade agreement eliminates export and import duties on several goods but also contains a number of exemptions that will ultimately be phased out. An agreement was also signed on the basic principles of currency regulation and currency controls in the CIS at the same October 2011 meeting.",
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"plaintext": "Corruption and bureaucracy are serious problems for trade in CIS countries.",
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"plaintext": "Kazakhstan's President Nursultan Nazarbayev proposed that CIS members take up a digitization agenda to modernize CIS economies.",
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"plaintext": "After a discussion about the creation of a common economic space between the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) countries of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and Kazakhstan, agreement in principle about the creation of this space was announced after a meeting in the Moscow suburb of Novo-Ogarevo on 23 February 2003. The Common Economic Space would involve a supranational commission on trade and tariffs that would be based in Kyiv, would initially be headed by a representative of Kazakhstan, and would not be subordinate to the governments of the four nations. The ultimate goal would be a regional organization that would be open for other countries to join as well, and could eventually lead even to a single currency.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 May 2003, the Verkhovna Rada (the Ukrainian Parliament) voted 266 votes in favour and 51 against the joint economic space. However, most believe that Viktor Yushchenko's victory in the Ukrainian presidential election of 2004 was a significant blow against the project: Yushchenko has shown renewed interest in Ukrainian membership in the European Union and such membership would be incompatible with the envisioned common economic space. Yushchenko's successor Viktor Yanukovych stated on 27 April 2010 \"Ukraine's entry into the Customs Union of Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan is not possible today, since the economic principles and the laws of the WTO do not allow it, we develop our policy following WTO principles\". Ukraine has been a WTO member since 2008.",
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"plaintext": "A Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia was thus created in 2010, A single market had been envisioned for 2012, but instead the customs union was renamed as the Eurasian Customs Union and expanded to include Armenia and Kyrgyzstan in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan formed the OCAC in 1991 as Central Asian Commonwealth (CAC). The organisation continued in 1994 as the Central Asian Economic Union (CAEU), in which Tajikistan and Turkmenistan did not participate. In 1998 it became the Central Asian Economic Cooperation (CAEC), which marked the return of Tajikistan. On 28 February 2002, it was renamed to its current name. Russia joined on 28 May 2004. On 7 October 2005, it was decided between the member states that Uzbekistan will join the Eurasian Economic Community and that the organisations will merge. The organisations joined on 25 January 2006. It is not clear what will happen to the status of current CACO observers that are not observers to EurAsEC (Georgia and Turkey).",
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"plaintext": "The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, Artsakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria are all members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration among the members.",
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"plaintext": "The CIS-Election Monitoring Organisation () is an election monitoring body that was formed in October 2002, following a Commonwealth of Independent States heads of states meeting which adopted the Convention on the Standards of Democratic Elections, Electoral Rights, and Freedoms in the Member States of the Commonwealth of Independent States''. The CIS-EMO has been sending election observers to member countries of the CIS since this time.",
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"plaintext": "The election monitoring body has approved many elections which have been heavily criticised by independent observers.",
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"plaintext": " The democratic nature of the final round of the 2004 Ukrainian presidential election which followed the Orange Revolution and brought into power the former opposition, was questioned by the CIS while the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) found no significant problems. This was the first time that the CIS observation teams challenged the validity of an election, saying that it should be considered illegitimate. On 15 March 2005, the Ukrainian Independent Information Agency quoted Dmytro Svystkov (a spokesman of the Ukrainian Foreign Ministry) that Ukraine has suspended its participation in the CIS election monitoring organization.",
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"plaintext": " The CIS praised the Uzbekistan parliamentary elections, 2005 as \"legitimate, free and transparent\" while the OSCE had referred to the Uzbek elections as having fallen \"significantly short of OSCE commitments and other international standards for democratic elections\".",
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"plaintext": " Moldovan authorities refused to invite CIS observers in the 2005 Moldovan parliamentary elections, an action Russia criticised. Many dozens such observers from Belarus and Russia were stopped from reaching Moldova.",
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"plaintext": " CIS observers monitored the Tajikistan parliamentary elections, 2005 and in the end declared them \"legal, free and transparent.\" The same elections were pronounced by the OSCE to have failed international standards for democratic elections.",
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"plaintext": " Soon after CIS observers hailed the Kyrgyz parliamentary elections of 2005 as \"well-organized, free, and fair\", as large-scale and often violent demonstrations broke out throughout the country protesting what the opposition called a rigged parliamentary election. In contrast, the OSCE reported that the elections fell short of international standards in many areas.",
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"plaintext": " International observers of the Interparliamentary Assembly stated the 2010 local elections in Ukraine were organised well. While the Council of Europe uncovered a number of problems in relation to a new electorate law approved just prior to the elections and the Obama administration criticised the conduct of the elections, saying they \"did not meet standards for openness and fairness\".",
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"plaintext": "Russia has urged for the Russian language receive official status in all of the CIS member states. So far Russian is an official language in only four states: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan. Russian is also considered an official language in the region of Transnistria and the autonomous region of Gagauzia in Moldova. Viktor Yanukovych, the Moscow-supported presidential candidate in the controversial 2004 Ukrainian presidential election, declared his intention to make Russian an official second language of Ukraine. However, the Western-supported candidate Viktor Yushchenko, who eventually won, successfully opposed the idea. After his early 2010 election, President Yanukovych stated (on 9 March 2010), \"Ukraine will continue to promote the Ukrainian language as its only state language.\"",
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"plaintext": "At the time of the Soviet Union's dissolution in December 1991, its sports teams had been invited to or qualified for various 1992 sports events. A joint CIS team took its place in some of these. The \"Unified Team\" competed in the 1992 Winter Olympics and 1992 Summer Olympics, and a CIS association football team competed in UEFA Euro 1992. A CIS bandy team played some friendlies in January 1992 and made its last appearance at the 1992 Russian Government Cup, where it also played against the new Russia national bandy team. The Soviet Union bandy championship for 1991–1992 was rebranded as a CIS championship.",
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"plaintext": "Since then, the CIS members have each competed separately in international sports.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, a festival for national sports and games, known as the Festival of National Sports and Games of the Commonwealth of Independent States () was held in Ulyanovsk. The main sports were sambo, tug of war, mas-wrestling, gorodki, belt wrestling, lapta, bandy (rink), kettlebell lifting, chess and archery. A few demonstration sports were also a part of the programme.",
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"plaintext": "The CIS has also been a relevant forum to support cultural relations between former Soviet republics. In 2006, the Council of the Heads of Governments of the CIS launched the Intergovernmental Foundation for Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Cooperation (IFESCCO). IFESSCO has substantially relied on Russia's financial support since its creation and supported several multilateral cultural events, including the ‘CIS Capital of Culture’ initiative. In 2017, the Armenian city of Goris was declared the CIS Cultural Capital of the year.",
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| 7,779 | 86,052 | 2,087 | 201 | 0 | 0 | Commonwealth of Independent States | post-Soviet Union regional intergovernmental organization | [
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"plaintext": "Hunters have meticulous turnout and tend toward very quiet, conservative horse tack and rider attire. Hunter bits, bridles, crops, spurs, and martingales are tightly regulated. Jumpers, while caring for their horses and grooming them well, are not scored on turnout, are allowed a wider range of equipment, and may wear less conservative attire, so long as it stays within the rules. Some events may make it compulsory to wear show jackets. Formal turnout always is preferred; a neat rider gives a good impression at shows.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to hunters and jumpers, there are equitation classes, sometimes called hunt seat equitation, which judges the ability of the rider. The equipment, clothing, and fence styles used in equitation more closely resemble hunter classes, although the technical difficulty of the courses may more closely resemble showjumping events. This is because both disciplines are designed to test the rider's ability to control the horse through a difficult course consisting of rollbacks, combinations, and higher obstacles.",
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"plaintext": "Jumper classes are held over a course of show jumping obstacles, including verticals, spreads, and double and triple combinations, usually with many turns and changes of direction. The intent is to jump cleanly over a set course within an allotted time. Time faults are assessed for exceeding the time allowance. Jumping faults are incurred for knockdowns and blatant disobedience, such as refusals (when the horse stops before a fence or the horse, \"runs out\") (see \"Modern rules\" below). Horses are allowed a limited number of refusals before being disqualified. A refusal may lead to a rider exceeding the time allowed on course. Placings are based on the lowest number of points or \"faults\" accumulated. A horse and rider who have not accumulated any jumping faults or penalty points are said to have scored a \"clear round\". Tied entries usually have a jump-off over a raised and shortened course, and the course is timed; if entries are tied for faults accumulated in the jump-off, the fastest time wins.",
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"plaintext": "In most competitions, riders are allowed to walk the initial course but not the jump-off course (usually the same course with missing jumps, e.g., 1, 3, 5, 7, 8 instead of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or the same course but timed) before competition to plan their ride. Walking the course before the event is a chance for the rider to walk the lines he or she will have to ride, in order to decide how many strides the horse will need to take between each jump and from which angle. Going off course will cost time if minor errors are made and major departures will result in disqualification.",
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"plaintext": "The higher levels of competition, such as \"A\" or \"AA\" rated shows in the United States, or the international \"Grand Prix\" circuit, present more technical and complex courses. Not only is the height and width (\"spread\") of an obstacle increased to present a greater challenge, technical difficulty also increases with tighter turns and shorter or unusual distances between fences. Horses sometimes also have to jump fences from an angle rather than straight on. For example, a course designer might set up a line so that there are six and a half strides (the standard measure for a canter stride is twelve feet) between the jumps, requiring the rider to adjust the horse's stride dramatically in order to make the distance. This could also mean that the rider may have to add or subtract a stride to clear the jump with more ease. How the rider chooses to adjust can also depend on their horse. If a horse has a smaller stride in comparison to the average, they may need to add another stride and vice versa if the horse has a longer stride. ",
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"plaintext": "Unlike show hunter classes, which reward calmness and style, jumper classes require boldness, scope, power, accuracy, and control; speed also is a factor, especially in jump-off courses and speed classes (when time counts even in the first round). The first round of the class consists of the rider and horse having to go around the course without refusing or knocking down any jumps while also staying within the time allowed. If the horse/rider combination completes the first round successfully, then they move on to the second round, called the \"jump-off\". In a jump-off, the rider needs to plan ahead of time because they need to be very speedy and also not have any faults. The jump-off has fewer jumps than the first round but is usually much more difficult. To win this round, the rider has to be the quickest while still not refusing or knocking down any jumps.",
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"plaintext": "Show jumping is a relatively new equestrian sport. Until the Inclosure Acts, which came into force in England in the 18th century, there had been little need for horses to jump fences routinely, but with this act of Parliament came new challenges for those who followed fox hounds. The Inclosure Acts brought fencing and boundaries to many parts of the country as common ground was dispersed amongst separate owners. This meant that those wishing to pursue their sport now needed horses that were capable of jumping these obstacles.",
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"plaintext": "In the early horse shows held in France, there was a parade of competitors who then took off across country for the jumping. This sport was, however, not popular with spectators since they could not follow to watch the jumping. Thus, it was not long before fences began to appear in an arena for the competitions. This became known as Lepping. 1869 was the year ‘horse leaping’ came to prominence at Dublin horse show. Fifteen years later, Lepping competitions were brought to Britain and by 1900 most of the more important shows had Lepping classes. Separate classes were held for women riding sidesaddle.",
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"plaintext": "At this time, the principal cavalry schools of Europe at Pinerolo and Tor-di-Quinto in Italy, the French school in Saumur, and the Spanish school in Vienna all preferred to use a very deep seat with long stirrups when jumping. While this style of riding may have felt more secure for the rider, it also impeded the freedom of the horse to use its body to the extent needed to clear large obstacles.",
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"plaintext": "An Italian riding instructor, Captain Federico Caprilli, heavily influenced the world of jumping with his ideas promoting a forward position with shorter stirrups. This style placed the rider in a position that did not interfere with the balance of the horse while negotiating obstacles. This style, now known as the forward seat, is commonly used today. The deep, Dressage-style seat, while useful for riding on the flat and in conditions where control of the horse is of greater importance than freedom of movement, is less suitable for jumping.",
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"plaintext": "The first major show jumping competition held in England was at Olympia in 1907. Most of the competitors were members of the military and it became clear at this competition and in the subsequent years, that there was no uniformity of rules for the sport. Judges marked on their own opinions. Some marked according to the severity of the obstacle and others marked according to style. Before 1907 there were no penalties for a refusal and the competitor was sometimes asked to miss the fence to please the spectators. The first courses were built with little imagination, many consisting of only a straight bar fence and a water jump. A meeting was arranged in 1923 which led to the formation of the BSJA in 1925. In the United States, a similar need for national rules for jumping and other equestrian activities led to the formation of the American Horse Shows Association in 1917, which now is known as the United States Equestrian Federation.",
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"plaintext": "An early form of show jumping first was incorporated into the Olympic Games in 1900. Show jumping in its current format appeared in 1912 and has thrived ever since, its recent popularity due in part to its suitability as a spectator sport that is well adapted for viewing on television.",
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"plaintext": "The original list of faults introduced in Great Britain in 1925 was as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Refusing or Running out at any fence:",
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"plaintext": "1st: 4 faults",
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"plaintext": "2nd: another 4 faults added on",
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"plaintext": "3rd: elimination (ELM)",
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"plaintext": "(At first, stadium jumps were set as a single rail that sometimes would be up to five feet high. Some horses began to duck under these jumps instead, which perhaps is the origin of the term \"ducking out\" at a fence.)",
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"plaintext": " Fall of the horse, the rider, or both: elimination",
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"plaintext": " Touches: If a horse touched a fence without knocking it down, zero faults",
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"plaintext": " Rail down with front hooves: 4 faults",
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"plaintext": " Rail down with back hooves: 4 faults",
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"plaintext": " Foot in the water jump: If a horse lands with any number of feet in the water: 4 faults. No faults were incurred, however, if the raised block in front of the water was knocked down.",
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"plaintext": " Failure to break the timers starting or finishing would result in elimination.",
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"plaintext": "Water jumps were once at least 15 feet (5 m) wide, although the water often had drained out of them by the time the last competitor jumped. High jumping would start with a pole at around five feet high, but this was later abandoned since many horses went under the pole. It was for this reason that more poles were added and fillers came into use. Time penalties were not counted until 1917.",
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"plaintext": "Rules have evolved since then, with different national federations having different classes and rules. The international governing body for most major show jumping competitions is the Fédération Équestre Internationale (FEI). The two most common types of penalties are jumping penalties and time penalties.",
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"plaintext": " Jumping Penalties: Jumping penalties are assessed for refusals and knockdowns, with each refusal or knockdown adding four faults to a competitor's score.",
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"plaintext": " Penalties for knockdowns are imposed only when the knockdown changes the height or width of the jump. If a horse or rider knocks down a bottom or middle rail while still clearing the height of the obstacle, providing the rails are directly underneath the top rail, they receive no penalties. Penalties are assessed at the open water when any of the horse's feet touch the water or white tape marking its boundary. If the water fence is a 'Liverpool' no faults will be accumulated for landing in the water. A Liverpool is when a small pool (although it does not have to be filled with water) is placed under an oxer or a vertical. ",
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"plaintext": " Refusals: Refusals now are penalized four faults, up from three. Within the last several years, the FEI has decreased the number of refusals resulting in elimination from three to two, and this rule has trickled down from the top levels of FEI competition to other levels of horse shows in the US, however in such places as Australia, lower levels (below 1.15m usually) may still have the 3 refusals and elimination rule.",
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"plaintext": " A refusal that results in the destruction of the integrity of a jump (running into the fence instead of jumping it, displacing poles, gates, flowers, or large clumps of turf or dirt) will not receive four faults for the knockdown, but instead the four faults for a refusal. A refusal inside a combination (a series of two or more fences with one or two strides between each element) must re-jump the entire combination.",
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"plaintext": " Time Penalties: In the past, a common timing rule was a 1/4 second penalty for each second or fraction of a second over the time allowed. Since the early 2000s, this rule was changed by the FEI so that each second or fraction of a second over the time allowed would result in 1 time penalty (e.g. with a time allowed of 72 seconds, a time of 73.09 seconds would result in 2 time faults).",
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"plaintext": " Combinations: A refusal at any of the jumps in combination results in the horse having to repeat the entire set of obstacles in the designated order of succession, not just the element refused. So a horse may jump \"A\" and \"B\" without issue but have a refusal at the third fence (C), at which time the rider would have to circle and return to jump fence \"A\" again, giving the horse a second chance to refuse or knock down \"A\" and \"B\". Despite being considered one obstacle, each element may result in penalty points if knocked down. Therefore, if each of the three fences in a triple combination were knocked down, the rider would receive 12 faults (4 per fence, instead of 4 faults for the entire obstacle). \"In and out\" is the informal name designated to combinations with only two elements such as \"A\" and \"B\", and not specific enough for a 3-jump combination.",
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"plaintext": "Show jumping competitors use a very forward style of English saddle, most often the \"close contact\" design, which has a forward flap and a seat and cantle that is flatter than saddles designed for general all-purpose English riding or dressage. This construction allows greater freedom of movement for the rider when in jumping position and allows a shorter stirrup, allowing the rider to lighten the seat on the horse. Other saddles, such as those designed for dressage, are intended for riders with a deep seat, can hinder a rider over large fences, forcing them into a position that limits the horse's movement and may put the rider dangerously behind the movement of the horse.",
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"plaintext": "At international levels, saddle pads are usually white and square in shape, allowing the pair to display a sponsorship, national flag, or breeding affiliation. In contrast, riders in show hunters and equitation often use \"fitted\" fleece pads that are the same shape as the saddle. Girths vary in size and type, but usually have a contour to give room for the horse's elbows, and many have belly guards to protect the underside of the horse from its shoe studs when the front legs are tightly folded under.",
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"plaintext": "Bridles may be used with any style of cavesson noseband, and there are few rules regarding the severity of this equipment. The figure-8 cavesson is the most popular type. Bits may also vary in severity, and competitors may use any bit, or even a \"bitless bridle\" or a mechanical hackamore. The ground jury at the show has the right, however, based on veterinary advice, to refuse a bit or bridling scheme if it could cause harm to the horse.",
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"plaintext": "Boots and wraps are worn by almost all horses, due to the fact that they may easily injure their legs when landing or when making tight turns at speed. Open-fronted tendon boots usually are worn on the forelegs, because they provide protection for the delicate tendons that run down the back of the leg, but still allow the horse to feel a rail should it get careless and hang its legs. Fetlock boots are sometimes seen on the rear legs, primarily to prevent the horse from hitting itself on tight turns. However, dressage horses are forbidden from wearing boots or wraps during competition or tests, due to the formality of dressage there are extended regulations on tack.",
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"plaintext": "Martingales are very common, especially on horses used at the Grand Prix level. The majority of jumpers are ridden in running martingales since these provide the most freedom over fences. Although a standing martingale (a strap connecting directly to the horse's noseband) is commonly seen on show hunters and may be helpful in keeping a horse from throwing its head up, it also may be quite dangerous in the event of a stumble, restricting a horse from using its head to regain its balance. For this reason, standing martingales are not used in show jumping or eventing. Breastplates also are common, used to keep the saddle in place as the horse goes over large fences.",
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"plaintext": "Rider attire may be somewhat less formal than that used in hunter riding. An approved ASTM/SEI equestrian helmet with a harness is always required, however, and is a practical necessity to protect the rider's head in the event of a fall. Tall boots are required, usually black. Spurs are optional, but commonly used. Breeches are traditional in color, usually white, tan, or beige. At approved competitions, depending on sanctioning organization, a dark-colored coat usually is worn (although under the rules of the USEF tweed or wash jackets are allowed in the summer and lighter colors are currently in fashion), with a light-colored (usually white) ratcatcher-style shirt and either a choker or stock tie. In hot summer weather, many riders wear a simple short-sleeved \"polo\" style shirt with helmet, boots and breeches, and even where coats are required, the judges may waive the coat rule in extremely hot weather. Gloves, usually black, are optional, as is the plaiting of the horse's mane and tail.",
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"plaintext": "At FEI Grand Prix levels, dress is more strictly controlled. Riders must wear white or light-colored shirts, white ties or chokers, black or brown boots, white or light fawn breeches, and red or black jackets. Members of the military, police forces, and national studs, however, retain the right to wear their service uniforms instead of FEI-prescribed dress. In some circumstances, members of international teams may wear jackets in their country's respective colors or add national insignia.",
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"plaintext": " Grand Prix: the highest level of show jumping. Run under International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI) rules, the horse jumps a course of 10 to 16 obstacles, with heights up to and spreads of up to . Grand Prix-level show jumping competitions include the Olympics, the World Equestrian Games, and other series of internationally ranked events. Grand Prix show jumping is normally referred to collectively as five-star Concours de Saut International (CSI) rules.",
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"plaintext": " Speed derby",
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"plaintext": " Puissance: a high-jump competition in which the final wall may reach over seven feet tall. The current, (April 2013), world record is , held by Captain Alberto Larraguibel Morales riding Huaso, in 1949.",
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"plaintext": " Six-bar: riders jump six fences set in a straight line. In most places, fences are placed at equal distances apart, the first fence is the lowest and each subsequent fence is higher than the one before. Horses are either penalized or eliminated from the competition if they knock down a rail. After each round where more than one competitor goes \"clean,\" or is tied for the fewest faults, the six fences are raised in height for each subsequent round until there is a winner. Occasionally, if there are multiple jump-offs, the final fences may be raised to well over six feet.",
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"plaintext": " Gambler's choice/accumulator: An event where exhibitors choose their own course, with each fence cleared worth a given number of points based on difficulty. The entry who accumulates the most points within a set time limit on course is the winner.",
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"section_name": "Types of competition",
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"plaintext": " Calcutta: A jumping event where spectators bet on which horse will win by means of an auction where the highest bidder has the exclusive bet on a given horse. Although the exact mechanism varies by region and culture, as a rule, the spectator who bets on the winner collects all money bet and then splits the purse with the owner of the winning horse.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Types of competition",
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"plaintext": " Maiden, novice, and limit: Jumping classes limited to horses with fewer than one, three, or six wins. Fences are usually lower and time limits more generous.",
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"plaintext": " Match race or double slalom: two identical courses are set up in a split arena, and two horses jump over the courses in a timed competition.",
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"section_name": "Types of competition",
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"plaintext": " Touch class: A class held much as a normal show jumping class, except that if the horse touches the jump it is considered four faults.",
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"plaintext": " Faults converted: A class in which any faults are converted into seconds on the clock, usually at the rate of 1 second per fault (i.e., one rail = 4 seconds)",
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"plaintext": "Show jumping fences often are colorful, sometimes very elaborate and artistic in design, particularly at the highest levels of competition. Fences are designed to break away if stuck by the horse, both to simplify scoring, but also for safety, particularly to prevent falls by the horse. Types of jumps used include the following:",
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"plaintext": " Vertical (or upright) – a jump that consists of poles or planks placed one directly above another with no spread, or width, to jump",
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"plaintext": " Oxer – two verticals close together, to make the jump wider, also called a spread",
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"plaintext": " Square oxer (sometimes known as Box Oxer): both top poles are of an equal height",
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{
"plaintext": " Ascending oxer (usually called a Ramped Oxer): the furthest pole is higher than the first",
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"plaintext": " Descending oxer (usually called an Offset Oxer): the furthest pole is lower than the closest. Descending oxers are not used in competitions and competitors are forbidden from jumping it. This is due to the fact that the horse may not be able to see the furthest pole before making the jump. ",
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"plaintext": " Swedish oxer: the poles slant in opposite directions, so that they appear to form an \"X\" shape when seen head on",
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{
"plaintext": " Triple bar – is a spread fence using three elements of graduating heights",
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{
"plaintext": " Cross rail – not commonly used in sanctioned horse shows, and sometimes called a \"cross-pole,\" two poles crossed with one end of each pole being on the ground and on jump standards so that the center is lower than the sides; used at small shows and for schooling purposes to help teach the rider how to properly aim the horse jump in the center of the fence",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Wall – This type of jump is usually made to resemble a brick wall, but the \"bricks\" are constructed of a lightweight material and fall easily when knocked.",
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{
"plaintext": " Hogsback – a type of spread fence with three rails where the tallest pole is in the center",
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{
"plaintext": " Filler – this is not a type of fence, but is a solid part below the poles, such as flower boxes or a rolltop; it also may be a gate or other filling decorative pieces",
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"plaintext": " Combination – usually two or three jumps in a row, with no more than two strides between each; two jumps in a row are called double combinations, and three jumps in a row are called triple combinations (if a horse refuses the second or third element in one of these combinations, they must jump the whole combination again, not just any obstacle missed)",
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"plaintext": " Fan: the rails on one side of the fence are spread out by standards, making the fence take the shape of a fan when viewed from above",
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"plaintext": " Open water: a wide ditch of water",
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"plaintext": " Liverpool: a ditch or large tray of water under a vertical or oxer",
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"plaintext": " Joker – a tricky fence comprising only a rustic (or unpainted) rail and two wings wherein the lack of filler makes it difficult for a horse to judge their proximity to the fence as well as the fence's height, making it a tricky obstacle usually found only in the upper divisions, and illegal in some competitions",
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"plaintext": " brush jump - a jump that has brush or faux grass on the top of it. Normally, the horse is able to see over the top of it and most of the time the horse's belly will hit the grass on top. These jumps have a cut out in the middle and brush on the side. There may be a fence or log on the bottom of the jump. The jump could be anywhere from 2–5ft tall. The jump also may be wide, causing the horse to stretch out its legs and chest.",
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"plaintext": "At international level competitions that are governed by FEI rules, fence heights begin at . Other competition levels are given different names in different nations, but are based primarily on the height and spread of fences",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, jumping levels range from 0–9 as follows:",
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"plaintext": "USEF Jumper Levels",
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"plaintext": " Level 0. Fences 2′6″ to 2′9″ in height and 2′9″ to 3′0″ in spread, triple bars/liverpools to 3′9″",
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"plaintext": " Level 1. Fences 2′9″ to 3′0″ in height and 3′0″ to 3′6″ in spread, triple bars/liverpools to 4′0″",
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"plaintext": " Level 2. Fences 3′0″ to 3′3″ in height and 3′3″ to 3′9″ in spread, triple bars/liverpools to 4′3″",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Level 3. Fences 3′3″ to 3′6″ in height and 3′6″ to 4′0″ in spread, triple bars/liverpools to 4′6″",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Level 4. Fences 3′6″ to 3′9″ in height and 3′9″ to 4′3″ in spread, triple bars to 4′9″, water to 8′",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Level 5. Fences 3′9″ to 4′0″ in height and 4′0″ to 4′6″ in spread, triple bars to 5′0″, water to 9′",
"section_idx": 9,
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{
"plaintext": " Level 6. Fences 4′0″ to 4′3″ in height and 4′3″ to 4′9″ in spread, triple bars to 5′3″, water to 10′",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Types of show jumps",
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{
"plaintext": " Level 7. Fences 4′3″ to 4′6″ in height and 4′6″ to 5′0″ in spread, triple bars to 5′6″, water to 12′",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Types of show jumps",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " Level 8. Fences 4′6″ to 4′9″ in height and 4′9″ to 5′3″ in spread, triple bars to 5′9″, water to 12′6″",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": " Level 9. Fences 4′9″ to 5′0″ in height and 5′0″ to 5′6″ in spread, triple bars to 6′0″, water to 13′",
"section_idx": 9,
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"plaintext": "In Germany, competition levels are denoted by the letters E, A, L, M, S, and correspond to heights ranging from 0.80 to 1.55 meters.",
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"plaintext": "A show jumper must have the scope and courage to jump large fences as well as the athletic ability to handle the sharp turns and bursts of speed necessary to navigate the most difficult courses. Many breeds of horses have been successful show jumpers, and even some grade horses of uncertain breeding have been champions. Most show jumpers are tall horses, over , usually of Warmblood or Thoroughbred breeding, though horses as small as have been on the Olympic teams of various nations and carried riders to Olympic and other international medals. There is no correlation between the size of a horse and its athletic ability, nor do tall horses necessarily have an advantage when jumping. Nonetheless, a taller horse may make a fence appear less daunting to the rider.",
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"section_name": "The horses",
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{
"plaintext": "Ponies also compete in show jumping competitions in many countries, usually in classes limited to youth riders, defined as those under the age of 16 or 18 years, depending on the sanctioning organization. Pony-sized horses may, on occasion, compete in open competition with adult riders. The most famous example was Stroller, who only stood but was nonetheless an Individual silver medal winner and part of the Great Britain show jumping team in the 1968 Summer Olympics, jumping one of the few clean rounds in the competition. Significant jumpers from the United States are included in the Show Jumping Hall of Fame.",
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"plaintext": "Rotational falls",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Bibliography",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Clayton, Michael, and William Steinkraus. The Complete Book of Show Jumping. New York: Crown Publishers, 1975. ASIN: B000HFW4KC",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " de Nemethy, Bertalan. Classic Show Jumping: The de Nemethy Method; A Complete System for Training Today's Horses and Riders. Doubleday, 1988. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fédération Equestre Internationale (FEI)",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jump Off CN World Cup",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jump Off: Big Ben Challenge",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Four-bar Competition",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Derby course",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "World Cup 2022 Jumping",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Show_jumping",
"Mixed-sex_sports",
"Summer_Olympic_disciplines",
"FEI-recognized_competition"
]
| 211,773 | 8,080 | 1,517 | 85 | 0 | 0 | show jumping | part of a group of English riding equestrian events | []
|
36,875 | 1,080,069,344 | Non-judicial_punishment | [
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"plaintext": "Non-judicial punishment (or NJP) is any form of punishment that may be applied to individual military personnel, without a need for a court martial or similar proceedings.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States Armed Forces, non-judicial punishment is a form of military justice authorized by Article 15 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice. NJP permits commanders to administratively discipline troops without a court-martial. Punishment can range from reprimand to reduction in rank, correctional custody, loss of pay, extra duty or restrictions. The receipt of non-judicial punishment does not constitute a criminal conviction (it is equivalent to a civil action), but is often placed in the service record of the individual. The process for non-judicial punishment is governed by Part V of the Manual for Courts-Martial and by each service branch's regulations.",
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"plaintext": "Non-judicial punishment proceedings are known by different terms among the services. In the Army and the Air Force, non-judicial punishment is referred to as Article 15; in the Marine Corps it is called being \"NJP'd\", being sent to \"Office Hours\", or satirically amongst the junior ranks, \"Ninja Punched\". The Navy and the Coast Guard call non-judicial punishment captain's mast or admiral's mast, depending on the rank of the commanding officer.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to imposition of NJP, the commander will notify the accused of the commander's intention to impose punishment, the nature of the misconduct alleged, supporting evidence, and a statement of the accused's rights under the UCMJ. All service members, except those embarked or attached to a vessel currently away from its homeport, have a right to refuse NJP and request a court-martial. If the accused does not accept the NJP, the NJP hearing is terminated and the commander must make the decision of whether to process the service member for court-martial. If the accused accepts NJP, he or she, plus a representative if desired, will attend the hearing conducted by the commander. The accused may present evidence and witnesses to the commander. The commander must consider any information offered during the hearing, and must be personally convinced that the service member committed misconduct before imposing punishment.",
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"plaintext": "Maximum penalties depend on the rank of the accused and that of the officer imposing punishment:",
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"plaintext": "If the officer imposing punishment holds General Court Martial authority, or if the commanding officer is of the grade O-7 or greater",
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"plaintext": " Arrest in quarters: not more than 30 days",
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"section_name": "United States",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Restriction to limits: not more than 60 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Forfeiture of pay: not more than ½ of one month's base pay for two months (base pay does not include allowances or special pay)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Admonition or reprimand",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "By Commanding Officers of the grades O-4 to O-6",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Restriction to limits: not more than 30 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Admonition or reprimand",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "By Commanding Officers of the grades O-1 to O-3",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Restriction to limits: not more than 15 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Admonition or reprimand",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "By Officers In Charge (OIC)",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": " No NJP authority over officers",
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},
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"plaintext": "There are three types of non-judicial punishment commonly imposed.",
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"plaintext": "Summary Article 15: (O-3 and below) commanders and commissioned OIC may impose:",
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"plaintext": " Restriction to specific limits (normally work, barracks, place of worship, mess hall, and medical facilities) for not more than 14 days",
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"plaintext": " Extra duties, including fatigue or other duties, for not more than 14 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Restriction with extra duties for not more than 14 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Company Grade (O-3 or below) commanders may impose the above plus:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Correctional Custody for not more than 7 days (only if accused is in the grades E-3 and below)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Forfeiture of 7 days base pay",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Reduction by one grade, if original rank in promotion authority of imposing officer (USA/USAF E-4 and below)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Admonition or reprimand, either written or verbal",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Field Grade (O-4 to O-6) may impose:",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Restriction for not more than 60 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Extra duties for not more than 45 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Restriction with extra duties for not more than 45 days",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Correctional Custody for not more than 30 days (only if accused is in the grades E-3 and below)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Forfeiture of ½ of base pay for two months",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Reduction by one grade if (USA/USAF E-6 or E-5; USMC E-5 or below; USN E-6 or below); or reduction to E-1 (USA/USAF E-4 to E-2)",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Admonition or reprimand, either written or verbal",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The punishments listed above may be combined (with certain limitations listed in the Manual for Courts-Martial, Part 5, Section 5(d)). For example, extra duties, restriction and forfeiture of pay, and reduction in grade could be imposed.",
"section_idx": 1,
"section_name": "United States",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "If the member considers the punishment to be unjust or to be disproportionate to the misconduct committed, he or she may appeal the NJP to a higher authority. This is usually the next officer in the chain of command. Upon considering the appeal, the higher authority may set aside the NJP, decrease the severity of the punishment, or may deny the appeal. They may not increase the severity of the punishment.",
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"plaintext": "Personnel are permitted to refuse NJP in favor of a court-martial; this might be done in cases where they do not feel their Commanding Officer will give them a fair hearing. But this option exposes them to a possible criminal court conviction. Navy and Marine Corps personnel assigned to or embarked aboard ship do not have the option of refusing NJP, nor can they appeal the decision of the officer imposing punishment; they may only appeal the severity of the punishment.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "In naval tradition, mast is the traditional location of the non-judicial hearing under which a commanding officer studies and disposes of cases involving those in his command. ",
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"plaintext": "If the individual conducting the proceeding is either a captain, or a lower ranking officer (typically a commander or lieutenant commander) serving as commanding officer of a naval or coast guard vessel, an aviation squadron, or similar command afloat or ashore, then the proceeding is referred to as a captain's mast. ",
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"plaintext": "If an admiral is overseeing the mast, then the procedure is referred to as an admiral's mast or a flag mast.",
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"plaintext": " 10 USC 815 (Article 15 - Non-Judicial Punishment)",
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| [
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| 896,627 | 3,125 | 101 | 34 | 0 | 0 | Non-judicial punishment | military discipline beyond its judicial process | []
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"plaintext": "Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania, as well as its cultural, industrial, and financial centre. It is located in the southeast of the country, on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, less than north of the Danube River and the Bulgarian border.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest was first mentioned in documents in 1459. It became the capital of Romania in 1862 and is the centre of Romanian media, culture, and art. Its architecture is a mix of historical (mostly Eclectic, but also Neoclassical and Art Nouveau), interbellum (Bauhaus, Art Deco and Romanian Revival architecture), socialist era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the city's elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of 'Paris of the East' () or 'Little Paris' (). Although buildings and districts in the historic city centre were heavily damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes, and even Nicolae Ceaușescu's program of systematization, many survived and have been renovated. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic and cultural boom. It is one of the fastest-growing high-tech cities in Europe, according to the Financial Times, CBRE, TechCrunch, and others. UiPath, a global startup founded in Bucharest, has reached over $35billion in valuation. Since 2019, Bucharest hosts the largest high tech summit in Southeast Europe (Romania Blockchain Summit).",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2011 census, 1,883,425 inhabitants live within the city limits. Adding the satellite towns around the urban area, the proposed metropolitan area of Bucharest would have a population of 2.27million people. In 2020, the government used 2.5million people as the basis for pandemic reports. Bucharest is the fourth largest city in the European Union by population within city limits, after Berlin, Madrid, and Rome, just ahead of Paris.",
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"plaintext": "Economically, Bucharest is the most prosperous city in Romania and the richest capital and city in the region, surpassing Budapest a few years ago. By 2050, studies show Bucharest will emerge as Europe's richest city in terms of GDP per capita, followed by Luxembourg City and Groningen. A new report by Grosvenor revealed Bucharest will already be 3rd richest city in Europe by 2040. ",
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"plaintext": "The city proper is administratively known as the 'Municipality of Bucharest' (Municipiul București), and has the same administrative level as that of a national county, being further subdivided into six sectors, each governed by a local mayor.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian name București has an unverified origin. Tradition connects the founding of Bucharest with the name of Bucur, who was a prince, an outlaw, a fisherman, a shepherd or a hunter, according to different legends. In Romanian, the word stem bucurie means 'joy' ('happiness'), and it is believed to be of Dacian origin, hence the city Bucharest means 'city of joy'.",
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"plaintext": "Other etymologies are given by early scholars, including the one of an Ottoman traveller, Evliya Çelebi, who said that Bucharest was named after a certain 'Abu-Kariș', from the tribe of 'Bani-Kureiș'. In 1781, Austrian historian Franz Sulzer claimed that it was related to bucurie (joy), bucuros (joyful), or a se bucura (to be joyful), while an early 19th-century book published in Vienna assumed its name to be derived from 'Bukovie', a beech forest. In English, the city's name was formerly rendered as Bukarest. A native or resident of Bucharest is called a 'Bucharester' ().",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's history alternated periods of development and decline from the early settlements in antiquity until its consolidation as the national capital of Romania late in the 19th century. First mentioned as the 'Citadel of București' in 1459, it became the residence of the Voivode of Wallachia, Vlad III the Impaler.",
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"plaintext": "The Old Princely Court (Curtea Veche) was erected by Mircea Ciobanul in the mid-16th century. Under subsequent rulers, Bucharest was established as the summer residence of the royal court. During the years to come, it competed with Târgoviște on the status of capital city after an increase in the importance of southern Muntenia brought about by the demands of the suzerain power – the Ottoman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Partly destroyed by natural disasters and rebuilt several times during the following 200 years, and hit by Caragea's plague in 1813–14, the city was wrested from Ottoman control and occupied at several intervals by the Habsburg monarchy (1716, 1737, 1789) and Imperial Russia (three times between 1768 and 1806). It was placed under Russian administration between 1828 and the Crimean War, with an interlude during the Bucharest-centred 1848 Wallachian revolution. Later, an Austrian garrison took possession after the Russian departure (remaining in the city until March 1857). On 23 March 1847, a fire consumed about 2,000 buildings, destroying a third of the city.",
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"plaintext": "In 1862, after Wallachia and Moldavia were united to form the Principality of Romania, Bucharest became the new nation's capital city. In 1881, it became the political centre of the newly proclaimed Kingdom of Romania under King Carol I. During the second half of the 19th century, the city's population increased dramatically, and a new period of urban development began. During this period, gas lighting, horse-drawn trams, and limited electrification were introduced. The Dâmbovița River was also massively channelled in 1883, thus putting a stop to previously endemic floods like the 1865 flooding of Bucharest. The Fortifications of Bucharest were built. The extravagant architecture and cosmopolitan high culture of this period won Bucharest the nickname of 'Little Paris' (Micul Paris) of the east, with Calea Victoriei as its Champs-Élysées.",
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"plaintext": "Between 6 December 1916 and November 1918, the city was occupied by German forces as a result of the Battle of Bucharest, with the official capital temporarily moved to Iași (also called Jassy), in the Moldavia region. After World War I, Bucharest became the capital of Greater Romania. In the interwar years, Bucharest's urban development continued, with the city gaining an average of 30,000 new residents each year. Also, some of the city's main landmarks were built in this period, including Arcul de Triumf and Palatul Telefoanelor. However, the Great Depression in Romania took its toll on Bucharest's citizens, culminating in the Grivița Strike of 1933.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1941, the city was the scene of the Legionnaires' rebellion and Bucharest pogrom. As the capital of an Axis country and a major transit point for Axis troops en route to the Eastern Front, Bucharest suffered heavy damage during World War II due to Allied bombings. On 23 August 1944, Bucharest was the site of the royal coup which brought Romania into the Allied camp. The city suffered a short period of Nazi Luftwaffe bombings, as well as a failed attempt by German troops to regain the city.",
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"plaintext": "After the establishment of communism in Romania, the city continued growing. New districts were constructed, most of them dominated by tower blocks. During Nicolae Ceaușescu's leadership (1965–89), much of the historic part of the city was demolished and replaced by 'Socialist realism' style development: (1) the Centrul Civic (the Civic Centre) and (2) the Palace of the Parliament, for which an entire historic quarter was razed to make way for Ceaușescu's megalomaniac plans. On 4 March 1977, an earthquake centred in Vrancea, about away, claimed 1,500 lives and caused further damage to the historic centre.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian Revolution of 1989 began with massive anti-Ceaușescu protests in Timișoara in December 1989 and continued in Bucharest, leading to the overthrow of the Communist regime. Dissatisfied with the postrevolutionary leadership of the National Salvation Front, some student leagues and opposition groups organised anti-Communist rallies in early 1990, which caused the political change.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, 64 people were killed in the Colectiv nightclub fire. Later the Romanian capital saw the 2017–2019 Romanian protests against the judicial reforms. On 10 August 2018 a protest under the motto 'Diaspora at Home' was held in Bucharest and was marked by significant violence, with over 450 people injured.",
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"plaintext": "The city is situated on the banks of the Dâmbovița River, which flows into the Argeș River, a tributary of the Danube. Several lakesthe most important of which are Lake Herăstrău, Lake Floreasca, Lake Tei, and Lake Colentinastretch across the northern parts of the city, along the Colentina River, a tributary of the Dâmbovița. In addition, in the centre of the capital is a small artificial lakeLake Cișmigiusurrounded by the Cișmigiu Gardens. These gardens have a rich history, having been frequented by poets and writers. Opened in 1847 and based on the plans of German architect Carl F.W. Meyer, the gardens are the main recreational facility in the city centre.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest parks and gardens also include Herăstrău Park, Tineretului Park and the Botanical Garden. Herăstrău Park is located in the northern part of the city, around Lake Herăstrău, and includes the site the Village Museum. Grigore Antipa Museum is also near in the Victoriei Square. One of its best known locations are Hard Rock Cafe Bucharest and Berăria H (one of the largest beer halls in Europe). Tineretului Park was created in 1965 and designed as the main recreational space for southern Bucharest. It contains a Mini Town which is a play area for kids. The Botanical Garden, located in the Cotroceni neighbourhood a bit west of the city centre, is the largest of its kind in Romania and contains over 10,000 species of plants (many of them exotic); it originated as the pleasure park of the royal family. Besides them, there are many other smaller parks that should be visited, some of them being still large. Alexandru Ioan Cuza Park, Kiseleff Park, Carol Park, Izvor Park, Grădina Icoanei, Circului Park and Moghioroș Park are a few of them. Other large parks in Bucharest are: National Park, Tei Park, Eroilor Park and Crângași Park with Morii Lake.",
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"plaintext": "Lake Văcărești is located in the southern part of the city. Over 190 hectares, including 90 hectares of water, host 97 species of birds, half of them protected by law, and at least seven species of mammals. The lake is surrounded by buildings of flats and is an odd result of human intervention and nature taking its course. The area was a small village that Ceaușescu attempted to convert into a lake. After demolishing the houses and building the concrete basin, the plan was abandoned following the 1989 revolution. For nearly two decades, the area shifted from being an abandoned green space where children could play and sunbathe, to being contested by previous owners of the land there, to being closed for redevelopment into a sports centre. The redevelopment deal failed, and over the following years, the green space grew into a unique habitat. In May 2016, the lake was declared a national park, the Văcărești Nature Park. Dubbed the 'Delta of Bucharest', the area is protected.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is situated in the center of the Romanian Plain, in an area once covered by the Vlăsiei Forest, which after it was cleared, gave way for a fertile flatland. As with many cities, Bucharest is traditionally considered to be built upon seven hills, similar to the seven hills of Rome. Bucharest's seven hills are: Mihai Vodă, Dealul Mitropoliei, Radu Vodă, Cotroceni, Dealul Spirii, Văcărești, and Sfântu Gheorghe Nou.",
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"plaintext": "The city has an area of . The altitude varies from at the Dâmbovița bridge in Cățelu, southeastern Bucharest and at the Militari church. The city has a roughly round shape, with the centre situated in the cross-way of the main north–south/east-west axes at University Square. The milestone for Romania's Kilometre Zero is placed just south of University Square in front of the New St. George Church (Sfântul Gheorghe Nou) at St. George Square (Piața Sfântul Gheorghe). Bucharest's radius, from University Square to the city limits in all directions, varies from .",
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"plaintext": "Until recently, the regions surrounding Bucharest were largely rural, but after 1989, suburbs started to be built around Bucharest, in the surrounding Ilfov County. Further urban consolidation is expected to take place in the late 2010s, when the 'Bucharest Metropolitan Area' plan will become operational, incorporating additional communes and cities from the Ilfov and other neighbouring counties.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest has a humid continental climate (Dfa/Dfb by the 0°C isotherm), or a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa by the -3°C isotherm), with hot, humid summers and cold, snowy winters. Owing to its position on the Romanian Plain, the city's winters can get windy, though some of the winds are mitigated due to urbanisation. Winter temperatures often dip below , sometimes even to . In summer, the average high temperature is (the average for July and August). Temperatures frequently reach in midsummer in the city centre. Although average precipitation and humidity during summer are low, occasional heavy storms occur. During spring and autumn, daytime temperatures vary between , and precipitation during spring tends to be higher than in summer, with more frequent yet milder periods of rain.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest has a unique status in Romanian administration, since it is the only municipal area that is not part of a county. Its population, however, is larger than that of any other Romanian county, hence the power of the Bucharest General Municipality (Primăria Generală), which is the capital's local government body, is the same as any other Romanian county council.",
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"plaintext": "The Municipality of Bucharest, along with the surrounding Ilfov County, is part of the București – Ilfov development region project, which is equivalent to NUTS-II regions in the European Union and is used both by the EU and the Romanian government for statistical analysis, and to co-ordinate regional development projects and manage funds from the EU. The Bucharest-Ilfov development region is not, however, an administrative entity yet.",
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"plaintext": "The city government is headed by a general mayor (Primar General). Since 29 October 2020 onwards, the general mayor of Bucharest is Nicușor Dan, currently an independent politician previously backed by the PNL-USR PLUS centre-right alliance at the 2020 Romanian local elections. Decisions are approved and discussed by the capital's General Council (Consiliu General) made up of 55 elected councilors. Furthermore, the city is divided into six administrative sectors (sectoare), each of which has its own 27-seat sectoral council, town hall, and mayor. The powers of the local government over a certain area are, therefore, shared both by the Bucharest municipality and the local sectoral councils with little or no overlapping of authority. The general rule is that the main capital municipality is responsible for citywide utilities such as the water and sewage system, the overall transport system, and the main boulevards, while sectoral town halls manage the contact between individuals and the local government, secondary streets and parks maintenance, schools administration, and cleaning services.",
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"plaintext": "The six sectors are numbered from one to six and are disposed radially so that each one has under its administration a certain area of the city centre. They are numbered clockwise and are further divided into sectoral quarters (cartiere) which are not part of the official administrative division:",
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"plaintext": "Sector 1 (population 227,717): Dorobanți, Băneasa, Aviației, Pipera, Aviatorilor, Primăverii, Romană, Victoriei, Herăstrău Park, Bucureștii Noi, Dămăroaia, Străulești, Grivița, 1 Mai, Băneasa Forest, Pajura, Domenii, Chibrit",
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"plaintext": "Sector 2 (population 357,338): Pantelimon, Colentina, Iancului, Tei, Floreasca, Moșilor, Obor, Vatra Luminoasă, Fundeni, Plumbuita, Ștefan cel Mare, Baicului",
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"plaintext": "Sector 3 (population 399,231): Vitan, Dudești, Titan, Centrul Civic, Dristor, Lipscani, Muncii, Unirii",
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"plaintext": "Sector 4 (population 300,331): Berceni, Olteniței, Giurgiului, Progresul, Văcărești, Timpuri Noi, Tineretului",
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"plaintext": "Sector 5 (population 288,690): Rahova, Ferentari, Giurgiului, Cotroceni, 13 Septembrie, Dealul Spirii",
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"plaintext": "Sector 6 (population 371,060): Giulești, Crângași, Drumul Taberei, Militari, Grozăvești (also known as Regie), Ghencea",
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"plaintext": "Each sector is governed by a local mayor, as follows: Sector 1 – Clotilde Armand (USR, since 2020), Sector 2 – Radu Mihaiu (USR, since 2020), Sector 3 – Robert Negoiță (PRO B, since 2012), Sector 4 – Daniel Băluță (PSD, since 2016), Sector 5 – Cristian Popescu Piedone (PPU SL, since 2020), Sector 6 – Ciprian Ciucu (PNL, since 2020).",
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"plaintext": "Like all other local councils in Romania, the Bucharest sectoral councils, the capital's general council, and the mayors are elected every four years by the population. Additionally, Bucharest has a prefect, who is appointed by Romania's national government. The prefect is not allowed to be a member of a political party and his role is to represent the national government at the municipal level. The prefect is acting as a liaison official facilitating the implementation of national development plans and governing programs at local level. The prefect of Bucharest (as of 2021) is Alexandra Văcaru.",
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"plaintext": "The city's general council has the following political composition, based on the results of the 2020 local elections:",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's judicial system is similar to that of the Romanian counties. Each of the six sectors has its own local first-instance court (judecătorie), while more serious cases are directed to the Bucharest Tribunal (Tribunalul Bucureşti), the city's municipal court. The Bucharest Court of Appeal (Curtea de Apel Bucureşti) judges appeals against decisions taken by first-instance courts and tribunals in Bucharest and in five surrounding counties (Teleorman, Ialomița, Giurgiu, Călărași, and Ilfov). Bucharest is also home to Romania's supreme court, the High Court of Cassation and Justice, as well as to the Constitutional Court of Romania.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest has a municipal police force, the Bucharest Police (Poliția București), which is responsible for policing crime within the whole city, and operates a number of divisions. The Bucharest Police are headquartered on Ștefan cel Mare Blvd. in the city centre, and at precincts throughout the city. From 2004 onwards, each sector city hall also has under its administration a community police force (Poliția Comunitară), dealing with local community issues. Bucharest also houses the general inspectorates of the Gendarmerie and the national police.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's crime rate is rather low in comparison to other European capital cities, with the number of total offences declining by 51% between 2000 and 2004, and by 7% between 2012 and 2013. The violent crime rate in Bucharest remains very low, with 11 murders and 983 other violent offences taking place in 2007. Although violent crimes fell by 13% in 2013 compared to 2012, 19 murders (18 of which the suspects were arrested) were recorded.",
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"plaintext": "Although in the 2000s, a number of police crackdowns on organised crime gangs occurred, such as the Cămătaru clan, organised crime generally has little impact on public life. Petty crime, however, is more common, particularly in the form of pickpocketing, which occurs mainly on the city's public transport network. Confidence tricks were common in the 1990s, especially in regards to tourists, but the frequency of these incidents has since declined. However, in general, theft was reduced by 13.6% in 2013 compared to 2012. Levels of crime are higher in the southern districts of the city, particularly in Ferentari, a socially disadvantaged area.",
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"plaintext": "Although the presence of street children was a problem in Bucharest in the 1990s, their numbers have declined in recent years, now lying at or below the average of major European capital cities.",
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"plaintext": "As stated by the Mercer international surveys for quality of life in cities around the world, Bucharest occupied the 94th place in 2001 and slipped lower, to the 108th place in 2009 and the 107th place in 2010. Compared to it, Vienna occupied number one worldwide in 2011 and 2009. Warsaw ranked 84th, Istanbul 112th, and neighbours Sofia 114th and Belgrade 136th (in the 2010 rankings).",
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"plaintext": "Mercer Human Resource Consulting issues yearly a global ranking of the world's most livable cities based on 39 key quality-of-life issues. Among them: political stability, currency-exchange regulations, political and media censorship, school quality, housing, the environment, and public safety. Mercer collects data worldwide, in 215 cities. The difficult situation of the quality of life in Bucharest is confirmed also by a vast urbanism study, done by the Ion Mincu University of Architecture and Urbanism.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, Bucharest's urban situation was described as 'critical' by a Romanian Order of Architects (OAR) report that criticised the city's weak, incoherent and arbitrary public management policies, its elected officials' lack of transparency and public engagement, as well as its inadequate and unsustainable use of essential urban resources.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's historical city centre is listed as 'endangered' by the World Monuments Watch (as of 2016).",
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"plaintext": "Although many neighbourhoods, particularly in the southern part of the city, lack sufficient green space, being formed of cramped, high-density blocks of flats, Bucharest also has many parks.",
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"plaintext": "As per the 2011 census, 1,883,425 inhabitants lived within the city limits, a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2002 census. This decrease is due to low natural increase, but also to a shift in population from the city itself to its smaller satellite towns such as Voluntari, Buftea, and Otopeni. In a study published by the United Nations, Bucharest placed 19th among 28 cities that recorded sharp declines in population from 1990 to the mid-2010s. In particular, the population fell by 3.77%.",
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"plaintext": "The city's population, according to the 2002 census, was 1,926,334 inhabitants, or 8.9% of the total population of Romania. A significant number of people commute to the city every day, mostly from the surrounding Ilfov County, but official statistics regarding their numbers do not exist.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's population experienced two phases of rapid growth, the first beginning in the late 19th century when the city was consolidated as the national capital and lasting until the Second World War, and the second during the Ceaușescu years (1965–1989), when a massive urbanization campaign was launched and many people migrated from rural areas to the capital. At this time, due to Ceaușescu's decision to ban abortion and contraception, natural increase was also significant.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is a city of high population density: 8,260/km2 (21,400/sq mi), owing to the fact that most of the population lives in high-density communist era apartment blocks (blocuri). However, this also depends on the part of the city: the southern boroughs have a higher density than the northern ones. Of the European Union country capital-cities, only Paris and Athens have a higher population density (see List of European Union cities proper by population density).",
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"plaintext": "About 97.3% of the population of Bucharest for whom data are available is Romanian. Other significant ethnic groups are Romani, Hungarians, Turks, Jews, Germans (mostly Regat Germans), Chinese, Russians, Ukrainians, and Italians. A relatively small number of Bucharesters are also Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, Albanians, Poles, French, Arabs, Africans (including the Afro-Romanians), Vietnamese, Filipinos, Nepalis, Afghans, Sri Lankans, Bangladeshis, Pakistanis, and Indians. 226,943 people did not declare their ethnicity.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of religious affiliation, 96.1% of the population is Romanian Orthodox, 1.2% is Roman Catholic, 0.5% is Muslim, and 0.4% is Romanian Greek Catholic. Despite this, only 18% of the population, of any religion, attends a place of worship once a week or more. The life expectancy of residents of Bucharest in 2015 was 77.8 years old, which is 2.4 years above the national average.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is the centre of the Romanian economy and industry, accounting for around 24% (2017) of the country's GDP and about one-quarter of its industrial production, while being inhabited by 9% of the country's population. Almost one-third of national taxes is paid by Bucharest's citizens and companies. The living standard in the Bucharest-Ilfov region was 145% of the EU average in 2017, according to GDP per capita at the purchasing power parity standard (adjusted to the national price level).",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest area surpassed, on comparable terms, European metropolitan areas such as Budapest (139%), Madrid (125%), Berlin (118%), Rome (110%), Lisbon (102%), or Sofia (79%), and more than twice the Romanian average. After relative stagnation in the 1990s, the city's strong economic growth has revitalised infrastructure and led to the development of shopping malls, residential estates, and high-rise office buildings. In January 2013, Bucharest had an unemployment rate of 2.1%, significantly lower than the national unemployment rate of 5.8%.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's economy is centred on industry and services, with services particularly growing in importance in the last 10 years. The headquarters of 186,000 firms, including nearly all large Romanian companies, are located in Bucharest. An important source of growth since 2000 has been the city's rapidly expanding property and construction sector. Bucharest is also Romania's largest centre for information technology and communications and is home to several software companies operating offshore delivery centres. Romania's largest stock exchange, the Bucharest Stock Exchange, which was merged in December 2005 with the Bucharest-based electronic stock exchange Rasdaq, plays a major role in the city's economy. ",
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"plaintext": "International supermarket chains such as Kaufland, Lidl, Metro, Selgros, Penny Market, Carrefour, Auchan, Cora, Profi, and Mega Image are all operating in Bucharest. The city is undergoing a retail boom. Bucharest hosts luxury brands such as Armani, Versace, Ralph Lauren, Dior, Prada, Chanel, Hermes, Louis Vuitton, and Gucci. Malls and large shopping centres have been built since the late 1990s, such as Băneasa Shopping City, AFI Palace Cotroceni, Mega Mall, București Mall, ParkLake Shopping Centre, Sun Plaza, Promenada Mall and longest Unirea Shopping Centre. Bucharest has over 20 malls as of 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The corporations Amazon, Microsoft, Ubisoft, Oracle Corporation, or IBM are all present in the Romanian capital. The top ten is also dominated by companies operating in automotive, oil & gas (such as Petrom), as well as companies in telecommunication and FMCG.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest's public transport system is the largest in Romania and one of the largest in Europe. It is made up of the Bucharest Metro, run by Metrorex, as well as a surface transport system run by STB (Societatea de Transport București, previously known as the RATB), which consists of buses, trams, trolleybuses, and light rail. In addition, a private minibus system operates there. , a limit of 10,000 taxicab licences was imposed.",
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"plaintext": "It is the hub of Romania's national railway network, run by Căile Ferate Române. The main railway station is Gara de Nord ('North Station'), which provides connections to all major cities in Romania, as well as international destinations: Belgrade, Sofia, Varna, Chișinău, Kyiv, Chernivtsi, Lviv, Thessaloniki, Vienna, Budapest, Istanbul, Moscow etc.",
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"plaintext": "The city has five other railway stations run by CFR, of which the most important are Basarab (adjacent to North Station), Obor, Băneasa, and Progresul. These are in the process of being integrated into a commuter railway serving Bucharest and the surrounding Ilfov County. Seven main lines radiate out of Bucharest.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest station in Bucharest is Filaret. It was inaugurated in 1869, and in 1960, the communist government turned it in a bus terminal.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest has two international airports:",
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"plaintext": " Henri Coandă International Airport (IATA: OTP, ICAO: LROP), located north of the Bucharest city centre, in the town of Otopeni, Ilfov. It is the busiest airport in Romania, in terms of passenger traffic: 12,807,032 in 2017.",
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"plaintext": " Aurel Vlaicu International Airport (IATA: BBU, ICAO: LRBS) is Bucharest's business and VIP airport. It is situated only north of the Bucharest city centre, within city limits.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is a major intersection of Romania's national road network. A few of the busiest national roads and motorways link the city to all of Romania's major cities, as well as to neighbouring countries such as Hungary, Bulgaria and Ukraine. The A1 to Pitești, the A2 Sun Motorway to the Dobrogea region and Constanța and the A3 to Ploiești all start from Bucharest.",
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"plaintext": "A series of high-capacity boulevards, which generally radiate out from the city centre to the outskirts, provides a framework for the municipal road system. The main axes, which run north–south, east–west and northwest–southeast, as well as one internal and one external ring road, support the bulk of the traffic.",
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"plaintext": "The city's roads are usually very crowded during rush hours, due to an increase in car ownership in recent years. In 2013, the number of cars registered in Bucharest amounted to 1,125,591. This results in wear and potholes appearing on busy roads, particularly secondary roads, this being identified as one of Bucharest's main infrastructural problems. A comprehensive effort on behalf of the City Hall to boost road infrastructure was made, and according to the general development plan, 2,000 roads have been repaired by 2008. The huge number of cars registered in the city forced the Romanian Auto Registry to switch to 3-digit numbers on registration plates in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 June 2011, the Basarab Overpass was inaugurated and opened to traffic, thus completing the inner city traffic ring. The overpass took five years to build and is the longest cable-stayed bridge in Romania and the widest such bridge in Europe; upon completion, traffic on the Grant Bridge and in the Gara de Nord area became noticeably more fluid.",
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"plaintext": "Although it is situated on the banks of a river, Bucharest has never functioned as a port city. Other Romanian cities such as Constanța and Galați serves as the country's main ports. The unfinished Danube-Bucharest Canal, which is long and around 70% completed, could link Bucharest to the Danube River, and via the Danube-Black Sea Canal, to the Black Sea. Works on the canal were suspended in 1989, but proposals have been made to resume construction as part of the European Strategy for the Danube Region.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest has a growing cultural scene, in fields including the visual arts, performing arts, and nightlife. Unlike other parts of Romania, such as the Black Sea coast or Transylvania, Bucharest's cultural scene has no defined style, and instead incorporates elements of Romanian and international culture.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest has landmark buildings and monuments. Perhaps the most prominent of these is the Palace of the Parliament, built in the 1980s during the rule of Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu. The largest Parliament building in the world, the palace houses the Romanian Parliament (the Chamber of Deputies, and the Senate), as well as the National Museum of Contemporary Art. The building boasts one of the largest convention centres in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Another landmark in Bucharest is Arcul de Triumf (The Triumphal Arch), built in its current form in 1935 and modelled after the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. A newer landmark of the city is the Memorial of Rebirth, a stylised marble pillar unveiled in 2005 to commemorate the victims of the Romanian Revolution of 1989, which overthrew Communism. The abstract monument sparked controversy when it was unveiled, being dubbed with names such as 'the olive on the toothpick' (măslina-n scobitoare), as many argued that it does not fit in its surroundings and believed that its choice was political.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian Athenaeum building is considered a symbol of Romanian culture and since 2007 has been on the list of the Label of European Heritage sites. It was built between 1886 and 1888 by the architect Paul Louis Albert Galeron, through public funding.",
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"plaintext": "InterContinental Bucharest is a high-rise five-star hotel near University Square and is also a landmark of the city. The building is designed so that each room has a unique panorama of the city.",
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"plaintext": "House of the Spark (Casa Scânteii) is a replica of the Lomonosov Moscow State University. This edifice, built in the characteristic style of the large-scale Soviet projects, was intended to be representative of the new political regime and to assert the superiority of the Communist doctrine. Construction started in 1952 and was completed in 1957, a few years after Stalin's death in 1953. Popularly known as Casa Scânteii ('House of the Spark') after the name of the official gazette of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party, Scânteia, it was made for the purpose of bringing together under one roof all of Bucharest's official press and publishing houses. It is the only building in Bucharest featuring the Hammer and Sickle, the Red Star and other communist insignia carved into medallions adorning the façade.",
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"plaintext": "Other cultural venues include the National Museum of Art of Romania, Grigore Antipa National Museum of Natural History, Museum of the Romanian Peasant, National History Museum and the Military Museum.",
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"plaintext": "In terms of visual arts, the city has museums featuring both classical and contemporary Romanian art, as well as selected international works. The National Museum of Art of Romania is perhaps the best-known of Bucharest museums. It is located in the royal palace and features collections of medieval and modern Romanian art, including works by sculptor Constantin Brâncuși, as well as an international collection assembled by the Romanian royal family.",
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"plaintext": "Other, smaller, museums contain specialised collections. The Zambaccian Museum, which is situated in the former home of art collector Krikor H. Zambaccian, contains works by well-known Romanian artists and international artists such as Paul Cézanne, Eugène Delacroix, Henri Matisse, Camille Pissarro, and Pablo Picasso.",
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"plaintext": "The Gheorghe Tattarescu Museum contains portraits of Romanian revolutionaries in exile such as Gheorghe Magheru, ștefan Golescu, and Nicolae Bălcescu, and allegorical compositions with revolutionary (Romania's rebirth, 1849) and patriotic (The Principalities' Unification, 1857) themes. Another impressive art collection gathering important Romanian painters, can be found at the Ligia and Pompiliu Macovei residence, which is open to visitors as it is now part of the Bucharest Museum patrimony.",
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"plaintext": "The Theodor Pallady Museum is situated in one of the oldest surviving merchant houses in Bucharest and includes works by Romanian painter Theodor Pallady, as well as European and oriental furniture pieces. The Museum of Art Collections contains the collections of Romanian art aficionados, including Krikor Zambaccian and Theodor Pallady.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the classical art galleries and museums in the city, a contemporary arts scene also exists. The National Museum of Contemporary Art (MNAC), situated in a wing of the Palace of the Parliament, was opened in 2004 and contains Romanian and international contemporary art. The MNAC also manages the Kalinderu MediaLab, which caters to multimedia and experimental art. Private art galleries are scattered throughout the city centre.",
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"plaintext": "The palace of the National Bank of Romania houses the national numismatic collection. Exhibits include banknotes, coins, documents, photographs, maps, silver and gold bullion bars, bullion coins, and dies and moulds. The building was constructed between 1884 and 1890. The thesaurus room contains notable marble decorations.",
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"plaintext": "Performing arts are some of the strongest cultural elements of Bucharest. The most famous symphony orchestra is National Radio Orchestra of Romania. One of the most prominent buildings is the neoclassical Romanian Athenaeum, which was founded in 1852, and hosts classical music concerts, the George Enescu Festival, and is home to the George Enescu Philharmonic Orchestra.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is home to the Romanian National Opera and the I.L. Caragiale National Theatre. Another well-known theatre in Bucharest is the State Jewish Theatre, which features plays starring world-renowned Romanian-Jewish actress Maia Morgenstern. Smaller theatres throughout the city cater to specific genres, such as the Comedy Theatre, the Nottara Theatre, the Bulandra Theatre, the Odeon Theatre, and the revue theatre of Constantin Tănase.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is home to Romania's largest recording labels, and is often the residence of Romanian musicians. Romanian rock bands of the 1970s and 1980s, such as Iris and Holograf, continue to be popular, particularly with the middle-aged, while since the beginning of the 1990s, the hip hop/rap scene has developed. Hip-hop bands and artists from Bucharest such as B.U.G. Mafia, Paraziții, and La Familia enjoy national and international recognition.",
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"plaintext": "The pop-rock band Taxi have been gaining international respect, as has Spitalul de Urgență's raucous updating of traditional Romanian music. While many neighbourhood discos play manele, an Oriental- and Roma-influenced genre of music that is particularly popular in Bucharest's working-class districts, the city has a rich jazz and blues scene, and to an even larger extent, house music/trance and heavy metal/punk scenes. Bucharest's jazz profile has especially risen since 2002, with the presence of two venues, Green Hours and Art Jazz, as well as an American presence alongside established Romanians.",
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"plaintext": "With no central nightlife strip, entertainment venues are dispersed throughout the city, with clusters in Lipscani and Regie.",
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"plaintext": "A number of cultural festivals are held in Bucharest throughout the year, but most festivals take place in June, July, and August. The National Opera organises the International Opera Festival every year in May and June, which includes ensembles and orchestras from all over the world.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian Athaeneum Society hosts the George Enescu Festival at locations throughout the city in September every two years (odd years). The Museum of the Romanian Peasant and the Village Museum organise events throughout the year, showcasing Romanian folk arts and crafts.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2000s, due to the growing prominence of the Chinese community in Bucharest, Chinese cultural events took place. The first officially organised Chinese festival was the Chinese New Year's Eve Festival of February 2005, which took place in Nichita Stănescu Park and was organised by the Bucharest City Hall.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Bucharest was the first city in Southeastern Europe to host the international CowParade, which resulted in dozens of decorated cow sculptures being placed across the city.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, Bucharest imposed in the circle of important festivals in Eastern Europe with the Bucharest International Film Festival, an event widely acknowledged in Europe, having as guests of honour famous names from the world cinema: Andrei Konchalovsky, Danis Tanović, Nikita Mikhalkov, Rutger Hauer, Jerzy Skolimowski, Jan Harlan, Radu Mihăileanu, and many others.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2005, Bucharest has its own contemporary art biennale, the Bucharest Biennale.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional Romanian culture continues to have a major influence in arts such as theatre, film, and music. Bucharest has two internationally renowned ethnographic museums, the Museum of the Romanian Peasant and the open-air Dimitrie Gusti National Village Museum, in King Michael I Park. It contains 272 authentic buildings and peasant farms from all over Romania.",
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"plaintext": "The Museum of the Romanian Peasant was declared the European Museum of the Year in 1996. Patronised by the Ministry of Culture, the museum preserves and exhibits numerous collections of objects and monuments of material and spiritual culture. The Museum of the Romanian Peasant holds one of the richest collections of peasant objects in Romania, its heritage being nearly 90,000 pieces, those being divided into several collections: ceramics, costumes, textiles, wooden objects, religious objects, customs, etc.",
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"plaintext": "The Museum of Romanian History is another important museum in Bucharest, containing a collection of artefacts detailing Romanian history and culture from the prehistoric times, Dacian era, medieval times, and the modern era.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is the seat of the Patriarch of the Romanian Orthodox Church, one of the Eastern Orthodox churches in communion with the Patriarch of Constantinople, and also of its subdivisions, the Metropolis of Muntenia and Dobrudja and the Archbishopric of Bucharest. Orthodox believers consider Demetrius of Basarabov to be the patron saint of the city.",
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"plaintext": "The city is a centre for other Christian organizations in Romania, including the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bucharest, established in 1883, and the Romanian Greek-Catholic Eparchy of Saint Basil the Great, founded in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest also hosts six synagogues, including the Choral Temple of Bucharest, the Great Synagogue of Bucharest and the Holy Union Temple. The latter was converted into the Museum of the History of the Romanian Jewish Community, while the Great Synagogue and the Choral Temple are both active and hold regular services.",
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"plaintext": "A mosque with a capacity for 2,000 people was in the planning stages at 22–30 Expoziției Boulevard. The project was later abandoned.",
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"plaintext": "The city centre is a mixture of medieval, neoclassical, Art Deco, and Art Nouveau buildings, as well as 'neo-Romanian' buildings dating from the beginning of the 20th century and a collection of modern buildings from the 1920s and 1930s. The mostly utilitarian Communist-era architecture dominates most southern boroughs. Recently built contemporary structures such as skyscrapers and office buildings complete the landscape.",
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"plaintext": "Of the city's medieval architecture, most of what survived into modern times was destroyed by Communist systematization, fire, and military incursions. Some medieval and renaissance edifices remain, the most notable are in the Lipscani area. This precinct contains notable buildings such as Manuc's Inn (Hanul lui Manuc) and the ruins of the Old Court (Curtea Veche); during the late Middle Ages, this area was the heart of commerce in Bucharest. From the 1970s onwards, the area went through urban decline, and many historical buildings fell into disrepair. In 2005, the Lipscani area was restored.",
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"plaintext": "To execute a massive redevelopment project during the rule of Nicolae Ceausescu, the government conducted extensive demolition of churches and many other historic structures in Romania. According to Alexandru Budişteanu, former chief architect of Bucharest, 'The sight of a church bothered Ceauşescu. It didn't matter if they demolished or moved it, as long as it was no longer in sight'. Nevertheless, a project organised by Romanian engineer Eugeniu Iordǎchescu was able to move many historic structures to less-prominent sites and save them.",
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"plaintext": "The city centre has retained architecture from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly the interwar period, which is often seen as the 'golden age' of Bucharest architecture. During this time, the city grew in size and wealth, therefore seeking to emulate other large European capitals such as Paris. Much of the architecture of the time belongs to a Modern (rationalist) Architecture current, led by Horia Creangă and Marcel Iancu.",
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"plaintext": "In Romania, the tendencies of innovation in the architectural language met the need of valorisation and affirmation of the national cultural identity. The Art Nouveau movement finds expression through new architectural style initiated by Ion Mincu and taken over by other prestigious architects who capitalise important references of Romanian laic and medieval ecclesiastical architecture (for example the Mogoșoaia Palace, the Stavropoleos Church or the disappeared church of Văcărești Monastery) and Romanian folk motifs.",
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"plaintext": "Two buildings from this time are the Crețulescu Palace, housing cultural institutions including UNESCO's European Centre for Higher Education, and the Cotroceni Palace, the residence of the Romanian President. Many large-scale constructions such as the Gara de Nord, the busiest railway station in the city, National Bank of Romania's headquarters, and the Telephone Palace date from these times. In the 2000s, historic buildings in the city centre underwent restoration. In some residential areas of the city, particularly in high-income central and northern districts, turn-of-the-20th-century villas were mostly restored beginning in the late 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "A major part of Bucharest's architecture is made up of buildings constructed during the Communist era replacing the historical architecture with high-density apartment blocks – significant portions of the historic centre of Bucharest were demolished to construct one of the largest buildings in the world, the Palace of the Parliament (then officially called the House of the Republic). In Nicolae Ceaușescu's project of systematization, new buildings were built in previously historical areas, which were razed and then built upon.",
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"plaintext": "One of the singular examples of this type of architecture is Centrul Civic, a development that replaced a major part of Bucharest's historic city centre with giant utilitarian buildings, mainly with marble or travertine façades, inspired by North Korean architecture. The mass demolitions that occurred in the 1980s, under which an overall area of eight square kilometres of the historic centre of Bucharest were levelled, including monasteries, churches, synagogues, a hospital, and a noted Art Deco sports stadium, changed drastically the appearance of the city.",
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"plaintext": "Communist-era architecture can also be found in Bucharest's residential districts, mainly in blocuri, which are high-density apartment blocks that house the majority of the city's population. Initially, these apartment blocks started to be constructed in the 1960s, on relatively empty areas and fields (good examples include Pajura, Drumul Taberei, Berceni and Titan), however with the 1970s, they mostly targeted peripheral neighbourhoods such as Colentina, Pantelimon, Militari and Rahova. Construction of these apartment blocks were also often randomised, for instance some small streets were demolished and later widened with the blocks being built next to them, but other neighbouring streets were left intact (like in the example of Calea Moșilor from 1978 to 1982), or built in various patterns such as the Piața Iancului-Lizeanu apartment buildings from 1962 to 1963.",
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"plaintext": "There is also communist architecture that was built in the early years of the system, in the late 1940s and 1950s. Buildings constructed in this era followed the Soviet Stalinist trend of Socialist Realism, and include the House of the Free Press (which was named Casa Scînteii during communism).",
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"plaintext": "Since the fall of Communism in 1989, several Communist-era buildings have been refurbished, modernised, and used for other purposes. Perhaps the best example of this is the conversion of obsolete retail complexes into shopping malls and commercial centres. These giant, circular halls, which were unofficially called hunger circuses due to the food shortages experienced in the 1980s, were constructed during the Ceaușescu era to act as produce markets and refectories, although most were left unfinished at the time of the revolution.",
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"plaintext": "Modern shopping malls such as the Unirea Shopping Centre, Bucharest Mall, Plaza Romania, and City Mall emerged on pre-existent structures of former hunger circuses. Another example is the conversion of a large utilitarian construction in Centrul Civic into a Marriott Hotel. This process was accelerated after 2000, when the city underwent a property boom, and many Communist-era buildings in the city centre became prime real estate due to their location. Many Communist-era apartment blocks have also been refurbished to improve urban appearance.",
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"plaintext": "The newest contribution to Bucharest's architecture took place after the fall of Communism, particularly after 2000, when the city went through a period of urban renewaland architectural revitalizationon the back of Romania's economic growth. Buildings from this time are mostly made of glass and steel, and often have more than 10 stories. Examples include shopping malls (particularly the Bucharest Mall, a conversion and extension of an abandoned building), office buildings, bank headquarters, etc. ",
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"plaintext": "During the last ten years, several high rise office buildings were built, particularly in the northern and eastern parts of the city. Additionally, a trend to add modern wings and façades to historic buildings has occurred, the most prominent example of which is the Bucharest Architects' Association Building, which is a modern glass-and-steel construction built inside a historic stone façade. In 2013, the Bucharest skyline enriched with a 137-m-high office building (SkyTower of Floreasca City Centre), the tallest building in Romania. Examples of modern skyscrapers built in the 21st century include Bucharest Tower Centre, Euro Tower, Nusco Tower, Cathedral Plaza, City Gate Towers, Rin Grand Hotel, Premium Plaza,",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest Corporate Centre, Millennium Business Centre, PGV Tower, Charles de Gaulle Plaza, Business Development Centre Bucharest, BRD Tower, and Bucharest Financial Plaza. Despite this vertical development, Romanian architects avoid designing very tall buildings due to vulnerability to earthquakes.",
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"plaintext": "Aside from buildings used for business and institutions, residential developments have also been built, many of which consist of high-rise office buildings and suburban residential communities. An example of a new high rise residential complex is Asmita Gardens. These developments are increasingly prominent in northern Bucharest, which is less densely populated and is home to middle- and upper-class Bucharesters due to the process of gentrification.",
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"plaintext": "Overall, 159 faculties are in 34 universities. Sixteen public universities are in Bucharest, the largest of which are the University of Bucharest, the Politehnica University of Bucharest, the Bucharest University of Economic Studies, the Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Technical University of Civil Engineering, the National University of Political Studies and Public Administration and the University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest.",
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"plaintext": "These are supplemented by nineteen private universities, such as the Romanian-American University. Private universities, however, have a mixed reputation due to irregularities.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2020 QS World University Rankings, from Bucharest, only the University of Bucharest was included in the top universities of the world. The Politehnica University disappeared from the ranking. Also, in recent years, the city has had increasing numbers of foreign students enrolling in its universities.",
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"plaintext": "The first modern educational institution was the Princely Academy from Bucharest, founded in 1694 and divided in 1864 to form the present-day University of Bucharest and the Saint Sava National College, both of which are among the most prestigious of their kind in Romania.",
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"plaintext": "Over 450 public primary and secondary schools are in the city, all of which are administered by the Bucharest Municipal Schooling Inspectorate. Each sector also has its own Schooling Inspectorate, subordinated to the municipal one.",
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"plaintext": "The city is well-served by a modern landline and mobile network. Offices of Poșta Română, the national postal operator, are spread throughout the city, with the central post office () located at 12 Matei Millo Street. Public telephones are located in many places and are operated by Telekom Romania, a subsidiary of Deutsche Telekom and successor of the former monopoly Romtelecom.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest is headquarters of most of the national television networks and national newspapers, radio stations and online news websites. The largest daily newspapers in Bucharest include Evenimentul Zilei, Jurnalul Național, Cotidianul, România Liberă, and Adevărul, while the biggest news websites are HotNews (with English and Spanish versions), Ziare.com, and Gândul. During the rush hours, tabloid newspapers Click!, Libertatea, and Cancan are popular for commuters.",
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"plaintext": "A number of newspapers and media publications are based in House of the Free Press (), a landmark of northern Bucharest, originally named Casa Scânteii after the Communist Romania-era official newspaper Scînteia. The House of the Free Press is not the only Bucharest landmark that grew out of the media and communications industry. Palatul Telefoanelor ('The Telephone Palace') was the first major modernist building on Calea Victoriei in the city's centre, and the massive, unfinished communist-era Casa Radio looms over a park a block away from the Opera.",
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"plaintext": "English-language newspapers first became available in the early 1930s and reappeared in the 1990s. The two daily English-language newspapers are the Bucharest Daily News and Nine O' Clock; several magazines and publications in other languages are available, such as the Hungarian-language daily Új Magyar Szó.",
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"plaintext": "Observator Cultural covers the city's arts, and the free weekly magazines Șapte Seri ('Seven Evenings') and B24FUN, list entertainment events. The city is home to the intellectual journal Dilema veche and the satire magazine Academia Cațavencu.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most modern hospitals in the capital is Colțea that has been re-equipped after a 90-million-euro investment in 2011. It specialises in oncological and cardiac disorders. It was built by Mihai Cantacuzino between 1701 and 1703, composed of many buildings, each with 12 to 30 beds, a church, three chapels, a school, and doctors' and teachers' houses.",
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"plaintext": "Another conventional hospital is Pantelimon, which was established in 1733 by Grigore II Ghica. The surface area of the hospital land property was . The hospital had in its inventory a house for infectious diseases and a house for persons with disabilities.",
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"plaintext": "Other hospitals or clinics are Bucharest Emergency Hospital, Floreasca Emergency Clinic Hospital, Bucharest University Emergency Hospital, and Fundeni Clinical Institute or Biomedica International and Euroclinic, which are private.",
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"plaintext": "Football is the most widely followed sport in Bucharest, with the city having numerous club teams, including, most notably, Steaua București, Dinamo București, and Rapid București.",
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"plaintext": "Arena Națională, a new stadium inaugurated on 6 September 2011, hosted the 2012 Europa League Final and has a 55,600-seat capacity, making it one of the largest stadiums in Southeastern Europe and one of the few with a roof.",
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"plaintext": "Sport clubs have formed for handball, water polo, volleyball, rugby union, basketball and ice hockey. The majority of Romanian track and field athletes and most gymnasts are affiliated with clubs in Bucharest. The largest indoor arena in Bucharest is the Romexpo Dome with a seating capacity of 40,000. It can be used for boxing, kickboxing, handball and tennis.",
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"plaintext": "Bucharest hosted annual races along a temporary urban track surrounding the Palace of the Parliament, called Bucharest Ring. The Bucharest City Challenge race hosted FIA GT, FIA GT3, British F3, and Logan Cup races. Since 2009, Bucharest has the largest Ferrari Shop in Eastern Europe and the 2nd largest in Europe after Milan shop.",
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"plaintext": "Nuclear warfare, also known as atomic warfare, is a theoretical military conflict or prepared political strategy that deploys nuclear weaponry. Nuclear weapons are weapons of mass destruction; in contrast to conventional warfare, nuclear warfare can produce destruction in a much shorter time and can have a long-lasting radiological result. A major nuclear exchange would likely have long-term effects, primarily from the fallout released, and could also lead to a \"nuclear winter\" that could last for decades, centuries, or even millennia after the initial attack. Some analysts dismiss the nuclear winter hypothesis, and calculate that even with nuclear weapon stockpiles at Cold War highs, although there would be billions of casualties, billions more people living in rural areas would nevertheless survive. However, others have argued that secondary effects of a nuclear holocaust, such as nuclear famine and societal collapse, would cause almost every human on Earth to starve to death.",
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"plaintext": "To date, the only use of nuclear weapons in armed conflict occurred in 1945 with the American atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. On August 6, 1945, a uranium gun-type device (code name \"Little Boy\") was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium implosion-type device (code name \"Fat Man\") was detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki. Together, these two bombings resulted in the deaths of approximately 200,000 people and contributed to the surrender of Japan.",
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"plaintext": "After World War II, nuclear weapons were also developed by the Soviet Union (1949), the United Kingdom (1952), France (1960), and the People's Republic of China (1964), which contributed to the state of conflict and extreme tension that became known as the Cold War. In 1974, India, and in 1998, Pakistan, two countries that were openly hostile toward each other, developed nuclear weapons. Israel (1960s) and North Korea (2006) are also thought to have developed stocks of nuclear weapons, though it is not known how many. The Israeli government has never admitted nor denied having nuclear weapons, although it is known to have constructed the reactor and reprocessing plant necessary for building nuclear weapons. South Africa also manufactured several complete nuclear weapons in the 1980s, but subsequently became the first country to voluntarily destroy their domestically made weapons stocks and abandon further production (1990s). Nuclear weapons have been detonated on over 2,000 occasions for testing purposes and demonstrations.",
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"plaintext": "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the resultant end of the Cold War, the threat of a major nuclear war between the two nuclear superpowers was generally thought to have declined. Since then, concern over nuclear weapons has shifted to the prevention of localized nuclear conflicts resulting from nuclear proliferation, and the threat of nuclear terrorism.",
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"plaintext": "The possibility of using nuclear weapons in war is usually divided into two subgroups, each with different effects and potentially fought with different types of nuclear armaments.",
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"plaintext": "The first, a limited nuclear war (sometimes attack or exchange), refers to the controlled use of nuclear weapons, whereby the implicit threat exists that a nations can still escalate their use of nuclear weapons. For example, using a small number of nuclear weapons against military could be escalated through increasing the number of weapons used, or escalated through the selection of different targets. Limited attacks are thought to be a more credible response against attacks that do not justify all-out retaliation, such as an enemy's limited use of nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": "The second, a full-scale nuclear war, could consist of large numbers of nuclear weapons used in an attack aimed at an entire country, including military, economic, and civilian targets. Such an attack would almost certainly destroy the entire economic, social, and military infrastructure of the target nation, and would likely have a devastating effect on Earth's biosphere.",
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"plaintext": "Some Cold War strategists such as Henry Kissinger argued that a limited nuclear war could be possible between two heavily armed superpowers (such as the United States and the Soviet Union). Some predict, however, that a limited war could potentially \"escalate\" into a full-scale nuclear war. Others have called limited nuclear war \"global nuclear holocaust in slow motion\", arguing that—once such a war took place—others would be sure to follow over a period of decades, effectively rendering the planet uninhabitable in the same way that a \"full-scale nuclear war\" between superpowers would, only taking a much longer (and arguably more agonizing) path to the same result.",
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"plaintext": "Even the most optimistic predictions of the effects of a major nuclear exchange foresee the death of many millions of victims within a very short period of time. Such predictions usually include the breakdown of institutions, government, professional and commercial, vital to the continuation of civilization. The resulting loss of vital affordances (food, water and electricity production and distribution, medical and information services, etc.) would account for millions more deaths. More pessimistic predictions argue that a full-scale nuclear war could potentially bring about the extinction of the human race, or at least its near extinction, with only a relatively small number of survivors (mainly in remote areas) and a reduced quality of life and life expectancy for centuries afterward. However, such predictions, assuming total war with nuclear arsenals at Cold War highs, have not been without criticism. Such a horrific catastrophe as global nuclear warfare would almost certainly cause permanent damage to most complex life on the planet, its ecosystems, and the global climate.",
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"plaintext": "A study presented at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in December 2006 asserted that even a small-scale regional nuclear war could produce as many direct fatalities as all of World War II and disrupt the global climate for a decade or more. In a regional nuclear conflict scenario in which two opposing nations in the subtropics each used 50 Hiroshima-sized nuclear weapons (c. 15 kiloton each) on major population centers, the researchers predicted fatalities ranging from 2.6million to 16.7million per country. The authors of the study estimated that as much as five million tons of soot could be released, producing a cooling of several degrees over large areas of North America and Eurasia (including most of the grain-growing regions). The cooling would last for years and could be \"catastrophic\", according to the researchers.",
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"plaintext": "Either a limited or full-scale nuclear exchange could occur during an accidental nuclear war, in which the use of nuclear weapons is triggered unintentionally. Postulated triggers for this scenario have included malfunctioning early warning devices and/or targeting computers, deliberate malfeasance by rogue military commanders, consequences of an accidental straying of warplanes into enemy airspace, reactions to unannounced missile tests during tense diplomatic periods, reactions to military exercises, mistranslated or miscommunicated messages, and others. A number of these scenarios actually occurred during the Cold War, though none resulted in the use of nuclear weapons. Many such scenarios have been depicted in popular culture, such as in the 1959 film On the Beach, the 1962 novel Fail-Safe (released as a film in 1964); the film How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, also released in 1964; the film WarGames, released in 1983.",
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"plaintext": "During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the United States conducted atomic raids on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the first on August 6, 1945, and the second on August 9, 1945. These two events were the only times nuclear weapons have been used in combat.",
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"plaintext": "For six months before the atomic bombings, the U.S. 20th Air Force under General Curtis LeMay executed low-level incendiary raids against Japanese cities. The worst air raid to occur during the process was not the nuclear attacks, but the Operation Meetinghouse raid on Tokyo. On the night of March 9–10, 1945, Operation Meetinghouse commenced and 334 Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers took off to raid, with 279 of them dropping 1,665 tons of incendiaries and explosives on Tokyo. The bombing was meant to burn wooden buildings and indeed the bombing caused fire that created a 50m/s wind, which is comparable to tornadoes. Each bomber carried 6 tons of bombs. A total of 381,300 bombs, which amount to 1,783 tons of bombs, were used in the bombing. Within a few hours of the raid, it had killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night — the deadliest bombing raid in military aviation history other than the atomic raids on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By early August 1945, an estimated 450,000 people had died as the U.S. had intensely firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities.",
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"plaintext": "In late June 1945, as the U.S. wrapped up the two-and-a-half-month Battle of Okinawa (which cost the lives of 260,000 people, including 150,000 civilians), it was faced with the prospect of invading the Japanese home islands in an operation codenamed Operation Downfall. Based on the U.S. casualties from the preceding island-hopping campaigns, American commanders estimated that between 50,000 and 500,000 U.S. troops would die and at least 600,000–1,000,000 others would be injured while invading the Japanese home islands. The U.S. manufacture of 500,000 Purple Hearts from the anticipated high level of casualties during the U.S. invasion of Japan gave a demonstration of how deadly and costly it would be. President Harry S. Truman realized he could not afford such a horrendous casualty rate, especially since over 400,000 American combatants had already died fighting in both the European and the Pacific theaters of the war.",
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"plaintext": "On July 26, 1945, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Republic of China issued a Potsdam Declaration that called for the unconditional surrender of Japan. It stated that if Japan did not surrender, it would face \"prompt and utter destruction\". The Japanese government ignored this ultimatum, sending a message that they were not going to surrender. In response to the rejection, President Truman authorized the dropping of the atomic bombs. At the time of its use, there were only two atomic bombs available, and despite the fact that more were in production back in mainland U.S., the third bomb wouldn't be available for combat until September.",
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"plaintext": "On August 6, 1945, the uranium-type nuclear weapon codenamed \"Little Boy\" was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima with an energy of about , destroying nearly 50,000 buildings (including the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division) and killing approximately 70,000 people, including 20,000 Japanese combatants and 20,000 Korean slave laborers. Three days later, on August 9, a plutonium-type nuclear weapon codenamed \"Fat Man\" was used against the Japanese city of Nagasaki, with the explosion equivalent to about , destroying 60% of the city and killing approximately 35,000 people, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese munitions workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese combatants. The industrial damage in Nagasaki was high, partly owing to the inadvertent targeting of the industrial zone, leaving 68–80 percent of the non-dock industrial production destroyed.",
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"plaintext": "Six days after the detonation over Nagasaki, Japan announced its surrender to the Allied Powers on August 15, 1945, signing the Instrument of Surrender on September 2, 1945, officially ending the Pacific War and, therefore, World War II, as Germany had already signed its Instrument of Surrender on May 8, 1945, ending the war in Europe. The two atomic bombings led, in part, to post-war Japan's adopting of the Three Non-Nuclear Principles, which forbade the nation from developing nuclear armaments.",
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"plaintext": "After the successful Trinity nuclear test July 16, 1945, which was the very first nuclear detonation, the Manhattan project lead manager J. Robert Oppenheimer recalled:",
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"plaintext": "Immediately after the atomic bombings of Japan, the status of atomic weapons in international and military relations was unclear. Presumably, the United States hoped atomic weapons could offset the Soviet Union's larger conventional ground forces in Eastern Europe, and possibly be used to pressure Soviet leader Joseph Stalin into making concessions. Under Stalin, the Soviet Union pursued its own atomic capabilities through a combination of scientific research and espionage directed against the American program. The Soviets believed that the Americans, with their limited nuclear arsenal, were unlikely to engage in any new world wars, while the Americans were not confident they could prevent a Soviet takeover of Europe, despite their atomic advantage.",
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"plaintext": "Within the United States, the authority to produce and develop nuclear weapons was removed from military control and put instead under the civilian control of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. This decision reflected an understanding that nuclear weapons had unique risks and benefits that were separate from other military technology known at the time.",
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"plaintext": "For several years after World War II, the United States developed and maintained a strategic force based on the Convair B-36 bomber that would be able to attack any potential enemy from bomber bases in the United States. It deployed atomic bombs around the world for potential use in conflicts. Over a period of a few years, many in the American defense community became increasingly convinced of the invincibility of the United States to a nuclear attack. Indeed, it became generally believed that the threat of nuclear war would deter any strike against the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Many proposals were suggested to put all American nuclear weapons under international control (by the newly formed United Nations, for example) as an effort to deter both their usage and an arms race. However, no terms could be arrived at that would be agreed upon by both the United States and the Soviet Union.",
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"plaintext": "On August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first nuclear weapon at Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan (see also Soviet atomic bomb project). Scientists in the United States from the Manhattan Project had warned that, in time, the Soviet Union would certainly develop nuclear capabilities of its own. Nevertheless, the effect upon military thinking and planning in the United States was dramatic, primarily because American military strategists had not anticipated the Soviets would \"catch up\" so soon. However, at this time, they had not discovered that the Soviets had conducted significant nuclear espionage of the project from spies at Los Alamos National Laboratory, the most significant of which was done by the theoretical physicist Klaus Fuchs. The first Soviet bomb was more or less a deliberate copy of the Fat Man plutonium device. In the same year the first US-Soviet nuclear war plan was penned in the US with Operation Dropshot.",
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"plaintext": "With the monopoly over nuclear technology broken, worldwide nuclear proliferation accelerated. The United Kingdom tested its first independent atomic bomb in 1952, followed by France developing its first atomic bomb in 1960 and then China developing its first atomic bomb in 1964. While much smaller than the arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union, Western Europe's nuclear reserves were nevertheless a significant factor in strategic planning during the Cold War. A top-secret White paper, compiled by the Royal Air Force and produced for the British Government in 1959, estimated that British V bombers carrying nuclear weapons were capable of destroying key cities and military targets in the Soviet Union, with an estimated 16million deaths in the Soviet Union (half of whom were estimated to be killed on impact and the rest fatally injured) before bomber aircraft from the U.S. Strategic Air Command reached their targets.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Soviet Union had nuclear weapon capabilities at the beginning of the Cold War, the United States still had an advantage in terms of bombers and weapons. In any exchange of hostilities, the United States would have been capable of bombing the Soviet Union, whereas the Soviet Union would have more difficulty carrying out the reverse mission.",
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"plaintext": "The widespread introduction of jet-powered interceptor aircraft upset this imbalance somewhat by reducing the effectiveness of the American bomber fleet. In 1949 Curtis LeMay was placed in command of the Strategic Air Command and instituted a program to update the bomber fleet to one that was all-jet. During the early 1950s the B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress were introduced, providing the ability to bomb the Soviet Union more easily. Before the development of a capable strategic missile force in the Soviet Union, much of the war-fighting doctrine held by western nations revolved around using a large number of smaller nuclear weapons in a tactical role. It is debatable whether such use could be considered \"limited\" however, because it was believed that the United States would use its own strategic weapons (mainly bombers at the time) should the Soviet Union deploy any kind of nuclear weapon against civilian targets. Douglas MacArthur, an American general, was fired by President Harry Truman, partially because he persistently requested permission to use his own discretion in deciding whether to utilize atomic weapons on the People's Republic of China in 1951 during the Korean War. Mao Zedong, China's communist leader, gave the impression that he would welcome a nuclear war with the capitalists because it would annihilate what he viewed as their \"imperialist\" system.",
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"plaintext": "The concept of a \"Fortress North America\" emerged during the Second World War and persisted into the Cold War to refer to the option of defending Canada and the United States against their enemies if the rest of the world were lost to them. This option was rejected with the formation of NATO and the decision to permanently station troops in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In the summer of 1951, Project Vista started, in which project analysts such as Robert F. Christy looked at how to defend Western Europe from a Soviet invasion. The emerging development of tactical nuclear weapons was looked upon as a means to give Western forces a qualitative advantage over the Soviet numerical supremacy in conventional weapons.",
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"plaintext": "Several scares about the increasing ability of the Soviet Union's strategic bomber forces surfaced during the 1950s. The defensive response by the United States was to deploy a fairly strong \"layered defense\" consisting of interceptor aircraft and anti-aircraft missiles, like the Nike, and guns, like the M51 Skysweeper, near larger cities. However, this was a small response compared to the construction of a huge fleet of nuclear bombers. The principal nuclear strategy was to massively penetrate the Soviet Union. Because such a large area could not be defended against this overwhelming attack in any credible way, the Soviet Union would lose any exchange.",
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"plaintext": "This logic became ingrained in American nuclear doctrine and persisted for much of the duration of the Cold War. As long as the strategic American nuclear forces could overwhelm their Soviet counterparts, a Soviet pre-emptive strike could be averted. Moreover, the Soviet Union could not afford to build any reasonable counterforce, as the economic output of the United States was far larger than that of the Soviets, and they would be unable to achieve \"nuclear parity\".",
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"plaintext": "Soviet nuclear doctrine, however, did not match American nuclear doctrine. Soviet military planners assumed they could win a nuclear war. Therefore, they expected a large-scale nuclear exchange, followed by a \"conventional war\" which itself would involve heavy use of tactical nuclear weapons. American doctrine rather assumed that Soviet doctrine was similar, with the mutual in mutually assured destruction necessarily requiring that the other side see things in much the same way, rather than believing—as the Soviets did—that they could fight a large-scale, \"combined nuclear and conventional\" war.",
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"plaintext": "In accordance with their doctrine, the Soviet Union conducted large-scale military exercises to explore the possibility of defensive and offensive warfare during a nuclear war. The exercise, under the code name of \"Snowball\", involved the detonation of a nuclear bomb about twice as powerful as that which fell on Nagasaki and an army of approximately 45,000 soldiers on maneuvers through the hypocenter immediately after the blast. The exercise was conducted on September 14, 1954, under command of Marshal Georgy Zhukov to the north of Totskoye village in Orenburg Oblast, Russia.",
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"plaintext": "A revolution in nuclear strategic thought occurred with the introduction of the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), which the Soviet Union first successfully tested in August 1957. In order to deliver a warhead to a target, a missile was much faster and more cost-effective than a bomber, and enjoyed a higher survivability due to the enormous difficulty of interception of the ICBMs (due to their high altitude and extreme speed). The Soviet Union could now afford to achieve nuclear parity with the United States in raw numbers, although for a time, they appeared to have chosen not to.",
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"plaintext": "Photos of Soviet missile sites set off a wave of panic in the U.S. military, something the launch of Sputnik would do for the American public a few months later. Politicians, notably then-U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy suggested that a \"missile gap\" existed between the Soviet Union and the United States. The US military gave missile development programs the highest national priority, and several spy aircraft and reconnaissance satellites were designed and deployed to observe Soviet progress.",
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"plaintext": "Early ICBMs and bombers were relatively inaccurate, which led to the concept of countervalue strikes — attacks directly on the enemy population, which would theoretically lead to a collapse of the enemy's will to fight. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union invested in extensive protected civilian infrastructure, such as large \"nuclear-proof\" bunkers and non-perishable food stores. By comparison, smaller scale civil defense programs were instituted in the United States starting in the 1950s, where schools and other public buildings had basements stocked with non-perishable food supplies, canned water, first aid, and dosimeter and Geiger counter radiation-measuring devices. Many of the locations were given \"fallout shelter\" designation signs. CONELRAD radio information systems were adopted, whereby the commercial radio sector (later supplemented by the National Emergency Alarm Repeaters) would broadcast on two AM radio frequencies in the event of a Civil Defense (CD) emergency. These two frequencies, 640 and 1240kHz, were marked with small CD triangles on the tuning dial of radios of the period, as can still be seen on 1950s-vintage radios on online auction sites and museums. A few backyard fallout shelters were built by private individuals.",
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"plaintext": "Henry Kissinger's view on tactical nuclear war in his controversial 1957 book Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy was that any nuclear weapon exploded in air burst mode that was below 500 kilotons in yield and thus averting serious fallout, may be more decisive and less costly in human lives than a protracted conventional war.",
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"plaintext": "A list of targets made by the United States was released sometime during December 2015 by the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. The language used to describe targets is \"designated ground zeros\". The list was released after a request was made during 2006 by William Burr who belongs to a research group at George Washington University, and belongs to a previously top-secret 800-page document. The list is entitled \"Atomic Weapons Requirements Study for 1959\" and was produced by U.S. Strategic Air Command during the year 1956.",
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"plaintext": "In 1960, the United States developed its first Single Integrated Operational Plan, a range of targeting options, and described launch procedures and target sets against which nuclear weapons would be launched, variants of which were in use from 1961 to 2003. That year also saw the start of the Missile Defense Alarm System, an American system of 12 early-warning satellites that provided limited notice of Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile launches between 1960 and 1966. The Ballistic Missile Early Warning System was completed in 1964.",
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"plaintext": "The most powerful atomic bomb ever made, the Tsar Bomba, was tested by the Soviets on October 30, 1961. It was 50 megatons, or equal to 50 million tons of regular explosives. A complex and worrisome situation developed in 1962, in what is called the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Soviet Union placed medium-range ballistic missiles from the United States, possibly as a direct response to American Jupiter missiles placed in Turkey. After intense negotiations, the Soviets ended up removing the missiles from Cuba and decided to institute a massive weapons-building program of their own. In exchange, the United States dismantled its launch sites in Turkey, although this was done secretly and not publicly revealed for over two decades. First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev did not even reveal this part of the agreement when he came under fire by political opponents for mishandling the crisis. Communication delays during the crisis led to the establishment of the Moscow–Washington hotline to allow reliable, direct communications between the two nuclear powers.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 1960s, the number of ICBMs and warheads was so high on both sides that it was believed that both the United States and the Soviet Union were capable of completely destroying the infrastructure and a large proportion of the population of the other country. Thus, by some western game theorists, a balance of power system known as mutually assured destruction (or MAD) came into being. It was thought that no full-scale exchange between the powers would result in an outright winner, with at best one side emerging the pyrrhic victor. Thus both sides were deterred from risking the initiation of a direct confrontation, instead being forced to engage in lower-intensity proxy wars.",
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"plaintext": "During this decade the People's Republic of China began to build subterranean infrastructure such as the Underground Project 131 following the Sino-Soviet split.",
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"plaintext": "One drawback of the MAD doctrine was the possibility of a nuclear war occurring without either side intentionally striking first. Early Warning Systems (EWS) were notoriously error-prone. For example, on 78 occasions in 1979 alone, a \"missile display conference\" was called to evaluate detections that were \"potentially threatening to the North American continent\". Some of these were trivial errors and were spotted quickly, but several went to more serious levels. On September 26, 1983, Stanislav Petrov received convincing indications of an American first strike launch against the Soviet Union, but positively identified the warning as a false alarm. Though it is unclear what role Petrov's actions played in preventing a nuclear war during this incident, he has been honored by the United Nations for his actions.",
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"plaintext": "Similar incidents happened many times in the United States, due to failed computer chips, misidentifications of large flights of geese, test programs, and bureaucratic failures to notify early warning military personnel of legitimate launches of test or weather missiles. For many years, the U.S. Air Force's strategic bombers were kept airborne on a daily rotating basis \"around the clock\" (see Operation Chrome Dome), until the number and severity of accidents, the 1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash in particular, persuaded policymakers it was not worthwhile.",
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"plaintext": "Israel responded to the Arab Yom Kippur War attack on 6 October 1973 by assembling 13 nuclear weapons in a tunnel under the Negev desert when Syrian tanks were sweeping in across the Golan Heights. On 8 October 1973, Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir authorized Defense Minister Moshe Dayan to activate the 13 Israeli nuclear warheads and distribute them to Israeli air force units, with the intent that they be used if Israel began to be overrun.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 October 1973, as US President Richard Nixon was preoccupied with the Watergate scandal, Henry Kissinger ordered a DEFCON-3 alert preparing American B-52 nuclear bombers for war. Intelligence reports indicated that the USSR was preparing to defend Egypt in its Yom Kippur War with Israel. It had become apparent that if Israel had dropped nuclear weapons on Egypt or Syria, as it prepared to do, then the USSR would have retaliated against Israel, with the US then committed to providing Israeli assistance, possibly escalating to a general nuclear war.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 1970s, people in both the United States and the Soviet Union, along with the rest of the world, had been living with the concept of mutual assured destruction (MAD) for about a decade, and it became deeply ingrained into the psyche and popular culture of those countries.",
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"plaintext": "On May 18, 1974, India conducted its first nuclear test in the Pokhran test range. The name of the operation was Smiling Buddha, and India termed the test as a \"peaceful nuclear explosion.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Soviet Duga early warning over-the-horizon radar system was made operational in 1976. The extremely powerful radio transmissions needed for such a system led to much disruption of civilian shortwave broadcasts, earning it the nickname \"Russian Woodpecker\".",
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"plaintext": "The idea that any nuclear conflict would eventually escalate was a challenge for military strategists. This challenge was particularly severe for the United States and its NATO allies. It was believed (until the 1970s) that a Soviet tank offensive into Western Europe would quickly overwhelm NATO conventional forces, leading to the necessity of the West escalating to the use of tactical nuclear weapons, one of which was the W-70.",
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"plaintext": "This strategy had one major (and possibly critical) flaw, which was soon realized by military analysts but highly underplayed by the U.S. military: conventional NATO forces in the European theatre of war were far outnumbered by similar Soviet and Warsaw Pact forces, and it was assumed that in case of a major Soviet attack (commonly envisioned as the \"Red tanks rolling towards the North Sea\" scenario) that NATO—in the face of quick conventional defeat—would soon have no other choice but to resort to tactical nuclear strikes against these forces. Most analysts agreed that once the first nuclear exchange had occurred, escalation to global nuclear war would likely become inevitable. The Warsaw Pact's vision of an atomic war between NATO and Warsaw Pact forces was simulated in the top-secret exercise Seven Days to the River Rhine in 1979. The British government exercised their vision of a Soviet nuclear attack with Square Leg in early 1980.",
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"plaintext": "Large hardened nuclear weapon storage areas were built across European countries in anticipation of local US and European forces falling back as the conventional NATO defense from the Soviet Union, named REFORGER, was believed to only be capable of stalling the Soviets for a short time.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1970s and, particularly, during the early 1980s under U.S. President Ronald Reagan, the United States renewed its commitment to a more powerful military, which required a large increase in spending on U.S. military programs. These programs, which were originally part of the defense budget of U.S. President Jimmy Carter, included spending on conventional and nuclear weapons systems. Under Reagan, defensive systems like the Strategic Defense Initiative were emphasized as well.",
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"plaintext": "Another major shift in nuclear doctrine was the development and the improvement of the submarine-launched, nuclear-armed, ballistic missile, or SLBM. It was hailed by many military theorists as a weapon that would make nuclear war less likely. SLBMs—which can move with \"stealth\" (greatly lessened detectability) virtually anywhere in the world—give a nation a \"second strike\" capability (i.e., after absorbing a \"first strike\"). Before the advent of the SLBM, thinkers feared that a nation might be tempted to initiate a first strike if it felt confident that such a strike would incapacitate the nuclear arsenal of its enemy, making retaliation impossible. With the advent of SLBMs, no nation could be certain that a first strike would incapacitate its enemy's entire nuclear arsenal. To the contrary, it would have to fear a near-certain retaliatory second strike from SLBMs. Thus, a first strike was a much less feasible (or desirable) option, and a deliberately initiated nuclear war was thought to be less likely to start.",
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"plaintext": "However, it was soon realized that submarines could approach enemy coastlines undetected and decrease the warning time (the time between detection of the missile launch and the impact of the missile) from as much as half an hour to possibly under three minutes. This effect was especially significant to the United States, Britain and China, whose capitals of Washington D.C., London, and Beijing all lay within 100 miles (160km) of their coasts. Moscow was much more secure from this type of threat, due to its considerable distance from the sea. This greatly increased the credibility of a \"surprise first strike\" by one faction and (theoretically) made it possible to knock out or disrupt the chain of command of a target nation before any counterstrike could be ordered (known as a \"decapitation strike\"). It strengthened the notion that a nuclear war could possibly be \"won\", resulting not only in greatly increased tensions and increasing calls for fail-deadly control systems, but also in a dramatic increase in military spending. The submarines and their missile systems were very expensive, and one fully equipped nuclear-powered and nuclear-armed missile submarine could cost more than the entire GNP of a developing country. It was also calculated, however, that the greatest cost came in the development of both sea- and land-based anti-submarine defenses and in improving and strengthening the \"chain of command\", and as a result, military spending skyrocketed.",
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"plaintext": "South Africa developed a nuclear weapon capability during the 1970s and early 1980s. It was operational for a brief period before being dismantled in the early 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 1980 United Nations report General and Complete Disarmament: Comprehensive Study on Nuclear Weapons: Report of the Secretary-General, it was estimated that there were a total of about 40,000 nuclear warheads in existence at that time, with a potential combined explosive yield of approximately 13,000 megatons. By comparison, the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history when the volcano Mount Tambora erupted in 1815—turning 1816 into the Year Without A Summer due to the levels of global dimming sulfate aerosols and ash expelled—it exploded with a force of roughly 33 billion tons of TNT or 33,000 megatons of TNT this is about 2.2 million Hiroshima Bombs, and ejected of mostly rock/tephra, that included 120million tonnes of sulfur dioxide as an upper estimate. A larger eruption, approximately 74,000 years ago, in Mount Toba produced of tephra, forming lake Toba, and produced an estimated of sulfur dioxide. The explosive energy of the eruption may have been as high as equivalent to 20,000,000 megatons (Mt) of TNT, while the asteroid created Chicxulub impact, that is connected with the extinction of the dinosaurs corresponds to at least 70,000,000Mt of energy, which is roughly 7000 times the maximum arsenal of the US and Soviet Union.",
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"plaintext": "However, comparisons with supervolcanoes are more misleading than helpful due to the different aerosols released, the likely air burst fuzing height of nuclear weapons and the globally scattered location of these potential nuclear detonations all being in contrast to the singular and subterranean nature of a supervolcanic eruption. Moreover, assuming the entire world stockpile of weapons were grouped together, it would be difficult, due to the nuclear fratricide effect, to ensure the individual weapons would go off all at once. Nonetheless, many people believe that a full-scale nuclear war would result, through the nuclear winter effect, in the extinction of the human species, though not all analysts agree on the assumptions that underpin these nuclear winter models.",
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"plaintext": "On 26 September 1983, a Soviet early warning station under the command of Stanislav Petrov falsely detected 5 inbound intercontinental ballistic missiles from the US. Petrov correctly assessed the situation as a false alarm, and hence did not report his finding to his superiors. It is quite possible that his actions prevented \"World War III\", as the Soviet policy at that time was immediate nuclear response upon discovering inbound ballistic missiles.",
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"plaintext": "The world came unusually close to nuclear war in November 1983 when the Soviet Union thought that the NATO military exercise Able Archer 83 was a ruse or \"cover-up\" to begin a nuclear first strike. The Soviets responded by raising readiness and preparing their nuclear arsenal for immediate use. Soviet fears of an attack ceased once the exercise concluded without incident.",
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"plaintext": "Although the dissolution of the Soviet Union ended the Cold War and greatly reduced tensions between the United States and the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union's formal successor state, both countries remained in a \"nuclear stand-off\" due to the continuing presence of a very large number of deliverable nuclear warheads on both sides. Additionally, the end of the Cold War led the United States to become increasingly concerned with the development of nuclear technology by other nations outside of the former Soviet Union. In 1995, a branch of the U.S. Strategic Command produced an outline of forward-thinking strategies in the document \"Essentials of Post–Cold War Deterrence\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, a Black Brant sounding rocket launched from the Andøya Space Center caused a high alert in Russia, known as the Norwegian Rocket Incident. The Russians thought it might be a nuclear missile launched from an American submarine.",
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"plaintext": "In 1996, a Russian continuity of government facility, Kosvinsky Mountain, which is believed to be a counterpart to the US Cheyenne Mountain Complex, was completed. It was designed to resist US earth-penetrating nuclear warheads, and is believed to host the Russian Strategic Rocket Forces alternate command post, a post for the general staff built to compensate for the vulnerability of older Soviet era command posts in the Moscow region. In spite of this, the primary command posts for the Strategic Rocket Forces remains Kuntsevo in Moscow and the secondary is the Kosvinsky Mountain in the Ural Mountains. The timing of the Kosvinsky facilities completion date is regarded as one explanation for U.S. interest in a new nuclear \"bunker buster\" Earth-penetrating warhead and the declaration of the deployment of the B-61 mod 11 in 1997; Kosvinsky is protected by about 1000 feet of granite.",
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"plaintext": "As a consequence of the 9/11 attacks, American forces immediately increased their readiness to the highest level in 28 years, closing the blast doors of the NORAD's Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center for the first time due to a non-exercise event. But unlike similar increases during the Cold War, Russia immediately decided to stand down a large military exercise in the Arctic region, in order to minimize the risk of incidents, rather than following suit.",
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"plaintext": "The former chair of the United Nations disarmament committee stated that there are more than 16,000 strategic and tactical nuclear weapons ready for deployment and another 14,000 in storage, with the U.S. having nearly 7,000 ready for use and 3,000 in storage, and Russia having about 8,500 ready for use and 11,000 in storage. In addition, China is thought to possess about 400 nuclear weapons, Britain about 200, France about 350, India about 80–100, and Pakistan 100–110. North Korea is confirmed as having nuclear weapons, though it is not known how many, with most estimates between 1 and 10. Israel is also widely believed to possess usable nuclear weapons. NATO has stationed about 480 American nuclear weapons in Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, and Turkey, and several other nations are thought to be in pursuit of an arsenal of their own.",
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"plaintext": "Pakistan's nuclear policy was significantly affected by the 1965 war with India. The 1971 war and India's nuclear program played a role in Pakistan's decision to go nuclear. India and Pakistan both decided not to participate in the NPT. Pakistan's nuclear policy became fixated on India because India refused to join the NPT and remained open to nuclear weapons. Impetus by Indian actions spurred Pakistan's nuclear research. After nuclear weapons construction was started by President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's command, the chair of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Usmani quit in objection. The 1999 war between Pakistan and India occurred after both acquired nuclear weapons. It is believed by some that nuclear weapons are the reason a big war has not broken out in the subcontinent. India and Pakistan still have a risk of nuclear conflict on the issue of war over Kashmir. Nuclear capability deliverable by sea were claimed by Pakistan in 2012. The aim was to achieve a \"minimum credible deterrence\". Pakistan's nuclear program culminated in the tests at Chagai. One of the aims of Pakistan's programs is fending off potential annexation and maintaining independence.",
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"plaintext": "A key development in nuclear warfare throughout the 2000s and early 2010s is the proliferation of nuclear weapons to the developing world, with India and Pakistan both publicly testing several nuclear devices, and North Korea conducting an underground nuclear test on October 9, 2006. The U.S. Geological Survey measured a 4.2 magnitude earthquake in the area where the North Korean test is said to have occurred. A further test was announced by the North Korean government on May 25, 2009. Iran, meanwhile, has embarked on a nuclear program which, while officially for civilian purposes, has come under close scrutiny by the United Nations and many individual states.",
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"plaintext": "Recent studies undertaken by the CIA cite the enduring India-Pakistan conflict as the one \"flash point\" most likely to escalate into a nuclear war. During the Kargil War in 1999, Pakistan came close to using its nuclear weapons in case the conventional military situation underwent further deterioration. Pakistan's foreign minister had even warned that it would \"use any weapon in our arsenal\", hinting at a nuclear strike against India. The statement was condemned by the international community, with Pakistan denying it later on. This conflict remains the only war (of any sort) between two declared nuclear powers. The 2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff again stoked fears of nuclear war between the two countries. Despite these very serious and relatively recent threats, relations between India and Pakistan have been improving somewhat over the last few years. However, with the November 26, 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, tensions again worsened.",
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"plaintext": "Another potential geopolitical issue that is considered particularly worrisome by military analysts is a possible conflict between the United States and the People's Republic of China over Taiwan. Although economic forces are thought to have reduced the possibility of a military conflict, there remains concern about the increasing military buildup of China (China is rapidly increasing its naval capacity), and that any move toward Taiwan independence could potentially spin out of control.",
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"plaintext": "Israel is thought to possess somewhere between one hundred and four hundred nuclear warheads. It has been asserted that the Dolphin-class submarines which Israel received from Germany have been adapted to carry nuclear-armed Popeye cruise missiles, so as to give Israel a second strike capability. Israel has been involved in wars with its neighbors in the Middle East (and with other \"non-state actors\" in Lebanon and Palestine) on numerous prior occasions, and its small geographic size and population could mean that, in the event of future wars, the Israel Defense Forces might have very little time to react to an invasion or other major threat. Such a situation could escalate to nuclear warfare very quickly in some scenarios.",
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"plaintext": "On March 7, 2013, North Korea threatened the United States with a pre-emptive nuclear strike. On April 9, North Korea urged foreigners to leave South Korea, stating that both countries were on the verge of nuclear war. On April 12, North Korea stated that a nuclear war was unavoidable. The country declared Japan as its first target.",
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"plaintext": "In 2014, when Russia-United States and Russia-NATO relations worsened over the Russo-Ukrainian War, the Russian state-owned television channel Russia 1 stated that \"Russia is the only country in the world that is really capable of turning the USA into radioactive ash.\" U.S. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter considered proposing deployment of ground-launched cruise missiles in Europe that could pre-emptively destroy Russian weapons.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2017, North Korea warned that it might launch mid-range ballistic missiles into waters within of Guam, following an exchange of threats between the governments of North Korea and the United States. Escalating tensions between North Korea and the United States, including threats by both countries that they could use nuclear weapons against one another, prompted a heightened state of readiness in Hawaii. The perceived ballistic missile threat broadcast all over Hawaii on 13 January 2018 was a false missile alarm.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2018, the former Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev commented that U.S. withdrawal from the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is \"not the work of a great mind\" and that \"a new arms race has been announced\".",
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"plaintext": "Since 1947, the Doomsday Clock of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists has visualized how close the world is to a nuclear war. The two tied-for-lowest points for the Doomsday Clock have been in 1953, when the Clock was set to two minutes until midnight after the U.S. and the Soviet Union began testing hydrogen bombs, and in 2018, following the failure of world leaders to address tensions relating to nuclear weapons and climate change issues.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2019, more than 90% of world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2020, North Korea has stated that a nuclear attack is the only option left. Since 2020, the Doomsday Clock is the furthest it has ever been, at 100 seconds to midnight. The most recent doomsday clock advance was justified by the perceived increased danger of both nuclear warfare and climate change, intensified by government disinformation campaigns and other information warfare.",
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"plaintext": "The above examples envisage nuclear warfare at a strategic level, i.e., total war. However, nuclear powers have the ability to undertake more limited engagements.",
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"plaintext": "\"Sub-strategic use\" includes the use of either \"low-yield\" tactical nuclear weapons, or of variable yield strategic nuclear weapons in a very limited role, as compared to battlefield exchanges of larger-yield strategic nuclear weapons. This was described by the UK Parliamentary Defence Select Committee as \"the launch of one or a limited number of missiles against an adversary as a means of conveying a political message, warning or demonstration of resolve\". It is believed that all current nuclear weapons states possess tactical nuclear weapons, with the exception of the United Kingdom, which decommissioned its tactical warheads in 1998. However, the UK does possess scalable-yield strategic warheads, and this technology tends to blur the difference between \"strategic\", \"sub-strategic\", and \"tactical\" use or weapons. American, French and British nuclear submarines are believed to carry at least some missiles with dial-a-yield warheads for this purpose, potentially allowing a strike as low as one kiloton (or less) against a single target. Only the People's Republic of China and the Republic of India have declarative, unqualified, unconditional \"no first use\" nuclear weapons policies. India and Pakistan maintain only a credible minimum deterrence.",
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"plaintext": "Commodore Tim Hare, former Director of Nuclear Policy at the British Ministry of Defence, has described \"sub-strategic use\" as offering the Government \"an extra option in the escalatory process before it goes for an all-out strategic strike which would deliver unacceptable damage\". However, this sub-strategic capacity has been criticized as potentially increasing the \"acceptability\" of using nuclear weapons. Combined with the trend in the reduction in the worldwide nuclear arsenal as of 2007 is the warhead miniaturization and modernization of the remaining strategic weapons that is presently occurring in all the declared nuclear weapon states, into more \"usable\" configurations. The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute suggests that this is creating a culture where use of these weapons is more acceptable and therefore is increasing the risk of war, as these modern weapons do not possess the same psychological deterrent value as the large Cold-War era, multi-megaton warheads.",
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"plaintext": "In many ways, this present change in the balance of terror can be seen as the complete embracement of the switch from the 1950s Eisenhower doctrine of \"massive retaliation\" to one of \"flexible response\", which has been growing in importance in the US nuclear war fighting plan/SIOP every decade since.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the United States adopted a policy in 1996 of allowing the targeting of its nuclear weapons at non-state actors (\"terrorists\") armed with weapons of mass destruction.",
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"plaintext": "Another dimension to the tactical use of nuclear weapons is that of such weapons deployed at sea for use against surface and submarine vessels. Until 1992, vessels of the United States Navy (and their aircraft) deployed various such weapons as bombs, rockets (guided and unguided), torpedoes, and depth charges. Such tactical naval nuclear weapons were considered more acceptable to use early in a conflict because there would be few civilian casualties. It was feared by many planners that such use would probably quickly have escalated into a large-scale nuclear war. This situation was particularly exacerbated by the fact that such weapons at sea were not constrained by the safeguards provided by the Permissive Action Link attached to U.S. Air Force and Army nuclear weapons. It is unknown if the navies of the other nuclear powers yet today deploy tactical nuclear weapons at sea.",
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"plaintext": "The 2018 US Nuclear Posture Review emphasised the need for the US to have sub-strategic nuclear weapons as additional layers for its nuclear deterrence.",
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"plaintext": "Nuclear terrorism by non-state organizations or actors (even individuals) is a largely unknown and understudied factor in nuclear deterrence thinking, as states possessing nuclear weapons are susceptible to retaliation in kind, while sub- or trans-state actors may be less so. The collapse of the Soviet Union has given rise to the possibility that former Soviet nuclear weapons might become available on the black market (so-called 'loose nukes').",
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"plaintext": "A number of other concerns have been expressed about the security of nuclear weapons in newer nuclear powers with relatively less stable governments, such as Pakistan, but in each case, the fears have been addressed to some extent by statements and evidence provided by those nations, as well as cooperative programs between nations. Worry remains, however, in many circles that a relative decrease in the security of nuclear weapons has emerged in recent years, and that terrorists or others may attempt to exert control over (or use) nuclear weapons, militarily applicable technology, or nuclear materials and fuel.",
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"plaintext": "Another possible nuclear terrorism threat are devices designed to disperse radioactive materials over a large area using conventional explosives, called dirty bombs. The detonation of a \"dirty bomb\" would not cause a nuclear explosion, nor would it release enough radiation to kill or injure a large number of people. However, it could cause severe disruption and require potentially very costly decontamination procedures and increased spending on security measures.",
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"plaintext": "The predictions of the effects of a major countervalue nuclear exchange include millions of city dweller deaths within a short period of time. Some 1980s predictions had gone further and argued that a full-scale nuclear war could eventually bring about the extinction of the human race. Such predictions, sometimes but not always based on total war with nuclear arsenals at Cold War highs, received contemporary criticism. On the other hand, some 1980s governmental predictions, such as FEMA's CRP-2B and NATO's Carte Blanche, have received criticism from groups such as the Federation of American Scientists for being overly optimistic. CRP-2B, for instance, infamously predicted that 80% of Americans would survive a nuclear exchange with the Soviet Union, a figure that neglected nuclear war's impacts on healthcare infrastructure, the food supply, and the ecosystem and assumed that all major cities could be successfully evacuated within 3–5 days. A number of Cold War publications advocated preparations that could purportedly enable a large proportion of civilians to survive even a total nuclear war. Among the most famous of these is Nuclear War Survival Skills.",
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"plaintext": "To avoid injury and death from a nuclear weapon's heat flash and blast effects, the two most far ranging prompt effects of nuclear weapons, schoolchildren were taught to duck and cover by the early Cold War film of the same name. Such advice is once again being given in case of nuclear terrorist attacks.",
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"plaintext": "Prussian blue, or \"Radiogardase\", is stockpiled in the US, along with potassium iodide and DPTA as pharmaceuticals useful in treating internal exposure to harmful radioisotopes in fallout.",
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"plaintext": "Publications on adapting to a changing diet and supplying nutritional food sources following a nuclear war, with particular focus on agricultural radioecology, include Nutrition in the postattack environment by the RAND corporation.",
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"plaintext": "The British government developed a public alert system for use during a nuclear attack with the expectation of a four-minute warning before detonation. The United States expected a warning time of anywhere from half an hour (for land-based missiles) to less than three minutes (for submarine-based weapons). Many countries maintain plans for continuity of government following a nuclear attack or similar disasters. These range from a designated survivor, intended to ensure the survival of some form of government leadership, to the Soviet Dead Hand system, which allows for retaliation even if all Soviet leadership were destroyed. Nuclear submarines are given letters of last resort: orders on what action to take in the event that an enemy nuclear strike has destroyed the government.",
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"plaintext": "A number of other countries around the world have taken significant efforts to maximize their survival prospects in the event of large calamities, both natural and manmade. For example, metro stations in Pyongyang, North Korea, were constructed below ground, and were designed to serve as nuclear shelters in the event of war, with each station entrance built with thick steel blast doors. An example of privately funded fallout shelters is the Ark Two Shelter in Ontario, Canada, and autonomous shelters have been constructed with an emphasis on post-war networking and reconstruction.",
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"plaintext": "In Switzerland, the majority of homes have an underground blast and fallout shelter. The country has an overcapacity of such shelters and can accommodate slightly more than the nation's population size.",
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"plaintext": "While the nuclear fallout shelters described above are the ideal long term protection methods against dangerous radiation exposure in the event of a nuclear catastrophe, it is also necessary to have mobile protection equipment for medical and security personnel to safely assist in containment, evacuation, and many other necessary public safety objectives which ensue as a result of nuclear detonation. There are many basic shielding strategies used to protect against the deposition of radioactive material from external radiation environments. Respirators that protect against internal deposition are used to prevent the inhalation and ingestion of radioactive material and dermal protective equipment which is used to protect against the deposition of material on external structures like skin, hair, and clothing. While these protection strategies do slightly reduce the exposure, they provide almost no protection from externally penetrating gamma radiation, which is the cause of acute radiation syndrome and can be extremely lethal in high dosages. Naturally, shielding the entire body from high-energy gamma radiation is optimal, but the required mass to provide adequate attenuation makes functional movement nearly impossible.",
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"plaintext": "Recent scientific studies have shown the feasibility of partial body shielding as a viable protection strategy against externally penetrating gamma radiation. The concept is based in providing sufficient attenuation to only the most radio-sensitive organs and tissues in efforts to defer the onset of acute radiation syndrome, the most immediate threat to humans from high doses of gamma radiation. Acute radiation syndrome is a result of irreversible bone marrow damage from high-energy radiation exposure. Due to the regenerative property of hematopoietic stem cells found in bone marrow, it is only necessary to protect enough bone marrow to repopulate the exposed areas of the body with the shielded supply. Because 50% of the body's supply of bone marrow is stored in the pelvic region which is also in close proximity to other radio-sensitive organs in the abdomen, the lower torso is a logical choice as the primary target for protection.",
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"plaintext": "Nuclear warfare and weapons are staple elements of speculative fiction.",
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"section_name": "In fiction",
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"plaintext": " Air Force Global Strike Command",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Basic Encyclopedia",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Broken-backed war theory",
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cuban Missile Crisis",
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1,
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Doomsday Clock",
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1,
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},
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"plaintext": " Global catastrophic risk",
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21221594
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1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Human extinction",
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1528711
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1,
17
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " International Luxembourg Forum on Preventing Nuclear Catastrophe",
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"target_page_ids": [
24028155
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of CBRN warfare forces",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
63681020
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of nuclear close calls",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
50034353
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1,
28
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " List of states with nuclear weapons",
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"target_page_ids": [
400821
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mount Yamantau",
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"section_name": "See also",
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1949366
],
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1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear arms race",
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"section_name": "See also",
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585704
],
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1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear blackout",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [
50893060
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear briefcase",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5730131
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear famine",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
51974186
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear holocaust",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
17346957
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear terrorism",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
159112
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear weapon",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
21785
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear weapons and the United States",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2032576
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear weapons debate",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1917497
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuclear winter",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
22171
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " People's Liberation Army Rocket Force",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3128713
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Permissive Action Link",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
62380
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prevention of nuclear catastrophe",
"section_idx": 6,
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
34
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Transition to war",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4592301
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " World War III",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
65307
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Laura Grego and David Wright, \"Broken Shield: Missiles designed to destroy incoming nuclear warheads fail frequently in tests and could increase global risk of mass destruction\", Scientific American, vol. 320, no. no. 6 (June 2019), pp.62–67. \"Nuclear-armed missiles are a political problem that technology cannot solve.... Current U.S. missile defense plans are being driven largely by technology, politics and fear. Missile defenses will not allow us to escape our vulnerability to nuclear weapons. Instead large-scale developments will create barriers to taking real steps toward reducing nuclear risks—by blocking further cuts in nuclear arsenals and potentially spurring new deployments.\" (p.67.)",
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],
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],
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],
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589,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jessica T. Mathews, \"The New Nuclear Threat\", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 13 (20 August 2020), pp.19–21. \"[P]owerful reasons to doubt that there could be a limited nuclear war [include] those that emerge from any study of history, a knowledge of how humans act under pressure, or experience of government.\" (p.20.)",
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"plaintext": " \"Possibility of Nuclear War in Asia: An Indian Perspective\", a project of United Service Institution of India, USI, Discusses the possibility of a nuclear war in Asia from the Indian point of view.",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Powers, \"The Nuclear Worrier\" (review of Daniel Ellsberg, The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner, New York, Bloomsbury, 2017, , 420 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 1 (18 January 2018), pp.13–15.",
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"plaintext": " \"Presidency in the Nuclear Age\", conference and forum at the JFK Library, Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: \"The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It\", \"Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty\", \"The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race\", and \"Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism, and the Presidency\".",
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"plaintext": " Tom Stevenson, \"A Tiny Sun\" (review of Fred Kaplan, The Bomb: Presidents, Generals, and the Secret History of Nuclear War, Simon and Schuster, 2021, 384 pp.; and Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press, The Myth of the Nuclear Revolution: Power Politics in the Atomic Age, Cornell, 2020, 180 pp.), London Review of Books, vol. 44, no. 4 (24 February 2022), pp. 29–32. \"Nuclear strategists systematically underestimate the chances of nuclear accident... [T]here have been too many close calls for accidental use to be discounted.\" (p.32.)",
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"plaintext": " The Effects of Nuclear War (1979) — handbook produced by the United States Office of Technology Assessment (hosted by the Federation of American Scientists)",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear Attack Planning Base – 1990 (1987) — assessment of the effects of a major Soviet attack on the United States produced by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (hosted by the Federation of American Scientists)",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear War Survival Skills (1979/1987) — handbook produced by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (use menu at left to navigate)",
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"plaintext": " Ground Zero: A Javascript simulation of the effects of a nuclear explosion in a city",
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},
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"plaintext": " British RAF manual on the effects of nuclear explosions dated 1955",
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"plaintext": " 20 Mishaps That Might Have Started Accidental Nuclear War by Alan F. Philips, M.D.",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear Files.org Interactive Timeline of the Nuclear Age",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Annotated bibliography on nuclear warfare from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " DeVolpi, Alexander, Vladimir E. Minkov, Vadim A. Simonenko, and George S. Stanford. 2004. Nuclear Shadowboxing: Contemporary Threats from Cold War Weaponry, Vols. 1 and 2. Fidlar Doubleday.",
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"plaintext": " Air Weapons for the Cold War An in depth history of American air weapons and nuclear bombs from the reference book American Combat Planes of the 20th Century by Ray Wagner",
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"plaintext": " Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources",
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"plaintext": " NUKEMAP3D – a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps.",
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| 201,424 | 22,969 | 1,399 | 516 | 0 | 0 | nuclear war | conflict or strategy in which nuclear weaponry is used to inflict damage on an opponent | [
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36,882 | 1,107,329,414 | Blake_Edwards | [
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"plaintext": "Blake Edwards (born William Blake Crump; July 26, 1922 – December 15, 2010) was an American film director, producer, screenwriter and actor.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards began his career in the 1940s as an actor, but he soon began writing screenplays and radio scripts before turning to producing and directing in television and films. His best-known films include Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), Days of Wine and Roses (1962), The Great Race (1965), 10 (1979), Victor/Victoria (1982), and the hugely successful Pink Panther film series with British actor Peter Sellers. Often thought of as primarily a director of comedies, he also directed several drama, musical, and detective films. Late in his career, he took up writing, producing and directing for theater.",
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"plaintext": "Born William Blake Crump July 22, 1922, in Tulsa, Oklahoma, he was the son of Donald and Lillian (Grommett) Crump (1897–1992). His father reportedly left the family before he was born. His mother married again, to Jack McEdward, who became his stepfather. McEdward was the son of J. Gordon Edwards, a director of silent movies, and in 1925, he moved the family to Los Angeles and became a film production manager. In an interview with The Village Voice in 1971, Blake Edwards said that he had \"always felt alienated, estranged from my own father, Jack McEdward\". After graduating from Beverly Hills High School in the class of Winter 1941, Blake began taking jobs as an actor during World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards describes this period:",
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"plaintext": "I worked with the best directors – Ford, Wyler, Preminger – and learned a lot from them. But I wasn't a very cooperative actor. I was a spunky, smart-assed kid. Maybe even then I was indicating that I wanted to give, not take, direction.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards served in the United States Coast Guard during World War II, where he suffered a severe back injury, which left him in pain for years afterwards.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards's debut as a director came in 1952 on the television program Four Star Playhouse.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1954–1955 television season, Edwards joined with Richard Quine to create Mickey Rooney's first television series, The Mickey Rooney Show: Hey, Mulligan. Edwards's hard-boiled private detective scripts for Richard Diamond, Private Detective became NBC's answer to Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe, reflecting Edwards's unique humor. Edwards also created, wrote, and directed the 1958-61 TV detective series Peter Gunn, which starred Craig Stevens, with music by Henry Mancini. The following year, Edwards produced Mr. Lucky, an adventure series on CBS starring John Vivyan and Ross Martin. Mancini's association with Edwards continued in his film work, significantly contributing to their success.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards's most popular films were comedies, the melodrama Days of Wine and Roses being a notable exception. His most dynamic and successful collaboration was with Peter Sellers in six of the movies in the Pink Panther series. Edwards later directed the comedy film 10 with Dudley Moore and Bo Derek.",
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"plaintext": "Operation Petticoat was Edwards's first big-budget movie as a director. The film, which starred Cary Grant and Tony Curtis and was produced by Grant's own production company, Granart Company, became the \"greatest box-office success of the decade for Universal [Studios]\" and made Edwards a recognized director.",
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"plaintext": "Breakfast at Tiffany's, based on the novella by Truman Capote, is credited with establishing him as a \"cult figure\" with many critics. Andrew Sarris called it the \"directorial surprise of 1961\", and it became a \"romantic touchstone\" for college students in the early 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Days of Wine And Roses, a dark psychological film about the effects of alcoholism on a previously happy marriage, starred Jack Lemmon and Lee Remick. It has been described as \"perhaps the most unsparing tract against drink that Hollywood has yet produced, more pessimistic than Billy Wilder's The Lost Weekend\". The film gave another major boost to Edwards's reputation as an important director.",
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"plaintext": "Darling Lili star Julie Andrews married Edwards in 1969. Whilst some critics, such as George Morris, thought that the film was a major picture (\"it synthesizes every major Edwards theme: the disappearance of gallantry and honor, the tension between appearances and reality, and the emotional, spiritual, moral, and psychological disorder\" in such a world, not all agreed. However, Edwards used complex cinematography techniques, including long-shot zooms, tracking, and focus distortion, to great effect.\"), but the film failed badly with most critics and at the box office. Despite a cost of $17million to make, it was seen by few cinema-goers, and the few who did watch were unimpressed. It brought Paramount Pictures to \"the verge of financial collapse\", and became an example of \"self-indulgent extravagance\" in filmmaking \"that was ruining Hollywood\".",
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"plaintext": "Edwards also directed most of the comedy film series The Pink Panther, the majority of installments starring Peter Sellers as the inept Inspector Clouseau. The relationship between the director and the lead actor was considered a fruitful yet complicated one with many disagreements during production. At various times in their film relationship, \"he more than once swore off Sellers\" as too hard to direct. However, in his later years, he admitted that working with Sellers was often irresistible:",
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"plaintext": "We clicked on comedy and we were lucky we found each other because we both had so much respect for it. We also had an ability to come up with funny things and great situations that had to be explored. But in that exploration there would often times be disagreement. But I couldn't resist those moments when we gelled. And if you ask me who contributed most to those things, it couldn't have happened unless both of us were involved, even though it wasn't always happy.",
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"plaintext": "Five of those films involved Edwards and Sellers in original material; those films being The Pink Panther (1963), A Shot in the Dark (1964), The Return of the Pink Panther (1975), The Pink Panther Strikes Again (1976), and Revenge of the Pink Panther (1978). (1968's Inspector Clouseau, the third film in the series, was made without the involvement of Edwards or Sellers.) The films were all highly profitable: The Return of the Pink Panther, for example, cost just $2.5million to make but grossed $100million, while The Pink Panther Strikes Again did even better.",
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"plaintext": "After Sellers's death in 1980, Edwards directed three further Pink Panther films. Trail of the Pink Panther (1982) consisted of unused material of Sellers from The Pink Panther Strikes Again as well as previously seen material from the earlier films. Curse of the Pink Panther (1983) and Son of the Pink Panther (1993) were further attempts by Edwards to continue the series without Sellers but both films were critical and financial disappointments. Edwards eventually retired from film making two years after the release of Son of the Pink Panther.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the Pink Panther films, Edwards directed Sellers in the comedy film The Party.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, Edwards received an Honorary Academy Award for cumulative achievements over the course of his film career. As Entertainment Weekly reported, \"Honorary Oscar winner Blake Edwards made an entrance worthy of Peter Sellers in one of Edwards' Pink Panther films: A stuntman who looked just like Edwards rode a speeding wheelchair past a podium and crashed through a wall. When the octogenarian director entered and dusted himself off as if he had crashed, he told presenter Jim Carrey, 'Don’t touch my Oscar.'\"",
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"plaintext": "Also in 2004, Edwards received The Life Career Award from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films, during that year's Saturn Award ceremony.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, Edwards received the Laurel Award for Screenwriting Achievement from the Writers Guild as well as the Special Edgar from The Mystery Writers of America for career achievement.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, Edwards received the Contribution to Cinematic Imagery Award from the Art Directors Guild.",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, Edwards received the Preston Sturges Award jointly from the Directors Guild and the Writers Guild.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, Edwards received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.",
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"plaintext": "In 1988, Edwards received the Creative Achievement Award from the American Comedy Awards.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, Edwards was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Screenplay for Victor/Victoria as well as winning Best Foreign Film and Best Foreign Screenplay in France and Italy, respectively for Victor/Victoria",
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"plaintext": "Between 1962 and 1968, Edwards was nominated six times for a Golden Laurel Award as Best Director by Motion Picture Exhibitors.",
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"plaintext": "In 1963, Edwards was nominated for a Golden Globe as Best Director for Days of Wine and Roses",
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"plaintext": "In 1959, Edwards was nominated for two Primetime Emmys as Best Director and Best Teleplay for Peter Gunn",
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"plaintext": "Between 1958 and 1983, Edwards was nominated eight times for Best Screenplay by the Writers Guild and won twice, for The Pink Panther Strikes Again and Victor/Victoria",
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"plaintext": "Having grown up in Hollywood, the stepson of a studio production manager and stepgrandson of a silent-film director, Edwards had watched the films of the great silent-era comedians, including Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, and Laurel and Hardy. He and Sellers appreciated and understood the comedy styles in silent films and tried to recreate them in their work together. After their immense success with the first two Pink Panther films, The Pink Panther (1963) and A Shot in the Dark (1964), which adapted many silent-film aspects, including slapstick, they attempted to go even further in The Party (1968). The film has always had a cult following, and some critics and fans have considered it a \"masterpiece in this vein\" of silent comedy, though it did include minimal dialogue.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards married his first wife, actress Patricia Walker, in 1953; they divorced in 1967. Edwards and Walker had two children, actress Jennifer Edwards and actor-writer-director Geoffrey Edwards. Walker appeared in the comedy All Ashore (1953), for which Edwards was one of the screenwriters. Edwards also named one of his film production companies, Patricia Productions, Incorporated, after her.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards's second marriage, from 1969 until his death in 2010, was to Julie Andrews. They were married for 41 years. He was the stepfather to Emma, from Andrews's previous marriage. In the 1970s, Edwards and Andrews adopted two Vietnamese daughters; Amy Leigh (later known as Amelia) in 1974 and Joanna Lynne in 1975.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards described his struggle with the illness chronic fatigue syndrome for 15 years in the documentary I Remember Me (2000).",
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"plaintext": "On December 15, 2010, Edwards died of complications of pneumonia at the Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California, he was 88.",
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"plaintext": "Edwards was greatly admired, and criticized, as a filmmaker. His critics are alluded to by American film author George Morris:",
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"plaintext": "It has been difficult for many critics to accept Blake Edwards as anything more than a popular entertainer. Edwards' detractors acknowledge his formal skill, but deplore the absence of profundity in his movies. Edwards' movies are slick and glossy, but their shiny surfaces reflect all too accurately the disposable values of contemporary life.",
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"plaintext": "Tristan Tzara (; ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock, also known as S. Samyro; – 25 December 1963) was a Romanian and French avant-garde poet, essayist and performance artist. Also active as a journalist, playwright, literary and art critic, composer and film director, he was known best for being one of the founders and central figures of the anti-establishment Dada movement. Under the influence of Adrian Maniu, the adolescent Tzara became interested in Symbolism and co-founded the magazine Simbolul with Ion Vinea (with whom he also wrote experimental poetry) and painter Marcel Janco.",
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"plaintext": "After moving to Paris in 1919, Tzara, by then one of the \"presidents of Dada\", joined the staff of Littérature magazine, which marked the first step in the movement's evolution toward Surrealism. He was involved in the major polemics which led to Dada's split, defending his principles against André Breton and Francis Picabia, and, in Romania, against the eclectic modernism of Vinea and Janco. This personal vision on art defined his Dadaist plays The Gas Heart (1921) and Handkerchief of Clouds (1924). A forerunner of automatist techniques, Tzara eventually aligned himself with Breton's Surrealism, and under its influence wrote his celebrated utopian poem \"The Approximate Man\".",
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"plaintext": "During the final part of his career, Tzara combined his humanist and anti-fascist perspective with a communist vision, joining the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War and the French Resistance during World War II, and serving a term in the National Assembly. Having spoken in favor of liberalization in the People's Republic of Hungary just before the Revolution of 1956, he distanced himself from the French Communist Party, of which he was by then a member. In 1960, he was among the intellectuals who protested against French actions in the Algerian War.",
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"plaintext": "Tristan Tzara was an influential author and performer, whose contribution is credited with having created a connection from Cubism and Futurism to the Beat Generation, Situationism and various currents in rock music. The friend and collaborator of many modernist figures, he was the lover of dancer Maja Kruscek in his early youth and was later married to Swedish artist and poet Greta Knutson.",
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"plaintext": "S. Samyro, a partial anagram of Samy Rosenstock, was used by Tzara from his debut and throughout the early 1910s. A number of undated writings, which he probably authored as early as 1913, bear the signature Tristan Ruia, and, in summer of 1915, he was signing his pieces with the name Tristan.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, Rosenstock's collaborator and later rival Ion Vinea claimed that he was responsible for coining the Tzara part of his pseudonym in 1915. Vinea also stated that Tzara wanted to keep Tristan as his adopted first name, and that this choice had later attracted him the \"infamous pun\" Triste Âne Tzara (French for \"Sad Donkey Tzara\"). This version of events is uncertain, as manuscripts show that the writer may have already been using the full name, as well as the variations Tristan Țara and Tr. Tzara, in 1913–1914 (although there is a possibility that he was signing his texts long after committing them to paper).",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, art historian Serge Fauchereau, based on information received from Colomba, the wife of avant-garde poet Ilarie Voronca, recounted that Tzara had explained his chosen name was a pun in Romanian, trist în țară, meaning \"sad in the country\"; Colomba Voronca was also dismissing rumors that Tzara had selected Tristan as a tribute to poet Tristan Corbière or to Richard Wagner's Tristan und Isolde opera. Samy Rosenstock legally adopted his new name in 1925, after filing a request with Romania's Ministry of the Interior. The French pronunciation of his name has become commonplace in Romania, where it replaces its more natural reading as țara (\"the land\", ).",
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"plaintext": "Tzara was born in Moinești, Bacău County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia. His parents were Jewish Romanians who reportedly spoke Yiddish as their first language; his father Filip and grandfather Ilie were entrepreneurs in the forestry business. Tzara's mother was Emilia Rosenstock ( Zibalis). Owing to the Romanian Kingdom's discrimination laws, the Rosenstocks were not emancipated, and thus Tzara was not a full citizen of the country until after 1918.",
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"plaintext": "He moved to Bucharest at the age of eleven, and attended the Schemitz-Tierin boarding school. It is believed that the young Tzara completed his secondary education at a state-run high school, which is identified as the Saint Sava National College or as the Sfântul Gheorghe High School. In October 1912, when Tzara was aged sixteen, he joined his friends Vinea and Marcel Janco in editing Simbolul. Reputedly, Janco and Vinea provided the funds. Like Vinea, Tzara was also close to their young colleague Jacques G. Costin, who was later his self-declared promoter and admirer.",
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"plaintext": "Despite their young age, the three editors were able to attract collaborations from established Symbolist authors, active within Romania's own Symbolist movement. Alongside their close friend and mentor Adrian Maniu (an Imagist who had been Vinea's tutor), they included N. Davidescu, Alfred Hefter-Hidalgo, Emil Isac, Claudia Millian, Ion Minulescu, I. M. Rașcu, Eugeniu Sperantia, Al. T. Stamatiad, Eugeniu Ștefănescu-Est, and Constantin T. Stoika, as well as journalist and lawyer Poldi Chapier. In its inaugural issue, the journal even printed a poem by one of the leading figures in Romanian Symbolism, Alexandru Macedonski. Simbolul also featured illustrations by Maniu, Millian and Iosif Iser.",
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"plaintext": "Although the magazine ceased print in December 1912, it played an important part in shaping Romanian literature of the period. Literary historian Paul Cernat sees Simbolul as a main stage in Romania's modernism, and credits it with having brought about the first changes from Symbolism to the radical avant-garde. Also according to Cernat, the collaboration between Samyro, Vinea and Janco was an early instance of literature becoming \"an interface between arts\", which had for its contemporary equivalent the collaboration between Iser and writers such as Ion Minulescu and Tudor Arghezi. Although Maniu parted with the group and sought a change in style which brought him closer to traditionalist tenets, Tzara, Janco and Vinea continued their collaboration. Between 1913 and 1915, they were frequently vacationing together, either on the Black Sea coast or at the Rosenstock family property in Gârceni, Vaslui County; during this time, Vinea and Samyro wrote poems with similar themes and alluding to one another.",
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"plaintext": "Tzara's career changed course between 1914 and 1916, during a period when the Romanian Kingdom kept out of World War I. In autumn 1915, as founder and editor of the short-lived journal Chemarea, Vinea published two poems by his friend, the first printed works to bear the signature Tristan Tzara. At the time, the young poet and many of his friends were adherents of an anti-war and anti-nationalist current, which progressively accommodated anti-establishment messages. Chemarea, which was a platform for this agenda and again attracted collaborations from Chapier, may also have been financed by Tzara and Vinea. According to Romanian avant-garde writer Claude Sernet, the journal was \"totally different from everything that had been printed in Romania before that moment.\" During the period, Tzara's works were sporadically published in Hefter-Hidalgo's Versuri și Proză, and, in June 1915, Constantin Rădulescu-Motru's Noua Revistă Română published Samyro's known poem Verișoară, fată de pension (\"Little Cousin, Boarding School Girl\").",
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"plaintext": "Tzara had enrolled at the University of Bucharest in 1914, studying mathematics and philosophy, but did not graduate. In autumn 1915, he left Romania for Zürich, in neutral Switzerland. Janco, together with his brother Jules Janco, had settled there a few months before, and was later joined by his other brother, Georges Janco. Tzara, who may have applied to the Faculty of Philosophy at the local university, shared lodging with Marcel Janco, who was a student at the Technische Hochschule, in the Altinger Guest House (by 1918, Tzara had moved to the Limmatquai Hotel). His departure from Romania, like that of the Janco brothers, may have been in part a pacifist political statement. After settling in Switzerland, the young poet almost completely discarded Romanian as his language of expression, writing most of his subsequent works in French. The poems he had written before, which were the result of poetic dialogues between him and his friend, were left in Vinea's care. Most of these pieces were first printed only in the interwar period.",
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"plaintext": "It was in Zürich that the Romanian group met with the German Hugo Ball, an anarchist poet and pianist, and his young wife Emmy Hennings, a music hall performer. In February 1916, Ball had rented the Cabaret Voltaire from its owner, Jan Ephraim, and intended to use the venue for performance art and exhibits. Hugo Ball recorded this period, noting that Tzara and Marcel Janco, like Hans Arp, Arthur Segal, Otto van Rees, and Max Oppenheimer \"readily agreed to take part in the cabaret\". According to Ball, among the performances of songs mimicking or taking inspiration from various national folklores, \"Herr Tristan Tzara recited Rumanian poetry.\" In late March, Ball recounted, the group was joined by German writer and drummer Richard Huelsenbeck. He was soon after involved in Tzara's \"simultaneist verse\" performance, \"the first in Zürich and in the world\", also including renditions of poems by two promoters of Cubism, Fernand Divoire and Henri Barzun.",
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"plaintext": "It was in this milieu that Dada was born, at some point before May 1916, when a publication of the same name first saw print. The story of its establishment was the subject of a disagreement between Tzara and his fellow writers. Cernat believes that the first Dadaist performance took place as early as February, when the nineteen-year-old Tzara, wearing a monocle, entered the Cabaret Voltaire stage singing sentimental melodies and handing paper wads to his \"scandalized spectators\", leaving the stage to allow room for masked actors on stilts, and returning in clown attire. The same type of performances took place at the Zunfthaus zur Waag beginning in summer 1916, after the Cabaret Voltaire was forced to close down.",
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"plaintext": "In the first of the movement's manifestos, Ball wrote: \"[The booklet] is intended to present to the Public the activities and interests of the Cabaret Voltaire, which has as its sole purpose to draw attention, across the barriers of war and nationalism, to the few independent spirits who live for other ideals. The next objective of the artists who are assembled here is to publish a revue internationale [French for 'international magazine'].\" Ball completed his message in French, and the paragraph translates as: \"The magazine shall be published in Zürich and shall carry the name 'Dada' ('Dada'). Dada Dada Dada Dada.\" The view according to which Ball had created the movement was notably supported by writer Walter Serner, who directly accused Tzara of having abused Ball's initiative.",
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"plaintext": "A secondary point of contention between the founders of Dada regarded the paternity for the movement's name, which, according to visual artist and essayist Hans Richter, was first adopted in print in June 1916. Ball, who claimed authorship and stated that he picked the word randomly from a dictionary, indicated that it stood for both the French-language equivalent of \"hobby horse\" and a German-language term reflecting the joy of children being rocked to sleep. Tzara himself declined interest in the matter, but Marcel Janco credited him with having coined the term. Dada manifestos, written or co-authored by Tzara, record that the name shares its form with various other terms, including a word used in the Kru languages of West Africa to designate the tail of a sacred cow; a toy and the name for \"mother\" in an unspecified Italian dialect; and the double affirmative in Romanian and in various Slavic languages.",
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"plaintext": "He is often credited with having inspired many young modernist authors from outside Switzerland to affiliate with the group, in particular the Frenchmen Louis Aragon, André Breton, Paul Éluard, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes and Philippe Soupault. Richter, who also came into contact with Dada at this stage in its history, notes that these intellectuals often had a \"very cool and distant attitude to this new movement\" before being approached by the Romanian author. In June 1916, he began editing and managing the periodical Dada as a successor of the short-lived magazine Cabaret Voltaire—Richter describes his \"energy, passion and talent for the job\", which he claims satisfied all Dadaists. He was at the time the lover of Maja Kruscek, who was a student of Rudolf Laban; in Richter's account, their relationship was always tottering.",
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"plaintext": "As early as 1916, Tristan Tzara took distance from the Italian Futurists, rejecting the militarist and proto-fascist stance of their leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Richter notes that, by then, Dada had replaced Futurism as the leader of modernism, while continuing to build on its influence: \"we had swallowed Futurism—bones, feathers and all. It is true that in the process of digestion all sorts of bones and feathers had been regurgitated.\" Despite this and the fact that Dada did not make any gains in Italy, Tzara could count poets Giuseppe Ungaretti and Alberto Savinio, painters Gino Cantarelli and Aldo Fiozzi, as well as a few other Italian Futurists, among the Dadaists. Among the Italian authors supporting Dadaist manifestos and rallying with the Dada group was the poet, painter and in the future a fascist racial theorist Julius Evola, who became a personal friend of Tzara.",
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"plaintext": "The next year, Tzara and Ball opened the Galerie Dada permanent exhibit, through which they set contacts with the independent Italian visual artist Giorgio de Chirico and with the German Expressionist journal Der Sturm, all of whom were described as \"fathers of Dada\". During the same months, and probably owing to Tzara's intervention, the Dada group organized a performance of Sphinx and Strawman, a puppet play by the Austro-Hungarian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka, whom he advertised as an example of \"Dada theater\". He was also in touch with Nord-Sud, the magazine of French poet Pierre Reverdy (who sought to unify all avant-garde trends), and contributed articles on African art to both Nord-Sud and Pierre Albert-Birot's SIC magazine. In early 1918, through Huelsenbeck, Zürich Dadaists established contacts with their more explicitly left-wing disciples in the German Empire — George Grosz, John Heartfield, Johannes Baader, Kurt Schwitters, Walter Mehring, Raoul Hausmann, Carl Einstein, Franz Jung, and Heartfield's brother Wieland Herzfelde. With Breton, Soupault and Aragon, Tzara traveled Cologne, where he became familiarized with the elaborate collage works of Schwitters and Max Ernst, which he showed to his colleagues in Switzerland. Huelsenbeck nonetheless declined to Schwitters membership in Berlin Dada.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of his campaigning, Tzara created a list of so-called \"Dada presidents\", who represented various regions of Europe. According to Hans Richter, it included, alongside Tzara, figures ranging from Ernst, Arp, Baader, Breton and Aragon to Kruscek, Evola, Rafael Lasso de la Vega, Igor Stravinsky, Vicente Huidobro, Francesco Meriano and Théodore Fraenkel. Richter notes: \"I'm not sure if all the names who appear here would agree with the description.\"",
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"plaintext": "The shows Tzara staged in Zürich often turned into scandals or riots, and he was in permanent conflict with the Swiss law enforcers. Hans Richter speaks of a \"pleasure of letting fly at the bourgeois, which in Tristan Tzara took the form of coldly (or hotly) calculated insolence\" (see Épater la bourgeoisie). In one instance, as part of a series of events in which Dadaists mocked established authors, Tzara and Arp falsely publicized that they were going to fight a duel in Rehalp, near Zürich, and that they were going to have the popular novelist Jakob Christoph Heer for their witness. Richter also reports that his Romanian colleague profited from Swiss neutrality to play the Allies and Central Powers against each other, obtaining art works and funds from both, making use of their need to stimulate their respective propaganda efforts. While active as a promoter, Tzara also published his first volume of collected poetry, the 1918 Vingt-cinq poèmes (\"Twenty-five Poems\").",
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"plaintext": "A major event took place in autumn 1918, when Francis Picabia, who was then publisher of 391 magazine and a distant Dada affiliate, visited Zürich and introduced his colleagues there to his nihilistic views on art and reason. In the United States, Picabia, Man Ray and Marcel Duchamp had earlier set up their own version of Dada. This circle, based in New York City, sought affiliation with Tzara's only in 1921, when they jokingly asked him to grant them permission to use \"Dada\" as their own name (to which Tzara replied: \"Dada belongs to everybody\"). The visit was credited by Richter with boosting the Romanian author's status, but also with making Tzara himself \"switch suddenly from a position of balance between art and anti-art into the stratospheric regions of pure and joyful nothingness.\" The movement subsequently organized its last major Swiss show, held at the Saal zur Kaufleutern, with choreography by Susanne Perrottet, Sophie Taeuber-Arp, and with the participation of Käthe Wulff, Hans Heusser, Tzara, Hans Richter and Walter Serner. It was there that Serner read from his 1918 essay, whose very title advocated Letzte Lockerung (\"Final Dissolution\"): this part is believed to have caused the subsequent mêlée, during which the public attacked the performers and succeeded in interrupting, but not canceling, the show.",
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"plaintext": "Following the November 1918 Armistice with Germany, Dada's evolution was marked by political developments. In October 1919, Tzara, Arp and Otto Flake began publishing Der Zeltweg, a journal aimed at further popularizing Dada in a post-war world were the borders were again accessible. Richter, who admits that the magazine was \"rather tame\", also notes that Tzara and his colleagues were dealing with the impact of communist revolutions, in particular the October Revolution and the German revolts of 1918, which \"had stirred men's minds, divided men's interests and diverted energies in the direction of political change.\" The same commentator, however, dismisses those accounts which, he believes, led readers to believe that Der Zeltweg was \"an association of revolutionary artists.\" According to one account rendered by historian Robert Levy, Tzara shared company with a group of Romanian communist students, and, as such, may have met with Ana Pauker, who was later one of the Romanian Communist Party's most prominent activists.",
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"plaintext": "Arp and Janco drifted away from the movement ca. 1919, when they created the Constructivist-inspired workshop Das Neue Leben. In Romania, Dada was awarded an ambiguous reception from Tzara's former associate Vinea. Although he was sympathetic to its goals, treasured Hugo Ball and Hennings and promised to adapt his own writings to its requirements, Vinea cautioned Tzara and the Jancos in favor of lucidity. When Vinea submitted his poem Doleanțe (\"Grievances\") to be published by Tzara and his associates, he was turned down, an incident which critics attribute to a contrast between the reserved tone of the piece and the revolutionary tenets of Dada.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1919, Tristan Tzara left Switzerland to join Breton, Soupault and Claude Rivière in editing the Paris-based magazine Littérature. Already a mentor for the French avant-garde, he was, according to Hans Richter, perceived as an \"Anti-Messiah\" and a \"prophet\". Reportedly, Dada mythology had it that he entered the French capital in a snow-white or lilac-colored car, passing down Boulevard Raspail through a triumphal arch made from his own pamphlets, being greeted by cheering crowds and a fireworks display. Richter dismisses this account, indicating that Tzara actually walked from Gare de l'Est to Picabia's home, without anyone expecting him to arrive.",
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"plaintext": "He is often described as the main figure in the Littérature circle, and credited with having more firmly set its artistic principles in the line of Dada. When Picabia began publishing a new series of 391 in Paris, Tzara seconded him and, Richter says, produced issues of the magazine \"decked out [...] in all the colors of Dada.\" He was also issuing his Dada magazine, printed in Paris but using the same format, renaming it Bulletin Dada and later Dadaphone. At around that time, he met American author Gertrude Stein, who wrote about him in The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, and the artist couple Robert and Sonia Delaunay (with whom he worked in tandem for \"poem-dresses\" and other simultaneist literary pieces).",
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"plaintext": "Tzara became involved in a number of Dada experiments, on which he collaborated with Breton, Aragon, Soupault, Picabia or Paul Éluard. Other authors who came into contact with Dada at that stage were Jean Cocteau, Paul Dermée and Raymond Radiguet. The performances staged by Dada were often meant to popularize its principles, and Dada continued to draw attention on itself by hoaxes and false advertising, announcing that the Hollywood film star Charlie Chaplin was going to appear on stage at its show, or that its members were going to have their heads shaved or their hair cut off on stage. In another instance, Tzara and his associates lectured at the Université populaire in front of industrial workers, who were reportedly less than impressed. Richter believes that, ideologically, Tzara was still in tribute to Picabia's nihilistic and anarchic views (which made the Dadaists attack all political and cultural ideologies), but that this also implied a measure of sympathy for the working class.",
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"plaintext": "Dada activities in Paris culminated in the March 1920 variety show at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, which featured readings from Breton, Picabia, Dermée and Tzara's earlier work, La Première aventure céleste de M. Antipyrine (\"The First Heavenly Adventure of Mr. Antipyrine\"). Tzara's melody, Vaseline symphonique (\"Symphonic Vaseline\"), which required ten or twenty people to shout \"cra\" and \"cri\" on a rising scale, was also performed. A scandal erupted when Breton read Picabia's Manifeste cannibale (\"Cannibal Manifesto\"), lashing out at the audience and mocking them, to which they answered by aiming rotten fruit at the stage.",
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"plaintext": "The Dada phenomenon was only noticed in Romania beginning in 1920, and its overall reception was negative. Traditionalist historian Nicolae Iorga, Symbolist promoter Ovid Densusianu, the more reserved modernists Camil Petrescu and Benjamin Fondane all refused to accept it as a valid artistic manifestation. Although he rallied with tradition, Vinea defended the subversive current in front of more serious criticism, and rejected the widespread rumor that Tzara had acted as an agent of influence for the Central Powers during the war. Eugen Lovinescu, editor of Sburătorul and one of Vinea's rivals on the modernist scene, acknowledged the influence exercised by Tzara on the younger avant-garde authors, but analyzed his work only briefly, using as an example one of his pre-Dada poems, and depicting him as an advocate of literary \"extremism\".",
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"plaintext": "By 1921, Tzara had become involved in conflicts with other figures in the movement, whom he claimed had parted with the spirit of Dada. He was targeted by the Berlin-based Dadaists, in particular by Huelsenbeck and Serner, the former of whom was also involved in a conflict with Raoul Hausmann over leadership status. According to Richter, tensions between Breton and Tzara had surfaced in 1920, when Breton first made known his wish to do away with musical performances altogether and alleged that the Romanian was merely repeating himself. The Dada shows themselves were by then such common occurrences that audiences expected to be insulted by the performers.",
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"plaintext": "A more serious crisis occurred in May, when Dada organized a mock trial of Maurice Barrès, whose early affiliation with the Symbolists had been shadowed by his antisemitism and reactionary stance: Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes was the prosecutor, Aragon and Soupault the defense attorneys, with Tzara, Ungaretti, Benjamin Péret and others as witnesses (a mannequin stood in for Barrès). Péret immediately upset Picabia and Tzara by refusing to make the trial an absurd one, and by introducing a political subtext with which Breton nevertheless agreed. In June, Tzara and Picabia clashed with each other, after Tzara expressed an opinion that his former mentor was becoming too radical. During the same season, Breton, Arp, Ernst, Maja Kruschek and Tzara were in Austria, at Imst, where they published their last manifesto as a group, Dada au grand air (\"Dada in the Open Air\") or Der Sängerkrieg in Tirol (\"The Battle of the Singers in Tyrol\"). Tzara also visited Czechoslovakia, where he reportedly hoped to gain adherents to his cause.",
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"plaintext": "Also in 1921, Ion Vinea wrote an article for the Romanian newspaper Adevărul, arguing that the movement had exhausted itself (although, in his letters to Tzara, he continued to ask his friend to return home and spread his message there). After July 1922, Marcel Janco rallied with Vinea in editing Contimporanul, which published some of Tzara's earliest poems but never offered space to any Dadaist manifesto. Reportedly, the conflict between Tzara and Janco had a personal note: Janco later mentioned \"some dramatic quarrels\" between his colleague and him. They avoided each other for the rest of their lives and Tzara even struck out the dedications to Janco from his early poems. Julius Evola also grew disappointed by the movement's total rejection of tradition and began his personal search for an alternative, pursuing a path which later led him to esotericism and fascism.",
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"plaintext": "Tzara was openly attacked by Breton in a February 1922 article for Le Journal de Peuple, where the Romanian writer was denounced as \"an impostor\" avid for \"publicity\". In March, Breton initiated the Congress for the Determination and Defense of the Modern Spirit. The French writer used the occasion to strike out Tzara's name from among the Dadaists, citing in his support Dada's Huelsenbeck, Serner, and Christian Schad. Basing his statement on a note supposedly authored by Huelsenbeck, Breton also accused Tzara of opportunism, claiming that he had planned wartime editions of Dada works in such a manner as not to upset actors on the political stage, making sure that German Dadaists were not made available to the public in countries subject to the Supreme War Council. Tzara, who attended the Congress only as a means to subvert it, responded to the accusations the same month, arguing that Huelsenbeck's note was fabricated and that Schad had not been one of the original Dadaists. Rumors reported much later by American writer Brion Gysin had it that Breton's claims also depicted Tzara as an informer for the Prefecture of Police.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1922, Dada staged its own funeral. According to Hans Richter, the main part of this took place in Weimar, where the Dadaists attended a festival of the Bauhaus art school, during which Tzara proclaimed the elusive nature of his art: \"Dada is useless, like everything else in life. [...] Dada is a virgin microbe which penetrates with the insistence of air into all those spaces that reason has failed to fill with words and conventions.\"",
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"plaintext": "In \"The Bearded Heart\" manifesto a number of artists backed the marginalization of Breton in support of Tzara. Alongside Cocteau, Arp, Ribemont-Dessaignes, and Éluard, the pro-Tzara faction included Erik Satie, Theo van Doesburg, Serge Charchoune, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Marcel Duchamp, Ossip Zadkine, Jean Metzinger, Ilia Zdanevich, and Man Ray. During an associated soirée, Evening of the Bearded Heart, which began on 6 July 1923, Tzara presented a re-staging of his play The Gas Heart (which had been first performed two years earlier to howls of derision from its audience), for which Sonia Delaunay designed the costumes. Breton interrupted its performance and reportedly fought with several of his former associates and broke furniture, prompting a theatre riot that only the intervention of the police halted. Dada's vaudeville declined in importance and disappeared altogether after that date.",
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"plaintext": "Picabia took Breton's side against Tzara, and replaced the staff of his 391, enlisting collaborations from Clément Pansaers and Ezra Pound. Breton marked the end of Dada in 1924, when he issued the first Surrealist Manifesto. Richter suggests that \"Surrealism devoured and digested Dada.\" Tzara distanced himself from the new trend, disagreeing with its methods and, increasingly, with its politics. In 1923, he and a few other former Dadaists collaborated with Richter and the Constructivist artist El Lissitzky on the magazine G, and, the following year, he wrote pieces for the Yugoslav-Slovenian magazine Tank (edited by Ferdinand Delak).",
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"plaintext": "Tzara continued to write, becoming more seriously interested in the theater. In 1924, he published and staged the play Handkerchief of Clouds, which was soon included in the repertoire of Serge Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. He also collected his earlier Dada texts as the Seven Dada Manifestos. Marxist thinker Henri Lefebvre reviewed them enthusiastically; he later became one of the author's friends.",
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"plaintext": "In Romania, Tzara's work was partly recuperated by Contimporanul, which notably staged public readings of his works during the international art exhibit it organized in 1924, and again during the \"new art demonstration\" of 1925. In parallel, the short-lived magazine Integral, where Ilarie Voronca and Ion Călugăru were the main animators, took significant interest in Tzara's work. In a 1927 interview with the publication, he voiced his opposition to the Surrealist group's adoption of communism, indicating that such politics could only result in a \"new bourgeoisie\" being created, and explaining that he had opted for a personal \"permanent revolution\", which would preserve \"the holiness of the ego\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1925, Tristan Tzara was in Stockholm, where he married Greta Knutson, with whom he had a son, Christophe (born 1927). A former student of painter André Lhote, she was known for her interest in phenomenology and abstract art. Around the same period, with funds from Knutson's inheritance, Tzara commissioned Austrian architect Adolf Loos, a former representative of the Vienna Secession whom he had met in Zürich, to build him a house in Paris. The rigidly functionalist Maison Tristan Tzara, built in Montmartre, was designed following Tzara's specific requirements and decorated with samples of African art. It was Loos' only major contribution in his Parisian years.",
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"plaintext": "In 1929, he reconciled with Breton, and sporadically attended the Surrealists' meetings in Paris. The same year, he issued the poetry book De nos oiseaux (\"Of Our Birds\"). This period saw the publication of The Approximate Man (1931), alongside the volumes L'Arbre des voyageurs (\"The Travelers' Tree\", 1930), Où boivent les loups (\"Where Wolves Drink\", 1932), L'Antitête (\"The Antihead\", 1933) and Grains et issues (\"Seed and Bran\", 1935). By then, it was also announced that Tzara had started work on a screenplay. In 1930, he directed and produced a cinematic version of Le Cœur à barbe, starring Breton and other leading Surrealists. Five years later, he signed his name to The Testimony against Gertrude Stein, published by Eugene Jolas's magazine transition in reply to Stein's memoir The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, in which he accused his former friend of being a megalomaniac.",
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"plaintext": "The poet became involved in further developing Surrealist techniques, and, together with Breton and Valentine Hugo, drew one of the better-known examples of \"exquisite corpses\". Tzara also prefaced a 1934 collection of Surrealist poems by his friend René Char, and the following year he and Greta Knutson visited Char in L'Isle-sur-la-Sorgue. Tzara's wife was also affiliated with the Surrealist group at around the same time. This association ended when she parted with Tzara late in the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "At home, Tzara's works were collected and edited by the Surrealist promoter Sașa Pană, who corresponded with him over several years. The first such edition saw print in 1934, and featured the 1913–1915 poems Tzara had left in Vinea's care. In 1928–1929, Tzara exchanged letters with his friend Jacques G. Costin, a Contimporanul affiliate who did not share all of Vinea's views on literature, who offered to organize his visit to Romania and asked him to translate his work into French.",
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"plaintext": "Alarmed by the establishment of Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime, which also signified the end of Berlin's avant-garde, he merged his activities as an art promoter with the cause of anti-fascism, and was close to the French Communist Party (PCF). In 1936, Richter recalled, he published a series of photographs secretly taken by Kurt Schwitters in Hanover, works which documented the destruction of Nazi propaganda by the locals, ration stamp with reduced quantities of food, and other hidden aspects of Hitler's rule. After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, he briefly left France and joined the Republican forces. Alongside Soviet reporter Ilya Ehrenburg, Tzara visited Madrid, which was besieged by the Nationalists (see Siege of Madrid). Upon his return, he published the collection of poems Midis gagnés (\"Conquered Southern Regions\"). Some of them had previously been printed in the brochure Les poètes du monde défendent le peuple espagnol (\"The Poets of the World Defend the Spanish People\", 1937), which was edited by two prominent authors and activists, Nancy Cunard and the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda. Tzara had also signed Cunard's June 1937 call to intervention against Francisco Franco. Reportedly, he and Nancy Cunard were romantically involved.",
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"plaintext": "Although the poet was moving away from Surrealism, his adherence to strict Marxism-Leninism was reportedly questioned by both the PCF and the Soviet Union. Semiotician Philip Beitchman places their attitude in connection with Tzara's own vision of Utopia, which combined communist messages with Freudo-Marxist psychoanalysis and made use of particularly violent imagery. Reportedly, Tzara refused to be enlisted in supporting the party line, maintaining his independence and refusing to take the forefront at public rallies.",
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"plaintext": "However, others note that the former Dadaist leader would often show himself a follower of political guidelines. As early as 1934, Tzara, together with Breton, Éluard and communist writer René Crevel, organized an informal trial of independent-minded Surrealist Salvador Dalí, who was at the time a confessed admirer of Hitler, and whose portrait of William Tell had alarmed them because it shared likeness with Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. Historian Irina Livezeanu notes that Tzara, who agreed with Stalinism and shunned Trotskyism, submitted to the PCF cultural demands during the writers' congress of 1935, even when his friend Crevel committed suicide to protest the adoption of socialist realism. At a later stage, Livezeanu remarks, Tzara reinterpreted Dada and Surrealism as revolutionary currents, and presented them as such to the public. This stance she contrasts with that of Breton, who was more reserved in his attitudes.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, Tzara took refuge from the German occupation forces, moving to the southern areas, controlled by the Vichy regime. On one occasion, the antisemitic and collaborationist publication Je Suis Partout made his whereabouts known to the Gestapo.",
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"plaintext": "He was in Marseille in late 1940-early 1941, joining the group of anti-fascist and Jewish refugees who, protected by American diplomat Varian Fry, were seeking to escape Nazi-occupied Europe. Among the people present there were the anti-totalitarian socialist Victor Serge, anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, playwright Arthur Adamov, philosopher and poet René Daumal, and several prominent Surrealists: Breton, Char, and Benjamin Péret, as well as artists Max Ernst, André Masson, Wifredo Lam, Jacques Hérold, Victor Brauner and Óscar Domínguez. During the months spent together, and before some of them received permission to leave for America, they invented a new card game, on which traditional card imagery was replaced with Surrealist symbols.",
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"plaintext": "Some time after his stay in Marseille, Tzara joined the French Resistance, rallying with the Maquis. A contributor to magazines published by the Resistance, Tzara also took charge of the cultural broadcast for the Free French Forces clandestine radio station. He lived in Aix-en-Provence, then in Souillac, and ultimately in Toulouse. His son Cristophe was at the time a Resistant in northern France, having joined the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans. In Axis-allied and antisemitic Romania (see Romania during World War II), the regime of Ion Antonescu ordered bookstores not to sell works by Tzara and 44 other Jewish-Romanian authors. In 1942, with the generalization of antisemitic measures, Tzara was also stripped of his Romanian citizenship rights.",
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"plaintext": "In December 1944, five months after the Liberation of Paris, he was contributing to L'Éternelle Revue, a pro-communist newspaper edited by philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre, through which Sartre was publicizing the heroic image of a France united in resistance, as opposed to the perception that it had passively accepted German control. Other contributors included writers Aragon, Char, Éluard, Elsa Triolet, Eugène Guillevic, Raymond Queneau, Francis Ponge, Jacques Prévert and painter Pablo Picasso.",
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"plaintext": "Upon the end of the war and the restoration of French independence, Tzara was naturalized a French citizen. During 1945, under the Provisional Government of the French Republic, he was a representative of the Sud-Ouest region to the National Assembly. According to Livezeanu, he \"helped reclaim the South from the cultural figures who had associated themselves to Vichy [France].\" In April 1946, his early poems, alongside similar pieces by Breton, Éluard, Aragon and Dalí, were the subject of a midnight broadcast on Parisian Radio. In 1947, he became a full member of the PCF (according to some sources, he had been one since 1934).",
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"plaintext": "Over the following decade, Tzara lent his support to political causes. Pursuing his interest in primitivism, he became a critic of the Fourth Republic's colonial policy, and joined his voice to those who supported decolonization. Nevertheless, he was appointed cultural ambassador of the Republic by the Paul Ramadier cabinet. He also participated in the PCF-organized Congress of Writers, but, unlike Éluard and Aragon, again avoided adapting his style to socialist realism.",
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"plaintext": "He returned to Romania on an official visit in late 1946-early 1947, as part of a tour of the emerging Eastern Bloc during which he also stopped in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. The speeches he and Sașa Pană gave on the occasion, published by Orizont journal, were noted for condoning official positions of the PCF and the Romanian Communist Party, and are credited by Irina Livezeanu with causing a rift between Tzara and young Romanian avant-gardists such as Victor Brauner and Gherasim Luca (who rejected communism and were alarmed by the Iron Curtain having fallen over Europe). In September of the same year, he was present at the conference of the pro-communist International Union of Students (where he was a guest of the French-based Union of Communist Students, and met with similar organizations from Romania and other countries).",
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"plaintext": "In 1949–1950, Tzara answered Aragon's call and become active in the international campaign to liberate Nazım Hikmet, a Turkish poet whose 1938 arrest for communist activities had created a cause célèbre for the pro-Soviet public opinion. Tzara chaired the Committee for the Liberation of Nazım Hikmet, which issued petitions to national governments and commissioned works in honor of Hikmet (including musical pieces by Louis Durey and Serge Nigg). Hikmet was eventually released in July 1950, and publicly thanked Tzara during his subsequent visit to Paris.",
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"plaintext": "His works of the period include, among others: Le Signe de vie (\"Sign of Life\", 1946), Terre sur terre (\"Earth on Earth\", 1946), Sans coup férir (\"Without a Need to Fight\", 1949), De mémoire d'homme (\"From a Man's Memory\", 1950), Parler seul (\"Speaking Alone\", 1950), and La Face intérieure (\"The Inner Face\", 1953), followed in 1955 by À haute flamme (\"Flame out Loud\") and Le Temps naissant (\"The Nascent Time\"), and the 1956 Le Fruit permis (\"The Permitted Fruit\"). Tzara continued to be an active promoter of modernist culture. Around 1949, having read Irish author Samuel Beckett's manuscript of Waiting for Godot, Tzara facilitated the play's staging by approaching producer Roger Blin. He also translated into French some poems by Hikmet and the Hungarian author Attila József. In 1949, he introduced Picasso to art dealer Heinz Berggruen (thus helping start their lifelong partnership), and, in 1951, wrote the catalog for an exhibit of works by his friend Max Ernst; the text celebrated the artist's \"free use of stimuli\" and \"his discovery of a new kind of humor.\"",
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"plaintext": "In October 1956, Tzara visited the People's Republic of Hungary, where the government of Imre Nagy was coming into conflict with the Soviet Union. This followed an invitation on the part of Hungarian writer Gyula Illyés, who wanted his colleague to be present at ceremonies marking the rehabilitation of László Rajk (a local communist leader whose prosecution had been ordered by Joseph Stalin). Tzara was receptive of the Hungarians' demand for liberalization, contacted the anti-Stalinist and former Dadaist Lajos Kassák, and deemed the anti-Soviet movement \"revolutionary\". However, unlike much of Hungarian public opinion, the poet did not recommend emancipation from Soviet control, and described the independence demanded by local writers as \"an abstract notion\". The statement he issued, widely quoted in the Hungarian and international press, forced a reaction from the PCF: through Aragon's reply, the party deplored the fact that one of its members was being used in support of \"anti-communist and anti-Soviet campaigns.\"",
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"plaintext": "His return to France coincided with the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution, which ended with a Soviet military intervention. On 24 October, Tzara was ordered to a PCF meeting, where activist Laurent Casanova reportedly ordered him to keep silent, which Tzara did. Tzara's apparent dissidence and the crisis he helped provoke within the Communist Party were celebrated by Breton, who had adopted a pro-Hungarian stance, and who defined his friend and rival as \"the first spokesman of the Hungarian demand.\"",
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"plaintext": "He was thereafter mostly withdrawn from public life, dedicating himself to researching the work of 15th-century poet François Villon, and, like his fellow Surrealist Michel Leiris, to promoting primitive and African art, which he had been collecting for years. In early 1957, Tzara attended a Dada retrospective on the Rive Gauche, which ended in a riot caused by the rival avant-garde Mouvement Jariviste, an outcome which reportedly pleased him. In August 1960, one year after the Fifth Republic had been established by President Charles de Gaulle, French forces were confronting the Algerian rebels (see Algerian War). Together with Simone de Beauvoir, Marguerite Duras, Jérôme Lindon, Alain Robbe-Grillet and other intellectuals, he addressed Premier Michel Debré a letter of protest, concerning France's refusal to grant Algeria its independence. As a result, Minister of Culture André Malraux announced that his cabinet would not subsidize any films to which Tzara and the others might contribute, and the signatories could no longer appear on stations managed by the state-owned French Broadcasting Service.",
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"plaintext": "In 1961, as recognition for his work as a poet, Tzara was awarded the prestigious Taormina Prize. One of his final public activities took place in 1962, when he attended the International Congress on African Culture, organized by English curator Frank McEwen and held at the National Gallery in Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia. He died one year later in his Paris home, and was buried at the Cimetière du Montparnasse.",
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"plaintext": "Much critical commentary about Tzara surrounds the measure to which the poet identified with the national cultures which he represented. Paul Cernat notes that the association between Samyro and the Jancos, who were Jews, and their ethnic Romanian colleagues, was one sign of a cultural dialogue, in which \"the openness of Romanian environments toward artistic modernity\" was stimulated by \"young emancipated Jewish writers.\" Salomon Schulman, a Swedish researcher of Yiddish literature, argues that the combined influence of Yiddish folklore and Hasidic philosophy shaped European modernism in general and Tzara's style in particular, while American poet Andrei Codrescu speaks of Tzara as one in a Balkan line of \"absurdist writing\", which also includes the Romanians Urmuz, Eugène Ionesco and Emil Cioran. According to literary historian George Călinescu, Samyro's early poems deal with \"the voluptuousness over the strong scents of rural life, which is typical among Jews compressed into ghettos.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tzara himself used elements alluding to his homeland in his early Dadaist performances. His collaboration with Maja Kruscek at Zuntfhaus zür Waag featured samples of African literature, to which Tzara added Romanian-language fragments. He is also known to have mixed elements of Romanian folklore, and to have sung the native suburban romanza La moară la Hârța (\"At the Mill in Hârța\") during at least one staging for Cabaret Voltaire. Addressing the Romanian public in 1947, he claimed to have been captivated by \"the sweet language of Moldavian peasants\".",
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"plaintext": "Tzara nonetheless rebelled against his birthplace and upbringing. His earliest poems depict provincial Moldavia as a desolate and unsettling place. In Cernat's view, this imagery was in common use among Moldavian-born writers who also belonged to the avant-garde trend, notably Benjamin Fondane and George Bacovia. Like in the cases of Eugène Ionesco and Fondane, Cernat proposes, Samyro sought self-exile to Western Europe as a \"modern, voluntarist\" means of breaking with \"the peripheral condition\", which may also serve to explain the pun he selected for a pseudonym. According to the same author, two important elements in this process were \"a maternal attachment and a break with paternal authority\", an \"Oedipus complex\" which he also argued was evident in the biographies of other Symbolist and avant-garde Romanian authors, from Urmuz to Mateiu Caragiale. Unlike Vinea and the Contimporanul group, Cernat proposes, Tzara stood for radicalism and insurgency, which would also help explain their impossibility to communicate. In particular, Cernat argues, the writer sought to emancipate himself from competing nationalisms, and addressed himself directly to the center of European culture, with Zürich serving as a stage on his way to Paris. The 1916 Monsieur's Antipyrine's Manifesto featured a cosmopolitan appeal: \"DADA remains within the framework of European weaknesses, it's still shit, but from now on we want to shit in different colors so as to adorn the zoo of art with all the flags of all the consulates.\"",
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"plaintext": "With time, Tristan Tzara came to be regarded by his Dada associates as an exotic character, whose attitudes were intrinsically linked with Eastern Europe. Early on, Ball referred to him and the Janco brothers as \"Orientals\". Hans Richter believed him to be a fiery and impulsive figure, having little in common with his German collaborators. According to Cernat, Richter's perspective seems to indicate a vision of Tzara having a \"Latin\" temperament. This type of perception also had negative implications for Tzara, particularly after the 1922 split within Dada. In the 1940s, Richard Huelsenbeck alleged that his former colleague had always been separated from other Dadaists by his failure to appreciate the legacy of \"German humanism\", and that, compared to his German colleagues, he was \"a barbarian\". In his polemic with Tzara, Breton also repeatedly placed stress on his rival's foreign origin.",
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"plaintext": "At home, Tzara was occasionally targeted for his Jewishness, culminating in the ban enforced by the Ion Antonescu regime. In 1931, Const. I. Emilian, the first Romanian to write an academic study on the avant-garde, attacked him from a conservative and antisemitic position. He depicted Dadaists as \"Judaeo-Bolsheviks\" who corrupted Romanian culture, and included Tzara among the main proponents of \"literary anarchism\". Alleging that Tzara's only merit was to establish a literary fashion, while recognizing his \"formal virtuosity and artistic intelligence\", he claimed to prefer Tzara in his Simbolul stage. This perspective was deplored early on by the modernist critic Perpessicius. Nine years after Emilian's polemic text, fascist poet and journalist Radu Gyr published an article in Convorbiri Literare, in which he attacked Tzara as a representative of the \"Judaic spirit\", of the \"foreign plague\" and of \"materialist-historical dialectics\".",
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"plaintext": "Tzara's earliest Symbolist poems, published in Simbolul during 1912, were later rejected by their author, who asked Sașa Pană not to include them in editions of his works. The influence of French Symbolists on the young Samyro was particularly important, and surfaced in both his lyric and prose poems. Attached to Symbolist musicality at that stage, he was indebted to his Simbolul colleague Ion Minulescu and the Belgian Maurice Maeterlinck. Philip Beitchman argues that \"Tristan Tzara is one of the writers of the twentieth century who was most profoundly influenced by symbolism—and utilized many of its methods and ideas in the pursuit of his own artistic and social ends.\" However, Cernat believes, the young poet was by then already breaking with the syntax of conventional poetry, and that, in subsequent experimental pieces, he progressively stripped his style of its Symbolist elements.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1910s, Samyro experimented with Symbolist imagery, in particular with the \"hanged man\" motif, which served as the basis for his poem Se spânzură un om (\"A Man Hangs Himself\"), and which built on the legacy of similar pieces authored by Christian Morgenstern and Jules Laforgue. Se spânzură un om was also in many ways similar to ones authored by his collaborators Adrian Maniu (Balada spânzuratului, \"The Hanged Man's Ballad\") and Vinea (Visul spânzuratului, \"The Hanged Man's Dream\"): all three poets, who were all in the process of discarding Symbolism, interpreted the theme from a tragicomic and iconoclastic perspective. These pieces also include Vacanță în provincie (\"Provincial Holiday\") and the anti-war fragment Furtuna și cântecul dezertorului (\"The Storm and the Deserter's Song\"), which Vinea published in his Chemarea. The series is seen by Cernat as \"the general rehearsal for the Dada adventure.\" The complete text of Furtuna și cântecul dezertorului was published at a later stage, after the missing text was discovered by Pană. At the time, he became interested in the free verse work of the American Walt Whitman, and his translation of Whitman's epic poem Song of Myself, probably completed before World War I, was published by Alfred Hefter-Hidalgo in his magazine Versuri și Proză (1915).",
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"plaintext": "Beitchman notes that, throughout his life, Tzara used Symbolist elements against the doctrines of Symbolism. Thus, he argues, the poet did not cultivate a memory of historical events, \"since it deludes man into thinking that there was something when there was nothing.\" Cernat notes: \"That which essentially unifies, during [the 1910s], the poetic output of Adrian Maniu, Ion Vinea and Tristan Tzara is an acute awareness of literary conventions, a satiety [...] in respect to calophile literature, which they perceived as exhausted.\" In Beitchman's view, the revolt against cultivated beauty was a constant in Tzara's years of maturity, and his visions of social change continued to be inspired by Arthur Rimbaud and the Comte de Lautréamont. According to Beitchman, Tzara uses the Symbolist message, \"the birthright [of humans] has been sold for a mess of porridge\", taking it \"into the streets, cabarets and trains where he denounces the deal and asks for his birthright back.\"",
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"plaintext": "The transition to a more radical form of poetry seems to have taken place in 1913–1915, during the periods when Tzara and Vinea were vacationing together. The pieces share a number of characteristics and subjects, and the two poets even use them to allude to one another (or, in one case, to Tzara's sister).",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the lyrics were they both speak of provincial holidays and love affairs with local girls, both friends intended to reinterpret William Shakespeare's Hamlet from a modernist perspective, and wrote incomplete texts with this as their subject. However, Paul Cernat notes, the texts also evidence a difference in approach, with Vinea's work being \"meditative and melancholic\", while Tzara's is \"hedonistic\". Tzara often appealed to revolutionary and ironic images, portraying provincial and middle class environments as places of artificiality and decay, demystifying pastoral themes and evidencing a will to break free. His literature took a more radical perspective on life, and featured lyrics with subversive intent:",
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"plaintext": "In his Înserează (roughly, \"Night Falling\"), probably authored in Mangalia, Tzara writes:",
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"plaintext": "Vinea's similar poem, written in Tuzla and named after that village, reads:",
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"plaintext": "Cernat notes that Nocturnă (\"Nocturne\") and Înserează were the pieces originally performed at Cabaret Voltaire, identified by Hugo Ball as \"Rumanian poetry\", and that they were recited in Tzara's own spontaneous French translation. Although they are noted for their radical break with the traditional form of Romanian verse, Ball's diary entry of 5 February 1916, indicates that Tzara's works were still \"conservative in style\". In Călinescu's view, they announce Dadaism, given that \"bypassing the relations which lead to a realistic vision, the poet associates unimaginably dissipated images that will surprise consciousness.\" In 1922, Tzara himself wrote: \"As early as 1914, I tried to strip the words of their proper meaning and use them in such a way as to give the verse a completely new, general, meaning [...].\"",
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"plaintext": "Alongside pieces depicting a Jewish cemetery in which graves \"crawl like worms\" on the edge of a town, chestnut trees \"heavy-laden like people returning from hospitals\", or wind wailing \"with all the hopelessness of an orphanage\", Samyro's poetry includes Verișoară, fată de pension, which, Cernat argues, displays \"playful detachment [for] the musicality of internal rhymes\". It opens with the lyrics:",
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"plaintext": "The Gârceni pieces were treasured by the moderate wing of the Romanian avant-garde movement. In contrast to his previous rejection of Dada, Contimporanul collaborator Benjamin Fondane used them as an example of \"pure poetry\", and compared them to the elaborate writings of French poet Paul Valéry, thus recuperating them in line with the magazine's ideology.",
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"plaintext": "Tzara the Dadaist was inspired by the contributions of his experimental modernist predecessors. Among them were the literary promoters of Cubism: in addition to Henri Barzun and Fernand Divoire, Tzara cherished the works of Guillaume Apollinaire. Despite Dada's condemnation of Futurism, various authors note the influence Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and his circle exercised on Tzara's group. In 1917, he was in correspondence with both Apollinaire and Marinetti. Traditionally, Tzara is also seen as indebted to the early avant-garde and black comedy writings of Romania's Urmuz.",
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"plaintext": "For a large part, Dada focused on performances and satire, with shows that often had Tzara, Marcel Janco and Huelsenbeck for their main protagonists. Often dressed up as Tyrolian peasants or wearing dark robes, they improvised poetry sessions at the Cabaret Voltaire, reciting the works of others or their spontaneous creations, which were or pretended to be in Esperanto or Māori language. Bernard Gendron describes these soirées as marked by \"heterogeneity and eclecticism\", and Richter notes that the songs, often punctuated by loud shrieks or other unsettling sounds, built on the legacy of noise music and Futurist compositions.",
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"plaintext": "With time, Tristan Tzara merged his performances and his literature, taking part in developing Dada's \"simultaneist poetry\", which was meant to be read out loud and involved a collaborative effort, being, according to Hans Arp, the first instance of Surrealist automatism. Ball stated that the subject of such pieces was \"the value of the human voice.\" Together with Arp, Tzara and Walter Serner produced the German-language Die Hyperbel vom Krokodilcoiffeur und dem Spazierstock (\"The Hyperbole of the Crocodile's Hairdresser and the Walking-Stick\"), in which, Arp stated, \"the poet crows, curses, sighs, stutters, yodels, as he pleases. His poems are like Nature [where] a tiny particle is as beautiful and important as a star.\" Another noted simultaneist poem was L'Amiral cherche une maison à louer (\"The Admiral Is Looking for a House to Rent\"), co-authored by Tzara, Marcel Janco and Huelsenbach.",
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"plaintext": "Art historian Roger Cardinal describes Tristan Tzara's Dada poetry as marked by \"extreme semantic and syntactic incoherence\". Tzara, who recommended destroying just as it is created, had devised a personal system for writing poetry, which implied a seemingly chaotic reassembling of words that had been randomly cut out of newspapers.",
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"plaintext": "The Romanian writer also spent the Dada period issuing a long series of manifestos, which were often authored as prose poetry, and, according to Cardinal, were characterized by \"rumbustious tomfoolery and astringent wit\", which reflected \"the language of a sophisticated savage\". Huelsenbeck credited Tzara with having discovered in them the format for \"compress[ing] what we think and feel\", and, according to Hans Richter, the genre \"suited Tzara perfectly.\" Despite its production of seemingly theoretical works, Richter indicates, Dada lacked any form of program, and Tzara tried to perpetuate this state of affairs. His Dada manifesto of 1918 stated: \"Dada means nothing\", adding \"Thought is produced in the mouth.\" Tzara indicated: \"I am against systems; the most acceptable system is on principle to have none.\" In addition, Tzara, who once stated that \"logic is always false\", probably approved of Serner's vision of a \"final dissolution\". According to Philip Beitchman, a core concept in Tzara's thought was that \"as long as we do things the way we think we once did them we will be unable to achieve any kind of livable society.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite adopting such anti-artistic principles, Richter argues, Tzara, like many of his fellow Dadaists, did not initially discard the mission of \"furthening the cause of art.\" He saw this evident in La Revue Dada 2, a poem \"as exquisite as freshly-picked flowers\", which included the lyrics:",
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"plaintext": "La Revue Dada 2, which also includes the onomatopoeic line tralalalalalalalalalalala, is one example where Tzara applies his principles of chance to sounds themselves. This sort of arrangement, treasured by many Dadaists, was probably connected with Apollinaire's calligrams, and with his announcement that \"Man is in search of a new language.\" Călinescu proposed that Tzara willingly limited the impact of chance: taking as his example a short parody piece which depicts the love affair between cyclist and a Dadaist, which ends with their decapitation by a jealous husband, the critic notes that Tzara transparently intended to \"shock the bourgeois\". Late in his career, Huelsenbeck alleged that Tzara never actually applied the experimental methods he had devised.",
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"plaintext": "The Dada series makes ample use of contrast, ellipses, ridiculous imagery and nonsensical verdicts. Tzara was aware that the public could find it difficult to follow his intentions, and, in a piece titled Le géant blanc lépreux du paysage (\"The White Leprous Giant in the Landscape\") even alluded to the \"skinny, idiotic, dirty\" reader who \"does not understand my poetry.\" He called some of his own poems lampisteries, from a French word designating storage areas for light fixtures. The Lettrist poet Isidore Isou included such pieces in a succession of experiments inaugurated by Charles Baudelaire with the \"destruction of the anecdote for the form of the poem\", a process which, with Tzara, became \"destruction of the word for nothing\". According to American literary historian Mary Ann Caws, Tzara's poems may be seen as having an \"internal order\", and read as \"a simple spectacle, as creation complete in itself and completely obvious.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tristan Tzara's first play, The Gas Heart, dates from the final period of Paris Dada. Created with what Enoch Brater calls a \"peculiar verbal strategy\", it is a dialogue between characters called Ear, Mouth, Eye, Nose, Neck, and Eyebrow. They seem unwilling to actually communicate to each other and their reliance on proverbs and idiotisms willingly creates confusion between metaphorical and literal speech. The play ends with a dance performance that recalls similar devices used by the proto-Dadaist Alfred Jarry. The text culminates in a series of doodles and illegible words. Brater describes The Gas Heart as a \"parod[y] of theatrical conventions\".",
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"plaintext": "In his 1924 play Handkerchief of Clouds, Tzara explores the relation between perception, the subconscious and memory. Largely through exchanges between commentators who act as third parties, the text presents the tribulations of a love triangle (a poet, a bored woman, and her banker husband, whose character traits borrow the clichés of conventional drama), and in part reproduces settings and lines from Hamlet. Tzara mocks classical theater, which demands from characters to be inspiring, believable, and to function as a whole: Handkerchief of Clouds requires actors in the role of commentators to address each other by their real names, and their lines include dismissive comments on the play itself, while the protagonist, who in the end dies, is not assigned any name. Writing for Integral, Tzara defined his play as a note on \"the relativity of things, sentiments and events.\" Among the conventions ridiculed by the dramatist, Philip Beitchman notes, is that of a \"privileged position for art\": in what Beitchman sees as a comment on Marxism, poet and banker are interchangeable capitalists who invest in different fields. Writing in 1925, Fondane rendered a pronouncement by Jean Cocteau, who, while commenting that Tzara was one of his \"most beloved\" writers and a \"great poet\", argued: \"Handkerchief of Clouds was poetry, and great poetry for that matter—but not theater.\" The work was nonetheless praised by Ion Călugăru at Integral, who saw in it one example that modernist performance could rely not just on props, but also on a solid text.",
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"plaintext": "After 1929, with the adoption of Surrealism, Tzara's literary works discard much of their satirical purpose, and begin to explore universal themes relating to the human condition. According to Cardinal, the period also signified the definitive move from \"a studied inconsequentiality\" and \"unreadable gibberish\" to \"a seductive and fertile surrealist idiom.\" The critic also remarks: \"Tzara arrived at a mature style of transparent simplicity, in which disparate entities could be held together in a unifying vision.\" In a 1930 essay, Fondane had given a similar verdict: arguing that Tzara had infused his work with \"suffering\", had discovered humanity, and had become a \"clairvoyant\" among poets.",
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"plaintext": "This period in Tzara's creative activity centers on The Approximate Man, an epic poem which is reportedly recognized as his most accomplished contribution to French literature. While maintaining some of Tzara's preoccupation with language experimentation, it is mainly a study in social alienation and the search for an escape. Cardinal calls the piece \"an extended meditation on mental and elemental impulses [...] with images of stunning beauty\", while Breitchman, who notes Tzara's rebellion against the \"excess baggage of [man's] past and the notions [...] with which he has hitherto tried to control his life\", remarks his portrayal of poets as voices who can prevent human beings from destroying themselves with their own intellects. The goal is a new man who lets intuition and spontaneity guide him through life, and who rejects measure. One of the appeals in the text reads:",
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"plaintext": "The next stage in Tzara's career saw a merger of his literary and political views. His poems of the period blend a humanist vision with communist theses. The 1935 Grains et issues, described by Beitchman as \"fascinating\", was a prose poem of social criticism connected with The Approximate Man, expanding on the vision of a possible society, in which haste has been abandoned in favor of oblivion. The world imagined by Tzara abandons symbols of the past, from literature to public transportation and currency, while, like psychologists Sigmund Freud and Wilhelm Reich, the poet depicts violence as a natural means of human expression. People of the future live in a state which combines waking life and the realm of dreams, and life itself turns into revery. Grains et issues was accompanied by Personage d'insomnie (\"Personage of Insomnia\"), which went unpublished.",
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"plaintext": "Cardinal notes: \"In retrospect, harmony and contact had been Tzara's goals all along.\" The post-World War II volumes in the series focus on political subjects related to the conflict. In his last writings, Tzara toned down experimentation, exercising more control over the lyrical aspects. He was by then undertaking a hermeutic research into the work of Goliards and François Villon, whom he deeply admired.",
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"plaintext": "Beside the many authors who were attracted into Dada through his promotional activities, Tzara was able to influence successive generations of writers. This was the case in his homeland during 1928, when the first avant-garde manifesto issued by unu magazine, written by Sașa Pană and Moldov, cited as its mentors Tzara, writers Breton, Ribemont-Dessaignes, Vinea, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, and Tudor Arghezi, as well as artists Constantin Brâncuși and Theo van Doesburg. One of the Romanian writers to claim inspiration from Tzara was Jacques G. Costin, who nevertheless offered an equally good reception to both Dadaism and Futurism, while Ilarie Voronca's Zodiac cycle, first published in France, is traditionally seen as indebted to The Approximate Man. The Kabbalist and Surrealist author Marcel Avramescu, who wrote during the 1930s, also appears to have been directly inspired by Tzara's views on art. Other authors from that generation to have been inspired by Tzara were Polish Futurist writer Bruno Jasieński, Japanese poet and Zen thinker Takahashi Shinkichi, and Chilean poet and Dadaist sympathizer Vicente Huidobro, who cited him as a precursor for his own Creacionismo.",
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"plaintext": "An immediate precursor of Absurdism, he was acknowledged as a mentor by Eugène Ionesco, who developed on his principles for his early essays of literary and social criticism, as well as in tragic farces such as The Bald Soprano. Tzara's poetry influenced Samuel Beckett (who translated some of it into English); the Irish author's 1972 play Not I shares some elements with The Gas Heart. In the United States, the Romanian author is cited as an influence on Beat Generation members. Beat writer Allen Ginsberg, who made his acquaintance in Paris, cites him among the Europeans who influenced him and William S. Burroughs. The latter also mentioned Tzara's use of chance in writing poetry as an early example of what became the cut-up technique, adopted by Brion Gysin and Burroughs himself. Gysin, who conversed with Tzara in the late 1950s, records the latter's indignation that Beat poets were \"going back over the ground we [Dadaists] covered in 1920\", and accuses Tzara of having consumed his creative energies into becoming a \"Communist Party bureaucrat\".",
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"plaintext": "In France, Tzara's work was collected as Oeuvres complètes (\"Complete Works\"), of which the first volume saw print in 1975, and an international poetry award is named after him (Prix International de Poésie Tristan Tzara). An international periodical titled Caietele Tristan Tzara, edited by the Tristan Tzara Cultural-Literary Foundation, has been published in Moinești since 1998.",
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"plaintext": "According to Paul Cernat, Aliluia, one of the few avant-garde texts authored by Ion Vinea features a \"transparent allusion\" to Tristan Tzara. Vinea's fragment speaks of \"the Wandering Jew\", a character whom people notice because he sings La moară la Hârța, \"a suspicious song from Greater Romania.\" The poet is a character in Indian novelist Mulk Raj Anand's Thieves of Fire, part four of his The Bubble (1984), as well as in The Prince of West End Avenue, a 1994 book by the American Alan Isler. Rothenberg dedicated several of his poems to Tzara, as did the Neo-Dadaist Valery Oișteanu. Tzara's legacy in literature also covers specific episodes of his biography, beginning with Gertrude Stein's controversial memoir. One of his performances is enthusiastically recorded by Malcolm Cowley in his autobiographical book of 1934, Exile's Return, and he is also mentioned in Harold Loeb's memoir The Way It Was. Among his biographers is the French author François Buot, who records some of the lesser-known aspects of Tzara's life.",
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"plaintext": "At some point between 1915 and 1917, Tzara is believed to have played chess in a coffeehouse that was also frequented by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. While Richter himself recorded the incidental proximity of Lenin's lodging to the Dadaist milieu, no record exists of an actual conversation between the two figures. Andrei Codrescu believes that Lenin and Tzara did play against each other, noting that an image of their encounter would be \"the proper icon of the beginning of [modern] times.\" This meeting is mentioned as a fact in Harlequin at the Chessboard, a poem by Tzara's acquaintance Kurt Schwitters. German playwright and novelist Peter Weiss, who has introduced Tzara as a character in his 1969 play about Leon Trotsky (Trotzki im Exil), recreated the scene in his 1975–1981 cycle The Aesthetics of Resistance. The imagined episode also inspired much of Tom Stoppard's 1974 play Travesties, which also depicts conversations between Tzara, Lenin, and the Irish modernist author James Joyce (who is also known to have resided in Zürich after 1915). His role was notably played by David Westhead in the 1993 British production, and by Tom Hewitt in the 2005 American version.",
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"plaintext": "Alongside his collaborations with Dada artists on various pieces, Tzara himself was a subject for visual artists. Max Ernst depicts him as the only mobile character in the Dadaists' group portrait Au Rendez-vous des Amis (\"A Friends' Reunion\", 1922), while, in one of Man Ray's photographs, he is shown kneeling to kiss the hand of an androgynous Nancy Cunard. Years before their split, Francis Picabia used Tzara's calligraphed name in Moléculaire (\"Molecular\"), a composition printed on the cover of 391. The same artist also completed his schematic portrait, which showed a series of circles connected by two perpendicular arrows. In 1949, Swiss artist Alberto Giacometti made Tzara the subject of one of his first experiments with lithography. Portraits of Tzara were also made by Greta Knutson, Robert Delaunay, and the Cubist painters M. H. Maxy and Lajos Tihanyi. As an homage to Tzara the performer, art rocker David Bowie adopted his accessories and mannerisms during a number of public appearances. In 1996, he was depicted on a series of Romanian stamps, and, the same year, a concrete and steel monument dedicated to the writer was erected in Moinești.",
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"plaintext": "Several of Tzara's Dadaist editions had illustrations by Picabia, Janco and Hans Arp. In its 1925 edition, Handkerchief of Clouds featured etchings by Juan Gris, while his late writings Parler seul, Le Signe de vie, De mémoire d'homme, Le Temps naissant, and Le Fruit permis were illustrated with works by, respectively, Joan Miró, Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Nejad Devrim and Sonia Delaunay. Tzara was the subject of a 1949 eponymous documentary film directed by Danish filmmaker Jørgen Roos, and footage of him featured prominently in the 1953 production Les statues meurent aussi (\"Statues Also Die\"), jointly directed by Chris Marker and Alain Resnais.",
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"plaintext": "The many polemics which surrounded Tzara in his lifetime left traces after his death, and determine contemporary perceptions of his work. The controversy regarding Tzara's role as a founder of Dada extended into several milieus, and continued long after the writer died. Richter, who discusses the lengthy conflict between Huelsenbeck and Tzara over the issue of Dada foundation, speaks of the movement as being torn apart by \"petty jealousies\". In Romania, similar debates often involved the supposed founding role of Urmuz, who wrote his avant-garde texts before World War I, and Tzara's status as a communicator between Romania and the rest of Europe. Vinea, who claimed that Dada had been invented by Tzara in Gârceni ca. 1915 and thus sought to legitimize his own modernist vision, also saw Urmuz as the ignored precursor of radical modernism, from Dada to Surrealism. In 1931 the young, modernist literary critic Lucian Boz evidenced that he partly shared Vinea's perspective on the matter, crediting Tzara and Constantin Brâncuși with having, each on his own, invented the avant-garde. Eugène Ionesco argued that \"before Dadaism there was Urmuzianism\", and, after World War II, sought to popularize Urmuz's work among aficionados of Dada. Rumors in the literary community had it that Tzara successfully sabotaged Ionesco's initiative to publish a French edition of Urmuz's texts, allegedly because the public could then question his claim to have initiated the avant-garde experiment in Romania and the world (the edition saw print in 1965, two years after Tzara's death).",
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"plaintext": "A more radical questioning of Tzara's influence came from Romanian essayist Petre Pandrea. In his personal diary, published long after he and Tzara had died, Pandrea depicted the poet as an opportunist, accusing him of adapting his style to political requirements, of dodging military service during World War I, and of being a \"Lumpenproletarian\". Pandrea's text, completed just after Tzara's visit to Romania, claimed that his founding role within the avant-garde was an \"illusion [...] which has swelled up like a multicolored balloon\", and denounced him as \"the Balkan provider of interlope odalisques, [together] with narcotics and a sort of scandalous literature.\" Himself an adherent to communism, Pandrea grew disillusioned with the ideology, and later became a political prisoner in Communist Romania. Vinea's own grudge probably shows up in his 1964 novel Lunatecii, where Tzara is identifiable as \"Dr. Barbu\", a thick-hided charlatan.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1960s to 1989, after a period when it ignored or attacked the avant-garde movement, the Romanian communist regime sought to recuperate Tzara, in order to validate its newly adopted emphasis on nationalist and national communist tenets. In 1977, literary historian Edgar Papu, whose controversial theories were linked to \"protochronism\", which presumes that Romanians took precedence in various areas of world culture, mentioned Tzara, Urmuz, Ionesco and Isou as representatives of \"Romanian initiatives\" and \"road openers at a universal level.\" Elements of protochronism in this area, Paul Cernat argues, could be traced back to Vinea's claim that his friend had single-handedly created the worldwide avant-garde movement on the basis of models already present at home.",
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"plaintext": "Rococo (, ), less commonly Roccoco or Late Baroque, is an exceptionally ornamental and theatrical style of architecture, art and decoration which combines asymmetry, scrolling curves, gilding, white and pastel colours, sculpted moulding, and trompe-l'œil frescoes to create surprise and the illusion of motion and drama. It is often described as the final expression of the Baroque movement.",
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"plaintext": "The word rococo was first used as a humorous variation of the word rocaille. Rocaille was originally a method of decoration, using pebbles, seashells, and cement, which was often used to decorate grottoes and fountains since the Renaissance. In the late 17th and early 18th century, rocaille became the term for a kind of decorative motif or ornament that appeared in the late Style Louis XIV, in the form of a seashell interlaced with acanthus leaves. In 1736 the designer and jeweler Jean Mondon published the Premier Livre de forme rocquaille et cartel, a collection of designs for ornaments of furniture and interior decoration. It was the first appearance in print of the term rocaille to designate the style. The carved or moulded seashell motif was combined with palm leaves or twisting vines to decorate doorways, furniture, wall panels and other architectural elements.",
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"plaintext": "The term rococo was first used in print in 1825 to describe decoration which was \"out of style and old-fashioned\". It was used in 1828 for decoration \"which belonged to the style of the 18th century, overloaded with twisting ornaments\". In 1829, the author Stendhal described rococo as \"the rocaille style of the 18th century\". ",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th century, the term was used to describe architecture or music which was excessively ornamental. Since the mid-19th century, the term has been accepted by art historians. While there is still some debate about the historical significance of the style, Rococo is now often considered as a distinct period in the development of European art.",
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"plaintext": "Rococo features exuberant decoration, with an abundance of curves, counter-curves, undulations and elements modeled on nature. The exteriors of Rococo buildings are often simple, while the interiors are entirely dominated by their ornament. The style was highly theatrical, designed to impress and awe at first sight. Floor plans of churches were often complex, featuring interlocking ovals; In palaces, grand stairways became centrepieces, and offered different points of view of the decoration. The main ornaments of Rococo are: asymmetrical shells, acanthus and other leaves, birds, bouquets of flowers, fruit, musical instruments, angels and Chinoiserie (pagodas, dragons, monkeys, bizarre flowers and Chinese people).",
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"plaintext": "The style often integrated painting, moulded stucco, and wood carving, and quadratura, or illusionist ceiling paintings, which were designed to give the impression that those entering the room were looking up at the sky, where cherubs and other figures were gazing down at them. Materials used included stucco, either painted or left white; combinations of different coloured woods (usually oak, beech or walnut); lacquered wood in the Japanese style, ornament of gilded bronze, and marble tops of commodes or tables. The intent was to create an impression of surprise, awe and wonder on first view.",
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"plaintext": "Rococo has the following characteristics, which Baroque does not:",
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"plaintext": "The partial abandonment of symmetry, everything being composed of graceful lines and curves, similar to Art Nouveau",
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"plaintext": "The huge quantity of asymmetrical curves and C-shaped volutes",
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"plaintext": "The wide use of flowers in ornamentation, an example being festoons made of flowers",
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"plaintext": "Chinese and Japanese motifs (see also: chinoiserie and Japonism)",
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"plaintext": "Warm pastel colours (whitish-yellow, cream-coloured, pearl greys, very light blues)",
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"plaintext": "The Rocaille style, or French Rococo, appeared in Paris during the reign of Louis XV, and flourished between about 1723 and 1759. The style was used particularly in salons, a new style of room designed to impress and entertain guests. The most prominent example was the salon of the Princess in Hôtel de Soubise in Paris, designed by Germain Boffrand and Charles-Joseph Natoire (1735–40). The characteristics of French Rococo included exceptional artistry, especially in the complex frames made for mirrors and paintings, which were sculpted in plaster and often gilded; and the use of vegetal forms (vines, leaves, flowers) intertwined in complex designs. The furniture also featured sinuous curves and vegetal designs. The leading furniture designers and craftsmen in the style included Juste-Aurele Meissonier, Charles Cressent, and Nicolas Pineau.",
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"plaintext": "The Rocaille style lasted in France until the mid-18th century, and while it became more curving and vegetal, it never achieved the extravagant exuberance of the Rococo in Bavaria, Austria and Italy. The discoveries of Roman antiquities beginning in 1738 at Herculaneum and especially at Pompeii in 1748 turned French architecture in the direction of the more symmetrical and less flamboyant neo-classicism.",
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"plaintext": "Artists in Italy, particularly Venice, also produced an exuberant rococo style. Venetian commodes imitated the curving lines and carved ornament of the French rocaille, but with a particular Venetian variation; the pieces were painted, often with landscapes or flowers or scenes from Guardi or other painters, or Chinoiserie, against a blue or green background, matching the colours of the Venetian school of painters whose work decorated the salons. Notable decorative painters included Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, who painted ceilings and murals of both churches and palazzos, and Giovanni Battista Crosato who painted the ballroom ceiling of the Ca Rezzonico in the quadraturo manner, giving the illusion of three dimensions. Tiepelo travelled to Germany with his son during 1752–1754, decorating the ceilings of the Würzburg Residence, one of the major landmarks of the Bavarian rococo. An earlier celebrated Venetian painter was Giovanni Battista Piazzetta, who painted several notable church ceilings.",
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"plaintext": "The Venetian Rococo also featured exceptional glassware, particularly Murano glass, often engraved and coloured, which was exported across Europe. Works included multicolour chandeliers and mirrors with extremely ornate frames. ",
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"plaintext": "In church construction, especially in the southern German-Austrian region, gigantic spatial creations are sometimes created for practical reasons alone, which, however, do not appear monumental, but are characterized by a unique fusion of architecture, painting, stucco, etc., often completely eliminating the boundaries between the art genres, and are characterised by a light-filled weightlessness, festive cheerfulness and movement.",
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"plaintext": "The Rococo decorative style reached its summit in southern Germany and Austria from the 1730s until the 1770s. There it dominates the church landscape to this day and is deeply anchored there in popular culture. It was first introduced from France through the publications and works of French architects and decorators, including the sculptor Claude III Audran, the interior designer Gilles-Marie Oppenordt, the architect Germain Boffrand, the sculptor Jean Mondon, and the draftsman and engraver Pierre Lepautre. Their work had an important influence on the German Rococo style, but does not reach the level of buildings in southern Germany.",
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"plaintext": "German architects adapted the Rococo style but made it far more asymmetric and loaded with more ornate decoration than the French original. The German style was characterized by an explosion of forms that cascaded down the walls. It featured molding formed into curves and counter-curves, twisting and turning patterns, ceilings and walls with no right angles, and stucco foliage which seemed to be creeping up the walls and across the ceiling. The decoration was often gilded or silvered to give it contrast with the white or pale pastel walls.",
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"plaintext": "The Belgian-born architect and designer François de Cuvilliés was one of the first to create a Rococo building in Germany, with the pavilion of Amalienburg in Munich, (1734-1739), inspired by the pavilions of the Trianon and Marly in France. It was built as a hunting lodge, with a platform on the roof for shooting pheasants. The Hall of Mirrors in the interior, by the painter and stucco sculptor Johann Baptist Zimmermann, was far more exuberant than any French Rococo.",
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"plaintext": "Another notable example of the early German Rococo is Würzburg Residence (1737–1744) constructed for the Prince-Bishop of Würzburg by Balthasar Neumann. Neumann had travelled to Paris and consulted with the French rocaille decorative artists Germain Boffrand and Robert de Cotte. While the exterior was in more sober Baroque style, the interior, particularly the stairways and ceilings, was much lighter and decorative. The Prince-Bishop imported the Italian Rococo painter Giovanni Battista Tiepolo in 1750–1753 to create a mural over the top of the three-level ceremonial stairway. Neumann described the interior of the residence as \"a theatre of light\". The stairway was also the central element in a residence Neumann built at the Augustusburg Palace in Brühl (1743–1748). In that building the stairway led the visitors up through a stucco fantasy of paintings, sculpture, ironwork and decoration, with surprising views at every turn.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1740s and 1750s, a number of notable pilgrimage churches were constructed in Bavaria, with interiors decorated in a distinctive variant of the rococo style. One of the most notable examples is the Wieskirche (1745–1754) designed by Dominikus Zimmermann. Like most of the Bavarian pilgrimage churches, the exterior is very simple, with pastel walls, and little ornament. Entering the church the visitor encounters an astonishing theatre of movement and light. It features an oval-shaped sanctuary, and a deambulatory in the same form, filling in the church with light from all sides. The white walls contrasted with columns of blue and pink stucco in the choir, and the domed ceiling surrounded by plaster angels below a dome representing the heavens crowded with colourful Biblical figures. Other notable pilgrimage churches include the Basilica of the Fourteen Holy Helpers by Balthasar Neumann (1743–1772).",
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"plaintext": "Johann Michael Fischer was the architect of Ottobeuren Abbey (1748–1766), another Bavarian Rococo landmark. The church features, like much of the rococo architecture in Germany, a remarkable contrast between the regularity of the facade and the overabundance of decoration in the interior.",
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"plaintext": "In Great Britain, rococo was called the \"French taste\" and had less influence on design and the decorative arts than in continental Europe, although its influence was felt in such areas as silverwork, porcelain, and silks. William Hogarth helped develop a theoretical foundation for Rococo beauty. Though not mentioning rococo by name, he argued in his Analysis of Beauty (1753) that the undulating lines and S-curves prominent in Rococo were the basis for grace and beauty in art or nature (unlike the straight line or the circle in Classicism).",
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"plaintext": "Rococo was slow in arriving in England. Before entering the Rococo, British furniture for a time followed the neoclassical Palladian model under designer William Kent, who designed for Lord Burlington and other important patrons of the arts. Kent travelled to Italy with Lord Burlington between 1712 and 1720, and brought back many models and ideas from Palladio. He designed the furniture for Hampton Court Palace (1732), Lord Burlington's Chiswick House (1729), London, Thomas Coke's Holkham Hall, Norfolk, Robert Walpole's pile at Houghton, for Devonshire House in London, and at Rousham.",
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"plaintext": "Mahogany made its appearance in England in about 1720, and immediately became popular for furniture, along with walnut wood. The Rococo began to make an appearance in England between 1740 and 1750. The furniture of Thomas Chippendale was the closest to the Rococo style, In 1754 he published \"Gentleman's and Cabinet-makers' directory\", a catalogue of designs for rococo, chinoiserie and even Gothic furniture, which achieved wide popularity, going through three editions. Unlike French designers, Chippendale did not employ marquetry or inlays in his furniture. The predominant designer of inlaid furniture were Vile and Cob, the cabinet-makers for King George III. Another important figure in British furniture was Thomas Johnson, who in 1761, very late in the period, published a catalogue of Rococo furniture designs. These include furnishings based on rather fantastic Chinese and Indian motifs, including a canopy bed crowned by a Chinese pagoda (now in the Victoria and Albert Museum).",
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"plaintext": "Other notable figures in the British Rococo included the silversmith Charles Friedrich Kandler.",
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"plaintext": "The Russian Empress Catherine the Great was another admirer of the Rococo; The Golden Cabinet of the Chinese Palace in the palace complex of Oranienbaum near Saint Petersburg, designed by the Italian Antonio Rinaldi, is an example of the Russian Rococo.",
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"plaintext": "Frederician Rococo is a form of Rococo which developed in Prussia during the reign of Frederick the Great and combined influences from France, Germany (especially Saxony) and the Netherlands. Its most famous adherent was the architect Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff. Furthermore, the painter Antoine Pesne and even King Frederick himself influenced Knobelsdorff's designs. Famous buildings in the Frederican style include Sanssouci Palace, the Potsdam City Palace, and parts of Charlottenburg Palace.",
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"plaintext": "The art of Boucher and other painters of the period, with its emphasis on decorative mythology and gallantry, soon inspired a reaction, and a demand for more \"noble\" themes. While the Rococo continued in Germany and Austria, the French Academy in Rome began to teach the classic style. This was confirmed by the nomination of De Troy as director of the Academy in 1738, and then in 1751 by Charles-Joseph Natoire.",
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"plaintext": "Madame de Pompadour, the mistress of Louis XV contributed to the decline of the Rococo style. In 1750 she sent her brother, Abel-François Poisson de Vandières, on a two-year mission to study artistic and archeological developments in Italy. He was accompanied by several artists, including the engraver Charles-Nicolas Cochin and the architect Soufflot. They returned to Paris with a passion for classical art. Vandiéres became the Marquis of Marigny, and was named director general of the King's Buildings. He turned official French architecture toward the neoclassical. Cochin became an important art critic; he denounced the petit style of Boucher, and called for a grand style with a new emphasis on antiquity and nobility in the academies of painting and architecture.",
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"plaintext": "The beginning of the end for Rococo came in the early 1760s as figures like Voltaire and Jacques-François Blondel began to voice their criticism of the superficiality and degeneracy of the art. Blondel decried the \"ridiculous jumble of shells, dragons, reeds, palm-trees and plants\" in contemporary interiors.",
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"plaintext": "By 1785, Rococo had passed out of fashion in France, replaced by the order and seriousness of Neoclassical artists like Jacques-Louis David. In Germany, late 18th-century Rococo was ridiculed as Zopf und Perücke (\"pigtail and periwig\"), and this phase is sometimes referred to as Zopfstil. Rococo remained popular in certain German provincial states and in Italy, until the second phase of neoclassicism, \"Empire style\", arrived with Napoleonic governments and swept Rococo away.",
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"plaintext": "The ornamental style called rocaille emerged in France between 1710 and 1750, mostly during the regency and reign of Louis XV; the style was also called Louis Quinze. Its principal characteristics were picturesque detail, curves and counter-curves, asymmetry, and a theatrical exuberance. On the walls of new Paris salons, the twisting and winding designs, usually made of gilded or painted stucco, wound around the doorways and mirrors like vines. One of the earliest examples was the Hôtel Soubise in Paris (1704–05), with its famous oval salon decorated with paintings by Boucher, and Charles-Joseph Natoire.",
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"plaintext": "The best known French furniture designer of the period was Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier (1695–1750), who was also a sculptor, painter. and goldsmith for the royal household. He held the title of official designer to the Chamber and Cabinet of Louis XV. His work is well known today because of the enormous number of engravings made of his work which popularized the style throughout Europe. He designed works for the royal families of Poland and Portugal.",
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"plaintext": "Italy was another place where the Rococo flourished, both in its early and later phases. Craftsmen in Rome, Milan and Venice all produced lavishly decorated furniture and decorative items.",
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"plaintext": "The sculpted decoration included fleurettes, palmettes, seashells, and foliage, carved in wood. The most extravagant rocaille forms were found in the consoles, tables designed to stand against walls. The Commodes, or chests, which had first appeared under Louis XIV, were richly decorated with rocaille ornament made of gilded bronze. They were made by master craftsmen including Jean-Pierre Latz and also featured marquetry of different-coloured woods, sometimes placed in draughtsboard cubic patterns, made with light and dark woods. The period also saw the arrival of Chinoiserie, often in the form of lacquered and gilded commodes, called falcon de Chine of Vernis Martin, after the ebenist who introduced the technique to France. Ormolu, or gilded bronze, was used by master craftsmen including Jean-Pierre Latz. Latz made a particularly ornate clock mounted atop a cartonnier for Frederick the Great for his palace in Potsdam. Pieces of imported Chinese porcelain were often mounted in ormolu (gilded bronze) rococo settings for display on tables or consoles in salons. Other craftsmen imitated the Japanese art of lacquered furniture, and produced commodes with Japanese motifs.",
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"plaintext": "In Italy, Antonio Corradini was among the leading sculptors of the Rococo style. A Venetian, he travelled around Europe, working for Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, for the imperial courts in Austria and Naples. He preferred sentimental themes and made several skilled works of women with faces covered by veils, one of which is now in the Louvre.",
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"plaintext": "The most elaborate examples of rococo sculpture were found in Spain, Austria and southern Germany, in the decoration of palaces and churches. The sculpture was closely integrated with the architecture; it was impossible to know where one stopped and the other began. In the Belvedere Palace in Vienna, (1721-1722), the vaulted ceiling of the Hall of the Atlantes is held up on the shoulders of muscular figures designed by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. The portal of the Palace of the Marquis of Dos Aguas in Valencia (1715-1776) was completely drenched in sculpture carved in marble, from designs by Hipolito Rovira Brocandel.",
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"plaintext": "The El Transparente altar, in the major chapel of Toledo Cathedral is a towering sculpture of polychrome marble and gilded stucco, combined with paintings, statues and symbols. It was made by Narciso Tomé (1721–32), Its design allows light to pass through, and in changing light it seems to move.",
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"plaintext": "A new form of small-scale sculpture appeared, the porcelain figure, or small group of figures, initially replacing sugar sculptures on grand dining room tables, but soon popular for placing on mantelpieces and furniture. The number of European factories grew steadily through the century, and some made porcelain that the expanding middle classes could afford. The amount of colourful overglaze decoration used on them also increased. They were usually modelled by artists who had trained in sculpture. Common subjects included figures from the commedia dell'arte, city street vendors, lovers and figures in fashionable clothes, and pairs of birds.",
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"plaintext": "Johann Joachim Kändler was the most important modeller of Meissen porcelain, the earliest European factory, which remained the most important until about 1760. The Swiss-born German sculptor Franz Anton Bustelli produced a wide variety of colourful figures for the Nymphenburg Porcelain Manufactory in Bavaria, which were sold throughout Europe. The French sculptor Étienne-Maurice Falconet (1716–1791) followed this example. While also making large-scale works, he became director of the Sevres Porcelain manufactory and produced small-scale works, usually about love and gaiety, for production in series.",
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"plaintext": "A Rococo period existed in music history, although it is not as well known as the earlier Baroque and later Classical forms. The Rococo music style itself developed out of baroque music both in France, where the new style was referred to as style galant (\"gallant\" or \"elegant\" style), and in Germany, where it was referred to as empfindsamer Stil (\"sensitive style\"). It can be characterized as light, intimate music with extremely elaborate and refined forms of ornamentation. Exemplars include Jean Philippe Rameau, Louis-Claude Daquin and François Couperin in France; in Germany, the style's main proponents were C. P. E. Bach and Johann Christian Bach, two sons of J.S. Bach.",
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"plaintext": "In the second half of the 18th century, a reaction against the Rococo style occurred, primarily against its perceived overuse of ornamentation and decoration. Led by Christoph Willibald Gluck, this reaction ushered in the Classical era. By the early 19th century, Catholic opinion had turned against the suitability of the style for ecclesiastical contexts because it was \"in no way conducive to sentiments of devotion\".",
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"plaintext": "Russian composer of the Romantic era Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky wrote The Variations on a Rococo Theme, Op. 33, for cello and orchestra in 1877. Although the theme is not Rococo in origin, it is written in Rococo style.",
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"plaintext": "Rococo fashion was based on extravagance, elegance, refinement and decoration. Women's fashion of the seventeenth-century was contrasted by the fashion of the eighteenth-century, which was ornate and sophisticated, the true style of Rococo. ",
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"plaintext": "These fashions spread beyond the royal court into the salons and cafés of the ascendant bourgeoisie. The exuberant, playful, elegant style of decoration and design that we now know to be 'Rococo' was then known as le style rocaille, le style moderne, le gout.",
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"plaintext": "A style that appeared in the early eighteenth-century was the robe volante, a flowing gown, that became popular towards the end of King Louis XIV's reign. This gown had the features of a bodice with large pleats flowing down the back to the ground over a rounded petticoat. The colour palette was rich, dark fabrics accompanied by elaborate, heavy design features. After the death of Louis XIV the clothing styles began to change. The fashion took a turn to a lighter, more frivolous style, transitioning from the baroque period to the well-known style of Rococo. The later period was known for their pastel colours, more revealing frocks, and the plethora of frills, ruffles, bows, and lace as trims. Shortly after the typical women's Rococo gown was introduced, robe à la Française, a gown with a tight bodice that had a low cut neckline, usually with a large ribbon bows down the centre front, wide panniers, and was lavishly trimmed in large amounts of lace, ribbon, and flowers.",
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"plaintext": "The Watteau pleats also became more popular, named after the painter Jean-Antoine Watteau, who painted the details of the gowns down to the stitches of lace and other trimmings with immense accuracy. Later, the 'pannier' and 'mantua' became fashionable around 1718, they were wide hoops under the dress to extend the hips out sideways and they soon became a staple in formal wear. This gave the Rococo period the iconic dress of wide hips combined with the large amount of decoration on the garments. Wide panniers were worn for special occasions, and could reach up to 16 feet (4.8 metres) in diameter, and smaller hoops were worn for the everyday settings. These features originally came from seventeenth-century Spanish fashion, known as guardainfante, initially designed to hide the pregnant stomach, then reimagined later as the pannier. 1745 became the Golden Age of the Rococo with the introduction of a more exotic, oriental culture in France called a la turque. This was made popular by Louis XV's mistress, Madame Pompadour, who commissioned the artist, Charles Andre Van Loo, to paint her as a Turkish sultana.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1760s, a style of less formal dresses emerged and one of these was the polonaise, with inspiration taken from Poland. It was shorter than the French dress, allowing the underskirt and ankles to be seen, which made it easier to move around in. Another dress that came into fashion was the robe a l'anglais, which included elements inspired by the males' fashion; a short jacket, broad lapels and long sleeves. It also had a snug bodice, a full skirt without panniers but still a little long in the back to form a small train, and often some type of lace kerchief worn around the neck. Another piece was the 'redingote', halfway between a cape and an overcoat.",
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"plaintext": "Accessories were also important to all women during this time, as they added to the opulence and the decor of the body to match their gowns. At any official ceremony ladies were required to cover their hands and arms with gloves if their clothes were sleeveless.",
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"plaintext": " Italian Rococo art",
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"plaintext": " Rococo in Portugal",
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"plaintext": " Rococo in Spain",
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"plaintext": " Cultural movement",
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"plaintext": " Gilded woodcarving",
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"plaintext": " History of painting",
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"plaintext": " Timeline of Italian artists to 1800",
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"plaintext": " Illusionistic ceiling painting",
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"plaintext": " Louis XV style",
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"plaintext": " Louis XV furniture",
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"plaintext": " (French translation from German)",
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"plaintext": " Arno Schönberger and Halldor Soehner, 1960. The Age of Rococo. Published in the US as The Rococo Age: Art and Civilization of the 18th Century (Originally published in German, 1959).",
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"plaintext": " All-art.org: Rococo in the \"History of Art\"",
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"plaintext": " History of Rococo. Art, architecture & luxury History & Culture Academy of Latgale",
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"plaintext": " Bergerfoundation.ch: Rococo style examples",
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"plaintext": " Barock- und Rococo- Architektur, Volume 1, Part 1, 1892(in German) Kenneth Franzheim II Rare Books Room, William R. Jenkins Architecture and Art Library, University of Houston Digital Library.",
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"plaintext": "In most commonly encountered silicates, including almost all silicate minerals, each silicon atom occupies the center of an idealized tetrahedron whose corners are four oxygen atoms, connected to it by single covalent bonds according to the octet rule. This structure-bonding scenario does not describe the nature of silicate minerals under high pressures, which is the situation for most terrestrial silicate minerals. ",
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"plaintext": "These tetrahedra may occur as isolated orthosilicate anions , but two or more silicon atoms can be joined with oxygen atoms in various ways, to form more complex anions, such as pyrosilicate or the metasilicate ring hexamer . Polymeric silicate anions of arbitrarily large sizes can have chain, double chain, sheet, or three-dimensional structures.",
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"plaintext": "Typically, each oxygen atom that does not contribute a negative charge to the anion is a bridge between two silicon atoms. The structure of such anions is commonly described and depicted as consisting of silicon-centered tetrahedra connected by their vertices, in such a way that each vertex is shared by at most two tetrahedra.",
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"plaintext": "Although the tetrahedron is the common coordination geometry for silicon compounds, silicon may also occur with higher coordination numbers. For example, in the anion hexafluorosilicate , the silicon atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in an octahedral arrangement. This structure is also seen in the hexahydroxysilicate anion that occurs in thaumasite, a mineral found rarely in nature but sometimes observed among other calcium silicate hydrates artificially formed in cement and concrete submitted to a severe sulfate attack.",
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"plaintext": "At very high pressure, even SiO2 adopts the six-coordinated octahedral geometry in the mineral stishovite, a dense polymorph of silica found in the lower mantle of the Earth and also formed by shock during meteorite impacts.",
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"plaintext": "Silicates with alkali cations and small or chain-like anions, such as sodium ortho- and metasilicate, are fairly soluble in water. They form several solid hydrates when crystallized from solution. Soluble sodium silicates and mixtures thereof, known as waterglass are in fact important industrial and household chemicals. Silicates of non-alkali cations, or with sheet and tridimensional polymeric anions, generally have negligible solubility in water at normal conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Silicate anions are formally the conjugate bases of silicic acids, i.e. compounds with the Si-O-H functional group. For example, orthosilicate can be viewed as the fourfold deprotonated orthosilicic acid . Silicic acids are generally weak acids. They can be isolated. They exist in aqueous solution as mixtures of condensed and partially protonated anions, in a dynamic equilibrium. The general processes in this equilibrium are hydrolysis/condensation",
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"plaintext": " ≡Si–O–Si≡ + ≡Si–OH + HO–Si≡",
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"plaintext": "and protonation/deprotonation",
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"plaintext": " ≡Si–OH ≡Si– + .",
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"plaintext": "The equilibrium can shifted towards larger anions by increasing the silicate concentration and/or the acidity of the medium. The orthosilicate anion, for example, is assumed to be the predominant form of silica naturally dissolved in seawater, whose concentration is below 100 parts per million; and also when silica is dissolved in an excess of sodium oxide at pH12 or more. In higher concentrations or low pH, polymeric anions predominate.",
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"plaintext": "In the limit, the silicate anions convert to silicic acids, which condense into a tridimensional network consisting of SiO4 tetrahedra interconnected by Si-O-Si linkages. A related condensation process is seen in sol-gel processing of tetraethylsilicate.",
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"plaintext": "Silicate anions in solution react with molybdate anions yielding yellow silicomolybdate complexes. In a typical preparation, monomeric orthosilicate was found to react completely in 75 seconds; dimeric pyrosilicate in 10 minutes; and higher oligomers in considerably longer time. In particular, the reaction is not observed with suspensions of colloidal silica.",
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"plaintext": "The nature of soluble silicates is relevant to understanding biomineralization and the synthesis of aluminosilicates, such as the industrially important catalysts called zeolites.",
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"plaintext": " Alkali-silica reaction",
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36,893 | 1,100,707,141 | International_Organization_for_Migration | [
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"plaintext": "The IOM works in the four broad areas of migration management: migration and development, facilitating migration, regulating migration, and addressing forced migration.",
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"plaintext": "The Constitution of the International Organization for Migration was concluded on 19 October 1953 in Venice as the Constitution of the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration. The Constitution entered into force on 30 November 1954 and the organization was formally established.",
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"plaintext": "The broader scope of activities has been matched by rapid expansion from a relatively small agency into one with an annual operating budget of $1.8 billion and some 11,500 staff working in over 150 countries worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "As the \"UN migration agency\", the IOM has become a main point of reference in the heated global debate on the social, economic and political implications of migration in the 21st century.",
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"plaintext": "The IOM works in the four broad areas of migration management: migration and development, facilitating migration, regulating migration, and addressing forced migration. Cross-cutting activities include the promotion of international migration law, policy debate and guidance, protection of migrants’ rights, migration health and the gender dimension of migration.",
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"plaintext": "In 2022, the role that the IOM played in housing refugees in Indonesia was described by the Refugee Council of Australia as presenting a \"humanitarian veneer while carrying out rights-violating activities on behalf of Western nations” by researchers Asher Hirsch and Cameron Doig in The Globe and Mail.",
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"plaintext": "The community housing that the IOM operated, using Australian government funding was described by the Refugee Council of Australia “inhumane conditions, solitary confinement, lack of basic essentials and medical care, physical and sexual abuse, and severe overcrowding\". Rohingya John Joniad described the housing as an \"open prison\".",
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"plaintext": " Bibi Duaij Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, the IOM Goodwill Ambassador for Kuwait.",
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"plaintext": " Andrijasevic, Rutvica; Walters, William (2010): The International Organization for Migration and the international government of borders. In Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28 (6), pp.977–999.",
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"plaintext": " Georgi, Fabian; Schatral, Susanne (2017): Towards a Critical Theory of Migration Control. The Case of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). In Martin Geiger, Antoine Pécoud (Eds.): International organisations and the politics of migration: Routledge, pp.193–221.",
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"plaintext": " Koch, Anne (2014): The Politics and Discourse of Migrant Return: The Role of UNHCR and IOM in the Governance of Return. In Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 40 (6), pp.905–923. .",
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36,895 | 1,106,470,678 | History_of_Burgundy | [
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"plaintext": "The history of Burgundy stretches back to the times when the region was inhabited in turn by Celts, Romans (Gallo-Romans), and in the 5th century, the Roman allies the Burgundians, a Germanic people originating in Bornholm (Baltic Sea), who settled there and established the Kingdom of the Burgundians.",
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"plaintext": "Later, the region was divided between the Duchy of Burgundy (to the west) and the County of Burgundy (to the east). The Duchy of Burgundy is the better-known of the two, later becoming the French province of Burgundy, while the County of Burgundy became the French province of Franche-Comté, literally meaning free county.",
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"plaintext": "The situation is complicated by the fact that at different times and under different geopolitical circumstances, many different entities have gone by the name of 'Burgundy'. Historian Norman Davies has commented that \"[f]ew subjects in European history have created more havoc than that summarized by the phrase 'all the Burgundies'.\" In 1862, James Bryce compiled a list of ten such entities, a list which Davies himself extends to fifteen, ranging from the first Burgundian kingdom founded by Gunther in the fifth century, to the modern French région of Burgundy.",
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"plaintext": "In 411, the Burgundians crossed the Rhine and established a kingdom at Worms. Amidst repeated clashes between the Romans and Huns, the Burgundian kingdom eventually occupied what is today the borderlands between Switzerland, France, and Italy. In 534, the Franks defeated Godomar, the last Burgundian king, and absorbed the territory into their growing empire.",
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"plaintext": "During and after the dissolution of the Frankish Empire a number of polities existed at different times and covering different areas. During the late 9th century there were three Burgundies: ",
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"plaintext": "the Kingdom of Upper (Transjurane) Burgundy around Lake Geneva,",
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"plaintext": "the Kingdom of Lower Burgundy in Provence,",
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"plaintext": "the Duchy of Burgundy west of the Saône.",
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"plaintext": "The two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Burgundy were reunited in 933 as the Kingdom of Burgundy. This kingdom in turn was absorbed into the Holy Roman Empire under Conrad II in 1032, and known from the 12th century as the Kingdom of Arles. ",
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"plaintext": "During the Middle Ages, Burgundy was the seat of some of the most important Western churches and monasteries, among them Cluny, Cîteaux, and Vézelay.",
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"plaintext": "During the 12th and 13th centuries, the County of Burgundy emerged from the area previously within the Kingdom of Upper Burgundy. It became known as the Free County of Burgundy or Franche-Comté.",
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"plaintext": "During the Hundred Years' War, King John II of France gave the duchy to his youngest son, Philip the Bold, rather than leaving it for his successor on the French throne. Following a personal union between the Duchy and the County of Burgundy, the \"Two Burgundies\" soon became a major rival to the French throne. The Dukes of Burgundy succeeded in assembling an empire stretching from Switzerland to the North Sea, in large part by marriage. This Burgundian State consisted of a number of fiefdoms on both sides of the (then largely symbolic) border between the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire. Its economic heartland was in the Low Countries, particularly Flanders and Brabant. The Burgundian court outshone the French court both economically and culturally. In Belgium and in the south of the Netherlands, the expression \"Burgundian lifestyle\" is still used to denote enjoyment of life, good food, and extravagant spectacle.",
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"plaintext": "In 1477, at the battle of Nancy during the Burgundian Wars, the last duke Charles the Bold was killed in battle, and the Duchy itself was annexed by France. In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, the other Burgundian territories provided a power base for the rise of the Habsburgs, after Maximilian of Austria married the surviving daughter of the ducal family, Mary. After her death, her husband moved his court first to Mechelen and later to the palace at Coudenberg, Brussels, and from there ruled the remnants of the empire, the Low Countries (Burgundian Netherlands) and Franche-Comté, then still an imperial fief. The latter territory was ceded to France in the Treaty of Nijmegen of 1678.",
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"plaintext": "With the French Revolution in the end of the 18th century, the administrative units of the regions disappeared, but were reconstituted during the Fifth Republic in the 1970s. The modern-day administrative région includes most of the former duchy.",
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"plaintext": " Duke of Burgundy",
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"plaintext": " French wine",
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"plaintext": " King of Burgundy",
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"plaintext": " House of Burgundy",
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"plaintext": " Timeline of Dijon",
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"plaintext": " Burgundian Circle",
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"plaintext": " Spanish Road",
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"plaintext": " Blue Banana",
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"plaintext": " Burgundy in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia at BibleWiki",
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"plaintext": " Burgundy in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia at NewAdvent.org",
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"plaintext": " Départements, arrondissements & cantons of Burgundy (INSEE site)",
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| [
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| 25,765 | 1,732 | 12 | 93 | 0 | 0 | history of Burgundy | occurrences and people in Burgundy throughout history | []
|
36,896 | 1,106,637,886 | Lion | [
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"plaintext": "The lion (Panthera leo) is a large cat of the genus Panthera native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body, short, rounded head, round ears, and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphic; adult male lions are larger than females and have a prominent mane. It is a social species, forming groups called prides. A lion's pride consists of a few adult males, related females, and cubs. Groups of female lions usually hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates. The lion is an apex and keystone predator; although some lions scavenge when opportunities occur and have been known to hunt humans, the species typically does not actively seek out and prey on humans.",
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"plaintext": "The lion inhabits grasslands, savannas and shrublands. It is usually more diurnal than other wild cats, but when persecuted, it adapts to being active at night and at twilight. During the Neolithic period, the lion ranged throughout Africa, Southeast Europe, the Caucasus, Western Asia and northern parts of India, but it has been reduced to fragmented populations in sub-Saharan Africa and one population in western India. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1996 because populations in African countries have declined by about 43% since the early 1990s. Lion populations are untenable outside designated protected areas. Although the cause of the decline is not fully understood, habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes for concern.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture, the lion has been extensively depicted in sculptures and paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature. Lions have been kept in menageries since the time of the Roman Empire and have been a key species sought for exhibition in zoological gardens across the world since the late 18th century. Cultural depictions of lions were prominent in Ancient Egypt, and depictions have occurred in virtually all ancient and medieval cultures in the lion's historic and current range.",
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"plaintext": "The English word lion is derived via Anglo-Norman from Latin (nominative: ), which in turn was a borrowing from Ancient Greek . The Hebrew word may also be related. The generic name Panthera is traceable to the classical Latin word 'panthēra' and the ancient Greek word πάνθηρ 'panther'.",
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"plaintext": "Felis leo was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, who described the lion in his work Systema Naturae. The genus name Panthera was coined by Lorenz Oken in 1816. Between the mid-18th and mid-20th centuries, 26 lion specimens were described and proposed as subspecies, of which 11 were recognised as valid in 2005. They were distinguished mostly by the size and colour of their manes and skins.",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th and 20th centuries, several lion type specimens were described and proposed as subspecies, with about a dozen recognised as valid taxa until 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Between 2008 and 2016, IUCN Red List assessors used only two subspecific names: P. l. leo for African lion populations, and P. l. persica for the Asiatic lion population. In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised lion taxonomy, and recognises two subspecies based on results of several phylogeographic studies on lion evolution, namely: ",
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"plaintext": "P. l. leo − the nominate lion subspecies includes the Asiatic lion, the regionally extinct Barbary lion, and lion populations in West and northern parts of Central Africa. Synonyms include P. l. persica , P. l. senegalensis , P. l. kamptzi , and P. l. azandica . Multiple authors referred to it as 'northern lion' and 'northern subspecies'.",
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"plaintext": "P. l. melanochaita − includes the extinct Cape lion and lion populations in East and Southern African regions. Synonyms include P. l. somaliensis , P. l. massaica , P. l. sabakiensis , P. l. bleyenberghi , P. l. roosevelti , P. l. nyanzae , P. l. hollisteri , P. l. krugeri , P. l. vernayi , and P. l. webbiensis . It has been referred to as 'southern subspecies' and 'southern lion'.",
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"plaintext": "However, there seems to be some degree of overlap between both groups in northern Central Africa. DNA analysis from a more recent study indicates, that Central African lions are derived from both northern and southern lions, as they cluster with P. leo leo in mtDNA-based phylogenies whereas their genomic DNA indicates a closer relationship with P. leo melanochaita. ",
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"plaintext": "Lion samples from some parts of the Ethiopian Highlands cluster genetically with those from Cameroon and Chad, while lions from other areas of Ethiopia cluster with samples from East Africa. Researchers therefore assume Ethiopia is a contact zone between the two subspecies.",
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"plaintext": "Genome-wide data of a wild-born historical lion sample from Sudan showed that it clustered with P. l. leo in mtDNA-based phylogenies, but with a high affinity to P. l. melanochaita. This result suggested that the taxonomic position of lions in Central Africa may require revision.",
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"plaintext": "Other lion subspecies or sister species to the modern lion existed in prehistoric times:",
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"plaintext": "P. l. sinhaleyus was a fossil carnassial excavated in Sri Lanka, which was attributed to a lion. It is thought to have become extinct around 39,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "P. leo fossilis was larger than the modern lion and lived in the Middle Pleistocene. Bone fragments were excavated in caves in the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and Czech Republic.",
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"plaintext": "P. spelaea, or the cave lion, lived in Eurasia and Beringia during the Late Pleistocene. It became extinct due to climate warming or human expansion latest by 11,900 years ago. Bone fragments excavated in European, North Asian, Canadian and Alaskan caves indicate that it ranged from Europe across Siberia into western Alaska. It likely derived from P. fossilis, and was genetically isolated and highly distinct from the modern lion in Africa and Eurasia. It is depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings, ivory carvings, and clay busts.",
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"plaintext": "P. atrox, or the American lion, ranged in the Americas from Canada to possibly Patagonia. It arose when a cave lion population in Beringia became isolated south of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet about 370,000 years ago. A fossil from Edmonton dates to 11,355 ± 55 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "and the geographic origin of the genus is most likely northern Central Asia.",
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"plaintext": "Results of analyses differ in the phylogenetic relationship of the lion; it was thought to form a sister group with the jaguar (P. onca) that diverged , but also with the leopard (P. pardus) that diverged to . Hybridisation between lion and snow leopard (P. uncia) ancestors possibly continued until about 2.1 million years ago.",
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"plaintext": "The lion-leopard clade was distributed in the Asian and African Palearctic since at least the early Pliocene. The earliest fossils recognisable as lions were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and are estimated to be up to 2 million years old.",
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"plaintext": "Estimates for the divergence time of the modern and cave lion lineages range from 529,000 to 392,000 years ago based on mutation rate per generation time of the modern lion. There is no evidence for gene flow between the two lineages, indicating that they did not share the same geographic area. The Eurasian and American cave lions became extinct at the end of the last glacial period without mitochondrial descendants on other continents. The modern lion was probably widely distributed in Africa during the Middle Pleistocene and started to diverge in sub-Saharan Africa during the Late Pleistocene. Lion populations in East and Southern Africa became separated from populations in West and North Africa when the equatorial rainforest expanded 183,500 to 81,800 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "They shared a common ancestor probably between 98,000 and 52,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the expansion of the Sahara between 83,100 and 26,600 years ago, lion populations in West and North Africa became separated. As the rainforest decreased and thus gave rise to more open habitats, lions moved from West to Central Africa. Lions from North Africa dispersed to southern Europe and Asia between 38,800 and 8,300 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Extinction of lions in southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East interrupted gene flow between lion populations in Asia and Africa. Genetic evidence revealed numerous mutations in lion samples from East and Southern Africa, which indicates that this group has a longer evolutionary history than genetically less diverse lion samples from Asia and West and Central Africa.",
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"plaintext": "A whole genome-wide sequence of lion samples showed that samples from West Africa shared alleles with samples from Southern Africa, and samples from Central Africa shared alleles with samples from Asia. This phenomenon indicates that Central Africa was a melting pot of lion populations after they had become isolated, possibly migrating through corridors in the Nile Basin during the early Holocene.",
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"plaintext": "In zoos, lions have been bred with tigers to create hybrids for the curiosity of visitors or for scientific purpose. The liger is bigger than a lion and a tiger, whereas most tigons are relatively small compared to their parents because of reciprocal gene effects. The leopon is a hybrid between a lion and leopard.",
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"plaintext": "The lion is a muscular, broad-chested cat with a short, rounded head, a reduced neck and round ears. Its fur varies in colour from light buff to silvery grey, yellowish red and dark brown. The colours of the underparts are generally lighter. A new-born lion has dark spots, which fade as the cub reaches adulthood, although faint spots often may still be seen on the legs and underparts. The lion is the only member of the cat family that displays obvious sexual dimorphism. Males have broader heads and a prominent mane that grows downwards and backwards covering most of the head, neck, shoulders, and chest. The mane is typically brownish and tinged with yellow, rust and black hairs.",
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"plaintext": "The tail of all lions ends in a dark, hairy tuft that in some lions conceals an approximately -long, hard \"spine\" or \"spur\" that is formed from the final, fused sections of tail bone. The functions of the spur are unknown. The tuft is absent at birth and develops at around months of age. It is readily identifiable by the age of seven months.",
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"plaintext": "Of the living felid species, the lion is rivaled only by the tiger in length, weight, and height at the shoulder. Its skull is very similar to that of the tiger, although the frontal region is usually more depressed and flattened, and has a slightly shorter postorbital region and broader nasal openings than those of the tiger. Due to the amount of skull variation in the two species, usually only the structure of the lower jaw can be used as a reliable indicator of species.",
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"plaintext": "Skeletal muscles of the lion make up 58.8% of its body weight and represents the highest percentage of muscles among mammals.",
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"plaintext": "The size and weight of adult lions varies across global range and habitats. Accounts of a few individuals that were larger than average exist from Africa and India.",
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"plaintext": "The male lion's mane is the most recognisable feature of the species. It may have evolved around 320,000–190,000 years ago. It starts growing when lions are about a year old. Mane colour varies and darkens with age; research shows its colour and size are influenced by environmental factors such as average ambient temperature. Mane length apparently signals fighting success in male–male relationships; darker-maned individuals may have longer reproductive lives and higher offspring survival, although they suffer in the hottest months of the year. The presence, absence, colour and size of the mane are associated with genetic precondition, sexual maturity, climate and testosterone production; the rule of thumb is that a darker, fuller mane indicates a healthier animal. In Serengeti National Park, female lions favour males with dense, dark manes as mates. Cool ambient temperature in European and North American zoos may result in a heavier mane. Asiatic lions usually have sparser manes than average African lions.",
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"plaintext": "Almost all male lions in Pendjari National Park are either maneless or have very short manes. Maneless lions have also been reported in Senegal, in Sudan's Dinder National Park and in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. The original male white lion from Timbavati in South Africa was also maneless. The hormone testosterone has been linked to mane growth; castrated lions often have little to no mane because the removal of the gonads inhibits testosterone production. Increased testosterone may be the cause of maned lionesses reported in northern Botswana.",
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"plaintext": "The white lion is a rare morph with a genetic condition called leucism which is caused by a double recessive allele. It is not albino; it has normal pigmentation in the eyes and skin. White lions have occasionally been encountered in and around Kruger National Park and the adjacent Timbavati Private Game Reserve in eastern South Africa. They were removed from the wild in the 1970s, thus decreasing the white lion gene pool. Nevertheless, 17 births have been recorded in five prides between 2007 and 2015. White lions are selected for breeding in captivity. They have reportedly been bred in camps in South Africa for use as trophies to be killed during canned hunts.",
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"plaintext": "African lions live in scattered populations across sub-Saharan Africa. The lion prefers grassy plains and savannahs, scrub bordering rivers and open woodlands with bushes. It rarely enters closed forests. On Mount Elgon, the lion has been recorded up to an elevation of and close to the snow line on Mount Kenya. Savannahs with an annual rainfall of make up the majority of lion habitat in Africa, estimated at at most, but remnant populations are also present in tropical moist forests in West Africa and montane forests in East Africa. The Asiatic lion now survives only in and around Gir National Park in Gujarat, western India. Its habitat is a mixture of dry savannah forest and very dry, deciduous scrub forest. ",
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"plaintext": "In Africa, the range of the lion originally spanned most of the central African rainforest zone and the Sahara desert. In the 1960s, it became extinct in North Africa, except in the southern part of Sudan.",
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"plaintext": "In southern Europe and Asia, the lion once ranged in regions where climatic conditions supported an abundance of prey. In Greece, it was common as reported by Herodotus in 480 BC; it was considered rare by 300 BC and extirpated by AD 100. It was present in the Caucasus until the 10th century. It lived in Palestine until the Middle Ages, and in Southwest Asia until the late 19th century. By the late 19th century, it had been extirpated in most of Turkey. The last live lion in Iran was sighted in 1942 about northwest of Dezful, although the corpse of a lioness was found on the banks of the Karun river in Khūzestān Province in 1944. It once ranged from Sind and Punjab in Pakistan to Bengal and the Narmada River in central India.",
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"plaintext": "Lions spend much of their time resting; they are inactive for about twenty hours per day. Although lions can be active at any time, their activity generally peaks after dusk with a period of socialising, grooming and defecating. Intermittent bursts of activity continue until dawn, when hunting most often takes place. They spend an average of two hours a day walking and fifty minutes eating.",
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"plaintext": "The lion is the most social of all wild felid species, living in groups of related individuals with their offspring. Such a group is called a \"pride\". Groups of male lions are called \"coalitions\". Females form the stable social unit in a pride and do not tolerate outside females. Membership changes only with the births and deaths of lionesses, although some females leave and become nomadic. The average pride consists of around 15 lions, including several adult females and up to four males and their cubs of both sexes. Large prides, consisting of up to 30 individuals, have been observed. The sole exception to this pattern is the Tsavo lion pride that always has just one adult male. Male cubs are excluded from their maternal pride when they reach maturity at around two or three years of age.",
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"plaintext": "Some lions are \"nomads\" that range widely and move around sporadically, either in pairs or alone. Pairs are more frequent among related males who have been excluded from their birth pride. A lion may switch lifestyles; nomads can become residents and vice versa. Interactions between prides and nomads tend to be hostile, although pride females in estrus allow nomadic males to approach them. Males spend years in a nomadic phase before gaining residence in a pride. A study undertaken in the Serengeti National Park revealed that nomadic coalitions gain residency at between 3.5 and 7.3 years of age. In Kruger National Park, dispersing male lions move more than away from their natal pride in search of their own territory. Female lions stay closer to their natal pride. Therefore, female lions in an area are more closely related to each other than male lions in the same area.",
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"plaintext": "The area occupied by a pride is called a \"pride area\" whereas that occupied by a nomad is a \"range\". Males associated with a pride tend to stay on the fringes, patrolling their territory. The reasons for the development of sociality in lionesses—the most pronounced in any cat species—are the subject of much debate. Increased hunting success appears to be an obvious reason, but this is uncertain upon examination; coordinated hunting allows for more successful predation but also ensures non-hunting members reduce per capita calorific intake. Some females, however, take a role raising cubs that may be left alone for extended periods. Members of the pride tend to regularly play the same role in hunts and hone their skills. The health of the hunters is the primary need for the survival of the pride; hunters are the first to consume the prey at the site it is taken. Other benefits include possible kin selection, sharing food within the family, protecting the young, maintaining territory, and individual insurance against injury and hunger.",
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"plaintext": "Both males and females defend the pride against intruders, but the male lion is better-suited for this purpose due to its stockier, more powerful build. Some individuals consistently lead the defence against intruders, while others lag behind. Lions tend to assume specific roles in the pride; slower-moving individuals may provide other valuable services to the group. Alternatively, there may be rewards associated with being a leader that fends off intruders; the rank of lionesses in the pride is reflected in these responses. The male or males associated with the pride must defend their relationship with the pride from outside males who may attempt to usurp them.",
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"plaintext": "Asiatic lion prides differ in group composition. Male Asiatic lions are solitary or associate with up to three males, forming a loose pride while females associate with up to 12 other females, forming a stronger pride together with their cubs. Female and male lions associate only when mating. Coalitions of males hold territory for a longer time than single lions. Males in coalitions of three or four individuals exhibit a pronounced hierarchy, in which one male dominates the others and mates more frequently.",
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"plaintext": "The lion is a generalist hypercarnivore and is considered to be both an apex and keystone predator due to its wide prey spectrum. Its prey consists mainly of mammals, particularly ungulates weighing with a preference for blue wildebeest, plains zebra, African buffalo, gemsbok and giraffe. Lions also hunt common warthog depending on availability, although the species is below the preferred weight range. In India, sambar deer and chital are the most commonly recorded wild prey, while domestic livestock may contribute significantly to their diet. They usually avoid fully grown adult elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamus and small prey like dik-dik, hyrax, hare and monkey. Unusual prey include porcupines and small reptiles. Lions kill other predators such as leopard, cheetah and spotted hyena but seldom consume them.",
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"plaintext": "Young lions first display stalking behaviour at around three months of age, although they do not participate in hunting until they are almost a year old and begin to hunt effectively when nearing the age of two. Single lions are capable of bringing down zebra and wildebeest, while larger prey like buffalo and giraffe are riskier. In Chobe National Park, large prides have been observed hunting African bush elephants up to around 15 years old in exceptional cases, with the victims being calves, juveniles, and even subadults. In typical hunts, each lioness has a favoured position in the group, either stalking prey on the \"wing\", then attacking, or moving a smaller distance in the centre of the group and capturing prey fleeing from other lionesses. Males attached to prides do not usually participate in group hunting. Some evidence suggests, however, that males are just as successful as females; they are typically solo hunters who ambush prey in small bushland.",
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"plaintext": "Lions are not particularly known for their stamina. For instance, a lioness's heart comprises only 0.57% of her body weight and a male's is about 0.45% of his body weight, whereas a hyena's heart comprises almost 1% of its body weight. Thus, lions run quickly only in short bursts at about and need to be close to their prey before starting the attack. One study in 2018 recorded a lion running at a top speed of . They take advantage of factors that reduce visibility; many kills take place near some form of cover or at night. The lion's attack is short and powerful; they attempt to catch prey with a fast rush and final leap. They usually pull it down by the rump and kill by a strangling bite to the throat. They also kill prey by enclosing its muzzle in their jaws. Male lions usually aim for the backs or hindquarters of rivals, rather than their necks. ",
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"plaintext": "Lions typically consume prey at the location of the hunt but sometimes drag large prey into cover. They tend to squabble over kills, particularly the males. Cubs suffer most when food is scarce but otherwise all pride members eat their fill, including old and crippled lions, which can live on leftovers. Large kills are shared more widely among pride members. An adult lioness requires an average of about of meat per day while males require about . Lions gorge themselves and eat up to in one session. If it is unable to consume all of the kill, it rests for a few hours before continuing to eat. On hot days, the pride retreats to shade with one or two males standing guard. Lions defend their kills from scavengers such as vultures and hyenas.",
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"plaintext": "Lions scavenge on carrion when the opportunity arises, scavenging animals dead from natural causes such as disease or those that were killed by other predators. Scavenging lions keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, which indicate the death or distress of an animal. Most carrion on which both hyenas and lions feed upon are killed by hyenas rather than lions. Carrion is thought to provide a large part of lion diet.",
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"plaintext": "Lions and spotted hyenas occupy a similar ecological niche and where they coexist they compete for prey and carrion; a review of data across several studies indicates a dietary overlap of 58.6%. Lions typically ignore spotted hyenas unless the lions are on a kill or are being harassed by the hyenas, while the latter tend to visibly react to the presence of lions, with or without the presence of food. Lions seize the kills of spotted hyenas; in the Ngorongoro crater it is common for lions to subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas, causing the hyenas to increase their kill rate. In Botswana's Chobe National Park, the situation is reversed; hyenas frequently challenge lions and steal their kills, obtaining food from 63% of all lion kills. When confronted on a kill by lions, spotted hyenas may either leave or wait patiently at a distance of until the lions have finished. ",
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"plaintext": "Hyenas are bold enough to feed alongside lions and to force the lions off a kill. The two species attack one another even when there is no food involved for no apparent reason. Lion predation can account for up to 71% of hyena deaths in Etosha National Park. Spotted hyenas have adapted by frequently mobbing lions that enter their territories. When the lion population in Kenya's Masai Mara National Reserve declined, the spotted hyena population increased rapidly. Experiments on captive spotted hyenas show that specimens without prior experience with lions act indifferently to the sight of them, but will react fearfully to lion scent.",
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"plaintext": "Lions tend to dominate cheetahs and leopards, steal their kills and kill their cubs and even adults when given the chance. Cheetahs in particular often lose their kills to lions or other predators. A study in the Serengeti ecosystem revealed that lions killed at least 17 of 125 cheetah cubs born between 1987 and 1990. Cheetahs avoid their competitors by using different temporal and habitat niches. Leopards are able to take refuge in trees; lionesses, however, occasionally attempt to climb up and retrieve leopard kills from that height. ",
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"plaintext": "Lions similarly dominate African wild dogs, taking their kills and preying on young and rarely adult dogs. Population densities of wild dogs are low in areas where lions are more abundant. However, there are a few reported cases of old and wounded lions falling prey to wild dogs. Lions also charge at Nile crocodiles; depending on the size of the crocodile and the lion, either animal can lose their kills to the other. Lions have been observed killing crocodiles that ventured onto land. Crocodiles may also kill and eat lions, evidenced by the occasional lion claw found in crocodile stomachs.",
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"plaintext": "Most lionesses reproduce by the time they are four years of age. Lions do not mate at a specific time of year and the females are polyestrous. Like those of other cats, the male lion's penis has spines that point backward. During withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which may cause ovulation. A lioness may mate with more than one male when she is in heat. Generation length of the lion is about seven years. The average gestation period is around 110days; the female gives birth to a litter of between one and four cubs in a secluded den, which may be a thicket, a reed-bed, a cave, or some other sheltered area, usually away from the pride. She will often hunt alone while the cubs are still helpless, staying relatively close to the den. Lion cubs are born blind, their eyes opening around seven days after birth. They weigh at birth and are almost helpless, beginning to crawl a day or two after birth and walking around three weeks of age. To avoid a buildup of scent attracting the attention of predators, the lioness moves her cubs to a new den site several times a month, carrying them one-by-one by the nape of the neck.",
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"plaintext": "Usually, the mother does not integrate herself and her cubs back into the pride until the cubs are six to eight weeks old. Sometimes the introduction to pride life occurs earlier, particularly if other lionesses have given birth at about the same time. When first introduced to the rest of the pride, lion cubs lack confidence when confronted with adults other than their mother. They soon begin to immerse themselves in the pride life, however, playing among themselves or attempting to initiate play with the adults. Lionesses with cubs of their own are more likely to be tolerant of another lioness's cubs than lionesses without cubs. Male tolerance of the cubs varies—one male could patiently let the cubs play with his tail or his mane, while another may snarl and bat the cubs away.",
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"plaintext": "Pride lionesses often synchronise their reproductive cycles and communal rearing and suckling of the young, which suckle indiscriminately from any or all of the nursing females in the pride. The synchronisation of births is advantageous because the cubs grow to being roughly the same size and have an equal chance of survival, and sucklings are not dominated by older cubs. Weaning occurs after six or seven months. Male lions reach maturity at about three years of age and at four to five years are capable of challenging and displacing adult males associated with another pride. They begin to age and weaken at between 10 and 15 years of age at the latest.",
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"plaintext": "When one or more new males oust the previous males associated with a pride, the victors often kill any existing young cubs, perhaps because females do not become fertile and receptive until their cubs mature or die. Females often fiercely defend their cubs from a usurping male but are rarely successful unless a group of three or four mothers within a pride join forces against the male. Cubs also die from starvation and abandonment, and predation by leopards, hyenas and wild dogs. Up to 80% of lion cubs will die before the age of two. Both male and female lions may be ousted from prides to become nomads, although most females usually remain with their birth pride. When a pride becomes too large, however, the youngest generation of female cubs may be forced to leave to find their own territory. When a new male lion takes over a pride, adolescents both male and female may be evicted. Lions of both sexes may be involved in group homosexual and courtship activities. Males will also head-rub and roll around with each other before simulating sex together.",
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"plaintext": "Although adult lions have no natural predators, evidence suggests most die violently from attacks by humans or other lions. Lions often inflict serious injuries on members of other prides they encounter in territorial disputes or members of the home pride when fighting at a kill. Crippled lions and cubs may fall victim to hyenas and leopards or be trampled by buffalo or elephants. Careless lions may be maimed when hunting prey. ",
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"plaintext": "Ticks commonly infest the ears, neck and groin regions of the lions. Adult forms of several tapeworm species of the genus Taenia have been isolated from lion intestines, having been ingested as larvae in antelope meat. Lions in the Ngorongoro Crater were afflicted by an outbreak of stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) in 1962, resulting in lions becoming emaciated and covered in bloody, bare patches. Lions sought unsuccessfully to evade the biting flies by climbing trees or crawling into hyena burrows; many died or migrated and the local population dropped from 70 to 15 individuals. A more recent outbreak in 2001 killed six lions.",
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"plaintext": "Captive lions have been infected with canine distemper virus (CDV) since at least the mid-1970s. CDV is spread by domestic dogs and other carnivores; a 1994 outbreak in Serengeti National Park resulted in many lions developing neurological symptoms such as seizures. During the outbreak, several lions died from pneumonia and encephalitis. Feline immunodeficiency virus and lentivirus also affect captive lions.",
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"plaintext": "When resting, lion socialisation occurs through a number of behaviours; the animal's expressive movements are highly developed. The most common peaceful, tactile gestures are head rubbing and social licking, which have been compared with the role of allogrooming among primates. Head rubbing—nuzzling the forehead, face and neck against another lion—appears to be a form of greeting and is seen often after an animal has been apart from others or after a fight or confrontation. Males tend to rub other males, while cubs and females rub females. Social licking often occurs in tandem with head rubbing; it is generally mutual and the recipient appears to express pleasure. The head and neck are the most common parts of the body licked; this behaviour may have arisen out of utility because lions cannot lick these areas themselves.",
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"plaintext": "Lions have an array of facial expressions and body postures that serve as visual gestures. A common facial expression is the \"grimace face\" or flehmen response, which a lion makes when sniffing chemical signals and involves an open mouth with bared teeth, raised muzzle, wrinkled nose closed eyes and relaxed ears. Lions also use chemical and visual marking; males will spray and scrape plots of ground and objects within the territory.",
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"plaintext": "The lion's repertoire of vocalisations is large; variations in intensity and pitch appear to be central to communication. Most lion vocalisations are variations of growling, snarling, meowing and roaring. Other sounds produced include purring, puffing, bleating and humming. Roaring is used to advertise its presence. Lions most often roar at night, a sound that can be heard from a distance of . They tend to roar in a very characteristic manner starting with a few deep, long roars that subside into a series of shorter ones.",
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"plaintext": "The lion is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix I and the African population on CITES Appendix II.",
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"plaintext": "Several large and well-managed protected areas in Africa host large lion populations. Where an infrastructure for wildlife tourism has been developed, cash revenue for park management and local communities is a strong incentive for lion conservation. Most lions now live in East and Southern Africa; their numbers are rapidly decreasing, and fell by an estimated 30–50% in the late half of the 20th century. Primary causes of the decline include disease and human interference. In 1975, it was estimated that since the 1950s, lion numbers had decreased by half to 200,000 or fewer. Estimates of the African lion population range between 16,500 and 47,000 living in the wild in 2002–2004.",
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"plaintext": "In the Republic of the Congo, Odzala-Kokoua National Park was considered a lion stronghold in the 1990s. By 2014, no lions were recorded in the protected area so the population is considered locally extinct. The West African lion population is isolated from the one in Central Africa, with little or no exchange of breeding individuals. In 2015, it was estimated that this population consists of about 400 animals, including fewer than 250 mature individuals. They persist in three protected areas in the region, mostly in one population in the W A P protected area complex, shared by Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. This population is listed as Critically Endangered. Field surveys in the WAP ecosystem revealed that lion occupancy is lowest in the W National Park, and higher in areas with permanent staff and thus better protection.",
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"plaintext": "A population occurs in Cameroon's Waza National Park, where between approximately 14 and 21 animals persisted as of 2009. In addition, 50 to 150 lions are estimated to be present in Burkina Faso's Arly-Singou ecosystem. In 2015, an adult male lion and a female lion were sighted in Ghana's Mole National Park. These were the first sightings of lions in the country in 39 years. In the same year, a population of up to 200 lions that was previously thought to have been extirpated was filmed in the Alatash National Park, Ethiopia, close to the Sudanese border.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, Lion Conservation Strategies were developed for West and Central Africa, and or East and Southern Africa. The strategies seek to maintain suitable habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base for lions, reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations, and make lion–human coexistence sustainable. Lion depredation on livestock is significantly reduced in areas where herders keep livestock in improved enclosures. Such measures contribute to mitigating human–lion conflict.",
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"plaintext": "The last refuge of the Asiatic lion population is the Gir National Park and surrounding areas in the region of Saurashtra or Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat State, India. The population has risen from approximately 180 lions in 1974 to about 400 in 2010. It is geographically isolated, which can lead to inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity. Since 2008, the Asiatic lion has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. By 2015, the population had grown to 523 individuals inhabiting an area of in Saurashtra. The Asiatic Lion Census conducted in 2017 recorded about 650 individuals.",
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"plaintext": "The presence of numerous human habitations close to the National Park results in conflict between lions, local people and their livestock. Some consider the presence of lions a benefit, as they keep populations of crop damaging herbivores in check. The establishment of a second, independent Asiatic lion population in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, located in Madhya Pradesh was planned but in 2017, the Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project seemed unlikely to be implemented.",
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"plaintext": "Lions imported to Europe before the middle of the 19th century were possibly foremost Barbary lions from North Africa, or Cape lions from Southern Africa. Another 11 animals thought to be Barbary lions kept in Addis Ababa Zoo are descendants of animals owned by Emperor Haile Selassie. WildLink International in collaboration with Oxford University launched an ambitious International Barbary Lion Project with the aim of identifying and breeding Barbary lions in captivity for eventual reintroduction into a national park in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. However, a genetic analysis showed that the captive lions at Addis Ababa Zoo were not Barbary lions, but rather closely related to wild lions in Chad and Cameroon.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums started a Species Survival Plan for the Asiatic lion to increase its chances of survival. In 1987, it was found that most lions in North American zoos were hybrids between African and Asiatic lions. Breeding programs need to note origins of the participating animals to avoid cross-breeding different subspecies and thus reducing their conservation value. Captive breeding of lions was halted to eliminate individuals of unknown origin and pedigree. Wild-born lions were imported to American zoos from Africa between 1989 and 1995. Breeding was continued in 1998 in the frame of an African lion Species Survival Plan.",
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"plaintext": "About 77% of the captive lions registered in the International Species Information System in 2006 were of unknown origin; these animals might have carried genes that are extinct in the wild and may therefore be important to the maintenance of the overall genetic variability of the lion.",
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"plaintext": "Lions are part of a group of exotic animals that have been central to zoo exhibits since the late 18th century. Although many modern zoos are more selective about their exhibits, there are more than 1,000 African and 100 Asiatic lions in zoos and wildlife parks around the world. They are considered an ambassador species and are kept for tourism, education and conservation purposes. Lions can live over twenty years in captivity. One lion in Honolulu Zoo died at the age of 22 in August 2007. His two sisters, born in 1986, also reached the age of 22.",
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"plaintext": "The first European \"zoos\" spread among noble and royal families in the 13th century, and until the 17th century were called seraglios. At that time, they came to be called menageries, an extension of the cabinet of curiosities. They spread from France and Italy during the Renaissance to the rest of Europe. In England, although the seraglio tradition was less developed, lions were kept at the Tower of London in a seraglio established by King John in the 13th century; this was probably stocked with animals from an earlier menagerie started in 1125 by Henry I at his hunting lodge in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, where according to William of Malmesbury lions had been stocked.",
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"plaintext": "Lions were kept in cramped and squalid conditions at London Zoo until a larger lion house with roomier cages was built in the 1870s. Further changes took place in the early 20th century when Carl Hagenbeck designed enclosures with concrete \"rocks\", more open space and a moat instead of bars, more closely resembling a natural habitat. Hagenbeck designed lion enclosures for both Melbourne Zoo and Sydney's Taronga Zoo; although his designs were popular, the use of bars and caged enclosures prevailed in many zoos until the 1960s. In the late 20th century, larger, more natural enclosures and the use of wire mesh or laminated glass instead of lowered dens allowed visitors to come closer than ever to the animals; some attractions such as the Cat Forest/Lion Overlook of Oklahoma City Zoological Park placed the den on ground level, higher than visitors.",
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"plaintext": "Lion taming has been part of both established circuses and individual acts such as Siegfried & Roy. The practice began in the early 19th century by Frenchman Henri Martin and American Isaac Van Amburgh, who both toured widely and whose techniques were copied by a number of followers. Van Amburgh performed before Queen Victoria in 1838 when he toured Great Britain. Martin composed a pantomime titled Les Lions de Mysore (\"the lions of Mysore\"), an idea Amburgh quickly borrowed. These acts eclipsed equestrianism acts as the central display of circus shows and entered public consciousness in the early 20th century with cinema. In demonstrating the superiority of human over animal, lion taming served a purpose similar to animal fights of previous centuries. The ultimate proof of a tamer's dominance and control over a lion is demonstrated by the placing of the tamer's head in the lion's mouth. The now-iconic lion tamer's chair was possibly first used by American Clyde Beatty (1903–1965).",
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"plaintext": "Lion hunting has occurred since ancient times and was often a royal pastime, intended to demonstrate the power of the king over nature. The earliest surviving record of lion hunting is an ancient Egyptian inscription dated circa 1380 BC that mentions Pharaoh Amenhotep III killing 102 lions \"with his own arrows\" during the first ten years of his rule. The Assyrians would release captive lions in a reserved space for the king to hunt; this event would be watched by spectators as the king and his men, on horseback or chariots, killed the lions with arrows and spears. Lions were also hunted during the Mughal Empire, where Emperor Jahangir is said to have excelled at it. In Ancient Rome, lions were kept by emperors for hunts, gladiator fights and executions.",
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"plaintext": "The Maasai people have traditionally viewed the killing of lions as a rite of passage. Historically, lions were hunted by individuals, however, due to reduced lion populations, elders discourage solo lion hunts. During the European colonisation of Africa in the 19th century, the hunting of lions was encouraged because they were considered as vermin and lion hides fetched £1 each. The widely reproduced imagery of the heroic hunter chasing lions would dominate a large part of the century. Trophy hunting of lions in recent years has been met with controversy, notably with the killing of Cecil the lion in mid-2015.",
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"plaintext": "Lions do not usually hunt humans but some (usually males) seem to seek them out. One well-publicised case is the Tsavo maneaters; in 1898, 28 officially recorded railway workers building the Kenya-Uganda Railway were taken by lions over nine months during the construction of a bridge in Kenya. The hunter who killed the lions wrote a book detailing the animals' predatory behaviour; they were larger than normal and lacked manes, and one seemed to suffer from tooth decay. The infirmity theory, including tooth decay, is not favoured by all researchers; an analysis of teeth and jaws of man-eating lions in museum collections suggests that while tooth decay may explain some incidents, prey depletion in human-dominated areas is a more likely cause of lion predation on humans. Sick or injured animals may be more prone to man-eating but the behaviour is not unusual, nor necessarily aberrant.",
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"plaintext": "Lions' proclivity for man-eating has been systematically examined. American and Tanzanian scientists report that man-eating behaviour in rural areas of Tanzania increased greatly from 1990 to 2005. At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period. The incidents occurred near Selous National Park in Rufiji District and in Lindi Province near the Mozambican border. While the expansion of villages into bush country is one concern, the authors argue conservation policy must mitigate the danger because in this case, conservation contributes directly to human deaths. Cases in Lindi in which lions seize humans from the centres of substantial villages have been documented. Another study of 1,000 people attacked by lions in southern Tanzania between 1988 and 2009 found that the weeks following the full moon, when there was less moonlight, were a strong indicator of increased night-time attacks on people.",
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"plaintext": "According to Robert R. Frump, Mozambican refugees regularly crossing Kruger National Park, South Africa, at night are attacked and eaten by lions; park officials have said man-eating is a problem there. Frump said thousands may have been killed in the decades after apartheid sealed the park and forced refugees to cross the park at night. For nearly a century before the border was sealed, Mozambicans had regularly crossed the park in daytime with little harm.",
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"plaintext": "The lion is one of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture. It has been extensively depicted in sculptures and paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature. It appeared as a symbol for strength and nobility in cultures across Europe, Asia and Africa, despite incidents of attacks on people. The lion has been depicted as \"king of the jungle\" and \"king of beasts\", and thus became a popular symbol for royalty and stateliness. The lion is also used as a symbol of sporting teams.",
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"plaintext": "In sub-Saharan Africa, the lion has been a common character in stories, proverbs and dances, but rarely featured in visual arts. In some cultures, the lion symbolises power and royalty. In the Swahili language, the lion is known as simba which also means \"aggressive\", \"king\" and \"strong\". Some rulers had the word \"lion\" in their nickname. Sundiata Keita of the Mali Empire was called \"Lion of Mali\". The founder of the Waalo kingdom is said to have been raised by lions and returned to his people part-lion to unite them using the knowledge he learned from the lions.",
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"plaintext": "Lion-headed figures and amulets were excavated in tombs in the Greek islands of Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Paros and Chios. They are associated with the Egyptian deity Sekhmet and date to the early Iron Age between the 9th and 6th centuries BC. The lion is featured in several of Aesop's fables, notably The Lion and the Mouse. The Nemean lion was symbolic in ancient Greece and Rome, represented as the constellation and zodiac sign Leo, and described in mythology, where it was killed and worn by the hero Heracles, symbolising victory over death. Lancelot and Gawain were also heroes slaying lions in the Middle Ages. In some medieval stories, lions were portrayed as allies and companions. \"Lion\" was the nickname of several medieval warrior-rulers with a reputation for bravery, such as Richard the Lionheart.",
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"plaintext": "Lions continue to appear in modern literature as characters including the messianic Aslan in the 1950 novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Chronicles of Narnia series by C. S. Lewis, and the comedic Cowardly Lion in L. Frank Baum's 1900 The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Lion symbolism was used from the advent of cinema; one of the most iconic and widely recognised lions is Leo, which has been the mascot for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios since the 1920s. The 1966 film Born Free features Elsa the lioness and is based on the 1960 non-fiction book with the same title. The lion's role as king of the beasts has been used in the 1994 Disney animated feature film The Lion King.",
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"plaintext": "Lions are frequently depicted on coats of arms, like on the coat of arms of Finland, either as a device on shields or as supporters, but the lioness is used much less frequently. The heraldic lion is particularly common in British arms. It is traditionally depicted in a great variety of attitudes, although within French heraldry only lions rampant are considered to be lions; feline figures in any other position are instead referred to as leopards.",
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"plaintext": " List of largest cats",
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| [
"Lions",
"Apex_predators",
"Articles_containing_video_clips",
"Big_cats",
"Extant_Pliocene_first_appearances",
"Felids_of_Africa",
"Mammals_described_in_1758",
"Mammals_of_Sub-Saharan_Africa",
"National_symbols_of_Burundi",
"National_symbols_of_Chad",
"National_symbols_of_Eswatini",
"National_symbols_of_Kenya",
"National_symbols_of_Malawi",
"National_symbols_of_Morocco",
"National_symbols_of_Sierra_Leone",
"National_symbols_of_Singapore",
"National_symbols_of_South_Africa",
"National_symbols_of_Sri_Lanka",
"National_symbols_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo",
"National_symbols_of_Togo",
"National_symbols_of_Tunisia",
"Panthera",
"Taxa_named_by_Carl_Linnaeus",
"Vulnerable_animals",
"Vulnerable_biota_of_Africa"
]
| 140 | 193,213 | 2,805 | 401 | 0 | 1 | lion | species of big cat | [
"Panthera leo",
"African lion",
"the lion",
"Asiatic lion"
]
|
36,897 | 1,100,608,932 | Gruyères | [
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"plaintext": "Gruyères (; ; ) is a town in the district of Gruyère in the canton of Fribourg in Switzerland.",
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"plaintext": "The medieval town is an important tourist location in the upper valley of the Saane/Sarine river, and gives its name to Gruyère cheese. The medieval town is located at the top of high hill overlooking the Saane valley and the Lake of Gruyère.",
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"plaintext": "Gruyères has an area, , of . Of this area, or 40.5% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 50.0% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 5.5% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.8% is either rivers or lakes and or 3.2% is unproductive land.",
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"plaintext": "Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.5% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.1%. Out of the forested land, 46.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 2.7% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 4.6% is used for growing crops and 12.9% is pastures and 22.9% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.",
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"plaintext": "Gruyères is above sea level, south-south-east of the district capital Bulle. The historical town is placed on top of an isolated hill north of the alps, in the foothills of mount Moléson. It is also the location where the Saane river (French name: Sarine) leaves the Fribourg alps.",
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"plaintext": "The area of the municipality comprises a section of the Saane valley and of the Fribourg alps. The central part of the area is the plains of Alluvial ( above sea level) next to the alps, between Gruyères and Broc, from which the hill of Gruyères rises to above sea level. From the west, the brook Trême meets the Saane. East of the Saane, the municipality area ends in a small corner, bordered by the ridges of Dent de Broc ( above sea level) in the north and Dent du Chamois ( above sea level) in the south, ending at the valley of Motélon. The two peaks with their saddle between them are a popular subject for photographs of Gruyères.",
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"plaintext": "Southwest of Gruyères, the municipality comprises most of the catchment area of the brook Albeuve, which originates on the flanks of mount Moléson. The top of mount Moléson is the highest point of the municipality, reaching above sea level. West of the Moléson, the densely wooded right valley side of the Trême and the terrace of La Part Dieu belong to Gruyères.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality of Gruyères also comprises the two villages of Épagny ( above sea level) to the north and Pringy ( above sea level) to the west of the town hill. Further, the small village Saussivue ( above sea level) to the south and the holiday settlement Moléson-Village (above sea level) in the valley of the Albeuve in the foothills of mount Moléson as well as several isolated farms. Neighbour municipalities of Gruyères are Broc, Charmey, Bas-Intyamon, Haut-Intyamon, Semsales, Vaulruz, Vuadens, Bulle, La Tour-de-Trême and Le Pâquier.",
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"plaintext": "Gruyères has a population () of . , 14.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 21.2%. Migration accounted for 17.5%, while births and deaths accounted for 4.2%.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the population () speaks French (1,398 or 90.4%) as their first language, German is the second most common (60 or 3.9%) and Portuguese is the third (18 or 1.2%). There are 7 people who speak Italian and 2 people who speak Romansh.",
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"plaintext": ", the population was 50.6% male and 49.4% female. The population was made up of 760 Swiss men (42.0% of the population) and 154 (8.5%) non-Swiss men. There were 764 Swiss women (42.3%) and 130 (7.2%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 508 or about 32.9% were born in Gruyères and lived there in 2000. There were 598 or 38.7% who were born in the same canton, while 194 or 12.5% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 182 or 11.8% were born outside of Switzerland.",
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"plaintext": ", children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 29.7% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 55% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 15.3%.",
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"plaintext": ", there were 684 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 710 married individuals, 94 widows or widowers and 58 individuals who are divorced.",
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"plaintext": ", there were 581 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.5 persons per household. There were 176 households that consist of only one person and 53 households with five or more people. , a total of 562 apartments (64.4% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 257 apartments (29.5%) were seasonally occupied and 53 apartments (6.1%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 2.2 new units per 1000 residents. The vacancy rate for the municipality, , was 0.74%.",
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"plaintext": "Gruyères has always been a rural town. Agricultural products from the surroundings were processed and brought to the market here. Formerly, the focus was on trading cheese and small and big animals. There were several mills and sawmills and since the 18th century a gunpowder factory. Until the beginning of the 20th century, straw-twisting was also rather important.",
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"plaintext": "Agriculture is still specialized in milk production and cattle-breeding. It delivers raw materials for the cheese production and meat treating. Most important is Gruyère cheese. Forestry is also a factor, but tillage is less applied. In secondary sector, there are cabinetmaking, precision mechanics and craftworks. Services has a lot of jobs to offer in gastronomics and hotels. The villages of Epagny and Pringy have in the last years become a living place for commuters, mostly working in the town of Bulle.",
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"plaintext": ", Gruyères had an unemployment rate of 2.5%. , there were 59 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 19 businesses involved in this sector. 229 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 27 businesses in this sector. 447 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 69 businesses in this sector. There were 757 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which women made up 42.8% of the workforce.",
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"plaintext": " the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 601. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 44, of which 39 were in agriculture and 5 were in forestry or lumber production. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 215 of which 120 or (55.8%) were in manufacturing and 95 (44.2%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 342. In the tertiary sector; 62 or 18.1% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 33 or 9.6% were in the movement and storage of goods, 131 or 38.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 1 was in the information industry, 3 or 0.9% were technical professionals or scientists, 35 or 10.2% were in education and 45 or 13.2% were in health care.",
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"plaintext": ", there were 366 workers who commuted into the municipality and 478 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 1.3 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 7.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 69.7% used a private car.",
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"plaintext": "Graves from the Hallstatt era and La Tène era (325-250 BC) as well as other traces from the Bronze Age were discovered in Epagny. The remains of a Roman era villa from the 2nd-3rd century AD and an Early Middle Ages cemetery were also found nearby. A Roman settlement was probably located on a hill in Gruyères.",
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"plaintext": "Gruyères stands in the midst of the Fribourg green pre-Alpine foothills. The castle towers above the medieval town. Gruerius, the legendary founder of Gruyères, captured a crane (in French: “grue”) and chose it as his heraldic animal, inspiring the name Gruyères. Despite the importance of the House of Gruyères, its beginnings remain quite mysterious. Gruyères is first mentioned around 1138-39 as de Grueri. The town developed beneath the castle, which the Count of Gruyere had built on top of the hill, to control the upper Saanen valley. By 1195-96 it became a market town with a central street and city walls. The town developed separately of the castle. In 1397 Count Rudolph IV of Gruyères confirmed an older town charter that was based on the model of Moudon.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 June 1476 Gruyères participated in the Battle of Morat against Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. With the help of the Old Swiss Confederacy, they routed the Burgundian army and captured three capes of the Order of the Golden Fleece which belonged to Charles the Bold including one with the emblems of Philip the Good, his father. At the time of the battle he was celebrating the anniversary of the death of his father.",
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"plaintext": "The town church of Gruyères originally belonged to the parish of Bulle. Count Rudolph III allowed the villages on the left bank of the Saane to build St. Theodul's church. When it was dedicated in 1254, it was the parish church of the new Gruyères parish. The Counts of Gruyères were buried under the altar of St. Michael in the church. It was mostly destroyed in 1670 and again in 1856 by fire, which only left the choir and tower undamaged. The renovated church was consecrated in 1860. In addition to the parish church, the Counts had the Chapel of St. John the Baptist in the castle, with two glass windows dating from the late 15th century. The Chapel of St. Moritz in the old hospital was built with the hospital in 1431. The Chapelle du Berceau was built in 1612, following a plague that killed 140.",
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"plaintext": "During the Thirty Years' War, nuns from St. Bernard and the Visitation Order fled from Besançon and Dole to settle in Gruyères. The latter remained in town between 1639 and 1651 and conducted a private school. Starting in the 15th century a primary school opened in town which was open mainly to boys. A secondary school opened in town in the 20th century but it moved in 1973 to Bulle. Gruyères had a plague house which was first mentioned in 1341. The town's hospital was founded in the mid-15th century and remained in operation until the second half of the 19th century. One side of the hospital building housed the primary school until 1988 and was then renovated into a nursing home. Between 1891 and 1925 the Ingenbohl sisters ran the Deaf and Dumb Institute of Saint-Joseph in Gruyères. In 1925 it moved to Fribourg.",
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"plaintext": "Nineteen counts are accounted for in the period between the 11th and 16th centuries. The last of them, Michel, had been in financial trouble almost all his life only to end in bankruptcy in 1554. His creditors the cantons of Fribourg and Bern shared his earldom between them. From 1555 to 1798 the castle became residence to the bailiffs and then to the prefects sent by Fribourg. In 1849 the castle was put up for sale and sold to the Bovy and Balland families, who stayed at the castle during summer time and restored it with the help of their painter friends. The castle was then bought back by the canton of Fribourg in 1938, made into a museum and opened to the public. Since 1993, a foundation ensures the conservation as well as the highlighting of the building and the collection.",
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"plaintext": "the House at Rue du Bourg 7 ",
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"plaintext": "the House at Rue du Bourg 39 and the House dite de Chalamala at Rue du Bourg 47 are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance ",
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"plaintext": "The Former Chartreuse De La Part-Dieu ",
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"plaintext": "The entire village of Gruyères and the La Part-Dieu area are part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.",
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"plaintext": "Gruyère cheese is an important factor in supporting the tourist trade in the region. A major tourist attraction is the medieval town of Gruyères with its castle, containing a regional museum and an arts museum. There are cultural activities in the castle (concerts, theater). There is a cheese factory in Pringy which is open to visitors. Nearby is Mont Moléson, a mountain suitable for climbing, or for the less athletic there is a cablecar to the summit which was rebuilt in 1998. The resort town Moléson-Village caters for both summer and winter tourism.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998 Swiss surrealist painter, sculptor and set designer HR Giger acquired the Saint-Germain Castle, and it now houses the H. R. Giger Museum, a permanent repository of his work and is a popular tourist destination. Next to this, there is a museum holding antiquities from Tibet.",
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"plaintext": "The castle was constructed between 1270 and 1282 in the typical square plan of the fortifications in Savoy. The end of the 15th century stands out as the golden age in the history of the counts. In 1476, count Louis takes part in the Burgundy war by the Confederates’ side. Following this deed of valour, modernization works were undertaken. The adjustment of the esplanade with its chapel, the spiral staircase in the courtyard and the transformation of the main building go back to that time. Thus, the castle loses its fortress appearance to become a stately residence. The baroque interiors remind one of the time when the bailiffs sent by Fribourg lived there. The romantic landscapes were painted in the mid-19th century by Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Barthélemy Menn and other artists.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the SP which received 28.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (21.5%), the SVP (20.7%) and the FDP (14.4%).",
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"plaintext": "The SPS improved their position in Gruyères rising to first, from third in 2007 (with 21.4%) The CVP moved from first in 2007 (with 27.9%) to second in 2011, the SVP moved from second in 2007 (with 25.0%) to third and the FDP retained about the same popularity (15.9% in 2007). A total of 609 votes were cast in this election, of which 6 or 1.0% were invalid.",
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"plaintext": "From the , 1,261 or 81.6% were Roman Catholic, while 92 or 6.0% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 10 members of an Orthodox church (or about 0.65% of the population), and there were 43 individuals (or about 2.78% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 2 individuals (or about 0.13% of the population) who were Jewish, and 32 (or about 2.07% of the population) who were Islamic. There was 1 individual who belonged to another church. 74 (or about 4.79% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 51 individuals (or about 3.30% of the population) did not answer the question.",
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"plaintext": "In Gruyères about 456 or (29.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 155 or (10.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 155 who completed tertiary schooling, 61.9% were Swiss men, 24.5% were Swiss women, 10.3% were non-Swiss men and 3.2% were non-Swiss women.",
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"plaintext": "The Canton of Fribourg school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school. The upper Secondary school is divided into gymnasium (university preparatory) and vocational programs. After they finish the upper Secondary program, students may choose to attend a Tertiary school or continue their apprenticeship.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 240 students attending 18 classes in Gruyères. A total of 363 students from the municipality attended any school, either in the municipality or outside of it. There was one kindergarten class with a total of 17 students in the municipality. The municipality had 7 primary classes and 149 students. During the same year, there were 3 lower secondary classes with a total of 31 students. There were 2 vocational upper Secondary classes and were 5 upper Secondary classes, with 40 upper Secondary students and 3 vocational upper Secondary students The municipality had no non-university Tertiary classes, but there were 3 specialized Tertiary students who attended classes in another municipality.",
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"plaintext": ", there were 31 students in Gruyères who came from another municipality, while 109 residents attended schools outside the municipality.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch on the Orontes (; , Antiókheia hē epì Oróntou; also Syrian Antioch) was a Hellenistic city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. Its ruins lie near the current city of Antakya, Turkey, to which the ancient city lends its name.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch was founded near the end of the fourth century BCE by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals. The city's location offered geographical, military, and economic benefits to its occupants; Antioch was heavily involved in the spice trade and lay within easy reach of the Silk Road and the Royal Road. During the late Hellenistic period and Early Roman period, Antioch's population reached its peak of over 500,000 inhabitants (estimates generally are 200,000–250,000), making the city the third largest in the Empire after Rome and Alexandria. The city was the capital of the Seleucid Empire until 63 BCE, when the Romans took control, making it the seat of the governor of the province of Syria. From the early fourth century, the city was the seat of the Count of the Orient, head of the regional administration of sixteen provinces. It was also the main center of Hellenistic Judaism at the end of the Second Temple period. Antioch was one of the most important cities in the eastern Mediterranean half of the Roman Empire. It covered almost within the walls of which one quarter was mountain, leaving about one-fifth the area of Rome within the Aurelian Walls.",
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"plaintext": "In the Orontes, north of the city, lay a large island, and on this Seleucus II Callinicus began a third walled \"city\", which was finished by Antiochus III the Great. A fourth and last quarter was added by Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175–164BC); thenceforth Antioch was known as Tetrapolis. From west to east the whole was about in diameter and a little less from north to south. This area included many large gardens.",
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"plaintext": "The new city was populated by a mix of local settlers that Athenians brought from the nearby city of Antigonia, Macedonians, and Jews (who were given full status from the beginning). According to ancient tradition, Antioch was settled by 5,500 Athenians and Macedonians, together with an unknown number of native Syrians. This number probably refers to free adult citizens, so that the total number of free Greek settlers including women and children was probably between 17,000 and 25,000.",
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"plaintext": "About west and beyond the suburb Heraclea lay the paradise of Daphne, a park of woods and waters, in the midst of which rose a great temple to the Pythian Apollo, also founded by Seleucus I and enriched with a cult-statue of the god, as Musagetes, by Bryaxis. A companion sanctuary of Hecate was constructed underground by Diocletian. The beauty and the lax morals of Daphne were celebrated all over the ancient world; and indeed Antioch as a whole shared in both these titles to fame.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch became the capital and court-city of the western Seleucid Empire under Antiochus I, its counterpart in the east being Seleucia; but its paramount importance dates from the battle of Ancyra (240BC), which shifted the Seleucid centre of gravity from Anatolia, and led indirectly to the rise of Pergamon.",
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"plaintext": "The Seleucids reigned from Antioch. We know little of it in the Hellenistic period, apart from Syria, all our information coming from authors of the late Roman time. Among its great Greek buildings we hear only of the theatre, of which substructures still remain on the flank of Silpius, and of the royal palace, probably situated on the island. It enjoyed a reputation for being \"a populous city, full of most erudite men and rich in the most liberal studies\", but the only names of distinction in these pursuits during the Seleucid period that have come down to us are Apollophanes, the Stoic, and one Phoebus, a writer on dreams. The nicknames which they gave to their later kings were Aramaic; and, except Apollo and Daphne, the great divinities of north Syria seem to have remained essentially native, such as the \"Persian Artemis\" of Meroe and Atargatis of Hierapolis Bambyce.",
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"plaintext": "The epithet \"Golden\" suggests that the external appearance of Antioch was impressive, but the city needed constant restoration owing to the seismic disturbances to which the district has always been subjected. The first great earthquake in recorded history was related by the native chronicler John Malalas. It occurred in 148BC and did immense damage.",
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"plaintext": "Local politics were turbulent. In the many dissensions of the Seleucid house the population took sides, and frequently rose in rebellion, for example against Alexander Balas in 147BC, and Demetrius II Nicator in 129BC. The latter, enlisting a body of Jews, punished his capital with fire and sword. In the last struggles of the Seleucid house, Antioch turned against its feeble rulers, invited Tigranes the Great to occupy the city in 83BC, tried to unseat Antiochus XIII Asiaticus in 65BC, and petitioned Rome against his restoration in the following year. Antioch's wish prevailed, and it passed with Syria to the Roman Republic in 64BC, but remained a civitas libera.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman emperors favored the city from the first moments, seeing it as a more suitable capital for the eastern part of the empire than Alexandria could be, because of the isolated position of Egypt. To a certain extent they tried to make it an eastern Rome. Julius Caesar visited it in 47BC, and confirmed its freedom. A great temple to Jupiter Capitolinus rose on Silpius, probably at the insistence of Octavian, whose cause the city had espoused. A forum of Roman type was laid out. Tiberius built two long colonnades on the south towards Silpius.",
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"plaintext": "Strabo, writing in the reign of Augustus and the first years of Tiberius, states that Antioch is not much smaller than Seleucia and Alexandria; Alexandria had been said by Diodorus Siculus in the mid-1st Century BC to have 300,000 free inhabitants, which would mean that Antioch was about this size in Strabo's time.",
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"plaintext": "Agrippa and Tiberius enlarged the theatre, and Trajan finished their work. Antoninus Pius paved the great east to west artery with granite. A circus, other colonnades and great numbers of baths were built, and new aqueducts to supply them bore the names of Caesars, the finest being the work of Hadrian. The Roman client, King Herod (most likely the great builder Herod the Great), erected a long stoa on the east, and Agrippa (–12BC) encouraged the growth of a new suburb south of this.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most famous urban additions to Antioch, done by the Romans probably under Augustus when the city had more than half a million inhabitants, was the Circus of Antioch: it was a Roman hippodrome. Used for chariot racing, it was modelled on the Circus Maximus in Rome and other circus buildings throughout the empire. Measuring more than in length and of width, the Circus could house up to 80,000 spectators.",
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"plaintext": "Zarmanochegas (Zarmarus) a monk of the Sramana tradition of India, according to Strabo and Dio Cassius, met Nicholas of Damascus in Antioch around 13AD as part of a Mission to Augustus. At Antioch Germanicus died in 19AD, and his body was burnt in the forum.",
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"plaintext": "An earthquake that shook Antioch in AD 37 caused the emperor Caligula to send two senators to report on the condition of the city. Another quake followed in the next reign.",
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"plaintext": "Titus set up the Cherubim, captured from the Jewish temple, over one of the gates.",
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"plaintext": "In 115 AD, during Trajan's travel there during his war against Parthia, the whole site was convulsed by a huge earthquake. The landscape altered, and the emperor himself was forced to take shelter in the circus for several days. He and his successor restored the city, but the population was reduced to less than 400,000 inhabitants and many sections of the city were abandoned.",
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"plaintext": "Commodus (r. 177–192 AD) had Olympic games celebrated at Antioch.",
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"plaintext": "In 256 AD, the town was suddenly raided by the Persians under Shapur I, and many of the people were slain in the theatre. It was recaptured by the Roman emperor Valerian the following year.",
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"plaintext": "When the emperor Julian visited in 362 on a detour to Persia, he had high hopes for Antioch, regarding it as a rival to the imperial capital of Constantinople. Antioch had a mixed pagan and Christian population, which Ammianus Marcellinus implies lived quite harmoniously together. However Julian's visit began ominously as it coincided with a lament for Adonis, the doomed lover of Aphrodite. Thus, Ammianus wrote, the emperor and his soldiers entered the city not to the sound of cheers but to wailing and screaming.",
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"plaintext": "After being advised that the bones of 3rd-century martyred bishop Babylas were suppressing the oracle of Apollo at Daphne, he made a public-relations mistake in ordering the removal of the bones from the vicinity of the temple. The result was a massive Christian procession. Shortly after that, when the temple was destroyed by fire, Julian suspected the Christians and ordered stricter investigations than usual. He also shut up the chief Christian church of the city, before the investigations proved that the fire was the result of an accident.",
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"plaintext": "Julian found much else about which to criticize the Antiochene; Julian had wanted the empire's cities to be more self-managing, as they had been some 200 years before. However Antioch's city councilmen showed themselves unwilling to shore up Antioch's food shortage with their own resources, so dependent were they on the emperor. Ammianus wrote that the councilmen shirked their duties by bribing unwitting men in the marketplace to do the job for them.",
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"plaintext": "The city's impiety to the old religion was clear to Julian when he attended the city's annual feast of Apollo. To his surprise and dismay the only Antiochene present was an old priest clutching a goose.",
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"plaintext": "The Antiochenes in turn hated Julian for worsening the food shortage with the burden of his billeted troops, wrote Ammianus. The soldiers were often to be found gorged on sacrificial meat, making a drunken nuisance of themselves on the streets while Antioch's hungry citizens looked on in disgust. The Christian Antiochenes and Julian's pagan Gallic soldiers also never quite saw eye to eye.",
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"plaintext": "Julian's piety was distasteful to the Antiochenes, even to those who kept the old religion. Julian's brand of paganism was very much unique to himself, with little support outside the most educated Neoplatonist circles. The irony of Julian's enthusiasm for large scale animal sacrifice could not have escaped the hungry Antiochenes. Julian gained no admiration for his personal involvement in the sacrifices, only the nickname axeman, wrote Ammianus.",
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"plaintext": "The emperor's high-handed, severe methods and his rigid administration prompted Antiochene lampoons about, among other things, Julian's unfashionably pointed beard.",
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"plaintext": "Julian's successor, Valens, who endowed Antioch with a new forum, including a statue of Valentinian on a central column, reopened the great church of Constantine, which stood until the Persian sack in 538, by Chosroes.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch was a chief center of early Christianity during Roman times. The city had a large population of Jewish origin in a quarter called the Kerateion, and so attracted the earliest missionaries. Evangelized, among others, by Peter himself, according to the tradition upon which the Patriarch of Antioch still rests its claim for primacy, and certainly later by Barnabas and Paul. Its converts were the first to be called Christians. This is not to be confused with Antioch in Pisidia, to which Barnabas and Paul later travelled.",
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"plaintext": "Surrounding the city were a number of Greek, Syrian, Armenian, and Latin monasteries. Between 252 and 300 AD, ten assemblies of the church were held at Antioch and it became the seat of one of the five original patriarchates, along with Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Rome (see Pentarchy).",
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"plaintext": "John Chrysostom writes that when Ignatius of Antioch was bishop in the city, the dêmos, probably meaning the number of free adult men and women without counting children and slaves, numbered 200,000. In a letter written in 363, Libanius says the city contains 150,000 anthrôpoi, a word which would ordinarily mean all human beings of any age, sex, or social status, seemingly indicating a decline in the population since the 1st Century. Chrysostom also says in one of his homilies on the Gospel of Matthew, which were delivered between 386 and 393, that in his own time there were 100,000 Christians in Antioch, a figure which may refer to orthodox Christians who belonged to the Great Church as opposed to members of other groups such as Arians and Apollinarians, or to all Christians of any persuasion.",
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"plaintext": "The Maronite Catholic Church's patriarch is called the Patriarch of Antioch and all the East. He currently resides in Bkerke - Lebanon. The Maronites continue the Antiochene liturgical tradition and the use of the Syrian-Aramaic (Syro-Aramaic or Western Aramaic) language in their liturgies.",
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"plaintext": "One of the canonical Eastern Orthodox churches is still called the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch, although it moved its headquarters from Antioch to Damascus, Syria, several centuries ago (see list of Patriarchs of Antioch), and its prime bishop retains the title \"Patriarch of Antioch\", somewhat analogous to the manner in which several Popes, heads of the Roman Catholic Church remained \"Bishop of Rome\" even while residing in Avignon, France in the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": "Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch and All the East, is an Oriental Orthodox Church with autocephalous patriarchate founded by Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the 1st century, according to its tradition. The Syriac Orthodox Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, a distinct communion of churches claiming to continue the patristic and Apostolic Christology before the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451.",
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"plaintext": "In 387 AD, there was a great sedition caused by a new tax levied by order of Theodosius I, and the city was punished by the loss of its metropolitan status. He divided the Roman Empire, and since then Antioch was under Constantinople's rule.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch and its port, Seleucia Pieria, were severely damaged by the great earthquake of 526. Seleucia Pieria, which was already fighting a losing battle against continual silting, never recovered. Justinian I renamed Antioch Theopolis (\"City of God\") and restored many of its public buildings, but the destructive work was completed by the Persian king, Khosrau I, twelve years later, who deported the population to a newly built city in Persian Mesopotamia, Weh Antiok Khosrow. Antioch lost as many as 300,000 people. Justinian I made an effort to revive it, and Procopius describes his repairing of the walls; but its glory was past.",
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"plaintext": "During the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 the Emperor Heraclius confronted the invading Persian army of Khosrow II outside Antioch in 613. The Byzantines were defeated by forces under the generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin Vahmanzadegan at the Battle of Antioch, after which the city fell to the Sassanians, together with much of Syria and eastern Anatolia.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch gave its name to a certain school of Christian thought, distinguished by literal interpretation of the Scriptures and insistence on the human limitations of Jesus. Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were the leaders of this school. The principal local saint was Simeon Stylites, who lived an extremely ascetic life atop a pillar for 40years some east of Antioch. His body was brought to the city and buried in a building erected under the emperor Leo. During the Byzantine era great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centers such as Constantinople and Antioch.",
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"plaintext": "In 637, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, Antioch was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate during the Battle of the Iron Bridge. The city became known in Arabic as . Since the Umayyad dynasty was unable to penetrate the Anatolian plateau, Antioch found itself on the frontline of the conflicts between two hostile empires during the next 350years, so that the city went into a precipitous decline.",
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"plaintext": "In 969, the city was recovered for the Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas by Michael Bourtzes and the stratopedarches Peter. It soon became the seat of a doux, the civil governor of the homonymous theme, but also the seat of the somewhat more important Domestic of the Schools of the Orient, the supreme military commander of the imperial forces on the eastern frontier. Sometimes both offices were held by the same person, usually military officers such as Nikephoros Ouranos, or Philaretos Brachamios, who managed to retain the integrity of the eastern borderline after the Seljuk conquest of Anatolia. As the empire disintegrated rapidly before the Komnenian restoration, Dux of Antioch & Domestic of the Schools of the East Philaretos Brachamios held the city until Suleiman ibn Qutalmish, the emir of Rum, captured it from him in 1084. Two years later, Suleiman was killed fighting against Tutush, the brother of the Seljuk Sultan, who annexed the city into the Seljuk empire. Yagisiyan was appointed governor and became increasingly independent within the tumtuluous years following Malik-Shah's death in 1092.",
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"plaintext": "The Crusaders' Siege of Antioch conquered the city in June 1098 on their way to Jerusalem. At this time, the bulk of far eastern trade traveled through Egypt, but in the second half of the 12th century Nur ed-Din and later Saladin brought order to Muslim Syria, opening up long-distance trade routes, including to Antioch and on to its new port, St Symeon, which had replaced Seleucia Pieria. However, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century altered the main trade routes from the far east, as they encouraged merchants to take the overland route through Mongol territory to the Black Sea, reducing the prosperity of Antioch.",
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"plaintext": "In 1100, Tancred became the regent of Antioch after his uncle and predecessor Bohemond I of Antioch was taken prisoner for three years (1100–03) by Gazi Gümüshtigin of the Danishmends at the Battle of Melitene. Tancred expanded the territory of Antioch by conquering Byzantine Cilicia, Tarsus, and Adana in 1101 and founding the principality, Byzantine Latakia, in 1103. In 1107 Bohemond enraged by an earlier defeat when he, allianced with Edessa, attacked Aleppo, and Baldwin of Bourcq and Joscelin of Courtenay (Bourcq's most powerful vassal) were briefly captured, as well as the Byzantines recapturing of Cilicia and the harbor and lower town of Lattakieh, he renamed Tancred as the regent of Antioch and sailed for Europe with the intent of gaining support for an attack against the Greeks.",
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"plaintext": "From 1107 to 1108, Bohemond led a 'crusade' against Byzantium, with the Latins crossing the Adriatic in October 1107 and laying siege to the city of Durrës (in modern Albania), which is often regarded as the western gate of the Greek empire. Bohemond was outwitted by Alexius, who deployed his forces to cut the invaders' supply lines whilst avoiding direct confrontation. The Latins were weakened by hunger and proved unable to break the defenses of Durrës. Bohemond capitulated in September 1108 and was forced to accede to a peace accord, the Treaty of Devol. The terms of this agreement stipulated that Bohemond was to hold Antioch for the remainder of his life as the emperor's subject and the Greek patriarch was to be restored to power in the city. However Tancred refused to honor the Treaty of Devol in which Bohemond swore an oath, and it is not until 1158 that it truly became a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire. Six months after the Treaty of Devol Bohemond died, and Tancred remained regent of Antioch until his death during a typhoid epidemic in 1112.",
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"plaintext": "After the death of Tancred, the principality passed to Roger of Salerno, who helped rebuild Antioch after an earthquake destroyed its foundations in 1114. With the defeat of Roger's crusading army and his death at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis in 1119 the role of regent was assumed by Baldwin II of Jerusalem, lasting until 1126, with the exception from 1123 to 1124 when he was briefly captured by the Artuqids and held captive alongside Joscelin of Courtenay. In 1126 Bohemond II arrived from Apulia in order to gain regency over Antioch. In February 1130 Bohemond was lured into an ambush by Leo I, Prince of Armenia who allied with the Danishmend Gazi Gümüshtigin, and was killed in the subsequent battle, his head was then embalmed, placed in a silver box, and sent as a gift to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch was again ruled by a regency, firstly being Baldwin II, after his daughter and Bohemond II's wife, Alice of Antioch attempted to block Baldwin from entering Antioch, but failed when Antiochene nobles such as Fulk of Jerusalem (Alice's brother-in-law) opened up the gates for representatives of Baldwin II. Alice was then expelled from Antioch. With the death of Balwin in 1131, Alice briefly took control of Antioch and allied herself with Pons of Tripoli and Joscelin II of Edessa in an attempt to prevent Fulk, King of Jerusalem from marching north in 1132, however this attempt failed and Fulk and Pons fought a brief battle before peace was made and Alice was exiled again. In 1133 the king chose Raymond of Poitiers as a groom for Constance of Antioch, daughter of Bohemund II of Antioch and Alice, princess of Jerusalem. The marriage took place in 1136 between the 21-year-old Raymond and the 9-year-old Constance.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately after assuming control, Raymond was involved in conflicts with the Byzantine Emperor John II Comnenus who had come south to recover Cilicia from Leo of Armenia, and to reassert his rights over Antioch. The engagement lasted until 1137 when emperor John II arrived with an army before the walls of Antioch. Although the basileus did not enter the city, his banner was raised atop the citadel and Raymond was compelled to do homage. Raymond agreed with the emperor that if he was capable of capturing Aleppo, Shaizar, and Homs, he would exchange Antioch for them.",
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"plaintext": "John went on to attack Aleppo with the aid of Antioch and Edessa, and failed to capture it, with the Franks withdrawing their support when he moved on to capture Shaizar. John returned to Antioch ahead of his army and entered Antioch, only to be forced to leave when Joscelin II, Count of Edessa rallied the citizens to oust him. In 1142 John then returned but Raymond refused to submit and John was forced to return to Cilicia again due to the coming winter, to plan an attack the following season. However the emperor died on April 8, 1143.",
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"plaintext": "The following year after the death of John II Comnenus, Imad ad-Din Zengi lay siege to Edessa, the crusader capital, and with the death of Imad ad-Din Zengi in 1146, he was succeeded by his son, Nur ad-Din Zangi. Zangi attacked Antioch in both 1147 and 1148 and succeeded during the second venture in occupying most of the territory east of the Orontes including Artah, Kafar Latha, Basarfut, and Balat, but failing to capture Antioch itself. With the Second Crusades army previously nearly entirely defeated by the Turks and by sickness, Louis VII of France arrived in Antioch on March 19, 1148, after being delayed by storms. Louis was welcomed by the uncle of his spouse Eleanor of Aquitaine, Raymond of Poitiers.",
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"plaintext": "Louis refused to help Antioch defend against the Turks and to lead an expedition against Aleppo, and instead decided to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the Crusades. With Louis quickly leaving Antioch again and the Crusades returning home in 1149, Nur ad-Din launched an offensive against the territories which were dominated by the Castle of Harim, situated on the eastern bank of the Orontes, after which Nur besieged the castle of Inab. Raymond of Poitiers quickly came to the aid of the citadel, where he was defeated and killed at the Battle of Inab, Raymond's head was then cut off and sent to Nur, who sent it to the caliph in Baghdad. However, Nur ad-Din did not attack Antioch itself and was content with capturing all of Antiochene territory that lay east of the Orontes.",
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"plaintext": "With Raymond dead and Bohemond III only five years of age, the principality came under the control of Raymond's widow Constance of Antioch, however real control lay with Aimery of Limoges. In 1152 Baldwin III of Jerusalem came of age, but from 1150 he had proposed three different but respectable suitors for Constance's hand in marriage, all of whom she rejected. In 1153 however, she chose Raynald of Châtillon and married him in secret without consulting her first cousin and liege lord, Baldwin III, and neither Baldwin nor Aimery of Limoges approved of her choice.",
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"plaintext": "In 1156 Raynald claimed that the Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus had reneged on his promises to pay Raynald a sum of money, and vowed to attack the island of Cyprus in revenge. However Aimery refused to finance Raynald's expedition, so in turn Raynald had the Patriarch seized, beaten, stripped naked, covered in honey, and had him left in the burning sun on top of the citadel to be attacked by insects. When the Patriarch was released, he collapsed in exhaustion and agreed to finance Raynald's expedition.",
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"plaintext": "In the meantime, Raynald had allied himself with the Armenian prince, Thoros II. In 1156 Raynald's forces attacked Cyprus, ravaging the island over a three-week period, with rapine, killing, and plundering its citizens. After which, Manuel I Comnenus raised an army and began their march towards Syria, as a result Raynald threw himself to the mercy of the emperor who insisted on the installation of a Greek Patriarch and the surrender of the citadel in Antioch. The following spring, Manuel made a triumphant entry into the city and established himself as the unquestioned suzerain of Antioch.",
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"plaintext": "In 1160 Raynald was captured by Muslims during a plundering raid against the Syrian and Armenian peasants of the neighborhood of Marash. He was held captive for sixteen years, and as the stepfather of the Empress Maria, he was ransomed by Manuel for 120,000 gold dinars in 1176 (about 500kg of gold, worth approximately £16million or US$26million ). With Raynald disposed of for a long time, the patriarch Aimery became the new regent, chosen by Baldwin III. To further consolidate his own claim over Antioch, Manuel chose Maria of Antioch as his bride, daughter of Constance of Antioch and Raymond of Poitiers. But the government of Antioch remained in crisis up until 1163, when Constance asked the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia to help maintain her rule, as a result the citizens of Antioch exiled her and installed her son Bohemond III and now brother-in-law to the emperor, as regent.",
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"plaintext": "One year later, Nur ad-Din Zangi captured Bohemond III when he defeated a joint Antiochene-Tripolitan army. Bohemond III was soon released, however Harem, Syria which Raynald had recaptured in 1158, was lost again and the frontier of Antioch was permanently placed west of the Orontes. Byzantine influence remained in Antioch and in 1165, Bohemond III married a niece of the emperor, Maria of Antioch, and installed a Greek patriarch in the city, Athanasius II, Patriarch of Antioch, who remained in his position until he died in an earthquake five years later.",
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"plaintext": "On October 29, 1187, Pope Gregory VIII issued the papal bull Audita tremendi, his call for the Third Crusade. Frederick I Barbarossa, Richard I of England, and Philip II of France answered the summons. With Richard and Philip deciding to take a sea route, Frederick lacked the necessary ships and took a land route where he pushed on through Anatolia, defeating the Turks in the Battle of Iconium, however upon reaching Christian territory in Lesser Armenia (Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia) the emperor drowned in the river Saleph. The emperor was buried at Antioch and the Germans became an insignificant contingent during the crusade. Throughout the Third Crusade Antioch remained neutral, however with the end of the Third Crusade (1192), they were included in the Treaty of Ramla between Richard and Saladin.",
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"plaintext": "With no heir after the death of Raymond III, Count of Tripoli in the Battle of Hattin he left his godson, Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli, the eldest son of Bohemond III. However Bohemond installed his younger, the future prince Bohemond IV of Antioch, as count of Tripoli. Shortly after the end of the Third Crusade, Raymond IV, Count of Tripoli married Alice of Armenia, the niece of Leo II, or Leo I, King of Armenia, and a vassal to Antioch. Alice bore Raymond IV a son in 1199, Raymond-Roupen, after which Raymond IV died in the coming months. In 1194 Leo II tricked Bohemond III making him believe that the new born prince had been captured by the Roupenians. Leo made a failed attempt at capturing Antioch believing the city would be weakened with the absence of Bohemond.",
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"plaintext": "Henry II, Count of Champagne nephew to both Richard I and Philip II, travelled to Lesser Armenia and managed to persuade Leo that in exchange for Antioch, renouncing its overlordship to Lesser Armenia and to release Bohemond, who in 1201 died. With the death of Bohemond III there followed a 15-year struggle for power of Antioch, between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia. According to the rules of primogeniture Leo's great nephew Raymond-Roupen was the rightful heir of Antioch, and Leo's position was supported by the pope. However, on the other hand, the city commune of Antioch supported Bohemond IV of Antioch, on the grounds that he was the closest blood relative to the last ruling prince, Bohemond III. In 1207 Bohemond IV installed a Greek patriarch in Antioch, despite the East-West Schism, under the help of Aleppo, Bohemond IV drove Leo out of Antioch.",
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"plaintext": "In 1213 Pope Innocent III's papal bull Quia maior called for all of Christendom to lead a new (Fifth) crusade. This strengthened the support of sultan al-Adil I, an Ayyubid-Egyptian general who supported Raymond-Roupen's claims in Antioch. In 1216 Leo installed Raymond-Roupen as prince of Antioch, and ending all military aspect of the struggle between Tripoli and Lesser Armenia, but the citizens again revolted against Raymond-Roupen in and Bohemond of Tripoli was recognised as the fourth prince of that name. Bohemond IV and his son Bohemond V remained neutral in the struggles of the Guelphs and Ghibellines to the south which arose when Frederich II married Isabella II, and in 1233 Bohemond IV died.",
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"plaintext": "From 1233 onwards Antioch declined and appeared rarely in records for 30years, and in 1254 the altercations of the past between Antioch and Armenia were laid to rest when Bohemond VI of Antioch married the then 17‑year‑old Sibylla of Armenia, and Bohemond VI became a vassal of the Armenian kingdom. Effectively, the Armenian kings ruled Antioch while the prince of Antioch resided in Tripoli. The Armenians drew up a treaty with the Mongols, who were now ravaging Muslim lands, and under protection they extended their territory into the lands of the Seljuq dynasty in the north and the Aleppo territory to the south. Antioch was part of this Armeno-Mongol alliance. Bohemond VI managed to retake Lattakieh and reestablished the land bridge between Antioch and Tripoli, while the Mongols insisted he install the Greek patriarch there rather than a Latin one, due to the Mongols attempting to strengthen ties with the Byzantine Empire. This earned Bohemond the enmity of the Latins of Acre, and Bohemond was excommunicated by the Patriarch of Jerusalem, Pope Urban IV, which was later suspended.",
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"plaintext": "In 1259 the Mongols captured the Syrian city of Damascus, and eventually in 1260, Aleppo. The Mamluk sultan Saif ad-Din Qutuz looked to ally with the Franks, who declined. In September 1260, the Mamluks defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut, shortly after Qutuz was assassinated at Al-Salihiyya, and according to various sources his successor Baibars was involved in his murder. (Baibars \"came to power with [the] regicide [of Qutuz] on his conscience\" according to Tschanz.) Despite this, Baibars was named sultan, and in 1263 sacked Nazareth, threatened Antioch with invasion, and appeared before the walls of Acre. In January 1265 Baibars launched an offensive against the Latins, starting with Acre, the capital of the remnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, but was unable to take it, but defeated the Crusaders in many other battles in Arsuf, Athlith, Haifa, etc. And in 1268 Baibars besieged Antioch, capturing the city on May 18. Baibars promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but broke his promise and razed the city, killing or enslaving nearly the entire population upon their surrender.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch's ruler, Prince Bohemond VI was then left with no territories except the County of Tripoli. Without any southern fortifications and with Antioch isolated it could not withstand the onslaught of resurgent Muslim forces, and with the fall of the city, the remainder of northern Syria eventually capitulated, ending the Latin presence in Syria. The Mamluk armies killed or enslaved every Christian in Antioch. In 1355 it still had a considerable population, but by 1432 there were only about 300 inhabited houses within its walls, mostly occupied by Turcomans.",
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"plaintext": "Antioch was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Syria in 1516. It formed a sub-province (sancak) or tax collectorship (muhassıllık) of the province of Aleppo (Aleppo Eyalet). Beginning in the mid-18th century, the district witnessed an influx of Alawite settlers coming from the Latakia area. The famous Barker family of British consuls had a summer home in Suwaydiyya (today's Samandağ), at the mouth of the Orontes River, in the 19th century. Between 1831 and 1840, Antioch was the military headquarters of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt during the Egyptian occupation of Syria, and served as a model site for the modernizing reforms he wished to institute.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1932 and 1939, archaeological excavations of Antioch were undertaken under the direction of the \"Committee for the Excavation of Antioch and Its Vicinity\", which was made up of representatives from the Louvre Museum, the Baltimore Museum of Art, the Worcester Art Museum, Princeton University, Wellesley College, and later (1936) also the Fogg Art Museum at Harvard University and its affiliate Dumbarton Oaks.",
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"plaintext": "The excavation team failed to find the major buildings they hoped to unearth, including Constantine's Great Octagonal Church or the imperial palace. However, a great accomplishment of the expedition was the discovery of high-quality Roman mosaics from villas and baths in Antioch, Daphne and Seleucia Pieria.",
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"plaintext": "The principal excavations of Mosaics at Antioch led by Princeton University in March 1932 recovered nearly 300 mosaics. Many of these mosaics were originally displayed as floor mosaics in private homes during the 2nd through 6th centuries AD, while others were displayed in baths and other public buildings. The majority of the Antioch mosaics are from the fourth and fifth centuries, Antioch's golden age, though others from earlier times have survived as well",
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"plaintext": ". The mosaics depict a variety of images including animals, plants, and mythological beings, as well as scenes from the daily lives of people living in the area at the time. Each mosaic is bordered by intricate designs and contains bold, vibrant colors.",
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"plaintext": "One mosaic includes a border that depicts a walk from Antioch to Daphne, showing many ancient buildings along the way. The mosaics are now displayed in the Hatay Archaeology Museum in Antakya. A collection of mosaics on both secular and sacred subjects which were once in churches, private homes, and other public spaces now hang in the Princeton University Art Museum and museums of other sponsoring institutions.",
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"plaintext": "A statue in the Vatican and a number of figurines and statuettes perpetuate the type of its great patron goddess and civic symbol, the Tyche (Fortune) of Antioch– a majestic seated figure, crowned with the ramparts of Antioch's walls and holding wheat stalks in her right hand, with the river Orontes as a youth swimming under her feet. According to William Robertson Smith the Tyche of Antioch was originally a young virgin sacrificed at the time of the founding of the city to ensure its continued prosperity and good fortune.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2016, archaeologists discovered a Greek mosaic showing a skeleton lying down with a wine pitcher and loaf of bread alongside a text that reads: \"Be cheerful, enjoy your life\", it is reportedly from the 3rd century BC. Described as the \"reckless skeleton\" or \"skeleton mosaic\", the mosaic is once thought to have belonged in the dining room of an upper-class home.",
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"plaintext": "R. Forster (1897). in Jahrbuch of Berlin Arch. Institute, xii.",
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"plaintext": "Wickert, Ulrich (1999). \"Antioch.\" In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 81–82. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, ",
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"plaintext": "The Ancient City of Antioch Map",
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"plaintext": "Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976: \"Antioch on the Orontes (Antaky), Turkey\"",
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"plaintext": "The main purposes of this zoo were to be species conservation, breeding of animals for the San Diego Zoo as well as other zoos and providing areas where zoo animals could be conditioned. When it came to naming the park, five titles were considered: San Diego Animal Land, San Diego Safari Land, San Diego Wild Animal Safari, San Diego Wildlife Park and San Diego Wild Animal Park.",
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"plaintext": "The scheduled opening day of the park was set for April 1, 1972; however, the gates did not open until May 10, 1972. The general layout of the park, designed by Charles Faust, included a large lagoon with a jungle plaza, an African fishing village, an aviary at the entrance of the park and approximately 50,000 plants were to be included in the landscaping. Although the park was scheduled to open in three years from the time of the groundbreaking, the total development of the park was estimated to take ten years.",
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"plaintext": "Species of note in the open enclosures include two subspecies of giraffe, rhinos (it was the last New World zoo to have northern white rhinoceros), vultures, markhor, and many species of antelope, gazelle, and deer.",
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"plaintext": "The Sumatran tigers, Denver and Rakan (male), Joanne, Majel, Cathy, Debbie, and Diana, have three different exhibits, and there is a glass viewing window for visitors. After raising $19.6 million for the new exhibit ground was broken on December 12, 2012. The new exhibit is named the Tull Family Tiger Trail after movie producer Thomas Tull and his wife. Tiger Trail opened May 24, 2014. In August 2017, a Bengal tiger cub named Moka was rescued by border police from a car on the Mexican border and brought to the zoo. ",
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"plaintext": "The exhibits' matriarch, Delta, was euthanized on July 29, 2018, shortly after her birthday, due to old age. The current matriarch is her daughter, Joanne.",
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"plaintext": "The park's Nairobi Village houses numerous exhibits for smaller animals. Among these are meerkats, fruit bats, an African aviary, ring-tailed lemurs, Chilean flamingos, pudú, Kirk's dik-diks, yellow-backed duikers, red river hogs, West African crowned cranes, South American coatis, and white-fronted bee-eaters. A large lagoon is home to numerous species of waterfowl, both foreign and native. Lorikeet Landing and Hidden Jungle display feedable lories and lorikeets, and African birds, respectively. There is a nursery where visitors can watch baby animals being hand-reared as well as a nearby petting corral. Finally, a habitat houses a troop of western lowland gorillas. In 2014, Imami gave birth to Joanne despite a respiratory problem. She and Joanne were treated for 11 days.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019 medical experts collaborated to do cataract surgery on a three-year-old gorilla, Leslie. This was the park's first cataract surgery on a gorilla.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2021, two gorillas were reported to be the first known cases of COVID-19 transmission from humans to apes during the coronavirus pandemic. The gorillas recovered from the virus.",
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"plaintext": "Located in Nairobi Village, this climate-controlled indoor exhibit opened in 1993 and displays tropical African birds and insects. The entrance to the building is a simulated earthen crevasse with displays for stick insects, spiders, scorpions, insects, millipedes, lizards, and snakes. The underground segment opens up to a room representing the rainforest understory, which leads to a second room representing the canopy. On display are long-tailed paradise whydah, purple grenadier, red-crested turaco, African pygmy goose, beautiful sunbird and other birds.",
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"plaintext": "Hidden Jungle is the setting of the annual Butterfly Jungle event.",
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"plaintext": "Opened in October 2004, Lion Camp houses the park's six African lions, Izu, Mina, Oshana and Etosha in a exhibit. The park's two other lions, Ernest and Miss Ellen, were moved to the San Diego Zoo. One side of the enclosure is dominated by an artificial rock kopje which has a glass viewing window and heated rocks. The path continues along an acacia-studded ravine and leads to a replica observation tent. This has a smaller viewing window as well as a Land Rover for the lions to rest on.",
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"plaintext": "Condor Ridge displays endangered North American desert wildlife. The featured species are California condors (the Wild Animal Park was the key force in the recovery effort for these birds and this is one of the only places in the world where the public can see them in captivity) and desert bighorn sheep. Other species displayed include thick-billed parrots, bald eagles, Harris's hawks, burrowing owls, and desert tortoises.",
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"plaintext": "Formerly known as Heart of Africa, these are two of the park's major exhibits. Visitors go down a trail which replicates habitats in Africa. The exhibit begins in African Woods with scrub animals – bontebok, ",
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"plaintext": "vultures such as the Egyptian vulture and the hooded vulture, and giant eland. It then progresses to the forest (okapi, red-flanked duikers, gerenuk, red river hogs, Ns blue cranes). The path then leads to African Outpost, which features plains animals – warthogs, bat eared foxes, Abyssinian ground hornbills, kori bustards, secretarybirds, white storks, yellow-billed storks, cheetahs and nyalas – against a backdrop of the open-range East Africa exhibit. A central lagoon has lesser and greater flamingos, waterfowl, sitatunga, an island with black-and-white colobus monkeys, and an interpretive research camp on a separate island.",
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"plaintext": "The park formerly operated a monorail line, the Wgasa Bush Line, which ran clockwise through the Wild Animal Park. The name of the monorail was chosen by chief designer Chuck Faust.",
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"plaintext": "The Monorail line has been retired, partially due to high maintenance costs, and in March 2007 the Journey into Africa attraction, now renamed Africa Tram, opened. The Africa Tram tour runs counterclockwise and brings visitors to the field exhibits to see wildlife from different parts of Africa. In addition, another route is planned to bring visitors through the Asian field exhibits and into eight new ones that will house a variety of African animals from rock hyrax to Hartmann's mountain zebras. The tour utilizes a wheeled tram that runs on biofuel instead of a monorail.",
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"plaintext": "As well as the tram, the park has also added a tethered balloon ride that allows visitors to see the plains exhibits from (~21 giraffes) in the air. The balloon ride is not included in the entrance fee.",
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"plaintext": "The park also has extensive botanical gardens, many of which are their own attractions separate from the animal exhibits.",
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"plaintext": "Walkabout Australia is the park's only Australia exhibit. It is 3.6 acres and guests can go inside an exhibit which features western grey kangaroos, red-necked wallabies, Australian brushturkeys, radjah shelducks, freckled ducks and magpie geese. Walkabout Australia also has two southern cassowary exhibits, a Matschie's tree-kangaroo exhibit and an animal ambassador area where guests can meet the safari park's Australian animal ambassadors. Walkabout Australia also has a restaurant and a devil's marbles area. It is also home to two platypuses, Birrarung and Eve. The exhibit opened in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "The safari park was a major factor in the recovery of the California condor. Beginning in 1980, it worked with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Los Angeles Zoo to start a captive breeding program. The last 22 condors were taken into captivity in 1987 To breed the condors quickly, the Safari Park would remove the eggs from the nests to induce the females to lay a second egg. The removed egg hatches in an incubator and is raised with a condor handpuppet to prevent human imprinting, while the second egg is raised by its parents. The first condor born through this process is Siscouc, a male condor, who was the patriarch of the flock (last chick, Kitwon). Now that title goes to Siwon. Captive-bred condors were reintroduced into the wild beginning in 1992, and today their population 500, with 200 in the wild as of November 2020.",
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"plaintext": "On December 14, 2014, Angalifu, a 44-year-old male northern white rhinoceros, died of old age at the park. This left only five northern white rhinos left in the world, including one female at the Safari Park.",
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"plaintext": "On November 22, 2015, the park's last northern white rhino, 41-year-old Nola, was euthanized due to bacterial infection and her health rapidly failing.",
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"plaintext": "In June 2019, two young male African elephants named Ingadze and Lutsandvo were sent to Alabama's Birmingham Zoo as part of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums' Species Survival Plan.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 July 2019, the zoo announced the birth of Edward, a male Southern White Rhinoceros, the first rhino in North America born through artificial insemination, born to Victoria and Maoto. The second rhino born through artificial insemination, Future, a female southern White rhinoceros, was also born in the park. On August 12, 2018, the zoo announced the birth of Zuli, a male elephant born to Ndula, the largest calf born at the zoo, of 299 pounds. The record was broken six weeks later by Kaia, a female elephant born to Umngani, at 320 pounds.",
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"plaintext": "The Safari Park has received several awards for its breeding programs and conservation efforts.",
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"Zoos_in_California",
"Parks_in_San_Diego_County,_California",
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| 1,368,242 | 4,664 | 90 | 214 | 0 | 0 | San Diego Wild Animal Park | zoo in San Pasqual Valley area of San Diego, California, United States | [
"San Diego Zoo Safari Park",
"Wild Animal Park",
"The Wild Animal Park"
]
|
36,907 | 1,092,550,228 | Moustapha_Akkad | [
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"plaintext": "Moustapha Al Akkad (; July 1, 1930 November 11, 2005) was a Syrian American film producer and director, best known for producing the original series of Halloween films and directing The Message and Lion of the Desert. He was killed along with his daughter Rima Al Akkad Monla in the 2005 Amman bombings.",
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"plaintext": "Al Akkad was born on July 1, 1930 in Aleppo in the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. He received his high school degree from the Aleppo American College. His father, then a customs officer, gave him $200 and a copy of the Quran before he left for the United States to study film direction and production at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). Akkad spent a further three years studying for a Master's degree at the University of Southern California (USC), where he met the director Sam Peckinpah. Peckinpah became Akkad's mentor in Hollywood and hired him as a consultant for a film about the Algerian War that never made it to the big screen, but he continued to encourage him until he found a job as a producer at CBS.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, he produced and directed Mohammad, Messenger of God (released as The Message in 1977 in the United States), starring Anthony Quinn and Irene Papas. Akkad faced resistance from Hollywood, which forced him to make the film in Morocco.",
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| 243,003 | 500 | 3 | 49 | 0 | 0 | Egg | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,915 | 1,107,849,751 | Arabesque | [
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"plaintext": "The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of \"surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils\" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. Another definition is \"Foliate ornament, used in the Islamic world, typically using leaves, derived from stylised half-palmettes, which were combined with spiralling stems\". It usually consists of a single design which can be 'tiled' or seamlessly repeated as many times as desired. Within the very wide range of Eurasian decorative art that includes motifs matching this basic definition, the term \"arabesque\" is used consistently as a technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from the Renaissance onwards. Interlace and scroll decoration are terms used for most other types of similar patterns. ",
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"plaintext": "Arabesques are a fundamental element of Islamic art but they develop what was already a long tradition by the coming of Islam. The past and current usage of the term in respect of European art is confused and inconsistent. Some Western arabesques derive from Islamic art, but others are closely based on ancient Roman decorations. In the West they are essentially found in the decorative arts, but because of the generally non-figurative nature of Islamic art, arabesque decoration is there often a very prominent element in the most significant works, and plays a large part in the decoration of architecture.",
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"plaintext": "Claims are often made regarding the theological significance of the arabesque and its origin in a specifically Islamic view of the world; however, these are without support from written historical sources since, like most medieval cultures, the Islamic world has not left us documentation of their intentions in using the decorative motifs they did. At the popular level such theories often appear uninformed as to the wider context of the arabesque. In similar fashion, proposed connections between the arabesque and Arabic knowledge of geometry remains a subject of debate; not all art historians are persuaded that such knowledge had reached, or was needed by, those creating arabesque designs, although in certain cases there is evidence that such a connection did exist. The case for a connection with Islamic mathematics is much stronger for the development of the geometric patterns with which arabesques are often combined in art. Geometric decoration often uses patterns that are made up of straight lines and regular angles that somewhat resemble curvilinear arabesque patterns; the extent to which these too are described as arabesque varies between different writers.",
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"plaintext": "The Islamic arabesque was probably invented in Baghdad around the 10th century. It first appeared as a distinctive and original development in Islamic art in carved marble panels from around this time.",
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"plaintext": "The arabesque developed out of the long-established traditions of plant-based scroll ornament in the cultures taken over by the early Islamic conquests. Early Islamic art, for example in the famous 8th-century mosaics of the Great Mosque of Damascus, often contained plant-scroll patterns, in that case by Byzantine artists in their usual style. The plants most often used are stylized versions of the acanthus, with its emphasis on leafy forms, and the vine, with an equal emphasis on twining stems. The evolution of these forms into a distinctive Islamic type was complete by the 11th century, having begun in the 8th or 9th century in works like the Mshatta Facade. In the process of development the plant forms became increasingly simplified and stylized. The relatively abundant survivals of stucco reliefs from the walls of palaces (but not mosques) in Abbasid Samarra, the Islamic capital between 836 and 892, provide examples of three styles, Styles A, B, and C, though more than one of these may appear on the same wall, and their chronological sequence is not certain. ",
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"plaintext": "Though the broad outline of the process is generally agreed, there is a considerable diversity of views held by specialist scholars on detailed issues concerning the development, categorization and meaning of the arabesque. The detailed study of Islamic arabesque forms was begun by Alois Riegl in his formalist study Grundlegungen zu einer Geschichte der Ornamentik (Problems of style: foundations for a history of ornament) of 1893, who in the process developed his influential concept of the Kunstwollen. Riegl traced formalistic continuity and development in decorative plant forms from ancient Egyptian art and other ancient Near Eastern civilizations through the classical world to the Islamic arabesque. While the Kunstwollen has few followers today, his basic analysis of the development of forms has been confirmed and refined by the wider corpus of examples known today. Jessica Rawson has recently extended the analysis to cover Chinese art, which Riegl did not cover, tracing many elements of Chinese decoration back to the same tradition, the shared background helping make the assimilation of Chinese motifs into Persian art after the Mongol invasion harmonious and productive.",
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"plaintext": "Many arabesque patterns disappear at (or \"under\", as it often appears to a viewer) a framing edge without ending and thus can be regarded as infinitely extendable outside the space they actually occupy; this was certainly a distinctive feature of the Islamic form, though not without precedent. Most but not all foliage decoration in the preceding cultures terminated at the edge of the occupied space, although infinitely repeatable patterns in foliage are very common in the modern world in wallpaper and textiles.",
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"plaintext": "Typically, in earlier forms there is no attempt at realism; no particular species of plant is being imitated, and the forms are often botanically impossible or implausible. \"Leaf\" forms typically spring sideways from the stem, in what is often called a \"half-palmette\" form, named after its distant and very different looking ancestor in ancient Egyptian and Greek ornament. New stems spring from leaf-tips, a type often called honeysuckle, and the stems often have no tips, winding endlessly out of the space. The early Mshatta Facade is recognisably some sort of vine, with conventional leaves on the end of short stalks and bunches of grapes or berries, but later forms usually lack these. Flowers are rare until about 1500, after which they appear more often, especially in Ottoman art, and are often identifiable by species. In Ottoman art the large and feathery leaves called saz became very popular, and were elaborated in drawings showing just one or more large leaves. Eventually floral decoration mostly derived from Chinese styles, especially those of Chinese porcelain, replaces the arabesque in many types of work, such as pottery, textiles and miniatures.",
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"plaintext": "There are two modes to arabesque art. The first mode recalls the principles that govern the order of the world. These principles include the bare basics of what makes objects structurally sound and, by extension, beautiful (i.e. the angle and the fixed/static shapes that it creates—esp. the truss). In the first mode, each repeating geometric form has a built-in symbolism ascribed to it. For example, the square, with its four equilateral sides, is symbolic of the equally important elements of nature: earth, air, fire and water. Without any one of the four, the physical world, represented by a circle that inscribes the square, would collapse upon itself and cease to exist. The second mode is based upon the flowing nature of plant forms. This mode recalls the feminine nature of life giving. In addition, upon inspection of the many examples of Arabesque art, some would argue that there is in fact a third mode, the mode of Islamic calligraphy.",
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"plaintext": "Instead of recalling something related to the 'True Reality' (the reality of the spiritual world), Islam considers calligraphy a visible expression of the highest art of all; the art of the spoken word (the transmittal of thoughts and of history). In Islam, the most important document to be transmitted orally is the Qur'an. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an can be seen today in Arabesque art. The coming together of these three forms creates the Arabesque, and this is a reflection of unity arising from diversity; a basic tenet of Islam.",
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"plaintext": "The arabesque may be equally thought of as both art and science. The artwork is at the same time mathematically precise, aesthetically pleasing, and symbolic. Due to this duality of creation, the artistic part of this equation may be further subdivided into both secular and religious artwork. However, for many Muslims there is no distinction; all forms of art, the natural world, mathematics and science are seen to be creations of God and therefore reflections of the same thing: God's will expressed through his creation. In other words, man can discover the geometric forms that constitute the arabesque, but these forms always existed before as part of God's creation, as shown in this picture.",
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"plaintext": "There is great similarity between arabesque artwork from very different geographic regions. In fact, the similarities are so pronounced that it is sometimes difficult for experts to tell where a given style of arabesque comes from. The reason for this is that the science and mathematics that are used to construct Arabesque artwork are universal. Therefore, for most Muslims, the best artwork that can be created by man for use in the Mosque is artwork that displays the underlying order and unity of nature. The order and unity of the material world, they believe, is a mere ghostly approximation of the spiritual world, which for many Muslims is the place where the only true reality exists. Discovered geometric forms, therefore, exemplify this perfect reality because God's creation has been obscured by the sins of man.",
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"plaintext": "Arabesque art consists of a series of repeating geometric forms which are occasionally accompanied by calligraphy. Ettinghausen et al. describe the arabesque as a \"vegetal design consisting of full...and half palmettes [as] an unending continuous pattern...in which each leaf grows out of the tip of another.\" To the adherents of Islam, the Arabesque is symbolic of their united faith and the way in which traditional Islamic cultures view the world.",
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"plaintext": "Arabesque is a French term derived from the Italian word arabesco, meaning \"in the Arabic style\". The term was first used in Italian, where rabeschi was used in the 16th century as a term for \"pilaster ornaments featuring acanthus decoration\", specifically \"running scrolls\" that ran vertically up a panel or pilaster, rather than horizontally along a frieze. The book Opera nuova che insegna a le donne a cuscire … laqual e intitolata Esempio di raccammi (A New Work that Teaches Women how to Sew … Entitled \"Samples of Embroidery\"), published in Venice in 1530, includes \"groppi moreschi e rabeschi\", Moorish knots and arabesques.",
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"plaintext": "From there it spread to England, where Henry VIII owned, in an inventory of 1549, an agate cup with a \"fote and Couer of siluer and guilt enbossed with Rebeske worke\", and William Herne or Heron, Serjeant Painter from 1572 to 1580, was paid for painting Elizabeth I's barge with \"rebeske work\". Unfortunately the styles so described can only be guessed at, although the design by Hans Holbein for a covered cup for Jane Seymour in 1536 (see gallery) already has zones in both Islamic-derived arabesque/moresque style (see below) and classically derived acanthus volutes.",
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"plaintext": "Another related term is moresque, meaning \"Moorish\"; Randle Cotgrave's A Dictionarie of the French and English Tongues of 1611 defines this as: \"a rude or anticke painting, or carving, wherin the feet and tayles of beasts, &c, are intermingled with, or made to resemble, a kind of wild leaves, &c.\" and \"arabesque\", in its earliest use cited in the OED (but as a French word), as \"Rebeske work; a small and curious flourishing\". In France \"arabesque\" first appears in 1546, and \"was first applied in the latter part of the 17th century\" to grotesque ornament, \"despite the classical origin of the latter\", especially if without human figures in it - a distinction still often made, but not consistently observed,",
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"plaintext": "Over the following centuries, the three terms \"grotesque\", \"moresque\", and \"arabesque\" were used largely interchangeably in English, French, and German for styles of decoration derived at least as much from the European past as the Islamic world, with \"grotesque\" gradually acquiring its main modern meaning, related more to Gothic gargoyles and caricature than to either Pompeii-style Roman painting or Islamic patterns. Meanwhile, the word \"arabesque\" was now being applied to Islamic art itself, by 1851 at the latest, when John Ruskin uses it in The Stones of Venice. Writers over the last decades have attempted to salvage meaningful distinctions between the words from the confused wreckage of historical sources.",
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"plaintext": "Peter Fuhring, a specialist in the history of ornament, says that (also in a French context): The ornament known as moresque in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (but now more commonly called arabesque) is characterized by bifurcated scrolls composed of branches forming interlaced foliage patterns. These basic motifs gave rise to numerous variants, for example, where the branches, generally of a linear character, were turned into straps or bands. ... It is characteristic of the moresque, which is essentially a surface ornament, that it is impossible to locate the pattern's beginning or end. ... Originating in the Middle East, they were introduced to continental Europe via Italy and Spain ... Italian examples of this ornament, which was often used for bookbindings and embroidery, are known from as early as the late fifteenth century.",
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"plaintext": "Fuhring notes that grotesques were \"confusingly called arabesques in eighteenth century France\", but in his terminology \"the major types of ornament that appear in French sixteenth century etchings and engraving... can be divided into two groups. The first includes ornaments adopted from antiquity: grotesques, architectural ornaments such as the orders, foliage scrolls and self-contained elements such as trophies, terms and vases. A second group, far smaller than the first, comprises modern ornaments: moresques, interlaced bands, strapwork, and elements such as cartouches...\", categories he goes on to discuss individually.",
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"plaintext": "The moresque or arabesque style was especially popular and long-lived in the Western arts of the book: bookbindings decorated in gold tooling, borders for illustrations, and printer's ornaments for decorating empty spaces on the page. In this field the technique of gold tooling had also arrived in the 15th century from the Islamic world, and indeed much of the leather itself was imported from there. Small motifs in this style have continued to be used by conservative book designers up to the present day.",
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"plaintext": "According to Harold Osborne, in France, the \"characteristic development of the French arabesque combined bandwork deriving from the moresque with decorative acanthus foliage radiating from C-scrolls connected by short bars\". Apparently starting in embroidery, it then appears in garden design before being used in Northern Mannerist painted decorative schemes \"with a central medallion combined with acanthus and other forms\" by Simon Vouet and then Charles Lebrun who used \"scrolls of flat bandwork joined by horizontal bars and contrasting with ancanthus scrolls and palmette.\" More exuberant arabesque designs by Jean Bérain the Elder are an early \"intimation\" of the Rococo, which was to take the arabesque into three dimensions in reliefs.",
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"plaintext": "The use of \"arabesque\" as an English noun first appears, in relation to painting, in William Beckford's novel Vathek in 1786.",
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"plaintext": "Arabesque is also used as a term for complex freehand pen flourishes in drawing or other graphic media. The Grove Dictionary of Art will have none of this confusion, and says flatly: \"Over the centuries the word has been applied to a wide variety of winding and twining vegetal decoration in art and meandering themes in music, but it properly applies only to Islamic art\", so contradicting the definition of 1888 still found in the Oxford English Dictionary: \"A species of mural or surface decoration in colour or low relief, composed in flowing lines of branches, leaves, and scroll-work fancifully intertwined. Also fig[uratively]. As used in Moorish and Arabic decorative art (from which, almost exclusively, it was known in the Middle Ages), representations of living creatures were excluded; but in the arabesques of Raphael, founded on the ancient Græco-Roman work of this kind, and in those of Renaissance decoration, human and animal figures, both natural and grotesque, as well as vases, armour, and objects of art, are freely introduced; to this the term is now usually applied, the other being distinguished as Moorish Arabesque, or Moresque.\"",
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"plaintext": "A major use of the arabesque style has been artistic printing, for example of book covers and page decoration. Repeating geometric patterns worked well with traditional printing, since they could be printed from metal type like letters if the type was placed together; as the designs have no specific connection to the meaning of a text, the type can be reused in many different editions of different works. Robert Granjon, a French printer of the sixteenth century, has been credited with the first truly interlocking arabesque printing, but other printers had used many other kinds of ornaments in the past. The idea was rapidly used by many other printers. After a period of disuse in the nineteenth century, when a more minimal page layout became popular with printers like Bodoni and Didot, the concept returned to popularity with the arrival of the Arts and Crafts movement, Many fine books from the period 1890-1960 have arabesque decorations, sometimes on paperback covers. Many digital serif fonts include arabesque pattern elements thought to be complementary to the mood of the font; they are also often sold as separate designs.",
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"plaintext": " Canby, Sheila, Islamic art in detail, US edn., Harvard University Press, 2005, , , Google books",
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"plaintext": "Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins-Madina, Islamic Art and Architecture, 650-1250. (New Haven: Yale UP, 2001)",
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"plaintext": " Fuhring, Peter, Renaissance Ornament Prints; The French Contribution, in Karen Jacobson, ed (often wrongly cat. as George Baselitz), The French Renaissance in Prints, 1994, Grunwald Center, UCLA, ",
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"plaintext": " Harthan, John P., Bookbinding, 1961, HMSO (for the Victoria and Albert Museum)",
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"plaintext": " Tabbaa, Yasser, The transformation of Islamic art during the Sunni revival, I.B.Tauris, 2002, , , Google books",
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"plaintext": " Abdullahi Y., Embi M. R. B, Of Abstract Vegetal Ornaments On Islamic Architecture'', International Journal of Architectural Research, 2015, Archnet-IJAR",
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| 186,599 | 8,551 | 467 | 106 | 0 | 0 | arabesque | decorative pattern of stylized foliage, characteristic of Muslim art | []
|
36,916 | 1,107,119,966 | Theotokos | [
{
"plaintext": "Theotokos (Greek: , ) is a title of Mary, mother of Jesus, used especially in Eastern Christianity. The usual Latin translations are Dei Genitrix or Deipara (approximately \"parent (fem.) of God\"). Familiar English translations are \"Mother of God\" or \"God-bearer\" – but these both have different literal equivalents in Greek, Μήτηρ Θεοῦ and Θεοφόρος (\"Who gave birth to one who was God\", \"Whose child was God\", respectively).",
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"plaintext": "The title has been in use since the 3rd century, in the Syriac tradition (as ) in the Liturgy of Mari and Addai (3rd century) and the Liturgy of St James (4th century). The Council of Ephesus in AD 431 decreed that Mary is the Theotokos because Her Son Jesus is both God and man: one divine person from two natures (divine and human) intimately and hypostatically united.",
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"plaintext": "The title of Mother of God (Greek: ) or Mother of Incarnate God; abbreviated ΜΡ ΘΥ (first and last letter of each word in Greek), is most often used in English, largely due to the lack of a satisfactory equivalent of the Greek τόκος. For the same reason, the title is often left untranslated, as \"Theotokos\", in Orthodox liturgical usage of other languages.",
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"plaintext": "Theotokos is also used as the term for an Eastern icon, or type of icon, of the Mother with Child (typically called a Madonna in western tradition), as in \"the Theotokos of Vladimir\" both for the original 12th-century icon and for icons that are copies or imitate its composition.",
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"plaintext": "Theotokos is an adjectival compound of two Greek words Θεός \"God\" and τόκος \"childbirth, parturition; offspring\". A close paraphrase would be \"[she] whose offspring is God\" or \"[she] who gave birth to one who was God\". The usual English translation is simply \"Mother of God\"; Latin uses Deipara or Dei Genitrix.",
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"plaintext": "The Church Slavonic translation is Bogoroditsa (Russian/Serbian/Bulgarian ). The full title of Mary in Slavic Orthodox tradition is (Russian ), from Greek \"Our Most Holy Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary\". German has the translation Gottesgebärerin (lit. \"bearer of God\").",
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"plaintext": "\"Mother of God\" is the literal translation of a distinct title in Greek, Μήτηρ τοῦ Θεοῦ (translit. Mētēr tou Theou), a term which has an established usage of its own in traditional Orthodox and Catholic theological writing, hymnography, and iconography.",
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"plaintext": "In an abbreviated form, (), it often is found on Eastern icons, where it is used to identify Mary. The Russian term is (also ).",
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"plaintext": "Variant forms are the compounds Θεομήτωρ (translit. Theomētōr; also spelled Θεομήτηρ, translit. Theomētēr) and Μητρόθεος (translit. Mētrotheos), which are found in patristic and liturgical texts.",
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"plaintext": "The theological dispute over the term concerned the term Θεός \"God\" vs. Χριστός \"Christ\", and not τόκος (genitrix, \"bearer\") vs. μήτηρ (mater, \"mother\"), and the two terms have been used as synonyms throughout Christian tradition. Both terms are known to have existed alongside one another since the early church, but it has been argued, even in modern times, that the term \"Mother of God\" is unduly suggestive of Godhead having its origin in Mary, imparting to Mary the role of a Mother Goddess. But this is an exact reiteration of the objection by Nestorius, resolved in the 5th century, to the effect that the term \"Mother\" expresses exactly the relation of Mary to the incarnate Son ascribed to Mary in Christian theology.",
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"plaintext": "Theologically, the terms \"Mother of God\", \"Mother of Incarnate God\" (and its variants) should not be taken to imply that Mary is the source of the divine nature of Jesus, who Christians believe existed with the Father from all eternity.",
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"plaintext": "Within the Orthodox and Catholic tradition, Mother of God has not been understood, nor been intended to be understood, as referring to Mary as Mother of God from eternity — that is, as Mother of God the Father — but only with reference to the birth of Jesus, that is, the Incarnation.",
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"plaintext": "To make it explicit, it is sometimes translated Mother of God Incarnate. (cf. the topic of Christology, and the titles of God the Son and Son of man).",
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"plaintext": "The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 affirmed the Christian faith on \"one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds (æons)\", that \"came down from heaven, and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man\". Since that time, the expression \"Mother of God\" referred to the Dyophysite doctrine of the hypostatic union, about the uniqueness with the twofold nature of Jesus Christ God, which is both human and divine (nature distincted, but not separable nor mixed). Since that time, Jesus was affirmed as true Man and true God from all eternity.",
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"plaintext": "The status of Mary as Theotokos was a topic of theological dispute in the 4th and 5th centuries and was",
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"plaintext": "the subject of the decree of the Council of Ephesus of 431 to the effect that, in opposition to those who denied Mary the title Theotokos (\"the one who gives birth to God\") but called her Christotokos (\"the one who gives birth to Christ\"), Mary is Theotokos because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human. This decree created the Nestorian Schism. Cyril of Alexandria wrote, \"I am amazed that there are some who are entirely in doubt as to whether the holy Virgin should be called Theotokos or not. For if our Lord Jesus Christ is God, how is the holy Virgin who gave [Him] birth, not [Theotokos]?\" (Epistle 1, to the monks of Egypt; PG 77:13B). But the argument of Nestorius was that divine and human natures of Christ were distinct, and while Mary is evidently the Christotokos (bearer of Christ), it could be misleading to describe her as the \"bearer of God\". At issue is the interpretation of the Incarnation, and the nature of the hypostatic union of Christ's human and divine natures between Christ's conception and birth.",
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"plaintext": "Within the Orthodox doctrinal teaching on the economy of salvation, Mary's identity, role, and status as Theotokos is acknowledged as indispensable. For this reason, it is formally defined as official dogma. The only other Mariological teaching so defined is that of her virginity. Both of these teachings have a bearing on the identity of Jesus Christ. By contrast, certain other Marian beliefs which do not bear directly on the doctrine concerning the person of Jesus (for example, her sinlessness, the circumstances surrounding her conception and birth, her Presentation in the Temple, her continuing virginity following the birth of Jesus, and her death), which are taught and believed by the Orthodox Church (being expressed in the Church's liturgy and patristic writings), are not formally defined by the Church.",
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"plaintext": "The term was certainly in use by the 4th century.",
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"plaintext": "Athanasius of Alexandria in 330, Gregory the Theologian in 370, John Chrysostom in 400, and Augustine all used theotokos.",
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"plaintext": "Origen (d. 254) is often cited as the earliest author to use theotokos for Mary (Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 7.32 (PG 67, 812 B) citing Origen's Commentary on Romans). Although this testimony is uncertain, the term was used c. 250 by Dionysius of Alexandria, in an epistle to Paul of Samosata.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest preserved extant hymn dedicated to the Virgin Mary, Ὑπὸ τὴν σὴν εὐσπλαγχνίαν (English: \"Beneath thy Compassion,\" Latin: Sub tuum praesidium,) has been continually prayed and sung for at least sixteen centuries, in the original Koine Greek vocative, as ΘΕΟΤΟΚΕ. The oldest record of this hymn is a papyrus found in Egypt, mostly dated to after 450, but according to a suggestion by de Villiers (2011) possibly older, dating to the mid-3rd century.",
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"plaintext": "The use of Theotokos was formally affirmed at the Third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431. It proclaimed that Mary truly became the Mother of God by the human conception of the Son of God in her womb:",
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"plaintext": "The competing view, advocated by Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople, was that Mary should be called Christotokos, meaning \"Birth-giver of Christ,\" to restrict her role to the mother of Christ's humanity only and not his divine nature.",
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"plaintext": "Nestorius' opponents, led by Cyril of Alexandria, viewed this as dividing Jesus into two distinct persons, the human who was Son of Mary, and the divine who was not. To them, this was unacceptable since by destroying the perfect union of the divine and human natures in Christ, it sabotaged the fullness of the Incarnation and, by extension, the salvation of humanity. The council accepted Cyril's reasoning, affirmed the title Theotokos for Mary, and anathematized Nestorius' view as heresy. (See Nestorianism)",
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"plaintext": "In letters to Nestorius which were afterwards included among the council documents, Cyril explained his doctrine. He noted that \"the holy fathers... have ventured to call the holy Virgin Theotokos, not as though the nature of the Word or his divinity received the beginning of their existence from the holy Virgin, but because from her was born his holy body, rationally endowed with a soul, with which the Word was united according to the hypostasis, and is said to have been begotten according to the flesh\" (Cyril's second letter to Nestorius).",
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"plaintext": "Explaining his rejection of Nestorius' preferred title for Mary (Christotokos), Cyril wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Confessing the Word to be united with the flesh according to the hypostasis, we worship one Son and Lord, Jesus Christ. We do not divide him into parts and separate man and God as though they were united with each other [only] through a unity of dignity and authority... nor do we name separately Christ the Word from God, and in similar fashion, separately, another Christ from the woman, but we know only one Christ, the Word from God the Father with his own flesh... But we do not say that the Word from God dwelt as in an ordinary human born of the holy virgin... we understand that, when he became flesh, not in the same way as he is said to dwell among the saints do we distinguish the manner of the indwelling; but he was united by nature and not turned into flesh... There is, then, one Christ and Son and Lord, not with the sort of conjunction that a human being might have with God as in a unity of dignity or authority; for equality of honor does not unite natures. For Peter and John were equal to each other in honor, both of them being apostles and holy disciples, but the two were not one. Nor do we understand the manner of conjunction to be one of juxtaposition, for this is insufficient in regard to natural union.... Rather we reject the term 'conjunction' as being inadequate to express the union... [T]he holy virgin gave birth in the flesh to God united with the flesh according to hypostasis, for that reason we call her Theotokos... If anyone does not confess that Emmanuel is, in truth, God, and therefore that the holy virgin is Theotokos (for she bore in a fleshly manner the Word from God become flesh), let him be anathema. (Cyril's third letter to Nestorius)",
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"plaintext": "The Nestorian Church, known as the Church of the East within the Syrian tradition, rejected the decision of the Council of Ephesus and its confirmation at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. This was the church of the Sassanid Empire during the late 5th and early 6th centuries. The schism ended in 544, when patriarch Aba I ratified the decision of Chalcedon. After this, there was no longer technically any \"Nestorian Church\", i.e. a church following the doctrine of Nestorianism, although legends persisted that still further to the east such a church was still in existence (associated in particular with the figure of Prester John), and the label of \"Nestorian\" continued to be applied even though it was technically no longer correct. Modern research suggests that also the Church of the East in China did not teach a doctrine of two distinct natures of Christ.\"",
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"plaintext": "Lutheran tradition retained the title of \"Mother of God\" (German Mutter Gottes, Gottesmutter), a term already embraced by Martin Luther; and officially confessed in the Formula of Concord (1577), accepted by Lutheran World Federation.",
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"plaintext": "Calvin rejected calling Mary the \"mother of God,\" saying, \"I cannot think such language either right, or becoming, or suitable. ... To call the Virgin Mary the mother of God can only serve to confirm the ignorant in their superstitions.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1994, Pope John Paul II and Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East Mar Dinkha IV signed an ecumenical declaration, mutually recognizing the legitimacy of the titles \"Mother of God\" and \"Mother of Christ.\" The declaration reiterates the Christological formulations of the Council of Chalcedon as a theological expression of the faith shared by both Churches, at the same time respecting the preference of each Church in using these titles in their liturgical life and piety.",
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"plaintext": "Theotokos is often used in hymns to Mary in the Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Catholic and Oriental Orthodox churches. The most common is Axion Estin (It is truly meet), which is used in nearly every service.",
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"plaintext": "Other examples include Sub tuum praesidium, the Hail Mary in its Eastern form, and All creation rejoices, which replaces Axion Estin at the Divine Liturgy on the Sundays of Great Lent.",
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"plaintext": "Bogurodzica is a medieval Polish hymn, possibly composed by Adalbert of Prague (d. 997).",
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"plaintext": "The Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God is a Roman Catholic feast day introduced in 1969, based on older traditions associating 1 January with the motherhood of Mary.",
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"plaintext": "One of the two earliest known depictions of the Virgin Mary is found in the Catacomb of Priscilla (3rd century) showing the adoration of the Magi. Recent conservation work at the Catacombs of Priscilla revealed that what had been identified for decades as the earliest image of the Virgin and Child was actually a traditional funerary image of a Roman matron; the pointing figure with her, formerly identified as a prophet, was shown to have had its arm position adjusted and the star he was supposedly pointing to was painted in at a later date. The putative Annunciation scene at Priscilla is also now recognized as yet another Roman matron with accompanying figure and not the Virgin Mary. Recently another third-century image of the Virgin Mary was identified at the eastern Syrian site of Dura Europos in the baptistry room of the earliest known Christian Church. The scene shows the Annunciation to the Virgin.",
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"plaintext": "The tradition of Marian veneration was greatly expanded only with the affirmation of her status as Theotokos in 431. The mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432 to 40, just after the council, does not yet show her with a halo. The iconographic tradition of the Theotokos or Madonna (Our Lady), showing the Virgin enthroned carrying the infant Christ, is established by the following century, as attested by a very small number of surviving icons, including one at Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai, and Salus Populi Romani, a 5th or 6th-century Byzantine icon preserved in Rome. This type of depiction, with subtly changing differences of emphasis, has remained the mainstay of depictions of Mary to the present day. The roughly half-dozen varied icons of the Virgin and Child in Rome from the 6th to 8th centuries form the majority of the representations surviving from this period, as most early Byzantine icons were destroyed in the Byzantine Iconoclasm of the 8th and 9th century, notable exceptions being the 7th-century Blachernitissa and Agiosoritissa.",
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"plaintext": "The iconographic tradition is well developed by the early medieval period. The tradition of Luke the Evangelist being the first to have painted Mary is established by the 8th century.",
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"plaintext": "An early icon of the Virgin as queen is in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome, datable to 705-707 by the kneeling figure of Pope John VII, a notable promoter of the cult of the Virgin, to whom the infant Christ reaches his hand.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest surviving image in a Western illuminated manuscript of the Madonna and Child comes from the Book of Kells of about 800 (there is a similar carved image on the lid of St Cuthbert's coffin of 698).",
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"plaintext": "The oldest Russian icons were imports from Byzantium, beginning in the 11th century.",
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"plaintext": " Anthropotokos",
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"plaintext": " Hymns to Mary",
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"plaintext": " Mother of the Church",
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"plaintext": " Maunder, Chris (ed.), The Origins of the Cult of the Virgin Mary , (2008, burns & oates/continuumbooks). ",
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"plaintext": " Artemi, Eirini, \"The mystery of the incarnation into dialogues \"de incarnatione Unigenitii\" and \"Quod unus sit Christus\" of St. Cyril of Alexandria\", Ecclesiastic Faros of Alexandria, ΟΕ (2004), 145–277.",
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"plaintext": " Cyril of Alexandria, On the Unity of Christ, John Anthony McGuckin, trans. ",
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"plaintext": " Cyril of Alexandria, Against Those Who Are Unwilling to Confess That the Holy Virgin Is Theotokos, George Dion Dragas, edit. & trans. ",
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"plaintext": " McGuckin, John Anthony, St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy (1994, and reprinted 2004) A full description of the events of Third Ecumenical Council and the people and issues involved.",
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"plaintext": " Saint John of Shanghai and San Francisco,\"\"The Orthodox Veneration of Mary, The Birth Giver of God\"(2004, Sixth Printing, Third Edition). ",
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"plaintext": " Ware, Bishop Kallistos, \"The Orthodox Way\" (1979, Revised Edition, 1995, and reprinted 1999). ",
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"plaintext": " Resources on the Theotokos",
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"plaintext": " Study of the Mother of the Lord the All-Holly Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary by St. Nectarios ",
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"plaintext": " The rejection of the term Theotokos by Nestorius Constantinople and the refutation of his teaching by Cyril of Alexandria, Eirini Artemi, Oxford, August 2011",
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"plaintext": "During the 1980s and early 1990s Prost formed a fierce sporting rivalry, mainly with Ayrton Senna but also Nelson Piquet and Nigel Mansell. In 1986, at Adelaide in the last race of the season, he beat Mansell and Piquet of Williams to the title, after Mansell retired late in the race and Piquet was pulled in for a late precautionary pit stop. Senna joined Prost at McLaren in 1988 and the two had a series of controversial clashes, including a collision at the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix that gave Prost his third Drivers' Championship. A year later at the same venue they collided again, but this time Prost, driving for Ferrari, lost out. Before the end of a winless 1991 season Prost was fired by Ferrari for his public criticism of the team. After a sabbatical in 1992, he joined the Williams team, prompting Mansell, the reigning Drivers' Champion, to leave for CART. With a competitive car, Prost won the 1993 championship and retired from Formula One driving at the end of the year.",
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"plaintext": "Prost was married to Anne-Marie (born 14 February 1955), but they divorced sometime later. They have two sons, Nicolas (born 18 August 1981) and Sacha Prost (born 30 May 1990). Prost also has a daughter, Victoria, born from his relationship with Bernadette Cottin. From 2014 to 2018, Nicolas raced in Formula E for e.dams Renault, a team partially run by his father. Prost lived in his hometown, Saint-Chamond, until he and his Renault team fell out in the early 1980s. In April 1983 the Prost family moved to Sainte-Croix, Switzerland, and shortly after to Yens, Switzerland. They moved to Switzerland after Renault workers went to Prost's house in France and burned his Mercedes-Benz and another one of his road cars. They lived there until November 1999, when they moved to Nyon in the same country. Through Nicolas, Prost has two grandsons named Kimi (born November 2015) and Mika (born December 2020). Through Sacha, he has another grandson named Liam (born June 2018).",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, Prost was awarded the Légion d'honneur by the French President, François Mitterrand.",
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"plaintext": "Prost won several karting championships in his teens. In 1974, he left school to become a full-time racer, supporting himself by tuning engines and becoming a kart distributor. His prize for winning the 1975 French senior karting championship was a season in French Formula Renault, a category in which he won the title and all but one race in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "Prost went on to win the 1977 Formula Renault European championship before moving up to Formula Three (F3) in 1978. In 1979, he won both the French and European F3 championships, by which time he was on the shopping lists of several Formula One teams. After carefully considering his options, he chose to sign with McLaren for . He surprised the British team by declining their offer of a race drive in a third car at the final race of the 1979 season at Watkins Glen — reasoning that the token effort would benefit neither him nor the team. Prost felt that it would be a mistake to race in Formula One without being fully prepared: \"..in the end I said, ‘No’ to Marlboro. I asked them to understand that I didn't want to make a mistake; I didn't know Watkins Glen and I didn't know the car. I said I thought it would be a better idea to organise a test.\"",
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"plaintext": "Prost began his career with McLaren (being run by Teddy Mayer) in 1980 alongside Ulsterman John Watson. On his debut in Buenos Aires, Argentina, he finished in sixth place, earning one point, something achieved by only a handful of drivers. Prost added four more points to his tally during the season, scoring points at Interlagos, Brands Hatch and Zandvoort. Prost finished the year 15th in the Drivers' Championship, equalling points with former world champion Emerson Fittipaldi. Despite the encouraging debut season, Prost had several accidents, breaking his wrist during practice at Kyalami and suffering a concussion during practice at Watkins Glen. He also retired from the Canadian round in Montreal a week earlier because of rear suspension failure. At the end of the season, despite having two years remaining on his contract, he left McLaren and signed with Renault. Prost has said that he left because of the large number of breakages on the car and because he felt the team blamed him for some of the accidents.",
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"plaintext": "1981",
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"plaintext": "Prost was partnered with fellow Frenchman René Arnoux for . Motor sports author Nigel Roebuck reports that there were problems between Prost and Arnoux from the start of the season, Prost being immediately quicker than his more experienced teammate. He did not finish the first two Grands Prix, due to collisions with Andrea de Cesaris in Long Beach and Didier Pironi at Jacarepaguá, but scored his first podium finish at Buenos Aires. He also did not finish in the next four races, and then won his first Formula One race at his home Grand Prix in France at the fast Dijon circuit, finishing two seconds ahead of his old teammate John Watson.",
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"plaintext": "For Prost, his debut victory was memorable mostly for the change it made in his mindset. \"Before, you thought you could do it,\" he said. \"Now you know you can.\" Prost led from the start the next 5 races, and won two more races during the season, took his first pole position in Germany and finished on the podium every time he completed a race distance. He won again in Holland and Italy, and finished fifth in the Drivers' Championship, seven points behind champion Nelson Piquet.",
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"plaintext": "1982",
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"plaintext": "Prost won the first two Grands Prix of the 1982 season in South Africa, where Prost recovered from losing a wheel, and Brazil, where he finished 3rd but was awarded the win after Piquet (1st) and Keke Rosberg (2nd) were disqualified. He finished in the points on four other occasions, but did not win again. Despite retiring from seven races, Prost improved on his Drivers' Championship position, finishing in fourth, but with nine fewer points than the previous year. His relationship with Arnoux deteriorated further after the French Grand Prix. Prost believes that Arnoux, who won the race, went back on a pre-race agreement to support Prost during the race. His relationship with the French media was also poor. He has since commented that \"When I went to Renault the journalists wrote good things about me, but by 1982 I had become the bad guy. I think, to be honest, I had made the mistake of winning! The French don't really like winners.\"",
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"plaintext": "In November 1982, three years before it became a round of the F1 World Championship, Prost, along with fellow F1 drivers Jacques Laffite and Nelson Piquet, made the trip to Melbourne, Australia to drive in the non-championship 1982 Australian Grand Prix at the short (1.609km (1.000mi)) Calder Park Raceway. Driving a Formula Pacific spec Ralt RT4 powered by a 1.6 litre Ford engine, Prost sat on pole for the race with a time of 39.18. He then led every lap to win what would be the first of 3 Australian Grand Prix wins. He finished 15.32 seconds clear of Laffite, with 1981 Australian Grand Prix winner, young Brazilian driver Roberto Moreno finishing third.",
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"plaintext": "Arnoux left Renault in and American Eddie Cheever replaced him as Prost's partner, allegedly because of Renault's desire to sell more road cars in North America (three of the season's 15 races were on the North American continent). Prost earned a further four victories for Renault during the season and finished second in the Drivers' Championship, two points behind Nelson Piquet. Piquet and the Brabham team overhauled Prost and Renault in the last few races of the season. Prost, who felt the team had been too conservative in developing the car, found himself increasingly at odds with Renault's management, who made him the scapegoat for failing to win a championship. In addition to that, the French fans recalled the bitter fight that had caused their favourite, Arnoux, to leave the team. Prost said in an interview with ESPN during the final race that his car was \"not competitive\" and that he \"didn't lose by my own fault\" Renault fired Prost only two days after the South African race. He re-signed for McLaren for the 1984 season within days and moved his family home to Switzerland after Renault factory workers burned the second of 2 of Prost's cars, one of them being a Mercedes-Benz.",
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"plaintext": "1984",
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"plaintext": "Prost joined double world champion Niki Lauda at McLaren (now being run by Ron Dennis) in , driving the John Barnard designed McLaren MP4/2 which used a 1.5 litre TAG-Porsche V6 engine. He lost the world championship to Lauda in the final race of the season in Portugal by half a point, despite winning seven races to Lauda's five, including winning in Portugal. The half point came from the , where Prost had been leading, albeit with Ayrton Senna (Toleman) and Stefan Bellof (Tyrrell) closing on him rapidly, when Clerk of the Course Jacky Ickx stopped the race at half distance due to heavy rain, which was controversial, for Ickx displayed the red flag without consulting the race officials. Under Formula One regulations, Prost received only half of the nine points normally awarded for a victory.",
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"plaintext": "Prost's seven wins in 1984 equalled the record set by Jim Clark in .",
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"plaintext": "In Prost became the first French Formula One World Champion. He won five of the sixteen Grands Prix during the season. He had also won the San Marino Grand Prix, but was disqualified after his car was found to be 2kg underweight in post-race scrutineering. Prost finished 20 points ahead of his closest rival, Michele Alboreto. Prost's performance in 1985 earned him the Légion d'honneur distinction in France.",
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"plaintext": "Niki Lauda retired for good at the end of 1985, and was replaced at McLaren by World Champion Keke Rosberg for . Prost successfully defended his title, despite his car struggling against the Honda-powered Williams cars driven by Nelson Piquet and Nigel Mansell. Until the latter stages of the final race of the 1986 season, the , Prost appeared set to finish second in the Championship, behind Mansell. Prost had the same number of wins as Piquet, but he had four second places to Piquet's three, thus placing him second before the final race. While running third behind Piquet, and directly behind Prost on the road (3rd was all he needed to win the title), Mansell suffered a rear tyre failure at and crashed out. The Williams team then pitted Piquet to change tyres as a safety precaution, while Prost had already pitted earlier due to a puncture and did not need to change his tyres again. He then held the lead ahead of a charging Piquet to the chequered flag and the Championship. Prost became the first driver to retain the title since Jack Brabham in 1960.",
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"plaintext": "Another memorable race that year for Prost was at the . He was cruising to victory when his car began to run out of fuel three corners from the chequered flag. Frantically weaving the car back and forth to slosh the last drops of fuel into the pickup, he managed to keep it running just long enough to creep over the line and win the race. Prost commented after the race that when his car started running dry he immediately thought to himself \"shit, I am going to lose this race again\", referring to his 1985 disqualification at Imola. It happened again at the : while running in fourth position, Prost's car ran out of fuel on the finishing straight of the last lap. Instead of retiring at a time in the season when points were critical, Prost got out of his car and tried to push it to the finish, to great applause from the crowd. The finish line was too far, though, and he never reached it. He was eventually classified sixth in the race, as the seventh-placed car (the Brabham-BMW of Derek Warwick) was a lap behind. Prost also finished sixth at the , where he collided with Gerhard Berger in the Benetton. As a result, the car's front suspension and engine mountings were bent, which badly affected its handling. It would behave one way in left hand corners and a completely different way in right hand corners. McLaren Technical Director John Barnard said afterwards that the car was \"bent like a banana\" upon the teams' post-race inspection of the car.",
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"plaintext": "1987",
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"plaintext": "With Rosberg retiring from Formula One at the end of 1986 season, underrated Swede Stefan Johansson filled the McLaren seat alongside Prost for the season. Even though McLaren had introduced the new Steve Nichols designed MP4/3 after three seasons with the MP4/2 model (Barnard had departed for Ferrari), the TAG engines were not the force they had been previously, lagging behind in power and with unreliability previously unseen. He never gave up though and challenged Piquet and Mansell almost until the end, winning three races and breaking Jackie Stewart's record for race victories by winning for the 28th time at the Portuguese Grand Prix. “People might not believe me,” said Stewart at the time. “But I’m glad to see Alain take my record. I am glad that he has done it because he’s the one that deserves it. There is no doubt in my mind that he is the best race driver of his generation.” Prost considers his win in the opening round in Brazil as his best and most rewarding race ever. The Williams-Hondas had been dominant during qualifying, and Prost started fifth on the grid with a time three seconds slower than Mansell's pole time. Knowing he didn't have the qualifying speed, he instead worked on his race set-up, and with everyone else going for a high-downforce set-up, he went the other way. The set-up meant less tyre wear, thanks to slower speeds in the corners while going fast down the straights. With his car having less tyre wear than his rivals, Prost was able to get through the 61 laps of the abrasive Jacarepaguá Circuit with only two stops compared to the three or more by his rivals (Piquet pitted for tyres 3 times within the first 40 laps). Prost finished 40 seconds in front of Piquet, with Johansson a further 16 seconds back in third.",
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"plaintext": "When you win a race like this the feeling is very, very good. There have been times when I have been flat-out to finish sixth, but you can't see that from the outside. In I finished three or four times in seventh place. I pushed like mad, yet everyone was gathered around the winner and they were thinking that I was just trundling around. But that's motor racing. So in fact the only thing you can judge in this sport is the long term. You can judge a career or a season, but not one race.",
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"plaintext": "Prost finished the 1987 season in fourth place in the championship behind Piquet, Mansell and Lotus driver Ayrton Senna. Prost finished 30 points behind champion Nelson Piquet. Other than his debut season in 1980 and , it was the furthest away he would finish a season from the championship lead.",
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"plaintext": "Despite a slightly disappointing 1987 season, nevertheless by the end of that year Prost had the honour of notching up his 4th consecutive No.1 driver of the year by the editor of the Autocourse annual, matching Niki Lauda's run of No.1's from 1975 to 1978 in the same annual. Writing in 1987, the Autocourse editor mentioned that despite driving a down on power engine (compared to the Honda's) \"Prost should have won at least 6 races in 1987 – but he won't moan about it. Despite being out of championship contention, 1987 was a memorable year for Prost. His win at Estoril was exceptional.\" In 1985, the Autocourse editor wrote of Prost: \"In the long run, Ayrton Senna may be the better driver, but in 1985 for speed and consistency Prost had no equal\", while in 1986, the Autocourse editor commented on Prost's season \"Alain had an almost faultless year. 1986 was a year of Prost's outstanding all round ability.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite Nelson Piquet winning the 1987 Drivers' Championship and Williams winning the Constructors' Championship, Honda decided not to supply the team with their engines, reportedly due to Williams's refusal to dump Nigel Mansell and hire Japanese driver and Honda test driver Satoru Nakajima (who debuted with Lotus in 1987), and instead supplied the McLaren team for . Prost had convinced Ron Dennis to sign Ayrton Senna to a three-year contract, which played a role in luring Honda (Senna's ability had been highly regarded by the Japanese giant when using their engines with Lotus in 1987 and both were keen to continue their association). However, this began the rivalry that pushed two of the sport's greatest drivers to unprecedented heights of success and controversy. McLaren-Honda dominated the season, winning 15 out of 16 races. Prost finished first or second in every race other than his two retirements at Silverstone and Monza. He won seven races and in total outscored his new teammate Senna by 11 points, despite Senna winning one more race than him. However, only the 11 best results from the season counted toward the championship total, and this gave Senna the title by three points. Prost went on to be a proponent of essentially the 1990s scoring system: all points counting toward the final results, with a race winner scoring 10 (rather than 9).",
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"plaintext": "In November of that year, Prost had a meeting with the head of Honda's R&D department and F1 racing program, Nobuhiko Kawamoto in Geneva. He expressed his feelings that Honda was giving Senna preferential treatment, and Kawamoto then confirmed Prost's fears, explaining that the Honda engineers were of a new generation, and that they liked Senna's panache and \"samurai\"-like driving. Senna had already developed a close relationship with the Honda engineers during the 1987 season when he was at Lotus. Kawamoto was able to convince Prost that he would work something out on the Honda end of the McLaren-Honda partnership for the 1989 season, but this was not to be.",
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"plaintext": "McLaren's domination continued throughout , and the struggle between Prost and Senna for supremacy put them on a collision course. Mutual admiration turned to all-out hatred, with Prost accusing Senna of \"dangerous driving\" and of receiving more than a fair share of attention from both McLaren and Honda. For his part, Senna accused Prost of being in the pocket of FISA's French president Jean-Marie Balestre. The animosity between the two drivers came to a head at Round 2 in San Marino. The drivers made an agreement between them that whoever won the start would not be challenged by the other going into the first turn (in this case, the Tosa bend on the Imola circuit). Prost kept to the agreement after Senna won the first start. Prost however won the restart (caused by Gerhard Berger's fiery crash in his Ferrari), but was passed by Senna under brakes for Tosa. Prost went to a friend of his, a French journalist, and told him about the broken agreement between him and Senna. Against Prost's wishes, the journalist went public with the story. During testing at Pembrey in Wales, Senna denied in public any such agreement had ever existed between Prost and himself, but Prost's claim was backed up by Marlboro's John Hogan who had been present when the agreement was made.",
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"plaintext": "Their embittered season ended as many pundits had feared. In the at the end of lap 46, Senna made his move at the Casio Chicane. Prost, turning into the corner, turned into his teammate's path resulting in a collision and the cars sliding interlocked down the escape road. Prost, thinking the World Championship was over, climbed out of his stalled car. To separate the cars, the marshals pushed Senna's McLaren backwards onto the track. This left it in a dangerous position, so they pushed it forwards again. As they did so, Senna bump-started the engine. He drove through the chicane and rejoined. The nose of Senna's car was damaged and he had to pit, but he rejoined only five seconds behind the Benetton of Alessandro Nannini. On lap 50, Ayrton sliced past Nannini at the chicane to take the lead and won the race. But it was Nannini who appeared on the top step of the podium, race officials having excluded Senna for missing the chicane. McLaren appealed the decision, but the FIA Court of Appeal not only upheld the decision but fined Senna US$100,000 and gave him a suspended six-month ban. Thus, Prost clinched his third driver's title in controversial circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "Prost had the firm belief that Honda and Ron Dennis viewed Senna as the future of the team. Prost recalled that by the he had one car with maybe four or five mechanics, while his teammate had two cars and 20 people around him. Before the race Prost, who had announced in July 1989 that he would depart from McLaren, announced he was joining Ferrari. Prost was forced to make a public apology to both McLaren and Honda over his Monza comments. However, Prost received support from Nigel Mansell (who would be his teammate at Ferrari), and former teammate Rosberg who claimed that once it became known they would not be using the Japanese engines the next season, their Honda engines did not seem to work as well as was once normal. Until that point Prost's MP4/5 had not been a match for Senna's on Monza's long straights, which had many, especially those in the press, wondering if there was actually truth to Prost's claim that his Honda engines were not as good as the ones Senna was able to use. Prost actually won the Italian Grand Prix, after Senna's engine blew with only 9 laps remaining. To the delight of the tifosi whose team he signed for the 1990 season, at the rostrum Prost dropped his driver's trophy into the crowd, to the anger of Dennis who since changed McLaren's policy requiring that all trophies won by drivers belong to the team.",
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"plaintext": "As 1989 wore on, Prost continually claimed his Honda V10s were not producing the same amount of power as those in Senna's car. It actually got to the point where Honda F1 boss Osamu Goto felt compelled to speak to the specialist British media on the matter. He claimed that Senna's foot-tapping style with the accelerator helped keep the RA109-E's revs up in the engine's mid-range where most of the power was, while Prost's smoother style dropped the engines into low revs where they had a pick-up problem. Apparently the talk was convincing until most of those present noticed Goto continually called them Ayrton and Prost respectively (per Japanese customs, addressing a person by their first name rather than the surname shows a much higher degree of familiarity and confidentiality). Evidence to support Prost's claims was seen during the . His car was running less wing than Senna's which theoretically would give him greater top speed, Prost's McLaren was not able to pass Senna's on the long front straight even though he came off the final Peraltada Curve clearly faster than Senna and also had the benefit of a tow. In stark contrast, late in the race when Senna was lapping Prost (who was on fresh tyres), Senna was easily able to power past Prost on the straight.",
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"plaintext": "1990",
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"plaintext": "Prost signed to join Ferrari in 1990, becoming the first driver signed to the team after the death of team founder Enzo Ferrari in 1988. He replaced Gerhard Berger at Ferrari and was partnered with Britain's Nigel Mansell for (Berger took Prost's seat at McLaren). As reigning world champion, Prost took over as the team's lead driver and was said to have played on this status. Mansell recalls one incident where at the 1990 British Grand Prix, the car he drove didn't handle the same as in the previous race where he had taken pole position, and later found out from team mechanics that Prost saw Mansell as having a superior car and had them swapped without Mansell knowing. Prost won five races for Ferrari that year, in Brazil, Mexico, France, Britain and Spain. Notable among these was the Mexican Grand Prix, where he won after starting in 13th position. In both the Mexican and Spanish races, he led Mansell to Ferrari 1–2 finishes. The championship once again came to the penultimate round of the season in Japan with Prost trailing his McLaren adversary, Ayrton Senna, by nine points. As in 1989, a controversial collision between the two settled the race. At the first corner Senna, as admitted a year later, intentionally drove his race car into Prost's, taking them both out of the race and sealing the title in his favour. \"What he did was disgusting,\" Prost said. \"He is a man without value.\" Prost finished the season seven points behind Senna, and his Ferrari team were runners-up to McLaren.",
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"plaintext": "Mansell left the Scuderia due to his unstable relationship with Prost, to rejoin Williams for the 1991 Formula One season. Mansell's replacement was Frenchman Jean Alesi, who had been impressive during the previous two years at Tyrrell. Ferrari had entered a downturn, partially as their famous V12 engine was no longer competitive against the smaller, lighter and more fuel efficient V10s of their competitors. The Ferrari chassis, despite a major revision by the French Grand Prix (F-643) was also not up to the level of the McLaren and the Williams models. Prost won no races, only getting onto the podium five times. He took this out on the team, publicly criticising the team and the Ferrari 643, and subsequently had his contract terminated before the end of the season, immediately prior to the . He was replaced by Italian driver Gianni Morbidelli for the final race of the 1991 season and by another Italian, Ivan Capelli, for the following season. Despite being sacked, Prost received a significant payment from Ferrari to not drive for any other team.",
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"plaintext": "Prost went on a sabbatical year in , which was dominated by Nigel Mansell in a Williams-Renault. Prost performed pre-season testing for Ligier early in 1992 and later turned down an offer to drive for the team. After hearing that Prost would be his teammate again in 1993, Mansell left Williams to race in the CART series. Prost had a clause in his contract which prevented rival Ayrton Senna from joining the team that year. Prost was part of a new-look driver line-up at Williams, with test driver Damon Hill coming in to replace Riccardo Patrese, who had left to join Benetton.",
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"plaintext": "Prost won his fourth and final title in a year when he was regularly challenged by teammate Hill and by Ayrton Senna. Shortly before the Portuguese Grand Prix in October 1993, Prost announced he would not defend his world title, because the clause in his contract did not extend to 1994 and Senna would be able to join Williams for the upcoming season, and instead opted to retire. At the season's end Prost held the record for most Grand Prix victories, a record that stood for almost a decade. On the podium in Adelaide in 1993, Prost's last race, he and Senna embraced. Prost was surprised by the gesture, as Senna had declined a handshake at the previous race. Prost's performances earned him an OBE.",
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"plaintext": "German Michael Schumacher broke Prost's record of 51 Grand Prix wins during the 2001 season. He also shares the record for starting every race of a season from the front row (16, in ), with Ayrton Senna () and Damon Hill ().",
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"plaintext": ", he is the last Frenchman to have won his home Grand Prix.",
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"plaintext": "Prost's battles with Ayrton Senna were particularly notable. The rivalry originated in 1988, when Senna joined Prost at the McLaren team. The most notable event during the season between the two occurred during the Portuguese Grand Prix, where Senna tried to block Prost from taking the lead by forcing him to run close to the pit wall at around . Prost managed to edge Senna outwards, taking the lead as they went into the first corner, but remained angered by Senna's manoeuvre.",
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"plaintext": "The rivalry intensified after the 1989 San Marino Grand Prix, where the two drivers had an agreement that neither would get in each other's way to the first corner (cf. 1982 San Marino Grand Prix). At the start, Senna got away in the lead and Prost followed him through the first corner without getting in his way. Gerhard Berger's crash on lap four stopped the race. At the restart, Prost got away the better of the two but Senna forced his way past him at the first corner, breaking the pair's agreement at the start of the race, leaving Prost furious. Senna argued that it was the restart. Prost himself was angered by McLaren apparently favouring Senna because of Senna's better relationship with engine supplier Honda, so he announced in mid-season that he had signed to race for Ferrari the following season. Prost mentioned many times during 1989 that he believed his car was not as competitive as Senna's, and even that this was confirmed to him by the CEO of Honda when Prost traveled to Japan. The information was actually confirmed during the French GP press conference when Ron Dennis said that Prost's car was consistently using more fuel, but not getting more power, than Senna's engine.",
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"plaintext": "The rivalry reached its peak at the end of 1989, when the title was to be decided between Senna and Prost at Suzuka. The two McLarens collided at the Casio Triangle chicane when Prost blocked an attempted pass by Senna. Prost walked away while Senna returned to the track. Senna went on to win the race, but was later disqualified in a highly controversial ruling over his path back to the track, as his car was pushed through the road around the chicane. After an unsuccessful appeal by McLaren, Senna received a further US$100,000 fine and a six-month suspension, leading him to accuse FIA president Jean-Marie Balestre of favouring his compatriot Prost.",
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"plaintext": "The following season saw the two drivers collide again. With Senna leading Prost, now in a Ferrari, in the world Drivers' Championship, Prost qualified second for the penultimate race of the season in Suzuka with Senna on pole. Senna was apparently told by a Steward that the pole position would be on one side of the track but discovered before the race that it would be actually be on the other side. Senna complained that no longer being on the racing line, his side of the grid was dirty, meaning he would get less grip (and therefore a slower start) than Prost who had been moved to the clean side of the grid. Senna's appeal was rejected. At the start of the race, Prost got the better start of the two, but while braking for the first corner Senna did not brake and collided with Prost at , clinching the title for himself. Prost almost retired from the sport, saying \"What he did was disgusting. He is a man without value.\" A year later, Senna admitted that the move was premeditated, in retaliation for the collision at the chicane on the same course the previous year.",
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"plaintext": "There was another controversial incident in . Prost's inferior Ferrari was unable to put up a challenge regularly to Senna's front running McLaren. At the German Grand Prix at Hockenheim, Prost battled Senna for 4th place, but he felt Senna defended too aggressively and at the first chicane forced Prost to take avoiding action by using the escape road. Prost stalled his car rejoining the race. Coincidentally, Senna ran out of fuel on the last lap at the very same point. At the following race, in Hungary, the FIA ordered a sit-down meeting between the two men, not wanting any repeats of the incidents from the previous two years.",
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"plaintext": "Prost took a sabbatical in after being fired from Ferrari for publicly criticizing the car and the team, and Senna struggled, because McLaren was no longer competitive with Williams. Prost announced his signing with Williams for the upcoming 1993 season. Senna too had wanted to join Williams, as they were the most competitive, but Prost had a clause in his contract excluding Senna as a teammate. An infuriated Senna called the Frenchman a \"coward\" during a press conference at Estoril, and decried his unwillingness to compete for the Drivers' Championship on equal sporting terms:",
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"plaintext": "I think if Prost wants to be called the sole champion, three-times world champion, come back in a sportive way, maybe win another championship, he should be sportive. The way he's doing, he's behaving like a coward. And if he wants to be sportive, he must be prepared to race anybody, at any condition, at equal terms.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1993 season, Prost and Senna continued their on-track rivalry. Prost was escorted by police to the Interlagos circuit for the 1993 Brazilian Grand Prix due to the hostility of Brazilians towards him. The two continued their on-track battles at Silverstone where Senna aggressively defended his position against Prost. At Prost's last Grand Prix, the 1993 Australian Grand Prix, he was pulled up by Senna onto the top step of the podium for an embrace.",
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"plaintext": "On 1 May 1994, Ayrton Senna was killed during the . Prost was a pallbearer at his funeral. Speaking four years after Senna's death, Prost told Nigel Roebuck that he had \"always refused to speak about him\". Prost stated that when Senna died \"a part of himself had died also\", because their careers had been so bound together. Senna had also felt the same when Prost had retired at the end of 1993, when he admitted to a close friend that he had realised how much of his motivation had come from fighting with Prost. Only a couple of days before his death, when filming an in-car lap of Imola for French television channel TF1, he greeted Prost, by then a pundit on the channel: \"A special hello to my...to our dear friend, Alain. We all miss you Alain.\" Prost said that he was amazed and very touched by the comment.",
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"plaintext": "Prost uses a helmet design based on the three colours of the French flag, blue, white and red, with his name along the side. During his early career Prost used a basic design of white all over with some blue detail around the visor (blue helmet with a white 180° flipped Y and red lines in the lower branch of the flipped Y and in the upper branch, surrounding the top). During Prost's time at Renault, he used more blue details, most notably around the rear of his helmet. Prost's helmet changed in 1985, as his helmet now had the blue detail around the front, surrounding the visor (with also a blue stripe on the side region, making the white area become a P) and a white ring with red lines surrounding the top (forming a white circle with a blue half in the rear of the top). Prost kept a similar design for his entry at Ferrari and Williams.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes Prost used variants of his helmet design. In 2007 he used his original design, but with the circle top all red and a red line in the lower chin area. In 2010, he used a pearl white helmet with silver flames and a blue-white-red-white-blue stripe on the visor, designed by Kaos Design.",
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"plaintext": "During 1994 and 1995, Prost worked as TV pundit for the French TV channel TF1. He also worked for Renault as a PR man. Prost went back to his old team McLaren, working as a technical adviser; he also completed L'Étape du Tour, an annual mass-participation bike ride that takes place on a stage of the Tour de France. Although not an official race, riders fight hard for places; Prost finished 12th in his category, 42nd overall out of over 5000 riders.",
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"plaintext": "During 1989 Prost began to contemplate starting his own team, as his relationship with his McLaren teammate, Ayrton Senna, had turned sour. Prost and John Barnard, formerly chief designer at McLaren, came close to founding a team in 1990; but a lack of sponsorship meant that this was not possible, so Prost moved to Ferrari and Barnard left Ferrari to join Benetton. After falling out with the Italian team at the end of 1991, Prost found himself without a drive for 1992; after the failure of extensive negotiations with Guy Ligier about buying his Ligier team, Prost decided to join Williams for 1993. By 1995, when Prost was working for Renault, people had assumed that a Prost-Renault team would be formed. Renault refused Prost's request to supply engines for his team, ending the speculation.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 February 1997, Prost bought the Ligier team from Flavio Briatore and renamed it \"Prost Grand Prix\". The day after he bought the team, Prost signed a three-year deal with French car manufacturer Peugeot, who would supply the team with engines from until . For the team's first season, Prost kept one of Ligier's 1996 drivers, Olivier Panis, who had won the Monaco Grand Prix the previous year; Japanese driver Shinji Nakano was signed to partner Panis. The team raced with the Mugen-Honda engines used by Ligier the previous season, while the car was actually the originally intended Ligier JS45, but was renamed the Prost JS45. Things looked promising at the start of the season, as the team picked up two points on its Grand Prix debut in Australia when Olivier Panis finished fifth. The team scored a further 13 points before Panis broke his leg in an accident during the Canadian Grand Prix. He was replaced by Minardi's Jarno Trulli. From there, things started to go downhill slightly, the team scored only five points during Panis's recovery. He came back at the end of the season to race in the last three Grands Prix. Prost GP finished sixth in the Constructors' Championship in its first season, with 21 points.",
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"plaintext": "Prost became the president of Prost Grand Prix at the start of 1998. With Peugeot supplying the engines for Prost GP, Mugen-Honda decided to supply the Jordan team. Prost GP scored a single point during the season when Jarno Trulli finished sixth in Belgium.",
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"plaintext": " was a crucial year for Prost GP. Prost hired John Barnard as a technical consultant, Barnard's B3 Technologies company helping Loic Bigois with the design of the Prost AP02. Panis and Trulli agreed to stay on with the team for the season. The car was not a major concern but the Peugeot V10 engine proved to be heavy and unreliable.",
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"plaintext": "Peugeot's final year as Prost's engine supplier in 2000 saw some optimism. Prost hired his 1991 Ferrari teammate Jean Alesi to drive the lead car and German Nick Heidfeld, who had won the 1999 Formula 3000 championship, to partner him. The season proved to be yet another disastrous one: the AP03 proved to be unreliable and ill handling. Things weren't helped when the drivers collided with each other in the Austrian Grand Prix. Newly hired technical director Alan Jenkins was fired midway through the year. Prost restructured the team, hiring Joan Villadelprat as the managing director and replacing Jenkins with Henri Durand as the team's new technical director.",
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"plaintext": "In Ferrari agreed to supply engines for the season. The money ran out at the start of the season and Prost was out of business, leaving debts of around $30 million.",
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"plaintext": "During 2002, Prost spent time with his family and competed in eight bicycle races, finishing third in the Granite – Mont Lozère. The Frenchman raced in the Andros ice race series in 2003, finishing second in the championship behind Yvan Muller. In 2003 and 2004, Prost took part in the Étape du Tour.",
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"plaintext": "Prost continued to compete in the Andros Trophy, winning the title with Toyota in 2006/07, 2007/08 and with Dacia in 2011/2012.",
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"plaintext": "For the 2010 Formula One season, the Sporting Regulations were changed so that a former driver sits on the stewards' panel. Prost was the first such driver to take on this role, at the 2010 Bahrain Grand Prix. Prost also took part in the Race of Champions in 2010, a race organised for legends of motor sport to compete in equal machinery.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2012, Prost was named as Renault's new international ambassador, representing the company in sports demonstrations and at events organized or attended by Renault.",
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"plaintext": "Prost has finished the Absa Cape Epic, an eight-day 700km mountain bike race in South Africa, twice. He first completed the race in 2012 with partner Sebastien di Pasqua and then again in 2013, and started but did not finish the race in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2013, it was announced that Prost would join forces with Jean-Paul Driot's DAMS racing team to form e.dams, a team which would compete in the FIA Formula E Championship for electric racing cars from its commencement in September 2014. In June 2014, the team announced that its initial driver line-up would consist of Nicolas Prost and Sébastien Buemi. The team went on to win the inaugural Formula E teams championship. In 2017, he was employed as a special adviser for the Renault Formula One Team. Since July 2019, he took up a non-executive director role with Renault Sport. During the 1000th Formula One race, the 2019 Chinese Grand Prix, Prost had the honor of waving the chequered flag as Mercedes driver Lewis Hamilton crossed the line to take his 75th career victory. Prost continued in his role within Renault Formula One Team, renamed \"Alpine F1 Team\" in 2021, until January 2022, when his departure from the team was announced.",
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"plaintext": "L'Équipe Champion of French champions: 1985, 1986, 1989, 1993",
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"plaintext": " Promoted to Officier de la Légion d'honneur: 1993",
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"plaintext": " Made an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire: 1994",
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"plaintext": " Chosen as the greatest driver of the century, at the World Sports Awards of the Century: 1999",
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"plaintext": "Received the Ordem Nacional do Cruzeiro do Sul, the highest Brazilian award granted to foreign citizens: 1999",
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"plaintext": "Prost is widely regarded as one of the greatest ever Formula One drivers, and is considered by some to be the greatest Formula One driver of all time. In 2009, an Autosport survey taken by 217 Formula One drivers saw Prost voted as the fourth greatest Formula One driver of all time. In October 2020, The Economist ranked champion drivers by the relative importance of car quality to driver skill. According to this ranking, Prost is Formula One's third best driver of all time. In November 2020, Carteret Analytics used quantitative analysis methods to rank Formula One drivers. According to this ranking, Prost is Formula One's eighth best driver of all time. A 2022 mathematical analysis of all F1 drivers by f1-analysis.com put Prost as the 4th greatest driver of all time, and the second greatest once differences between different eras had been corrected for.",
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"plaintext": "† Did not finish, but was classified as he had completed more than 90% of the race distance.",
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"plaintext": "‡ Race was stopped with less than 75% of laps completed, half points awarded.",
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"plaintext": "(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)",
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"plaintext": " List of Formula One Grand Prix wins by Alain Prost",
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"plaintext": " Ménard, Pierre, and Jacques Vassal, Alain Prost: The Science of Racing (Formula 1 Legends S.) ",
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"plaintext": " Grand Prix History – Hall of Fame",
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"plaintext": " Alain Prost statistics",
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"plaintext": " Alain Prost Biography– McLaren",
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"plaintext": " Alain Prost– Fan page: interviews, photos, statistics, regularly updated",
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| 10,494 | 34,287 | 739 | 291 | 0 | 0 | Alain Prost | French racing driver | [
"Alain Marie Pascal Prost"
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|
36,922 | 1,104,698,549 | Quran | [
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"plaintext": "The Quran (, ; , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters ( , ), which consist of verses ( , , ). In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has significantly influenced the Arabic language.",
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"plaintext": "Muslims believe that the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final prophet, Muhammad, through the archangel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning in the month of Ramadan, when Muhammad was 40; and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important miracle; a proof of his prophethood; and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to Adam, including the Torah, the Psalms and the Gospel. The word Quran occurs some 70 times in the text itself, and other names and words are also said to refer to the Quran.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran is thought by Muslims to be not simply divinely inspired, but the literal word of God. Muhammad did not write it as he did not know how to write. According to tradition, several of Muhammad's companions served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after the prophet's death, the Quran was compiled by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph Uthman established a standard version, now known as the Uthmanic codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with mostly minor differences in meaning.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal scriptures. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for mankind (). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam, are hadiths—oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic.",
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"plaintext": "Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a hafiz. A verse is sometimes recited with a special kind of elocution reserved for this purpose, called tajwid. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during tarawih prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on exegesis, or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text.",
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"plaintext": "The word appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun () of the Arabic verb () meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is (), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: \"It is for Us to collect it and to recite it ().\"",
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"plaintext": "In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: \"So when is recited, listen to it and keep silent.\" The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel.",
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"plaintext": "The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of in certain contexts. Such terms include ('book'), ('sign'), and ('scripture'); the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (al-), the word is referred to as the waḥy ('revelation'), that which has been \"sent down\" (tanzīl) at intervals. Other related words include: ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' (), 'the mother book' (), 'the guide' (), 'the wisdom' (), 'the remembrance' (), and 'the revelation' (; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is ('The Book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mus'haf ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books.",
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"plaintext": "Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to hadith and Muslim history, after Muhammad immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation.",
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"plaintext": "Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, \"Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell\" and Aisha reported, \"I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over).\" Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the \"one mighty in power,\" the one who \"grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer.\" The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran describes Muhammad as \",\" which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning of —they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts.",
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"plaintext": "The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the year 10 A.H., a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm.",
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"plaintext": "Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in the Battle of Yamama by Musaylimah. The first caliph, Abu Bakr (d. 634), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655) was the person to collect the Quran since \"he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle\". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as ) and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. After Abu Bakr, in 644, Hafsa bint Umar, Muhammad's widow, was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, requested the standard copy from Hafsa bint Umar in about 650.",
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"plaintext": "In about 650, the third Caliph Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula into Persia, the Levant, and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard copy of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr.",
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"plaintext": "According to Shia, Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud's and Ubay ibn Ka'b's codex, none of which exist today.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development. University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that:[T]here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established.Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based. Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist at the time. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text () is still barely visible and believed to be \"pre-Uthmanic\" Quranic content, while the text written on top () is believed to belong to Uthmanic times. Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, fragments of a very early Quran, dating back to 1370 years earlier, were discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham, England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, \"with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645\". The manuscript is written in Hijazi script, an early form of written Arabic. This is possibly the earliest extant exemplar of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest. Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later. However Joseph E. B. Lumbard of Brandeis University has written in the Huffington Post in support of the dates proposed by the Birmingham scholars. Lumbard notes that the discovery of a Quranic text that may be confirmed by radiocarbon dating as having been written in the first decades of the Islamic era, while presenting a text substantially in conformity with that traditionally accepted, reinforces a growing academic consensus that many Western skeptical and 'revisionist' theories of Quranic origins are now untenable in the light of empirical findings—whereas, on the other hand, counterpart accounts of Quranic origins within classical Islamic traditions stand up well in the light of ongoing scientific discoveries.",
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"plaintext": "Muslims believe the Quran to be God's final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel.",
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"plaintext": "Revered by pious Muslims as \"the holy of holies,\" whose sound moves some to \"tears and ecstasy\", it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Consequently,",
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"plaintext": " It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally great emphasis was put on children memorizing the 6,200+ verses of the Quran, those succeeding being honored with the title Hafiz. \"Millions and millions\" of Muslims \"refer to the Koran daily to explain their actions and to justify their aspirations,\" and in recent years many consider it the source of scientific knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "Revelation in Islamic and Quranic contexts means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is tanzil ('to send down') or ('to come down'). As the Quran says, \"With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them. The Quran refers to a written pre-text, \"the preserved tablet,\" that records God's speech even before it was sent down.",
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"plaintext": "Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran , it is protected from corruption (\"Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardian.\"). Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion.",
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"plaintext": "The Shīa believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime, rather than being compiled by Uthman ibn Affan. There are other differences in the way Shias interpret the text. Muslims do not agree over whether the Quran was created by God or is eternal and \"uncreated.\" Sunnis (who make up about 85–90% of Muslims) hold that the Quran is uncreated—a doctrine that has been unchallenged among them for many centuries. Shia Twelvers and Zaydi, and the Kharijites—believe the Quran was created. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.",
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"plaintext": "Inimitability of the Quran (or \"\") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection—and, thereby, the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran: \"If men and jinn banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another.\" From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including al-Jurjani (d. 1078) and al-Baqillani (d. 1013) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations at the individual level and in history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran.",
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"plaintext": "The first surah of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and on other occasions. This surah, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran:",
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"plaintext": "Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers.",
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"plaintext": "Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran (\"none shall touch but those who are clean\"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu or ghusl) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal. Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water.",
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"plaintext": "In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings. Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called , thawab, or .",
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"plaintext": "The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination. The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a sūrah. Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. Some scholars argue the sūrahs are arranged according to a certain pattern. Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the Bismillah (), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the Bismillah in the Quran, due to its presence in as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba.",
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"plaintext": "Each sūrah consists of several verses, known as āyāt, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular Hafs Quran is 6,236; however, the number varies if the bismillahs are counted separately.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to and independent of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 juz' (plural ) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names—which are the first few words by which the begins. A is sometimes further divided into two ḥizb (plural ), and each subdivided into four . The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, manzil (plural ), for it to be recited in a week.",
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"plaintext": "A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten each. Such a section is called a rukū`.",
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"plaintext": "The Muqattaʿat (, , 'disjoined letters, disconnected letters'; also 'mysterious letters') are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala. The letters are also known as fawātih (), or 'openers', as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their : Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ, Yāʾ-Sīn, Ṣād, and Qāf. The original significance of the letters is unknown. Tafsir (exegesis) has interpreted them as abbreviations for either names or qualities of God or for the names or content of the respective surahs. According to Rashad Khalifa, those letters are Quranic initials for a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, namely the Quran code or known as Code 19.",
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"plaintext": "According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots.",
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"plaintext": "The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message. The style of the Quran has been called \"allusive,\" with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—\"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named.\"",
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"plaintext": "The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., ). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: \"It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?\"",
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"plaintext": "The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. There is a reference to the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: \"Believe in God and the last day.\" A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some suras indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Sura 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: \"O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time:The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described.… The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life.The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Quran, God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. Prophets, or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. \"Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty.\" The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets. Angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in , in which it is stated: \"It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will.\"",
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"plaintext": "Belief is a fundamental aspect of morality in the Quran, and scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of \"belief\" and \"believer\" in the Quran. The ethico-legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability, and the belief in each human's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who \"spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public\" are promised that they \"shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.\" It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance. A number of practices, such as usury and gambling, are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (sharia). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers (salat) and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration. The term for charity, zakat, literally means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification.",
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"plaintext": "The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum, while being highly critical of pseudo-scientific claims made about the Quran, has highlighted the encouragement for sciences that the Quran provides by developing \"the concept of knowledge.\" He writes:The Qur'an draws attention to the danger of conjecturing without evidence (And follow not that of which you have not the (certain) knowledge of... 17:36) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs (Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful 2:111), both in matters of theological belief and in natural science.Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of \"proof\" according to the Quran being \"clear and strong... convincing evidence or argument.\" Also, such a proof cannot rely on an argument from authority, citing verse 5:104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4:174. Ismail al-Faruqi and Taha Jabir Alalwani are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however, the biggest obstacle on this route is the \"centuries old heritage of tafseer (exegesis) and other classical disciplines\" which inhibit a \"universal, epidemiological and systematic conception\" of the Quran's message. The philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, considered the Quran's methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational.",
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"plaintext": "There are around 750 verses in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena. In many of these verses the study of nature is \"encouraged and highly recommended\", and historical Islamic scientists like Al-Biruni and Al-Battani derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran. Mohammad Hashim Kamali has stated that \"scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality\" are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran. Ziauddin Sardar built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of modern science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe and reflect upon natural phenomenon.",
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"plaintext": "The physicist Abdus Salam, in his Nobel Prize banquet address, quoted a well known verse from the Quran (67:3–4) and then stated: \"This in effect is the faith of all physicists: the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement of our gaze.\" One of Salam's core beliefs was that there is no contradiction between Islam and the discoveries that science allows humanity to make about nature and the universe. Salam also held the opinion that the Quran and the Islamic spirit of study and rational reflection was the source of extraordinary civilizational development. Salam highlights, in particular, the work of Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni as the pioneers of empiricism who introduced the experimental approach, breaking with Aristotle's influence and thus giving birth to modern science. Salam was also careful to differentiate between metaphysics and physics, and advised against empirically probing certain matters on which \"physics is silent and will remain so,\" such as the doctrine of \"creation from nothing\" which in Salam's view is outside the limits of science and thus \"gives way\" to religious considerations.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable.",
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"plaintext": "The language of the Quran has been described as \"rhymed prose\" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository.",
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"plaintext": "The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness. Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.",
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"plaintext": "A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (), remembrance (dhikr), news (), criterion () in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, \"And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?\"), or in the frequent appearance of the \"Say\" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., \"Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance',\" \"Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'\"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran has sparked a huge body of commentary and explication (), aimed at explaining the \"meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance.\"",
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"plaintext": "Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims. Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, such as Abu Bakr, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, ʻAli ibn Abi Talib, 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ood, ʻAbdullah ibn Abbas, Ubayy ibn Kaʻb, Zayd ibn Thaabit, Abu Moosaa al-Ash’ari, and ‘Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (hadith) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear.",
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"plaintext": "Because the Quran is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or \"abrogating\" () the earlier text (). Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran.",
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"plaintext": "There have been several commentaries of the Quran by scholars of all denominations, popular ones include Tafsir ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Jalalayn, Tafsir Al Kabir, Tafsir al-Tabari. More modern works of Tafisr include Ma'ariful Qur'an written by Mufti Muhammad Shafi and Risale-i Nur by Bediüzzaman Said Nursi.",
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"plaintext": "Esoteric or Sufi interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent () point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (batin) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence. According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are allusions () rather than explanations (tafsir). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer.",
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"plaintext": "Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can be seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran:",
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"plaintext": "Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths.",
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"plaintext": "Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to , is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of , which originally meant 'to return' or 'the returning place'. In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called , or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.",
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"plaintext": "According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement \"none knows its interpretation except God\" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.",
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"plaintext": "According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable is where one \"transfers\" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.",
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"plaintext": "One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named ('Truths of Exegesis') which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) ('the unveiling of the secrets'). Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book Mathnawi. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in , which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently. Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appear in the 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work ('the Spirit of Elucidation') is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali).",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect. For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a hadith that goes back to Muhammad:",
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"plaintext": "The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth).",
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"plaintext": "According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology.",
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"plaintext": "Commentaries dealing with the zahir ('outward aspects') of the text are called , and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the batin are called ta'wil ('interpretation' or 'explanation'), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning.",
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"plaintext": "Reappropriation is the name of the hermeneutical style of some ex-Muslims who have converted to Christianity. Their style or reinterpretation can sometimes be geared towards apologetics, with less reference to the Islamic scholarly tradition that contextualizes and systematizes the reading (e.g., by identifying some verses as abrogated). This tradition of interpretation draws on the following practices: grammatical renegotiation, renegotiation of textual preference, retrieval, and concession.",
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"plaintext": "Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult.",
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"plaintext": "Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian, and European languages. The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat al-Fatiha into Persian during the seventh century. Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar (Sindh, India, now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk.",
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"plaintext": "The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961–976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete tafsir of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times.",
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"plaintext": "Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer.",
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"plaintext": "In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known. In 2010, the Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran.",
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"plaintext": "Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete, was the first into a Western language (Latin).",
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"plaintext": "Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of L'Alcoran de Mahomet (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. Popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classic's translation by Muhammad Abdel Haleem, The Clear Quran by Dr Mustafa Khattab, Sahih International's translation, among various others.",
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"plaintext": "As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular ye and thou instead of the more common you.",
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"plaintext": "The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Punjab which was printed in 1911.",
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"plaintext": "The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.",
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"plaintext": "In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by Ibn al-Jazari and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri.",
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"plaintext": "The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like El Minshawy, Al-Hussary, Abdul Basit, Mustafa Ismail, were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation. Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta. Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public Quran recitation competitions.",
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"plaintext": "There are two types of recitation:",
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"plaintext": " is at a slower pace, used for study and practice.",
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"plaintext": " Mujawwad refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the reciter seeks to involve the listeners.",
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"plaintext": "Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds (tashkeel) were introduced into the text of the Qur'an during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah. The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven ahruf (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d. 796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafi‘ al-Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.",
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"plaintext": "The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant. According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line.",
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"plaintext": "Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (shaddah), assimilation and alternation.",
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"plaintext": "Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi. Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region.",
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"plaintext": "Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī-typescript. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī and, on rarer occasions, the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.",
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"plaintext": "In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.",
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"plaintext": "Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif. ",
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"plaintext": "Wood-block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century.",
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"plaintext": "Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians. The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537–1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini. But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors. Two more editions include those published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694, and by Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary.",
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"plaintext": "Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death. The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika, who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century.",
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"plaintext": "In 1786, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing press for \"Tatar and Turkish orthography\" in Saint Petersburg, with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in Kazan. The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the First Constitutional Era.",
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"plaintext": "Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's Al-Azhar University published an edition of the Quran in 1924. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions.",
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"plaintext": "Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics refer to preexisting sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from heretic, apocryphic and talmudic sources, such as The Syriac Infancy Gospel and Gospel of James. However the Bible was not translated into Arabic until after the completion of the Quran with other Judeo-Christian sources being translated even later. Due to rejection of Crucifixion of Jesus in the Quran, some scholars also suspect Manichaean, a dualistic religion believing in two eternal forces, influences on the Quran.",
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"plaintext": "The believe the Quran predicts scientific knowledge, relating the author to non-human origin. Critics argue, verses which allegedly explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology, evolution of the earth, and human life, contain fallacies and are unscientific. Most claims of predictions rely on the ambiguity of the Arabic language, another point of criticism. Despite calling itself a clear book, the Quranic language lacks clarity.",
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"plaintext": "Other criticisms point at the moral attitude asserted by the Quran. Examples include the Sword Verse, which some interpret as promoting violence against \"pagans\", and An-Nisa, 34, which some view as excusing domestic violence.",
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"plaintext": "Some non-Muslim groups such as the Baháʼí Faith and Druze view the Quran as holy. In the Baháʼí Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being a stage within in the divine process of progressive revelation. Bahá’u’lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith, testified to the validity of the Quran, writing, \"Say: Perused ye not the Qur’án? Read it, that haply ye may find the Truth, for this Book is verily the Straight Path. This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth.\" Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. The Quran has been noted to have certain narratives similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel. One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text.",
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"plaintext": "The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the Torah and the Gospels) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God.",
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"plaintext": "According to Christoph Luxenberg (in The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran) the Quran's language was similar to the Syriac language. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as \"The Prophet\" or \"The Apostle\"), while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament.",
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"plaintext": "After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form. The Arabic grammarian Sibawayh wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as \"Al-Kitab\", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago, and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University, state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous.",
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"plaintext": " Criticism of the Quran",
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"plaintext": " Digital Quran",
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"plaintext": " Hadith of the Quran and Sunnah",
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"plaintext": " Historical reliability of the Quran",
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"plaintext": " Islamic schools and branches",
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},
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"plaintext": " List of chapters in the Quran",
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"plaintext": " List of translations of the Quran",
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{
"plaintext": " Quran and miracles",
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6110903
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Quran code",
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67885296
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1,
11
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"plaintext": " Quran translations",
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266673
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]
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"plaintext": " Schools of Islamic theology",
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42199619
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
28
]
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},
{
"plaintext": " Violence in the Quran",
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22
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"plaintext": " Women in the Quran",
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4684699
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
]
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},
{
"plaintext": " .",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Journal of Qur'anic Studies (), published by the School of Oriental and African Studies",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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22354303,
118652
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1,
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50,
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"plaintext": " Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies, published by King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts – Islam",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Several digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 2017-232-1 al-Qurʼān. / القرآن at OPenn",
"section_idx": 16,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Al-Quran.info",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Quran Archive – Texts and Studies on the Quran",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Quran text and translation at Tufts University",
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84077
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"anchor_spans": [
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31,
47
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},
{
"plaintext": " Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Quran.com",
"section_idx": 16,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian)",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
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| 428 | 113,997 | 7,660 | 432 | 0 | 0 | The Qur’an | Islamic religious text | [
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36,934 | 1,095,961,801 | Network | [
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"plaintext": "Network, networking and networked may refer to:",
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| 109,406 | 3,319 | 9 | 51 | 0 | 0 | network | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,937 | 1,101,851,603 | Television_broadcasting | [
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"plaintext": "A television network or television broadcaster is a telecommunications network for distribution of television program content, where a central operation provides programming to many television stations or pay television providers. Until the mid-1980s, television programming in most countries of the world was dominated by a small number of terrestrial networks. Many early television networks (such as NBC, the ABC, or the BBC) evolved from earlier radio networks.",
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"plaintext": "In countries where most networks broadcast identical, centrally originated content to all of their stations and where most individual television transmitters therefore operate only as large \"repeater stations\", the terms \"television network\", \"television channel\" (a numeric identifier or radio frequency) and \"television station\" have become mostly interchangeable in everyday language, with professionals in television-related occupations continuing to make a differentiation between them. Within the industry, a tiering is sometimes created among groups of networks based on whether their programming is simultaneously originated from a central point, and whether the network master control has the technical and administrative capability to take over the programming of their affiliates in real-time when it deems this necessary – the most common example being during national breaking news events.",
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"plaintext": "In North America in particular, many television networks available via cable and satellite television are branded as \"channels\" because they are somewhat different from traditional networks in the sense defined above, as they are singular operations – they have no affiliates or component stations, but instead are distributed to the public via cable or direct-broadcast satellite providers. Such networks are commonly referred to by terms such as \"specialty channels\" in Canada or \"cable networks\" in the U.S.",
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"plaintext": "A network may or may not produce all of its own programming. If not, production companies (such as Warner Bros. Television, Universal Television, Sony Pictures Television and TriStar Television) can distribute their content to the various networks, and it is common that a certain production firm may have programs that air on two or more rival networks. Similarly, some networks may import television programs from other countries, or use archived programming to help complement their schedules.",
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"plaintext": "Some stations have the capability to interrupt the network through the local insertion of television commercials, station identifications and emergency alerts. Others completely break away from the network for their own programming, a method known as regional variation. This is common where small networks are members of larger networks. The majority of commercial television stations are self-owned, even though a variety of these instances are the property of an owned-and-operated television network. The commercial television stations can also be linked with a noncommercial educational broadcasting agency. It is also important to note that some countries have launched national television networks, so that individual television stations can act as common repeaters of nationwide programs.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, television networks also undergo the impending experience of major changes related to cultural varieties. The emergence of cable television has made available in major media markets, programs such as those aimed at American bi-cultural Latinos. Such a diverse captive audience presents an occasion for the networks and affiliates to advertise the best programming that needs to be aired.",
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"plaintext": "This is explained by author Tim P. Vos in his abstract A Cultural Explanation of Early Broadcast, where he determines targeted group/non-targeted group representations as well as the cultural specificity employed in the television network entity. Vos notes that policymakers did not expressly intend to create a broadcast order dominated by commercial networks. In fact, legislative attempts were made to limit the network's preferred position.",
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"plaintext": "As to individual stations, modern network operations centers usually use broadcast automation to handle most tasks. These systems are not only used for programming and for video server playout, but use exact atomic time from Global Positioning Systems or other sources to maintain perfect synchronization with upstream and downstream systems, so that programming appears seamless to viewers.",
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"plaintext": "A major international television network is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is perhaps most well known for its news agency BBC News. Owned by the Crown, the BBC operates primarily in the United Kingdom. It is funded by the television license paid by British residents that watch any television as it is broadcast, and, as a result, no commercial advertising appears on its networks. Outside the UK, advertising is broadcast because the license fee only applies to the BBC's British operations. 23,000 people worldwide are employed by the BBC and its subsidiary, BBC Studios. Experimental television broadcasts were started in 1929, using an electromechanical 30-line system developed by John Logie Baird. Limited regular broadcasts using this system began in 1934, and an expanded service (now named the BBC Television Service) started from Alexandra Palace in November 1936.",
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"plaintext": "Television in the United States had long been dominated by the Big Three television networks, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), CBS (formerly the Columbia Broadcasting System) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC); however, the Fox Broadcasting Company (Fox), which launched in October 1986, has gained prominence and is now considered part of the \"Big Four.\" The Big Three provide a significant number of programs to each of their affiliates, including newscasts, prime time, daytime and sports programming, but still reserve periods during each day where their affiliate can air local programming, such as local news or syndicated programs. Since the creation of Fox, the number of American television networks has increased, though the amount of programming they provide is often much less: for example, The CW only provides fourteen hours of primetime programming each week (along with three hours on Saturdays), while MyNetworkTV only provides ten hours of primetime programming each week, leaving their affiliates to fill time periods where network programs are not broadcast with a large amount of syndicated programming. Other networks are dedicated to specialized programming, such as religious content or programs presented in languages other than English, particularly Spanish.",
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"plaintext": "With the adoption of digital television, television networks have also been created specifically for distribution on the digital subchannels of television stations (including networks focusing on classic television series and films operated by companies like Weigel Broadcasting (owners of Movies! and Me-TV) and Nexstar Media Group (owners of Rewind TV and Antenna TV), along with networks focusing on music, sports and other niche programming).",
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"plaintext": "Cable and satellite providers pay the networks a certain rate per subscriber (the highest charge being for ESPN, in which cable and satellite providers pay a rate of more than $5.00 per subscriber to ESPN). The providers also handle the sale of advertising inserted at the local level during national programming, in which case the broadcaster and the cable/satellite provider may share revenue. Networks that maintain a home shopping or infomercial format may instead pay the station or cable/satellite provider, in a brokered carriage deal. This is especially common with low-power television stations, and in recent years, even more so for stations that used this revenue stream to finance their conversion to digital broadcasts, which in turn provides them with several additional channels to transmit different programming sources.",
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"plaintext": "Television broadcasting in the United States was heavily influenced by radio. Early individual experimental radio stations in the United States began limited operations in the 1910s. In November 1920, Westinghouse signed on \"the world's first commercially licensed radio station\", KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Other companies built early radio stations in Detroit, Boston, New York City and other areas. Radio stations received permission to transmit through broadcast licenses obtained through the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), a government entity that was created in 1926 to regulate the radio industry. With some exceptions, radio stations east of the Mississippi River received official call signs beginning with the letter \"W\"; those west of the Mississippi were assigned calls beginning with a \"K\". The number of programs that these early stations aired was often limited, in part due to the expense of program creation. The idea of a network system which would distribute programming to many stations simultaneously, saving each station the expense of creating all of their own programs and expanding the total coverage beyond the limits of a single broadcast signal, was devised.",
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"plaintext": "NBC set up the first permanent coast-to-coast radio network in the United States by 1928, using dedicated telephone line technology. The network physically linked individual radio stations, nearly all of which were independently owned and operated, in a vast chain, NBC's audio signal thus transmitted from station to station to listeners across the United States. Other companies, including CBS and the Mutual Broadcasting System, soon followed suit, each network signed hundreds of individual stations on as affiliates: stations which agreed to broadcast programs from one of the networks.",
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"plaintext": "As radio prospered throughout the 1920s and 1930s, experimental television stations, which broadcast both an audio and a video signal, began sporadic broadcasts. Licenses for these experimental stations were often granted to experienced radio broadcasters, and thus advances in television technology closely followed breakthroughs in radio technology. As interest in television grew, and as early television stations began regular broadcasts, the idea of networking television signals (sending one station's video and audio signal to outlying stations) was born. However, the signal from an electronic television system, containing much more information than a radio signal, required a broadband transmission medium. Transmission by a nationwide series of radio relay towers would be possible but extremely expensive.",
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"plaintext": "Researchers at AT&T subsidiary Bell Telephone Laboratories patented coaxial cable in 1929, primarily as a telephone improvement device. Its high capacity (transmitting 240 telephone calls simultaneously) also made it ideal for long-distance television transmission, where it could handle a frequency band of 1MHz. German television first demonstrated such an application in 1936 by relaying televised telephone calls from Berlin to Leipzig, away, by cable.",
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"plaintext": "AT&T laid the first L-carrier coaxial cable between New York City and Philadelphia, with automatic signal booster stations every , and in 1937 it experimented with transmitting televised motion pictures over the line. Bell Labs gave demonstrations of the New York–Philadelphia television link in 1940 and 1941. AT&T used the coaxial link to transmit the Republican National Convention in June 1940 from Philadelphia to New York City, where it was televised to a few hundred receivers over the NBC station W2XBS (which evolved into WNBC) as well as seen in Schenectady, New York via W2XB (which evolved into WRGB) via off-air relay from the New York station.",
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"plaintext": "NBC had earlier demonstrated an inter-city television broadcast on 1 February 1940, from its station in New York City to another in Schenectady, New York by General Electric relay antennas, and began transmitting some programs on an irregular basis to Philadelphia and Schenectady in 1941. Wartime priorities suspended the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 1 April 1942 to 1 October 1945, temporarily shutting down expansion of television networking. However, in 1944 a short film, \"Patrolling the Ether\", was broadcast simultaneously over three stations as an experiment.",
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"plaintext": "AT&T made its first postwar addition in February 1946, with the completion of a cable between New York City and Washington, D.C., although a blurry demonstration broadcast showed that it would not be in regular use for several months. The DuMont Television Network, which had begun experimental broadcasts before the war, launched what Newsweek called \"the country's first permanent commercial television network\" on 15 August 1946, connecting New York City with Washington. Not to be outdone, NBC launched what it called \"the world's first regularly operating television network\" on 27 June 1947, serving New York City, Philadelphia, Schenectady and Washington. Baltimore and Boston were added to the NBC television network in late 1947. DuMont and NBC would be joined by CBS and ABC in 1948.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1940s, the term \"chain broadcasting\" was used when discussing network broadcasts, as the television stations were linked together in long chains along the East Coast. But as the television networks expanded westward, the interconnected television stations formed major networks of connected affiliate stations. In January 1949, with the sign-on of DuMont's WDTV in Pittsburgh, the Midwest and East Coast networks were finally connected by coaxial cable (with WDTV airing the best shows from all four networks). By 1951, the four networks stretched from coast to coast, carried on the new microwave radio relay network of AT&T Long Lines. Only a few local television stations remained independent of the networks.",
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"plaintext": "Each of the four major television networks originally only broadcast a few hours of programs a week to their affiliate stations, mostly between 8:00 and 11:00p.m. Eastern Time, when most viewers were watching television. Most of the programs broadcast by the television stations were still locally produced. As the networks increased the number of programs that they aired, however, officials at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) grew concerned that local television might disappear altogether. Eventually, the federal regulator enacted the Prime Time Access Rule, which restricted the amount of time that the networks could air programs; officials hoped that the rules would foster the development of quality local programs, but in practice, most local stations did not want to bear the burden of producing many of their own programs, and instead chose to purchase programs from independent producers. Sales of television programs to individual local stations are done through a method called \"broadcast syndication\", and today nearly every television station in the United States obtains syndicated programs in addition to network-produced fare.",
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"plaintext": "Late in the 20th century, cross-country microwave radio relays were replaced by fixed-service satellites. Some terrestrial radio relays remained in service for regional connections.",
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"plaintext": "After the failure and shutdown of DuMont in 1956, several attempts at new networks were made between the 1950s and the 1970s, with little success. The Fox Broadcasting Company, founded by the Rupert Murdoch-owned News Corporation (now owned by Fox Corporation), was launched on 9 October 1986 after the company purchased the television assets of Metromedia; it would eventually ascend to the status of the fourth major network by 1994. Two other networks launched within a week of one another in January 1995: The WB Television Network, a joint venture between Time Warner and the Tribune Company, and the United Paramount Network (UPN), formed through a programming alliance between Chris-Craft Industries and Paramount Television (whose parent, Viacom, would later acquire half and later all of the network over the course of its existence). In September 2006, The CW was launched as a \"merger\" of The WB and UPN (in actuality, a consolidation of each respective network's higher-rated programs onto one schedule); MyNetworkTV, a network formed from affiliates of UPN and The WB that did not affiliate with The CW, launched at the same time.",
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"plaintext": "FCC regulations in the United States restricted the number of television stations that could be owned by any one network, company or individual. This led to a system where most local television stations were independently owned, but received programming from the network through a franchising contract, except in a few major cities that had owned-and-operated stations (O&O) of a network and independent stations. In the early days of television, when there were often only one or two stations broadcasting in a given market, the stations were usually affiliated with multiple networks and were able to choose which programs would air. Eventually, as more stations were licensed, it became common for each station to be exclusively affiliated with only one network and carry all of the \"prime-time\" programs that the network offered. Local stations occasionally break from regularly scheduled network programming however, especially when a breaking news or severe weather situation occurs in the viewing area. Moreover, when stations return to network programming from commercial breaks, station identifications are displayed in the first few seconds before switching to the network's logo.",
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"plaintext": "A number of different definitions of \"network\" are used by government agencies, industry, and the general public. Under the Broadcasting Act, a network is defined as \"any operation where control over all or any part of the programs or program schedules of one or more broadcasting undertakings is delegated to another undertaking or person,\" and must be licensed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).",
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"plaintext": "Only three national over-the-air television networks are currently licensed by the CRTC: government-owned CBC Television (English) and Ici Radio-Canada Télé (French), French-language private network TVA, and APTN, a network focused on Indigenous peoples in Canada. A third French-language service, Noovo (formerly V), is licensed as a provincial network within Quebec, but is not licensed or locally distributed (outside of carriage on the digital tiers of pay television providers) on a national basis.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, licensed national or provincial networks must be carried by all cable providers (in the country or province, respectively) with a service area above a certain population threshold, as well as all satellite providers. However, they are no longer necessarily expected to achieve over-the-air coverage in all areas (APTN, for example, only has terrestrial coverage in parts of northern Canada).",
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"plaintext": "In addition to these licensed networks, the two main private English-language over-the-air services, CTV and Global, are also generally considered to be \"networks\" by virtue of their national coverage, although they are not officially licensed as such. CTV was previously a licensed network, but relinquished this license in 2001 after acquiring most of its affiliates, making operating a network license essentially redundant (per the above definition).",
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"plaintext": "Smaller groups of stations with common branding are often categorized by industry watchers as television systems, although the public and the broadcasters themselves will often refer to them as \"networks\" regardless. Some of these systems, such as CTV 2 and the now-defunct E!, essentially operate as mini-networks, but have reduced geographical coverage. Others, such as Omni Television or the Crossroads Television System, have similar branding and a common programming focus, but schedules may vary significantly from one station to the next. Citytv originally began operating as a television system in 2002 when CKVU-TV in Vancouver started to carry programs originating from CITY-TV in Toronto and adopted that station's \"Citytv\" branding, but gradually became a network by virtue of national coverage through expansions into other markets west of Atlantic Canada between 2005 and 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Most local television stations in Canada are now owned and operated directly by their network, with only a small number of stations still operating as affiliates.",
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"plaintext": "Most television services outside North America are national networks established by a combination of publicly funded broadcasters and commercial broadcasters. Most nations established television networks in a similar way: the first television service in each country was operated by a public broadcaster, often funded by a television licensing fee, and most of them later established a second or even third station providing a greater variety of content. Commercial television services also became available when private companies applied for television broadcasting licenses. Often, each new network would be identified with their channel number, so that individual stations would often be numbered \"One\", \"Two\", \"Three\" and so forth.",
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"plaintext": "The first television network in the United Kingdom was operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). On 2 November 1936 the BBC opened the world's first regular high-definition television service, from a 405 lines transmitter at Alexandra Palace. The BBC remained dominant until eventually on 22 September 1955, commercial broadcasting was established to create a second television network. Rather than creating a single network with local channels owned and operated by a single company (as is the case with the BBC), each local area had a separate television channel that was independently owned and operated, although most of these channels shared a number of programmes, particularly during peak evening viewing hours. These channels formed the ITV network.",
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"plaintext": "When the advent of UHF broadcasting allowed a greater number of television channels to broadcast, the BBC launched a second channel, BBC 2 (with the original service being renamed BBC 1). A second national commercial network was launched Channel 4, although Wales instead introduced a Welsh-language service, S4C. These were later followed by the launch of a third commercial network, Channel 5. Since the introduction of digital television, the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 each introduced a number of digital-only channels. Sky operates a large number of channels including Sky One, Sky Witness, Pick, Challenge and Sky Atlantic; as does UKTV, which operates channels like Dave, Drama Gold, W and Yesterday.",
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"plaintext": "Sweden had only one television network from 1956 until the early-1990s: the public broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT). Commercial companies such as Modern Times Group, TV4, Viasat, and SBS Discovery have established TV networks since the 1980s although they initially aired exclusively on satellite. In 1991, TV4 became Sweden's first commercial television network to air terrestrially. Most television programming in Sweden is centralised except for local news updates that air on SVT2 and TV4.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1989, Netherlands Public Broadcasting was the only television network in the Netherlands, with three stations, Nederland 1, Nederland 2 and Nederland 3. Rather than having a single production arm, there are a number of public broadcasting organizations that create programming for each of the three stations, each working relatively independently. Commercial broadcasting in the Netherlands is currently operated by two networks, RTL Nederland and SBS Broadcasting, which together broadcast seven commercial stations.",
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"plaintext": "The first television network in the Soviet Union launched on 7 July 1938 when Petersburg – Channel 5 of Leningrad Television became a unionwide network.",
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"plaintext": "The second television network in the Soviet Union launched on 22 March 1951 when Channel One of USSR Central Television became a unionwide network. Until 1989, there were six television networks, all owned by the USSR Gosteleradio. This changed during Mikhail Gorbachev's Perestroika program, when the first independent television network, 2×2, was launched.",
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"plaintext": "Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, USSR Gosteleradio ceased to exist as well as its six networks. Only Channel One had a smooth transition and survived as a network, becoming Ostankino Channel One. The other five networks were operated by Ground Zero. This free airwave space allowed many private television networks like NTV and TV-6 to launch in the mid-1990s.",
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"plaintext": "o",
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"plaintext": "The 2000s were marked by the increased state intervention in Russian television. On 14 April 2001 NTV experienced management changes following the expulsion of former oligarch and NTV founder Vladimir Gusinsky. As a result, most of the prominent reporters featured on NTV left the network. Later on 22 January 2002, the second largest private television network TV-6, where the former NTV staff took refuge, was shut down allegedly because of its editorial policy. Five months later on 1 June, TVS was launched, mostly employing NTV/TV-6 staff, only to cease operations the following year. Since then, the four largest television networks (Channel One, Russia 1, NTV and Russia 2) have been state-owned.",
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"plaintext": "Still, the 2000s saw a rise of several independent television networks such as REN (its coverage increased vastly allowing it to become a federal network), Petersburg – Channel Five (overall the same), the relaunched 2×2. The Russian television market is mainly shared today by five major companies: Channel One, Russia 1, NTV, TNT and CTC.",
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"plaintext": "The major commercial television network in Brazil is Rede Globo, which was founded in 1965. It grew to become the largest and most successful media conglomerate in the country, having a dominating presence in various forms of media including television, radio, print (newspapers and magazines) and the Internet.",
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"plaintext": "Other networks include Rede Bandeirantes, RecordTV, SBT, RedeTV!, TV Cultura, and TV Brasil.",
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"plaintext": "Australia has two national public networks, ABC Television and SBS. The ABC operates eight stations as part of its main network ABC TV, one for each state and territory, as well as three digital-only networks, ABC Kids / ABC TV Plus, ABC Me and ABC News. SBS currently operates four stations, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS Food and NITV.",
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"plaintext": "The first commercial networks in Australia involved commercial stations that shared programming in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and later Perth, with each network forming networks based on their allocated channel numbers: TCN-9 in Sydney, GTV-9 in Melbourne, QTQ-9 in Brisbane, NWS-9 in Adelaide and STW-9 in Perth together formed the Nine Network; while their equivalents on VHF channels 7 and 10 respectively formed the Seven Network and Network 10. Until 1989, areas outside these main cities had access to only a single commercial station, and these rural stations often formed small networks such as Prime Television. Beginning in 1989, however, television markets in rural areas began to aggregate, allowing these rural networks to broadcast over a larger area, often an entire state, and become full-time affiliates to one specific metropolitan network.",
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"plaintext": "As well as these Free-to-air channels, there are other's on Australia's Pay television network Foxtel.",
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"plaintext": "New Zealand has one public network, Television New Zealand (TVNZ), which consists of two main networks: TVNZ 1 is the network's flagship network which carries news, current affairs and sports programming as well as the majority of the locally produced shows broadcast by TVNZ and imported shows. TVNZ's second network, TV2, airs mostly imported shows with some locally produced programs such as Shortland Street. TVNZ also operates a network exclusive to pay television services, TVNZ Heartland, available on providers such as Sky. TVNZ previously operated a non-commercial public service network, TVNZ 7, which ceased operations in June 2012 and was replaced by the timeshift channel TV One Plus 1. The network operated by Television New Zealand has progressed from operating as four distinct local stations within the four main centers in the 1960s, to having the majority of the content produced from TVNZ's Auckland studios at present.",
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"plaintext": "New Zealand also has several privately owned television networks with the largest being operated by MediaWorks. MediaWorks' flagship network is TV3, which competes directly with both TVNZ broadcast networks. MediaWorks also operates a second network, FOUR, which airs mostly imported programmes with children's shows airing in the daytime and shows targeted at teenagers and adult between 15 and 39 years of age during prime time. MediaWorks also operates a timeshift network, TV3 + 1, and a 24-hour music network, C4.",
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"plaintext": "All television networks in New Zealand air the same programming across the entire country with the only regional deviations being for local advertising; a regional news service existed in the 1980s, carrying a regional news programme from TVNZ's studios in New Zealand's four largest cities, Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, the service operated at the time by the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation was four separate television stations – AKTV2 in Auckland, WNTV1 in Wellington, CHTV3 in Christchurch and DNTV2 in Dunedin – which each ran their own newscast and produced some in-house programmes, with other shows being shared between the stations. Programmes and news footage were distributed via mail, with a programme airing in one region being mailed to another region for broadcast the following week. A network was finally established in 1969, with the same programmes being relayed to all regions simultaneously. From the 1970s to the 1990s, locally produced programmes that aired on TV One and TV2 were produced out of one of the four main studios, with TVNZ's network hub based in Wellington. Today, most locally produced programmes that are aired by both TVNZ and other networks are not actually produced in-house, instead they are often produced by a third party company (for example, the TV2 programme Shortland Street is produced by South Pacific Pictures). The networks produce their own news and current affairs programs, with most of the content filmed in Auckland.",
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"plaintext": "New Zealand also operates several regional television stations, which are only available in individual markets. The regional stations will typically air a local news programme, produce some shows in-house and cover local sports events; the majority of programming on the regional stations will be imported from various sources.",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines, in practice, the terms \"network,\" \"station\" and \"channel\" are used interchangeably as programming lineups are mostly centrally planned from the networks' main offices, and since provincial/regional stations usually just relay the broadcast from their parent network's flagship station (usually based in the Mega Manila area). As such, networks made up of VHF stations are sometimes informally referred to by their over-the-air channel number in the Mega Manila area (for example, Channel 2 or Dos for ABS-CBN, Channel 13 or Trese for IBC, Channel 5 or Singko for TV5, Channel 9 or Nueve for Radio Philippines Network and Channel 7 or Siyete for GMA Network), while some incorporate their channel numbers in the network's name (for example, TV5, Studio 23 and Net 25, which respectively broadcast on VHF channel 5, and UHF channels 23 and 25).",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the United States, where networks receive programmes produced by various production companies, the two largest networks in the Philippines produce all of their prime time programmes. Other networks adopt block-time programming, which uses programming arrangements similar to the relationship between a U.S. network and station.",
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"plaintext": " Broadcast network",
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"plaintext": " Cable television in the United States",
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"plaintext": " Concentration of media ownership",
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"plaintext": " List of television networks by country",
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"plaintext": " Skypath",
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"plaintext": " Television system",
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| [
"Television_networks",
"Television_terminology"
]
| 1,254,874 | 5,874 | 2,167 | 286 | 0 | 0 | television network | telecommunications network for distribution of television program content | [
"TV network"
]
|
36,938 | 1,107,870,321 | Columbia | [
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"plaintext": " Columbia (personification), one of the historical national personifications of the United States, and a poetic name for America",
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"plaintext": " Glacial Lake Columbia, a proglacial lake in Washington state",
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"plaintext": " Columbia District, a Hudson's Bay Company fur trading district in the Pacific Northwest",
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"plaintext": " Columbia Street, New Westminster, the main downtown street of that city, in British Columbia, Canada",
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"plaintext": " Sailing Ship Columbia, a themed ride at Disneyland",
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"plaintext": " Team Columbia, a professional cycling team sponsored by Columbia Sportswear",
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"plaintext": " Columbia (Hewlett-Packard), a codename for the HP OmniGo 700LX palmtop PC",
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"plaintext": " Columbiad, a type of large-caliber cannon from the 19th century",
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"plaintext": " Columba, saint",
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"plaintext": " Columbanus, saint",
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| 766,625 | 9,277 | 24 | 163 | 0 | 0 | Columbia | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,940 | 1,092,914,691 | Alkanna_tinctoria | [
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"plaintext": "Alkanna tinctoria, the dyer's alkanet or simply alkanet, is a herb in the borage family. Its main notability is its roots are used as a red dye. The plant is also known as dyers' bugloss, orchanet, Spanish bugloss, or Languedoc bugloss. It is native to the Mediterranean region. A. tinctoria has 30 chromosomes and is regarded as a dysploid at the tetraploid level (4x + 2).",
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"plaintext": "A. tinctoria has a bright blue flower. The plant has a root of blackish appearance externally, but blue-red inside, with a whitish core. The root produces a fine red colouring material, which has been used as a dye in the Mediterranean region since antiquity. The root as a dyestuff is soluble in alcohol, ether, and the oils, but is insoluble in water. It is used to give colour to wines and alcoholic tinctures, to vegetable oils, and to varnishes.",
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"plaintext": "Powdered and mixed with oil, the alkanet root is used as a wood stain. When mixed into an oily environment, it imparts a crimson color to the oil, which when applied to a wood, moves the wood color towards dark-red-brown rosewood, and accentuates the grain of the wood.",
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"plaintext": "Alkanet is traditionally used in Indian food under the name ratan jot, and lends its red colour to some versions of the curry dish rogan josh. In Australia, alkanet is approved for use as a food colouring, but in the European Union, it is not.",
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"plaintext": "It has been used as colorant for lipstick and rouge.",
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"plaintext": "The colouring agent in A. tinctoria root has been chemically isolated and named alkannin.",
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"plaintext": "In folk medicine, it is also used to treat abscesses and inflammations.",
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"plaintext": "In English in the late medieval era, the name alkanet meant A. tinctoria. In the centuries since then, the name has come to be used informally for some botanically related other plants; see Alkanet.",
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| 856,964 | 2,397 | 19 | 17 | 0 | 0 | Alkanna tinctoria | species of plant | [
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36,941 | 1,101,709,526 | Laplace's_equation | [
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"plaintext": "In mathematics and physics, Laplace's equation is a second-order partial differential equation named after Pierre-Simon Laplace, who first studied its properties. This is often written as",
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"plaintext": "where is the Laplace operator, is the divergence operator (also symbolized \"div\"), is the gradient operator (also symbolized \"grad\"), and is a twice-differentiable real-valued function. The Laplace operator therefore maps a scalar function to another scalar function.",
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"plaintext": "This is called Poisson's equation, a generalization of Laplace's equation. Laplace's equation and Poisson's equation are the simplest examples of elliptic partial differential equations. Laplace's equation is also a special case of the Helmholtz equation.",
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"plaintext": "Solutions of Laplace's equation are called harmonic functions; they are all analytic within the domain where the equation is satisfied. If any two functions are solutions to Laplace's equation (or any linear homogeneous differential equation), their sum (or any linear combination) is also a solution. This property, called the principle of superposition, is very useful. For example, solutions to complex problems can be constructed by summing simple solutions.",
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"plaintext": "Laplace's equation in two independent variables in rectangular coordinates has the form ",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, given a harmonic function, it is the real part of an analytic function, (at least locally). If a trial form is",
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"plaintext": "then the Cauchy–Riemann equations will be satisfied if we set",
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"plaintext": "This relation does not determine , but only its increments:",
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"plaintext": "The Laplace equation for implies that the integrability condition for is satisfied:",
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"plaintext": "and thus may be defined by a line integral. The integrability condition and Stokes' theorem implies that the value of the line integral connecting two points is independent of the path. The resulting pair of solutions of the Laplace equation are called conjugate harmonic functions. This construction is only valid locally, or provided that the path does not loop around a singularity. For example, if and are polar coordinates and",
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"plaintext": "However, the angle is single-valued only in a region that does not enclose the origin.",
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"plaintext": "The close connection between the Laplace equation and analytic functions implies that any solution of the Laplace equation has derivatives of all orders, and can be expanded in a power series, at least inside a circle that does not enclose a singularity. This is in sharp contrast to solutions of the wave equation, which generally have less regularity.",
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"plaintext": "There is an intimate connection between power series and Fourier series. If we expand a function in a power series inside a circle of radius , this means that",
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"plaintext": "then the continuity condition is the integrability condition for this differential: the resulting function is called the stream function because it is constant along flow lines. The first derivatives of are given by",
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"plaintext": "and the irrotationality condition implies that satisfies the Laplace equation. The harmonic function that is conjugate to is called the velocity potential. The Cauchy–Riemann equations imply that",
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"plaintext": "Thus every analytic function corresponds to a steady incompressible, irrotational, inviscid fluid flow in the plane. The real part is the velocity potential, and the imaginary part is the stream function.",
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"plaintext": "According to Maxwell's equations, an electric field in two space dimensions that is independent of time satisfies",
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"plaintext": "The second of Maxwell's equations then implies that ",
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"plaintext": "which is the Poisson equation. The Laplace equation can be used in three-dimensional problems in electrostatics and fluid flow just as in two dimensions.",
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"plaintext": "where the Dirac delta function denotes a unit source concentrated at the point . No function has this property: in fact it is a distribution rather than a function; but it can be thought of as a limit of functions whose integrals over space are unity, and whose support (the region where the function is non-zero) shrinks to a point (see weak solution). It is common to take a different sign convention for this equation than one typically does when defining fundamental solutions. This choice of sign is often convenient to work with because −Δ is a positive operator. The definition of the fundamental solution thus implies that, if the Laplacian of is integrated over any volume that encloses the source point, then",
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"plaintext": "The Laplace equation is unchanged under a rotation of coordinates, and hence we can expect that a fundamental solution may be obtained among solutions that only depend upon the distance from the source point. If we choose the volume to be a ball of radius around the source point, then Gauss' divergence theorem implies that",
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"plaintext": "where denotes the natural logarithm. Note that, with the opposite sign convention, this is the potential generated by a pointlike sink (see point particle), which is the solution of the Euler equations in two-dimensional incompressible flow.",
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"plaintext": "Thus the Green's function describes the influence at of the data and . For the case of the interior of a sphere of radius , the Green's function may be obtained by means of a reflection : the source point at distance from the center of the sphere is reflected along its radial line to a point P that is at a distance",
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"plaintext": "where denotes the distance to the source point and denotes the distance to the reflected point P′. A consequence of this expression for the Green's function is the Poisson integral formula'. Let , , and be spherical coordinates for the source point . Here denotes the angle with the vertical axis, which is contrary to the usual American mathematical notation, but agrees with standard European and physical practice. Then the solution of the Laplace equation with Dirichlet boundary values inside the sphere is given by",
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"plaintext": "is the cosine of the angle between and . A simple consequence of this formula is that if is a harmonic function, then the value of at the center of the sphere is the mean value of its values on the sphere. This mean value property immediately implies that a non-constant harmonic function cannot assume its maximum value at an interior point.",
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"plaintext": "Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates is:",
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"plaintext": "Consider the problem of finding solutions of the form . By separation of variables, two differential equations result by imposing Laplace's equation:",
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"plaintext": "The second equation can be simplified under the assumption that has the form . Applying separation of variables again to the second equation gives way to the pair of differential equations",
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"plaintext": "for some number . A priori, is a complex constant, but because must be a periodic function whose period evenly divides , is necessarily an integer and is a linear combination of the complex exponentials . The solution function is regular at the poles of the sphere, where . Imposing this regularity in the solution of the second equation at the boundary points of the domain is a Sturm–Liouville problem that forces the parameter to be of the form for some non-negative integer with ; this is also explained below in terms of the orbital angular momentum. Furthermore, a change of variables transforms this equation into the Legendre equation, whose solution is a multiple of the associated Legendre polynomial . Finally, the equation for has solutions of the form ; requiring the solution to be regular throughout forces .",
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"plaintext": "Here the solution was assumed to have the special form . For a given value of , there are independent solutions of this form, one for each integer with . These angular solutions are a product of trigonometric functions, here represented as a complex exponential, and associated Legendre polynomials:",
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"plaintext": "which fulfill",
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"plaintext": "Here is called a spherical harmonic function of degree and order , is an associated Legendre polynomial, is a normalization constant, and and represent colatitude and longitude, respectively. In particular, the colatitude , or polar angle, ranges from at the North Pole, to at the Equator, to at the South Pole, and the longitude , or azimuth, may assume all values with . For a fixed integer , every solution of the eigenvalue problem",
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"plaintext": "is a linear combination of . In fact, for any such solution, is the expression in spherical coordinates of a homogeneous polynomial that is harmonic (see below), and so counting dimensions shows that there are linearly independent such polynomials.",
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"plaintext": "The general solution to Laplace's equation in a ball centered at the origin is a linear combination of the spherical harmonic functions multiplied by the appropriate scale factor ,",
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"plaintext": "For , the solid harmonics with negative powers of are chosen instead. In that case, one needs to expand the solution of known regions in Laurent series (about ), instead of Taylor series (about ), to match the terms and find .",
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"plaintext": "Let be the electric field, be the electric charge density, and be the permittivity of free space. Then Gauss's law for electricity (Maxwell's first equation) in differential form states",
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"plaintext": "Now, the electric field can be expressed as the negative gradient of the electric potential ,",
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"plaintext": "if the field is irrotational, . The irrotationality of is also known as the electrostatic condition.",
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"plaintext": "Plugging this relation into Gauss's law, we obtain Poisson's equation for electricity,",
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"plaintext": "In the particular case of a source-free region, and Poisson's equation reduces to Laplace's equation for the electric potential.",
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"plaintext": "If the electrostatic potential is specified on the boundary of a region , then it is uniquely determined. If is surrounded by a conducting material with a specified charge density , and if the total charge is known, then is also unique.",
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"plaintext": "A potential that doesn't satisfy Laplace's equation together with the boundary condition is an invalid electrostatic potential.",
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"plaintext": "Let be the gravitational field, the mass density, and the gravitational constant. Then Gauss's law for gravitation in differential form is",
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"plaintext": "The gravitational field is conservative and can therefore be expressed as the negative gradient of the gravitational potential:",
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"plaintext": "Using the differential form of Gauss's law of gravitation, we have",
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"plaintext": "which is Poisson's equation for gravitational fields.",
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"plaintext": "In empty space, and we have",
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"plaintext": "which is Laplace's equation for gravitational fields.",
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"plaintext": "S. Persides solved the Laplace equation in Schwarzschild spacetime on hypersurfaces of constant . Using the canonical variables , , the solution is",
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"plaintext": "Here and are Legendre functions of the first and second kind, respectively, while is the Schwarzschild radius. The parameter is an arbitrary non-negative integer.",
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"plaintext": " 6-sphere coordinates, a coordinate system under which Laplace's equation becomes R-separable",
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"plaintext": " Helmholtz equation, a general case of Laplace's equation.",
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"plaintext": " Spherical harmonic",
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"plaintext": " Quadrature domains",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Potential theory",
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"plaintext": " Potential flow",
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"plaintext": " Bateman transform",
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"plaintext": " Earnshaw's theorem uses the Laplace equation to show that stable static ferromagnetic suspension is impossible",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Vector Laplacian",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Fundamental solution",
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"plaintext": " * ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Laplace Equation (particular solutions and boundary value problems) at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Example initial-boundary value problems using Laplace's equation from exampleproblems.com.",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Find out how boundary value problems governed by Laplace's equation may be solved numerically by boundary element method",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Elliptic_partial_differential_equations",
"Harmonic_functions",
"Equations",
"Fourier_analysis",
"Pierre-Simon_Laplace"
]
| 339,444 | 11,926 | 233 | 97 | 0 | 0 | Laplace's equation | second order partial differential equation | [
"Laplace equation",
"Laplace's PDE",
"Laplace PDE"
]
|
36,942 | 1,104,424,419 | Christopher_Tolkien | [
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"plaintext": "Christopher John Reuel Tolkien (21 November 1924– 16 January 2020) was an English academic editor, becoming a French citizen in later life. He was the son of author J. R. R. Tolkien and the editor of much of his father's posthumously published work. Tolkien drew the original maps for his father's The Lord of the Rings.",
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"plaintext": "He entered the Royal Air Force in mid-1943 and was sent to South Africa for flight training, completing the elementary flying course at 7 Air School, Kroonstad, and the service flying course at 25 Air School, Standerton. He was commissioned into the general duties branch of the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve on 27 January 1945 as a pilot officer on probation (emergency) and was given the service number 193121. He briefly served as an RAF pilot before transferring to the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve on 28 June 1945. His commission was confirmed and he was promoted to flying officer (war substantive) on 27 July 1945.",
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"plaintext": "Tolkien had long been part of the critical audience for his father's fiction, first as a child listening to tales of Bilbo Baggins (which were published as The Hobbit), and then as a teenager and young adult offering much feedback on The Lord of the Rings during its 15-year gestation. He had the task of interpreting his father's sometimes self-contradictory maps of Middle-earth in order to produce the versions used in the books, and he re-drew the main map in the late 1970s to clarify the lettering and correct some errors and omissions. Tolkien was invited by his father to join the Inklings when he was 21 years old, making him the youngest member of the informal literary discussion society that included C. S. Lewis, Owen Barfield, Charles Williams, Warren Lewis, Lord David Cecil, and Nevill Coghill.",
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"plaintext": "He published The Saga of King Heidrek the Wise: \"Translated from the Icelandic with Introduction, Notes and Appendices by Christopher Tolkien\" in 1960. Later, Tolkien followed in his father's footsteps, becoming a lecturer and tutor in English Language at New College, Oxford, from 1964 to 1975.",
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"plaintext": "His father wrote a great deal of material connected to the Middle-earth legendarium that was not published in his lifetime. J. R. R. Tolkien had originally intended to publish The Silmarillion along with The Lord of the Rings, and parts of it were in a finished state when he died in 1973, but the project was incomplete. Tolkien once referred to his son as his \"chief critic and collaborator\", and named him his literary executor in his will. The younger Tolkien organised the masses of his father's unpublished writings, some of them written on odd scraps of paper half a century earlier. Much of the material was handwritten; frequently a fair draft was written over a half-erased first draft, and names of characters routinely changed between the beginning and end of the same draft. In the years following, Tolkien worked on the manuscripts and was able to produce—with assistance from writer Guy Gavriel Kay—an edition of The Silmarillion for publication in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "The Silmarillion was followed by Unfinished Tales in 1980, and The History of Middle-earth in 12 volumes between 1983 and 1996. Most of the original source-texts have been made public from which The Silmarillion was constructed. In April 2007, Tolkien published The Children of Húrin, whose story his father had brought to a relatively complete stage between 1951 and 1957 before abandoning it. This was one of his father's earliest stories, its first version dating back to 1918; several versions are published in The Silmarillion, Unfinished Tales, and The History of Middle-earth. The Children of Húrin is a synthesis of these and other sources. Beren and Lúthien is an editorial work and was published as a stand-alone book in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "The next year, The Fall of Gondolin was published, also as an editorial work. The Children of Húrin, Beren and Lúthien, and The Fall of Gondolin make up the three \"Great Tales\" of the Elder Days which J. R. R. Tolkien considered to be the biggest stories of the First Age.",
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"plaintext": "Tolkien served as chairman of the Tolkien Estate, Ltd, the entity formed to handle the business side of his father's literary legacy, and as a trustee of the Tolkien Charitable Trust. He resigned as director of the estate in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001, he expressed doubts over The Lord of the Rings film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, questioning the viability of a film interpretation that retained the essence of the work, but stressed that this was just his opinion. In a 2012 interview with Le Monde, he criticised the films saying: \"They gutted the book, making an action film for 15 to 25-year-olds.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2008, Tolkien commenced legal proceedings against New Line Cinema, which he claimed owed his family £80 million in unpaid royalties. In September 2009, he and New Line reached an undisclosed settlement, and he withdrew his legal objection to The Hobbit films.",
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"plaintext": "Tolkien lived from 1975 in the French countryside with his second wife, Baillie Tolkien (née Klass), who edited his father's The Father Christmas Letters for posthumous publication. They had two children, Adam Reuel Tolkien and Rachel Clare Reuel Tolkien. In the wake of a dispute surrounding the making of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, he is said to have disapproved of his son by his first marriage, barrister and novelist Simon Mario Reuel Tolkien's views about the idea of an adaptation (Christopher felt that The Lord of the Rings was \"peculiarly unsuitable for transformation into visual dramatic form\"). However, they reconciled before Christopher's death.",
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"plaintext": "\"Introduction\" to G. Turville-Petre, Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (Viking Society for Northern Research, 1956, corrected reprint 1976), pp. xi-xx.",
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"plaintext": ", from the Icelandic Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks",
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"plaintext": "In contract law, indemnity is a contractual obligation of one party (indemnifier) to compensate the loss incurred to the other party (indemnity holder) due to the acts of the indemnitor or any other party. The duty to indemnify is usually, but not always, coextensive with the contractual duty to \"hold harmless\" or \"save harmless\". In contrast, a \"guarantee\" is an obligation of one party assuring the other party that guarantor will perform the promise of the third party if it defaults.",
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"plaintext": "Indemnities form the basis of many insurance contracts; for example, a car owner may purchase different kinds of insurance as an indemnity for various kinds of loss arising from operation of the car, such as damage to the car itself, or medical expenses following an accident. In an agency context, a principal may be obligated to indemnify their agent for liabilities incurred while carrying out responsibilities under the relationship. While the events giving rise to an indemnity may be specified by contract, the actions that must be taken to compensate the injured party are largely unpredictable, and the maximum compensation is often expressly limited.",
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"plaintext": "Under section 4 of the Statute of Frauds (1677), a \"guarantee\" (an undertaking of secondary liability; to answer for another's default) must be evidenced in writing. No such formal requirement exists in respect of indemnities (involving the assumption of primary liability; to pay irrespective of another's default) which are enforceable even if made orally.",
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"plaintext": "Under current English law, indemnities must be clearly and precisely worded in the contract in order to be enforceable. The Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 stated that a consumer cannot be made to unreasonably indemnify another for their breach of contract or negligence, though this section was repealed by the Consumer Rights Act 2015 schedule 4 paragraph 6.",
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"plaintext": "In England and Wales an \"indemnity\" monetary award may form part of rescission during an action of restitutio in integrum. The property and funds are exchanged, but indemnity may be granted for costs necessarily incurred to the innocent party pursuant to the contract. The leading case is Whittington v Seale-Hayne, in which a contaminated farm was sold. The contract made the buyers renovate the real estate and, the contamination incurred medical expenses for their manager, who had fallen ill. Once the contract was rescinded, the buyer could be indemnified for the cost of renovation as this was necessary to the contract, but not the medical expenses as the contract did not require them to hire a manager. Were the sellers at fault, damages would clearly be available.",
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"plaintext": "The distinction between indemnity and damages is subtle and may be differentiated by considering the roots of the law of obligations: how can money be paid if the defendant is not at fault? The contract before rescission is voidable but not void, so, for a period of time, there is a legal contract. During that time, both parties have legal obligation. If the contract is to be voided ab initio the obligations performed must also be compensated. Therefore, the costs of indemnity arise from the (transient and performed) obligations of the claimant rather than a breach of obligation by the defendant.",
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"plaintext": "An indemnity is distinct from a guarantee, which is the promise of a third party to honor the obligation of a party to a contract should that party be unable or unwilling to do so (usually a guarantee is limited to an obligation to pay a debt). This distinction between indemnity and guarantee was discussed as early as the eighteenth century in Birkmya v Darnell. In that case, concerned with a guarantee of payment for goods rather than payment of rent, the presiding judge explained that a guarantee effectively says \"Let him have the goods; if he does not pay you, I will.\"",
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"plaintext": "An indemnity is distinct from a warranty in that:",
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"plaintext": " An indemnity guarantees compensation equal to the amount of loss subject to the indemnity, while a warranty only guarantees compensation for the reduction in value of the acquired asset due to the warranted fact being untrue (and the beneficiary must prove such diminution in value).",
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"plaintext": " Warranties require the beneficiary to mitigate their losses, while indemnities do not.",
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"plaintext": " Warranties do not cover problems known to the beneficiary at the time the warranty is given, while indemnities do.",
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"plaintext": "Many private contracts and terms of service in the United States require one party (indemnitor, typically a customer) to pay (indemnify) the other side's costs for legal claims arising from the relationship. They are particularly common in online services.",
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"plaintext": "The US government publishes special Terms of Service, which it has negotiated with many companies, to exclude indemnification for official US government work. US law \"is violated by any indemnification agreement that, without statutory authorization, imposes on the United States an open-ended, potentially unrestricted liability.\"",
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"plaintext": " The Attorney General says federal agencies \"should renegotiate the terms of service to revise or eliminate the indemnification clause or cancel the [government]'s enrollments in social media applications when their operators insist on such a clause.\"",
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"plaintext": "Under US law, interpretation of indemnification clauses varies by state. For example, in California indemnification clauses do not cover certain risks unless the risks are listed in the contract, but in New York, the brief clause, \"X shall defend and indemnify Y for all claims arising from the Product\" makes X responsible for all claims against Y. Indemnity can be extremely costly since X's liability insurance typically does not cover claims against Y, but X still has to cover them.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the Utah Supreme Court stated, \"By statute, a contractual provision requiring a purchaser of a product to indemnify a manufacturer is 'void and unenforceable' in certain circumstances. UTAH CODE § 78B-6-707.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2012–2014, a New Jersey woman had to pay a lawyer to get out of an indemnity payment for injury at a storage unit. When someone slipped on ice in 2012 while going to a unit, Public Storage sued in court to make the woman who rented the unit pay for the injury. She tried to ignore the case and so state court ruled that she had to pay. She then retained a lawyer and went to court. In 2014, the US District Court decided that the specific indemnity clause was unenforceable in New Jersey because it covered Public Storage's own negligence without explicitly saying so, contrary to New Jersey law (other states differ).",
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"plaintext": "A 2013 decision in New Jersey upheld a broad indemnity clause since it was followed by another sentence: \"indemnity agreement is intended to be as broad and inclusive as is permitted by the law of the State of New Jersey.\" The judge said, \"It is true that a consumer, unfamiliar with the laws of New Jersey, would not be able to state with certainty how far the waiver extends.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the Colorado Supreme Court required a flower shop to indemnify its shopping center for a customer who slipped on the icy parking lot, though of no fault of the flower shop, because the tenant was there to visit that shop, and the shop's lease had a broad indemnity clause.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming did not require a customer to indemnify a whitewater rafting company for injury to his wife since the wording may have applied only to him and his children, and clauses cannot be enforced in Wyoming to indemnify a company for its own negligence.",
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"plaintext": "In 1979, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled that a subcontractor must indemnify the builder for damages that it caused, according to an indemnification clause in their purchase order.",
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"plaintext": "In 1966, the Supreme Court of California ruled that The Hertz Corporation could not enforce its clause requiring renters to indemnify Hertz's insurer.",
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"plaintext": "Indemnities can be expensive enough to bankrupt a company which pays them: \"If manufacturers... are to survive, they will need liability insurance, as well as favorable contracts with retailers. If you look at a big retailers, such as Trader Joe's or Costco or Walmart or Randalls, very often there will be an indemnity provision providing that, if you want to sell a product in our stores, and if it gets someone sick or if it has to be recalled, and it's your fault, you must pay us back for that.\"",
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"plaintext": "When a contract is \"negotiable,\" the indemnitor negotiates to control those legal costs. It will not let the indemnified party (indemnitee) overspend: \"An arrangement in which the indemnitee makes decisions about how to defend and settle the claim while the indemnitor writes the checks presents a moral hazard. Knowing that its defense and settlement costs are being borne by the indemnitor, the indemnitee may be encouraged to engage a more expensive legal team or pursue a riskier defense strategy than it would otherwise. For this reason, most indemnitors are unwilling to indemnify against claims when they do not control the defense of the claim.\"",
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"plaintext": "The American Bar Association has published advice on negotiations of construction contracts: that (1) owners try to get contractors to indemnify as much as possible and for (2) contractors (a) indemnify only for their own negligence and (b) \"establish a right but not a duty for the contractor to defend under an indemnification claim.\"",
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"plaintext": "An example of letting the indemnitor control costs is in the case of a contractor for a homeowners' association (HOA) in which \"Contractor shall indemnify, defend (by counsel reasonably acceptable to Association) and hold harmless the Association.\" Companies and HOAs also use indemnity to protect directors since few would serve as directors if their risks were not indemnified. Negotiation is important for both parties. \"Just about all homeowner association management contracts have a provision which states that the HOA shall indemnify the manager under certain circumstances... There are several ways the indemnification clause can be drafted and both management and HOA must take into account what protects each the best.\"",
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"plaintext": "If indemnitors can negotiate a limit on liability in their contract, that limits the cost of a potential indemnity if they \"make clear in the agreement that any limitations of liability (whether in the form of caps or exclusions of certain types of damages e.g., consequential) apply to the... indemnification.\"",
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"plaintext": "When a contract is negotiable (adhesion contract), the wording often lets the indemnitee decide what to spend on legal costs and bill the indemnitor. Most clauses are quite broad. The following are examples of indemnity requirements from a range of businesses. The last one, Angie's List, limits issues to the user's fault, but decisions and costs are still controlled by the indemnitee (Angie's List).",
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"plaintext": " \"The yacht owner shall indemnify, defend, and hold harmless the marina from any costs, expenses, damages, and against all claims, demands, loss, lawsuits, including judgments and attorney fees for damages to property, injury or life to third parties resulting or arising from the yacht owner's use of the yacht.\" The lawyer for a boat owners' group interpreted that as meaning: \"By signing a marina contract with such provisions, you may find yourself responsible for costs not covered by your insurance policy... What it means is that if your guest is injured at the marina, even if it's the marina's fault, you agree that you will defend the marina against the claim and pay any damages for which the marina is deemed responsible.\"",
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{
"plaintext": " \"You agree to indemnify and hold Uber... harmless from any and all claims... in connection with: (i) your use of the Services...\"",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": " \"Occupant shall indemnify and hold Owner [Public Storage] and Owner's Agents harmless from any loss incurred by Owner and Owner's Agents in any way arising out of Occupant's use of the Premises or the Property including, but not limited to, claims of injury or loss by Occupant's visitors or invitees.\"",
"section_idx": 2,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " \"You agree to defend, hold harmless and indemnify edX [founded by Harvard and MIT]... against any third-party claims... in any way related to your use of the Site...\"",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "United States contracts",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " \"You agree that you will indemnify and hold harmless NPR... from any and all claims... arising from... (2) your use of the NPR Services, (3) the User Materials you have Submitted on or through the NPR Services, or (4) NPR's publication, distribution or use of such User Materials...\"",
"section_idx": 2,
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{
"plaintext": " \"If you are using our Services on behalf of a business, that business accepts these terms. It will hold harmless and indemnify Google... from any claim, action or proceedings arising from or related to the use of the Services...\"",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "United States contracts",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"Upon request by Bank of America or its Affiliates, you agree to defend, indemnify and hold harmless Bank of America... from all liabilities, claims and expenses, including attorneys fees, that arise from... third party claims arising from your use of the Sites. Bank of America and its Affiliates reserve the right to assume the exclusive defense and control of any matter otherwise subject to indemnification by you. Notwithstanding the foregoing, you are not required to indemnify Bank of America or its Affiliates for its own violations of applicable laws.\"",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "United States contracts",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"You agree to indemnify, defend and hold harmless Verizon Parties from and against all losses... related to claims made by any third-party due to or arising out of (a) Submitted Material... (b) your use of the Sites or Resources... Verizon reserves the right to assume the defense and control of any matter subject to indemnification by you, in which event you will cooperate with Verizon in asserting any available defenses.\"",
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"plaintext": " \"You agree to indemnify, defend and hold harmless Angie's List... against all losses... arising from: (a) any violation of this Agreement by You; (b) the inaccurate or untruthful Content or other information provided by You to Angie's List or that You submit, transmit or otherwise make available through the Service; or (c) any intentional or willful violation of any rights of another or harm You may have caused to another. Angie's List will have sole control of the defense of any such damage or claim.\"",
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"plaintext": "Indemnity insurance compensates the beneficiaries of the policies for their actual economic losses, up to the limiting amount of the insurance policy. It generally requires the insured to prove the amount of its loss before it can recover. Recovery is limited to the amount of the provable loss even if the face amount of the policy is higher. This is in contrast to, for example, life insurance, where the amount of the beneficiary's economic loss is irrelevant. The death of the person whose life is insured for reasons not excluded from the policy obligate the insurer to pay the entire policy amount to the beneficiary.",
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"plaintext": "Most business interruption insurance policies contain an Extended Period of Indemnity Endorsement, which extends coverage beyond the time that it takes to physically restore the property. This provision covers additional expenses that allow the business to return to prosperity and help the business restore revenues to pre-loss levels.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the appointment of officers, the board will often approve indemnification agreements with the officer. Such agreements provide for indemnification of officers for personal liability for actions taken on behalf of the corporation. The board will also approve separate resolutions that approve indemnification for decisions made by directors. Indemnity agreements are included in the post-incorporation processes of companies.",
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"plaintext": "Slave owners were considered to have suffered a loss whenever their slaves were granted their freedom.",
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"plaintext": "When the slaves of Zanzibar were freed in 1897, it was by compensation since the prevailing opinion was that the slave owners suffered the loss of an asset whenever a slave was freed.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1860s in the United States, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln had requested many millions of dollars from Congress with which to compensate slave owners for the loss of their slaves. On 9 July 1868, Section IV of the Fourteenth Amendment dismissed all of the claims that slave owners had been injured by the freeing of the slaves.",
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"plaintext": "In 1807–1808, in Prussia, statesman Baron Heinrich vom Stein introduced a series of reforms, the principal of which was the abolition of serfdom with indemnification to territorial lords.",
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"plaintext": "In Peru, Antonio Salinas y Castañeda (1810–1874), a wealthy Peruvian landowner and conservative politician, led the meeting of the main landowners of the country for an indemnity after slavery abolition and ruled the commission who promoted the immigration of Asians to replace former slaves as a workforce during Ramón Castilla government.",
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"plaintext": " Following the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki required that China pay Japan the sum of 200,000,000 taels.",
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"plaintext": " Following the massacres of foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion, the defeated Qing Empire were to pay 450million taels of fine silver as indemnity over a course of 39 years to the eight nations involved. Under the exchange rates at the time, this was equal to 335million US gold dollars or £67million.",
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| 708,399 | 14,042 | 360 | 92 | 0 | 0 | indemnity | expenses that are made to compensate for disadvantages suffered or restrictions | []
|
36,948 | 1,102,019,618 | Giuseppe_Mazzini | [
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"plaintext": "Giuseppe Mazzini (, , ; 22 June 1805 – 10 March 1872) was an Italian politician, journalist, and activist for the unification of Italy and spearhead of the Italian revolutionary movement. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy in place of the several separate states, many dominated by foreign powers, that existed until the 19th century. An Italian nationalist in the historical radical tradition and a proponent of social-democratic republicanism, Mazzini helped define the modern European movement for popular democracy in a republican state.",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini's thoughts had a very considerable influence on the Italian and European republican movements, in the Constitution of Italy, about Europeanism and more nuanced on many politicians of a later period, among them American president Woodrow Wilson and British prime minister David Lloyd George as well as post-colonial leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Veer Savarkar, Golda Meir, David Ben-Gurion, Kwame Nkrumah, Jawaharlal Nehru and Sun Yat-sen.",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini was born in Genoa, then part of the Ligurian Republic. His father Giacomo Mazzini, originally from Chiavari, was a university professor who had adhered to Jacobin ideology while his mother Maria Drago was renowned for her beauty and religious Jansenist fervour. From a very early age, Mazzini showed good learning qualities as well as a precocious interest in politics and literature. He was admitted to university at 14, graduating in law in 1826 and initially practised as a \"poor man's lawyer\". Mazzini also hoped to become a historical novelist or a dramatist and in the same year wrote his first essay, Dell'amor patrio di Dante (\"On Dante's Patriotic Love\"), published in 1827. In 1828–1829, he collaborated with the Genoese newspaper L'Indicatore Genovese which was soon closed by the Piedmontese authorities. He then became one of the leading authors of L'Indicatore Livornese, published at Livorno by Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi, until this paper was closed down by the authorities.",
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"plaintext": "In 1827, Mazzini travelled to Tuscany, where he became a member of the Carbonari, a secret association with political purposes. On 31 October of that year, he was arrested at Genoa and interned at Savona. In early 1831, he was released from prison, but confined to a small hamlet. He chose exile instead, moving to Geneva, Switzerland.",
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"plaintext": "In 1831, Mazzini went to Marseille, where he became a popular figure among the Italian exiles. He was a frequent visitor to the apartment of Giuditta Bellerio Sidoli, a beautiful Modenes widow who became his lover. In August 1832 Giuditta Sidoli gave birth to a boy, almost certainly Mazzini's son, whom she named Joseph Démosthène Adolpe Aristide after members of the family of Démosthène Ollivier, with whom Mazzini was staying. The Olliviers took care of the child in June 1833 when Giuditta and Mazzini left for Switzerland. The child died in February 1835.",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini organized a new political society called Young Italy. It was a secret society formed to promote Italian unification: \"One, free, independent, republican nation.\" Mazzini believed that a popular uprising would create a unified Italy, and would touch off a European-wide revolutionary movement. The group's motto was God and the People, and its basic principle was the unification of the several states and kingdoms of the peninsula into a single republic as the only true foundation of Italian liberty. The new nation had to be: \"One, Independent, Free Republic\".",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini's political activism met some success in Tuscany, Abruzzi, Sicily, Piedmont, and his native Liguria, especially among several military officers. Young Italy counted about 60,000 adherents in 1833, with branches in Genoa and other cities. In that year Mazzini first attempted insurrection, which would spread from Chambéry (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), Alessandria, Turin, and Genoa. However, the Savoy government discovered the plot before it could begin and many revolutionaries (including Vincenzo Gioberti) were arrested. The repression was ruthless: 12 participants were executed, while Mazzini's best friend and director of the Genoese section of the Giovine Italia, Jacopo Ruffini, killed himself. Mazzini was tried in absentia and sentenced to death.",
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"plaintext": "Despite this setback, whose victims later created numerous doubts and psychological strife in Mazzini, he organized another uprising for the following year. A group of Italian exiles were to enter Piedmont from Switzerland and spread the revolution there, while Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had recently joined Young Italy, was to do the same from Genoa. However, the Piedmontese troops easily crushed the new attempt. Denis Mack Smith writes:",
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"plaintext": "In the spring of 1834, while at Bern, Mazzini and a dozen refugees from Italy, Poland, and Germany founded a new association with the grandiose name of Young Europe. Its basic, and equally grandiose idea, was that, as the French Revolution of 1789 had enlarged the concept of individual liberty, another revolution would now be needed for national liberty, and his vision went further because he hoped that in the no doubt distant future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal Europe with some kind of federal assembly to regulate their common interests. [...] His intention was nothing less than to overturn the European settlement agreed in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, which had reestablished an oppressive hegemony of a few great powers and blocked the emergence of smaller nations. [...] Mazzini hoped, but without much confidence, that his vision of a league or society of independent nations would be realized in his own lifetime. In practice, Young Europe lacked the money and popular support for more than a short-term existence. Nevertheless, he always remained faithful to the ideal of a united continent for which the creation of individual nations would be an indispensable preliminary.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 May 1834, Mazzini was arrested at Solothurn, and exiled from Switzerland. He moved to Paris, where he was again imprisoned on 5 July. He was released only after promising he would move to England. Mazzini, together with a few Italian friends, moved in January 1837 to live in London in very poor economic conditions.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 April 1840, Mazzini reformed the Giovine Italia in London, and on 10 November of the same year he began issuing the Apostolato popolare (\"Apostleship of the People\").",
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"plaintext": "A succession of failed attempts at promoting further uprisings in Sicily, Abruzzi, Tuscany, and Lombardy-Venetia discouraged Mazzini for a long period, which dragged on until 1840. He was also abandoned by Sidoli, who had returned to Italy to rejoin her children. The help of his mother pushed Mazzini to create several organizations aimed at the unification or liberation of other nations, in the wake of Giovine Italia: \"Young Germany\", \"Young Poland\", and \"Young Switzerland\", which were under the aegis of \"Young Europe\" (Giovine Europa). He also created an Italian school for poor people active from 10 November 1841 at 5 Greville Street, London. From London he also wrote an endless series of letters to his agents in Europe and South America and made friends with Thomas Carlyle and his wife Jane. The \"Young Europe\" movement also inspired a group of young Turkish army cadets and students who, later in history, named themselves the \"Young Turks\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1843, he organized another riot in Bologna, which attracted the attention of two young officers of the Austrian Navy, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera. With Mazzini's support, they landed near Cosenza (Kingdom of Naples) but were arrested and executed. Mazzini accused the British government of having passed information about the expeditions to the Neapolitans, and the question was raised in the British Parliament. When it was admitted that his private letters had indeed been opened, and its contents revealed by the Foreign Office to the Austrian and Neapolitan governments, Mazzini gained popularity and support among the British liberals, who were outraged by such a blatant intrusion of the government into his private correspondence.",
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"plaintext": "In 1847, he moved again to London, where he wrote a long \"open letter\" to Pope Pius IX, whose apparently liberal reforms had gained him a momentary status as a possible paladin of the unification of Italy, but The Pope did not reply. He also founded the People's International League. By 8 March 1848, Mazzini was in Paris, where he launched a new political association, the Associazione Nazionale Italiana. In apologising for not being able to attend the first annual celebration of the Leeds Redemption Society (a communitarian experiment) on 7 January 1847 he offered to become a subscriber.",
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"plaintext": "On 7 April 1848, Mazzini reached Milan, whose population had rebelled against the Austrian garrison and established a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence, started by the Piedmontese king Charles Albert to exploit the favourable circumstances in Milan, turned into a total failure. Mazzini, who had never been popular in the city because he wanted Lombardy to become a republic instead of joining Piedmont, abandoned Milan. He joined Garibaldi's irregular force at Bergamo, moving to Switzerland with him. Mazzini was one of the founders and leaders of the Action Party, the first organized party in the history of Italy.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 February 1849, a republic was declared in Rome, with Pius IX already having been forced to flee to Gaeta the preceding November. On the same day the Republic was declared, Mazzini reached the city. He was appointed, together with Carlo Armellini and Aurelio Saffi, as a member of the triumvirate of the new republic on 29 March, becoming soon the true leader of the government and showing good administrative capabilities in social reforms. However, the French troops called by the Pope made clear that the resistance of the Republican troops, led by Garibaldi, was in vain. On 12 July 1849, Mazzini set out for Marseille, from where he moved again to Switzerland.",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini spent all of 1850 hiding from the Swiss police. In July he founded the association Amici di Italia (Friends of Italy) in London, to attract consensus towards the Italian liberation cause. Two failed riots in Mantua (1852) and Milan (1853) were a crippling blow for the Mazzinian organization, whose prestige never recovered. He later opposed the alliance signed by Savoy with Austria for the Crimean War. Also in vain was the expedition of Felice Orsini in Carrara of 1853–1854.",
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"plaintext": "In 1858, he founded another journal in London called Pensiero e azione (Thought and Action). On 21 February 1859, together with 151 republicans, he signed a manifesto against the alliance between Piedmont and the Emperor of France which resulted in the Second War of Italian Independence and the conquest of Lombardy. On 2 May 1860, he tried to reach Garibaldi, who was going to launch his famous Expedition of the Thousand in southern Italy. In the same year, he released Doveri dell'uomo (\"Duties of Man\"), a synthesis of his moral, political and social thoughts. In mid-September, he was in Naples, then under Garibaldi's dictatorship, but was invited by the local vice-dictator Giorgio Pallavicino to move away.",
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"plaintext": "The new Kingdom of Italy was created in 1861 under the Savoy monarchy. In 1862, Mazzini joined Garibaldi in his failed attempt to free Rome. In 1866, Italy joined the Austro-Prussian War and gained Venetia. At this time, Mazzini frequently spoke out against how the unification of his country was being achieved. In 1867, he refused a seat in the Italian Chamber of Deputies. In 1870, he tried to start a rebellion in Sicily and was arrested and imprisoned in Gaeta. In October, he was freed in the amnesty declared after the Kingdom finally took Rome and returned to London in mid-December.",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini died of pleurisy at the house known now as Domus Mazziniana in Pisa in 1872, aged 66. His body was embalmed by Paolo Gorini. His funeral was held in Genoa, with 100,000 people taking part in it.",
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"plaintext": "An Italian nationalist, Mazzini was a fervent advocate of republicanism and envisioned a united, free and independent Italy. Unlike his contemporary Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was also a republican, Mazzini refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the House of Savoy until after the Capture of Rome. While he and his followers were sensitive to the question of social justice, starting a dialogue with socialism and Mazzini, in particular, finding many affinities with the Saint-Simonians, Mazzini was vigorously opposed to Marxism which for him was \"a dreadful perversion of utilitarianism because of its insistence on class interests, especially class struggle, a conflictual vision that could not harmonize with Mazzini's unitarianism\". Mazzini also rejected the classical liberal principles of the Age of Enlightenment based on the doctrine of individualism which he criticized as \"presupposing either metaphysical materialism or political atheism\". In the first volume of Carl Landauer's European Socialism, Mazzini is mentioned alongside Garibaldi as outstanding \"Italian revolutionaries\". Albert Charles Brouse argued that \"socialism is found in its entirety in the doctrine of Mazzini\", his republicanism being both \"democratic and social\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1871, Mazzini condemned the radical, anti-religious and revolutionary socialist revolt in France that led to the creation of the short-lived Paris Commune. This caused Karl Marx to refer to Mazzini as a \"reactionary\" and an \"old ass\" as well as prompting anarchist Mikhail Bakunin to write The Political Theology of Mazzini and the International, whose \"defence of the International and the Paris Commune caused a stir in Italy and provoked many renunciations of Mazzini and declarations of support for the International in the press\", even leading to \"the first nationwide increase in membership in the organisation\". In an interview by R. Landor from 1871, Marx stated that Mazzini's ideas represented \"nothing better than the old idea of a middle-class republic\". Marx believed that Mazzini's point of view, especially after the Revolutions of 1848 and the Paris Commune, had become reactionary and the proletariat had nothing to do with it. In another interview, Marx described Mazzini as \"that everlasting old ass\". In turn, Mazzini described Marx as \"a destructive spirit whose heart was filled with hatred rather than love of mankind\" and declared that \"[d]espite the communist egalitarianism which [Marx] preaches he is the absolute ruler of his party, admittedly he does everything himself but he is also the only one to give orders and he tolerates no opposition\". While Mazzini saw the Paris Commune as \"a socially divisive mistake\", many other radicals \"followed the socialist lead and mythologised the Commune as a social revolution ('the glorius harbinger of a new society' in Karl Marx's words)\". This event \"allowed a significant section of the radical left, especially a younger generation of radicals led by the poet and satirist Felice Cavallotti and grouped around the newspaper Il Gazzettino Rosa, to break openly and decisively with both Mazzini and the principles and methods of Mazzinian politics\". While Il Gazzettino Rosa praised Mazzini as \"the 'saviour' and teacher of Italy\", it insisted:",
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"plaintext": "We have no more idols, we don't accept abstruse, incomprehensible formulas. [...] What we object to in Mazzini is not his opinion in itself, as much as his opinion erected into a system and a political dogma. We are materialists, but we don't make a political school out of our materialism. To us it does not matter if one believes or does not believe in God. [...] [I]nstead Mazzini wants to impose a new religion on us.",
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"plaintext": "According to Lucy Riall, \"the emphasis by younger radicals on the 'social question' was paralleled by an increase in what was called 'internationalist' or socialist activity (mostly Bakuninist anarchism) throughout northern and southern Italy, which was given a big boost by the Paris Commune\". The rise of this socialism \"represented a genuine challenge to Mazzini and the Mazzinian emphasis on politics and culture, and Mazzinis' death early in 1872 only served to underline the prevailing sense that his political era was over. Garibaldi now broke definitively with Mazzini, and this time he moved to the left of him. He came out entirely in favour of the Paris Commune and internationalism, and his stance brought him much closer to the younger radicals, [...] and gave him a new lease on political life. From his support was born an initiative to relaunch a broad party of the radical left\".",
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"plaintext": "For Seamus Flahert, Henry Hyndman, who was an admirer of Mazzini, thought that \"Mazzini's greatness [...] was obscured for younger socialists by his 'opposition to Marx in the early days of the 'International,' and his vigorous condemnation a little later of the Paris Commune\", insisting that \"'Mazzini's conception of the conduct of human life' had been 'a high and noble one'\", praising the \"No duties without rights\" mention in the \"General Rules\" that Marx composed and passed as \"a concession Marx made to Mazzini's followers within the organisation\". In his two-volume autobiography, Hyndman spoke at length about Mazzini, even comparing him to Marx.",
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"plaintext": "Christopher Bayly wrote that Mazzini \"had arrived at similar conclusions\", referring to \"the Saint-Simonian ideas of association and Charles Fourier's 'law of attraction'\", but \"through an emotive process that owed little to rationalisation\". As with the Christian socialist George D. Herron, Mazzini's socialism was \"essentially a religious and moral revival\". Mazzini rejected the Marxist doctrines of class struggle and materialism, stressing the need for class collaboration. Nonetheless, there was a more radical, socialist interpretation of Mazzini's doctrine within the Italian Republican Party, a Mazzinian party, where \"there were many who believed the teachings of the Genoese patriot could be compatible with the Marxist doctrine and [...] considered an alliance with the left-wing to be legitimate and desirable\".",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini's Italian nationalism has been described as \"cosmopolitan patriotism\". In Socialism: National or International, first published in 1942, Franz Borkenau described Mazzini as \"that impressive Genoese\" and \"leader of the Italian underground democratic and unitarian movement\". About Mazzini and the underground movement, Borkenau further wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini did a great deal to organize and united this underground movement, known under the name of \"Young Italy\". He conceived the idea of parallel organizations in other European countries, which should all of them join in a \"Young Europe\" movement. The plan had only incipient success and Italy remained the sole stronghold of this underground movement. But the idea, though not its practical execution, caught on in other European countries. One reason of Mazzini's partial failure was the emergence of socialism in France and England. France, at any rate, had a strong underground movement, much stronger under Louis-Philippe than previously under the Bourbon restoration. But this movement gradually evolved towards the left. Ordinary democrats of the Mazzini type were no longer persecuted in France after 1830. But to the left of them arose more advanced movements.",
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"plaintext": "When he was a socialist, Benito Mussolini harshly criticized Mazzini, \"the religious Mazzini in particular\", being \"particularly opposed to Mazzini's 'sanctification'\". However, after advocating interventionism in World War I and enlisting, Mussolini \"found himself immersed in a patriotic atmosphere permeated by Mazzinian references\".",
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"plaintext": "Influenced by his Jansenist upbringing, Mazzini's thought is characterized by a strong religious fervour and a deep sense of spirituality. A deist who believed in divine providence, Mazzini described himself as a Christian and emphasized the necessity of faith and a relationship with God while vehemently denouncing atheism and rationalism. His motto was Dio e Popolo (\"God and People\"). Mazzini regarded patriotism as a duty and love for the fatherland as a divine mission, stating that the fatherland was \"the home wherein God has placed us, among brothers and sisters linked to us by the family ties of a common religion, history, and language\". According to A. James Gregor, \"Mazzini's creed for the New Age thus radically distinguished itself from the orthodox Marxism of the nineteenth century. His Socialism was alive with moral purpose, rather than class identity, infused with exalted intent and specifically inspired by a sense of national, rather than class, mission. It saw itself, unabashedly, as a new religion, a 'climb through philosophy to faith.' It was a religion predicated on a 'living faith in one God, one Law, general and immutable ... and one End\".",
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"plaintext": "In his 1835 publication Fede e avvenire (\"Faith and the Future\"), Mazzini wrote: \"We must rise again as a religious party. The religious element is universal and immortal. [...] The initiators of a new world, we are bound to lay the foundations of a moral unity, a Humanitarian Catholicism\". However, Mazzini's relationship with the Catholic Church and the Papacy was not always a kind one. While he initially supported Pope Pius IX upon his election, writing an open letter to him in 1847, Mazzini later published a scathing attack against the pope in his Sull'Enciclica di Papa Pio IX (\"On the Encyclical of Pope Pius IX\") in 1849. Although some of his religious views were at odds with the Catholic Church and the Papacy, with his writings often tinged with anti-clericalism, Mazzini also criticized Protestantism, stating that it is \"divided and subdivided into a thousand sects, all founded on the rights of individual conscience, all eager to make war on one another, and perpetuating that anarchy of beliefs which is the sole true cause of the social and political disturbances that torment the peoples of Europe\".",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini rejected the concept of the \"rights of man\" which had developed during the Age of Enlightenment, arguing instead that individual rights were a duty to be won through hard work, sacrifice and virtue rather than \"rights\" which were intrinsically owed to man. Mazzini outlined his thought in his Doveri dell'uomo (\"Duties of Man\"), published in 1860. Similarly, Mazzini formulated a concept known as \"thought and action\" in which thought and action must be joined together and every thought must be followed by action, therefore rejecting intellectualism and the notion of divorcing theory from practice.",
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"plaintext": "In \"Duties of Man\", Mazzini called for recognition of women's rights. After his many encounters with political philosophers in England, France and across Europe, Mazzini had decided that the principle of equality between men and women was fundamental to building a truly democratic Italian nation. He called for the end of women's social and judicial subordination to men. Mazzini's vigorous position heightened attention to gender among European thinkers who were already considering democracy and nationalism. He helped intellectuals see women's rights not merely as a peripheral topic, but rather as a fundamental goal necessary for the regeneration of old nations and the rebirth of new ones. Mazzini admired Jessie White Mario, who was described by Giuseppe Garibaldi as the \"Bravest Woman of Modern Time\". Mario joined Garibaldi's Redshirts for the 1859–1860 campaign during the Second Italian War of Independence. As a correspondent for the Daily News, she witnessed almost every fight that had brought on the unification of Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Mazzini's socio-political thought has been referred to as Mazzinianism and his worldview as the Mazzinian conception, terms that were later used by Benito Mussolini and Fascists such as Giovanni Gentile to describe their political ideology and spiritual conception of life. ",
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"plaintext": "In the first volume of his Reminiscences, Carl Schurz gives a biographical sketch of Mazzini and recalls two meetings he had with him when they were both in London in 1851. While the book 10,000 Famous Freemasons by William R. Denslow lists Mazzini as a Mason and even a Past Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Italy, articles on the Grand Orient of Italy's own website question whether he was ever a regular Mason and do not list him as a Past Grand Master.",
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"plaintext": "Often viewed in Italy of the time as a god-like figure, Mazzini was nonetheless denounced by many of his compatriots as a traitor. Contemporary historians tended to believe that he ceased to contribute anything productive or useful after 1849, but modern ones take a more favourable view of him. The antifascist Mazzini Society, founded in the United States in 1939 by Italian political refugees, took his name and served Italy from exile, as he had.",
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"plaintext": "In London, Mazzini resided at 155 North Gower Street, near Euston Square, which is now marked with a commemorative blue plaque. A plaque on Laystall Street in Clerkenwell, London's Little Italy during the 1850s, also pays tribute to Mazzini, calling him \"The Apostle of Modern Democracy.\" A bust of Mazzini is in New York's Central Park between 67th and 68th streets just west of the West Drive. The 1973–1974 academic year at the College of Europe was named in his honor.",
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"plaintext": " Giuseppe Garibaldi",
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"plaintext": " Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states",
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"plaintext": " Warfare against (1825)",
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"plaintext": " On Nationality (1852)",
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"plaintext": " The Duties of Man and Other Essays (1860). J.M. Dent & Sons, London, 1907 ",
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"plaintext": " A Cosmopolitanism of Nations: Giuseppe Mazzini's Writings on Democracy, Nation Building, and International Relations Recchia, Stefano, and Urbinati, Nadia, editors. Princeton University Press, 2009.",
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"plaintext": " \"Is it Revolt or a Revolution?\" in Tait's Edinburgh Magazine, June 1840, pp.385–390",
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"plaintext": " Bayly, C. A., and Eugenio F. Biagini, eds. Giuseppe Mazzini and the Globalisation of Democratic Nationalism, 1830–1920 (2009)",
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"plaintext": " Claeys, Gregory. \"Mazzini, Kossuth, and British Radicalism, 1848–1854,\" Journal of British Studies, vol. 28, no. 3 (July 1989), pp.225–261. In JSTOR.",
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"plaintext": " Dal Lago, Enrico. \"\"We Cherished the Same Hostility to Every Form of Tyranny\": Transatlantic Parallels and Contacts between William Lloyd Garrison and Giuseppe Mazzini, 1846–1872.\" American Nineteenth Century History 13.3 (2012): 293–319.",
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"plaintext": " Dal Lago, Enrico. William Lloyd Garrison and Giuseppe Mazzini: Abolition, Democracy, and Radical Reform. (Louisiana State University Press, 2013).",
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"plaintext": " Falchi, Federica. \"Democracy and the rights of women in the thinking of Giuseppe Mazzini.\" Modern Italy 17#1 (2012): 15–30.",
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"plaintext": " Finelli, Michele. \"Mazzini in Italian Historical Memory.\" Journal of Modern Italian Studies (2008) 13#4 pp. 486–491.",
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"plaintext": " , a standard scholarly biography.",
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"plaintext": " Ridolfi, Maurizio. \"Visions of republicanism in the writings of Giuseppe Mazzini,\" Journal of Modern Italian Studies (2008) 13#4 pp. 468–479.",
"section_idx": 7,
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"plaintext": " Sarti, Roland. \"Giuseppe Mazzini and his Opponents\" in John A. Davis, ed. Italy in the Nineteenth Century: 1796–1900 (2000) pp. 74–107.",
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"plaintext": " Sarti, Roland. Mazzini: A Life for the Religion of Politics (1997) 249 pp.",
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"plaintext": " Urbinati, Nadia. \"Mazzini and the making of the republican ideology.\" Journal of Modern Italian Studies 17.2 (2012): 183–204.",
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"plaintext": " Wight, Martin; Wight, Gabriele, and Porter, Brian, eds. Four Seminal Thinkers in International Theory: Machiavelli, Grotius, Kant, and Mazzini Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005",
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"plaintext": " Influence of Mazzini on Damodar Savarkar and the Free India Society",
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"plaintext": " Mazzini, Giuseppe. A cosmopolitanism of nations: Giuseppe Mazzini's writings on democracy, nation building, and international relations (Princeton University Press, 2009).",
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"plaintext": " The Living Thoughts of Mazzini Presented by Ignazio Silone, London: Cassell and Company, Limited, 1939; second edition, 1946.",
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"plaintext": " Essays: Selected from the Writings, Literary, Political, and Religious, of Joseph Mazzini, London: Walter Scott, 1887.",
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"plaintext": " Giuseppe Leone e Roberto Zambonini, \"Mozart e Mazzini – Paesaggi poetico-musicali tra flauti magici e voci \"segrete\", Malgrate, Palazzo Agudio, 25 agosto 2007, ore 21.",
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| 187,336 | 14,159 | 486 | 132 | 0 | 0 | Giuseppe Mazzini | Italian nationalist activist, politician, journalist and philosopher | [
"Giorgio Rossi Brown",
"Joseph Mazzini"
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"plaintext": "This planet is camouflaged by a F.A.K.K. 2 beacon and made to look like a biohazard-strewn wasteland in the hope that it will remain hidden from any threat. However, a creature named Gith, who appears only as a disembodied cybernetic head, runs a hyper-corporation called GITH Industries whose \"employees\" are little more than slaves. He scavenges the universe in a ship composed of three-quarters of a planet, and is headed for a place called Na'ChThraThull, or the \"place of the soft machines\", which turns out to be Eden.",
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"plaintext": "Julie resides in the town of Eden with her sister Kerrie, who is pregnant. She interacts with various citizens, including her brother-in-law, Germain St. Germain. Peace is suddenly disturbed by the appearance of hostile insect-like creatures called Vymishes. Julie springs into combat, killing many of the creatures and saving a pregnant creeper in the process. She also kills a Vymish Mama, a queen-like Vymish. Afterward, Julie heads into town and meets Otto, the town's gunsmith, who she gives a glowing green asteroid to for examination. Another asteroid knocks out the shield, and Julie, accompanied by Jared and Eon, is tasked with resetting the shield generator. Underground, Julie's accomplices are killed by creatures called Grawlix, and she is forced to continue alone. She eventually resets the shield generator, but is too late to discover that GITH has arrived, and he teleports troops in to destroy the generator.",
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"plaintext": "Julie returns to town to find it under siege by GITH's forces. Many citizens are dead, while others are hypnotized. Julie finds Otto, who has recovered a mysterious object from the asteroid. It turns out to be a message for Julie from the \"Belphigoreans\", warning her that Gith is seeking the \"Heart of the We\". Otto tells Julie about the Heart of the We, and tasks her with finding a native of Eden named Gruff. Julie leaves the besieged Eden, then journeys through the Mooagly swamps to find Gruff, who unlocks the path to the Temple of the We for her. She then overcomes the four challenges of the We before entering the final temple where the Heart of the We is kept. However, GITH is waiting for her, and he steals the Heart and uses it to bring Lord Tyler back to life, so he could have his revenge on Julie. However, Julie fights and kills Lord Tyler and wins the Heart, banishing GITH. She returns to town only to find out that her pregnant sister is kidnapped by GITH, who returns in a giant space station.",
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"plaintext": "The game contains various references to Goddess-cults. Much of the imagery surrounding GITH satirizes ad campaigns (the Recruiter who spawns Swarmers in the game periodically exhorts his victims in a cheery voice to 'Join us' and claims to promote 'Peace' and 'Love'). The Fleshbinders are cyborgs who communicate by radio and have various weapons integral to their bodies. Furthermore, if Julie wounds any Eden citizen she automatically fails in her mission. The game is somewhat more narrative-driven and less strident than some of Heavy Metal's other creations or associated works.",
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"plaintext": "The heroine, Julie, was inspired by Julie Strain, who provided the voice for the heroine in the film and game. The game is linked to Heavy Metal magazine.",
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"plaintext": "The game received \"generally favorable reviews\" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. Jim Preston of NextGen said of the game and its protagonist, \"While beautiful to look at and fun to play with, she's not ready for a serious commitment.\"",
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"plaintext": "GamePro said that the game \"will give you a good dose of fun while you're playing, although it is a bit short and there isn't any multiplayer to extend the game value. Still, the graphics and level design make for some satisfying eye candy, and the gameplay strikes a sweet balance between the typical run and gun shooters, 3D platformers, and action adventures.\" GameZone gave the game nine out of ten, saying, \"In-game cinematics, challenging puzzles, plenty of weapons, hordes of bad guys, sprawling landscapes, and beautiful women, what more could you want?\"",
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"plaintext": "Game designer Tom Mustaine tweeted in July 2015 that he had been trying to get F.A.K.K. 2 re-released for years but was unable to do so due to copyright issues.",
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"Id_Tech_games",
"Linux_games",
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"Science_fiction_video_games",
"Single-player_video_games",
"Take-Two_Interactive_games",
"Third-person_shooters",
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"Video_games_featuring_female_protagonists",
"Video_games_set_on_fictional_planets",
"Windows_games"
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| 115,806 | 2,789 | 1 | 24 | 0 | 0 | Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K. 2 | 2000 third-person shooter video game | []
|
36,951 | 1,084,770,045 | Ritual_Entertainment | [
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"plaintext": "Ritual Entertainment was an American video game developer established in 1996 by Robert Atkins, Mark Dochtermann, Jim Dosé, Richard 'Levelord' Gray, Michael Hadwin, Harry Miller, and Tom Mustaine. Based in Dallas, Texas, Ritual Entertainment was formerly known as Hipnotic Interactive, during which period they began development of their signature video game SiN.",
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"plaintext": "Members of the Ritual Entertainment development team have contributed assets to other games such as American McGee's Alice, Airborne, Legend, and 25 to Life, and are also the creators of \"Übertools\" for id Tech 3, which has been licensed for a number of other games.",
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"plaintext": "Shortly after signing Hipnotic, publisher Activision claimed that Hipnotic had been at the core of the Duke Nukem 3D development team. Duke Nukem 3D developer 3D Realms vigorously denied this, stating that only five members of Hipnotic Interactive were former staff of 3D Realms, and of these five only three had a significant role in making Duke Nukem 3D.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1997, Hipnotic changed their name to Ritual Entertainment in order to avoid a trademark conflict with another video-game developer, Hypnotix.",
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"plaintext": " SiN II publisher demo (2003, PC) – Ritual Entertainment made a game demo to show potential publishers.",
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"plaintext": " Quake 4: Awakening – unreleased addon for Quake 4",
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36,954 | 1,095,536,931 | SPARC | [
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"plaintext": "SPARC (Scalable Processor Architecture) is a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) instruction set architecture originally developed by Sun Microsystems. Its design was strongly influenced by the experimental Berkeley RISC system developed in the early 1980s. First developed in 1986 and released in 1987, SPARC was one of the most successful early commercial RISC systems, and its success led to the introduction of similar RISC designs from many vendors through the 1980s and 1990s.",
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"plaintext": "The first implementation of the original 32-bit architecture (SPARC V7) was used in Sun's Sun-4 computer workstation and server systems, replacing their earlier Sun-3 systems based on the Motorola 68000 series of processors. SPARC V8 added a number of improvements that were part of the SuperSPARC series of processors released in 1992. SPARC V9, released in 1993, introduced a 64-bit architecture and was first released in Sun's UltraSPARC processors in 1995. Later, SPARC processors were used in symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) and non-uniform memory access (CC-NUMA) servers produced by Sun, Solbourne, and Fujitsu, among others.",
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"plaintext": "The design was turned over to the SPARC International trade group in 1989, and since then its architecture has been developed by its members. SPARC International is also responsible for licensing and promoting the SPARC architecture, managing SPARC trademarks (including SPARC, which it owns), and providing conformance testing. SPARC International was intended to grow the SPARC architecture to create a larger ecosystem; SPARC has been licensed to several manufacturers, including Atmel, Bipolar Integrated Technology, Cypress Semiconductor, Fujitsu, Matsushita and Texas Instruments. Due to SPARC International, SPARC is fully open, non-proprietary and royalty-free.",
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"plaintext": "As of September 2017, the latest commercial high-end SPARC processors are Fujitsu's SPARC64 XII (introduced in 2017 for its SPARC M12 server) and Oracle's SPARC M8 introduced in September 2017 for its high-end servers.",
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"plaintext": "On Friday, September 1, 2017, after a round of layoffs that started in Oracle Labs in November 2016, Oracle terminated SPARC design after completing the M8. Much of the processor core development group in Austin, Texas, was dismissed, as were the teams in Santa Clara, California, and Burlington, Massachusetts.",
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"plaintext": "Fujitsu will also discontinue their SPARC production (has already shifted to producing their own ARM-based CPUs), after two \"enhanced\" versions of Fujitsu's older SPARC M12 server in 2020–22 (formerly planned for 2021) and again in 2026–27, end-of-sale in 2029, of UNIX servers and a year later for their mainframe and end-of-support in 2034 \"to promote customer modernization\".",
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"plaintext": "The SPARC architecture was heavily influenced by the earlier RISC designs, including the RISC I and II from the University of California, Berkeley and the IBM 801. These original RISC designs were minimalist, including as few features or op-codes as possible and aiming to execute instructions at a rate of almost one instruction per clock cycle. This made them similar to the MIPS architecture in many ways, including the lack of instructions such as multiply or divide. Another feature of SPARC influenced by this early RISC movement is the branch delay slot.",
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"plaintext": "The SPARC processor usually contains as many as 160 general-purpose registers. According to the \"Oracle SPARC Architecture 2015\" specification an \"implementation may contain from 72 to 640 general-purpose 64-bit\" registers. At any point, only 32 of them are immediately visible to software— 8 are a set of global registers (one of which, g0, is hard-wired to zero, so only seven of them are usable as registers) and the other 24 are from the stack of registers. These 24 registers form what is called a register window, and at function call/return, this window is moved up and down the register stack. Each window has 8 local registers and shares 8 registers with each of the adjacent windows. The shared registers are used for passing function parameters and returning values, and the local registers are used for retaining local values across function calls.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Scalable\" in SPARC comes from the fact that the SPARC specification allows implementations to scale from embedded processors up through large server processors, all sharing the same core (non-privileged) instruction set. One of the architectural parameters that can scale is the number of implemented register windows; the specification allows from three to 32 windows to be implemented, so the implementation can choose to implement all 32 to provide maximum call stack efficiency, or to implement only three to reduce cost and complexity of the design, or to implement some number between them. Other architectures that include similar register file features include Intel i960, IA-64, and AMD 29000.",
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"plaintext": "In SPARC Version 8, the floating-point register file has 16 double-precision registers. Each of them can be used as two single-precision registers, providing a total of 32 single-precision registers. An odd-even number pair of double-precision registers can be used as a quad-precision register, thus allowing 8 quad-precision registers. SPARC Version 9 added 16 more double-precision registers (which can also be accessed as 8 quad-precision registers), but these additional registers can not be accessed as single-precision registers. No SPARC CPU implements quad-precision operations in hardware as of 2004.",
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"plaintext": "Tagged add and subtract instructions perform adds and subtracts on values checking that the bottom two bits of both operands are 0 and reporting overflow if they are not. This can be useful in the implementation of the run time for ML, Lisp, and similar languages that might use a tagged integer format.",
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"plaintext": "The endianness of the 32-bit SPARC V8 architecture is purely big-endian. The 64-bit SPARC V9 architecture uses big-endian instructions, but can access data in either big-endian or little-endian byte order, chosen either at the application instruction (load–store) level or at the memory page level (via an MMU setting). The latter is often used for accessing data from inherently little-endian devices, such as those on PCI buses.",
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"plaintext": "There have been three major revisions of the architecture. The first published version was the 32-bit SPARC Version 7 (V7) in 1986. SPARC Version 8 (V8), an enhanced SPARC architecture definition, was released in 1990. The main differences between V7 and V8 were the addition of integer multiply and divide instructions, and an upgrade from 80-bit \"extended-precision\" floating-point arithmetic to 128-bit \"quad-precision\" arithmetic. SPARC V8 served as the basis for IEEE Standard 1754-1994, an IEEE standard for a 32-bit microprocessor architecture.",
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"plaintext": "SPARC Version 9, the 64-bit SPARC architecture, was released by SPARC International in 1993. It was developed by the SPARC Architecture Committee consisting of Amdahl Corporation, Fujitsu, ICL, LSI Logic, Matsushita, Philips, Ross Technology, Sun Microsystems, and Texas Instruments.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, the SPARC Joint Programming Specification 1 (JPS1) was released by Fujitsu and Sun, describing processor functions which were identically implemented in the CPUs of both companies (\"Commonality\"). The first CPUs conforming to JPS1 were the UltraSPARC III by Sun and the SPARC64 V by Fujitsu. Functionalities which are not covered by JPS1 are documented for each processor in \"Implementation Supplements\".",
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"plaintext": "At the end of 2003, JPS2 was released to support multicore CPUs. The first CPUs conforming to JPS2 were the UltraSPARC IV by Sun and the SPARC64 VI by Fujitsu.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2006, Sun released an extended architecture specification, UltraSPARC Architecture 2005. This includes not only the non-privileged and most of the privileged portions of SPARC V9, but also all the architectural extensions developed through the processor generations of UltraSPARC III, IV IV+ as well as CMT extensions starting with the UltraSPARC T1 implementation:",
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"plaintext": " Sun's 64-bit MMU architecture",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " privileged instructions ALLCLEAN, OTHERW, NORMALW, and INVALW",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " access to the VER register is now hyperprivileged",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " the SIR instruction is now hyperprivileged",
"section_idx": 2,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 2007, Sun released an updated specification, UltraSPARC Architecture 2007, to which the UltraSPARC T2 implementation complied.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2012, Oracle Corporation made available a new specification, Oracle SPARC Architecture 2011, which besides the overall update of the reference, adds the VIS 3 instruction set extensions and hyperprivileged mode to the 2007 specification.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2015, Oracle released SPARC M7, the first processor based on the new Oracle SPARC Architecture 2015 specification. This revision includes VIS 4 instruction set extensions and hardware-assisted encryption and silicon secured memory (SSM).",
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},
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"plaintext": "SPARC architecture has provided continuous application binary compatibility from the first SPARC V7 implementation in 1987 through the Sun UltraSPARC Architecture implementations.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Among various implementations of SPARC, Sun's SuperSPARC and UltraSPARC-I were very popular, and were used as reference systems for SPEC CPU95 and CPU2000 benchmarks. The 296MHz UltraSPARC-II is the reference system for the SPEC CPU2006 benchmark.",
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"plaintext": "SPARC is a load/store architecture (also known as a register-register architecture); except for the load/store instructions used to access memory, all instructions operate on the registers, in accordance with the RISC design principles.",
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"plaintext": "The SPARC architecture has an overlapping register window scheme. At any instant, 32 general purpose registers are visible. A Current Window Pointer (CWP) variable in the hardware points to the current set. The total size of the register file is not part of the architecture, allowing more registers to be added as the technology improves, up to a maximum of 32 windows in SPARC V7 and V8 as CWP is 5 bits and is part of the PSR register.",
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"plaintext": "In SPARC V7 and V8 CWP will usually be decremented by the SAVE instruction (used by the SAVE instruction during the procedure call to open a new stack frame and switch the register window), or incremented by the RESTORE instruction (switching back to the call before returning from the procedure). Trap events (interrupts, exceptions or TRAP instructions) and RETT instructions (returning from traps) also change the CWP.",
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"plaintext": "For SPARC V9, CWP register is decremented during a RESTORE instruction, and incremented during a SAVE instruction. This is the opposite of PSR.CWP's behavior in SPARC V8. This change has no effect on nonprivileged instructions.",
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"plaintext": "SPARC registers are shown in the figure above.",
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"plaintext": "All SPARC instructions occupy a full 32 bit word and start on a word boundary. Four formats are used, distinguished by the first two bits. All arithmetic and logical instructions have 2 source operands and 1 destination operand.",
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"plaintext": "SETHI instruction format copies its 22 bit immediate operand into the high-order 22 bits of any specified register, and sets each of the low-order 10 bits to 0.",
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"plaintext": "Format ALU register, both sources are registers; format ALU immediate, one source is a register and one is a constant in the range -4096 to +4095. Bit 13 selects between them. In both cases, the destination is always a register.",
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"plaintext": "Branch format instructions do control transfers or conditional branches. The icc or fcc field specifies the kind of branch. The 22 bit displacement field give the relative address of the target in words so that conditional branches can go forward or backward up to 8 megabytes. The ANNUL (A) bit is used to get rid of some delay slots. If it is 0 in a conditional branch, the delay slot is executed as usual. If it is 1, the delay slot is only executed if the branch is taken. If it is not taken, the instruction following the conditional branch is skipped.",
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"plaintext": "The CALL instruction uses a 30-bit program counter-relative word offset. This value is enough to reach any instruction within 4 gigabytes of the caller or the entire address space. The CALL instruction deposits the return address in register R15 also known as output register O7.",
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"plaintext": "Just like the arithmetic instructions, the SPARC architecture uses two different formats for load and store instructions. The first format is used for instructions that use one or two registers as the effective address. The second format is used for instructions that use an integer constant as the effective address. ",
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},
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"plaintext": "Most arithmetic instructions come in pairs with one version setting the NZVC condition code bits, and the other does not. This is so that the compiler has a way to move instructions around when trying to fill delay slots.",
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"plaintext": "SPARC V7 does not have multiplication or division instructions, but it does have MULSCC, which does one step of a multiplication testing one bit and conditionally adding the multiplicand to the product. This was because MULSCC can complete over one clock cycle in keeping with the RISC philosophy.",
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},
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"plaintext": "The following organizations have licensed the SPARC architecture:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Afara Websystems",
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"plaintext": " Bipolar Integrated Technology (BIT)",
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"plaintext": " Cypress Semiconductor",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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},
{
"plaintext": " European Space Research and Technology Center (ESTEC)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Fujitsu (and its Fujitsu Microelectronics subsidiary)",
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{
"plaintext": " Gaisler Research",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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"plaintext": " HAL Computer Systems",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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1,
21
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hyundai",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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},
{
"plaintext": " LSI Logic",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matra Harris Semiconductors (MHS)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matsushita Electrical Industrial Co.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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],
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1,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Meiko Scientific",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Metaflow Technologies",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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990075
],
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1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philips Electronics",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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23550
],
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Prisma",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ross Technology",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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],
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Solbourne Computer",
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"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
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],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Systems & Processes Engineering Corporation (SPEC)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " TEMIC",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "SPARC architecture licensees",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Weitek",
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},
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"plaintext": "Notes:",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": "SPARC machines have generally used Sun's SunOS, Solaris, or OpenSolaris including derivatives illumos and OpenIndiana, but other operating systems have also been used, such as NeXTSTEP, RTEMS, FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, and Linux.",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, Intergraph announced a port of Windows NT to the SPARC architecture, but it was later cancelled.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2015, Oracle announced a \"Linux for SPARC reference platform\".",
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"plaintext": "Several fully open source implementations of the SPARC architecture exist:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " LEON, a 32-bit radiation-tolerant, SPARC V8 implementation, designed especially for space use. Source code is written in VHDL, and licensed under the GPL.",
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"section_name": "Open source implementations",
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96,
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151,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " OpenSPARC T1, released in 2006, a 64-bit, 32-thread implementation conforming to the UltraSPARC Architecture 2005 and to SPARC Version 9 (Level 1). Source code is written in Verilog, and licensed under many licenses. Most OpenSPARC T1 source code is licensed under the GPL. Source based on existent open source projects will continue to be licensed under their current licenses. Binary programs are licensed under a binary software license agreement.",
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{
"plaintext": " S1, a 64-bit Wishbone compliant CPU core based on the OpenSPARC T1 design. It is a single UltraSPARC V9 core capable of 4-way SMT. Like the T1, the source code is licensed under the GPL.",
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{
"plaintext": " OpenSPARC T2, released in 2008, a 64-bit, 64-thread implementation conforming to the UltraSPARC Architecture 2007 and to SPARC Version 9 (Level 1). Source code is written in Verilog, and licensed under many licenses. Most OpenSPARC T2 source code is licensed under the GPL. Source based on existing open source projects will continue to be licensed under their current licenses. Binary programs are licensed under a binary Software License Agreement.",
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"section_name": "Open source implementations",
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"plaintext": "A fully open source simulator for the SPARC architecture also exists:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " RAMP Gold, a 32-bit, 64-thread SPARC Version 8 implementation, designed for FPGA-based architecture simulation. RAMP Gold is written in ~36,000 lines of SystemVerilog, and licensed under the BSD licenses.",
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"section_name": "Open source implementations",
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"plaintext": "For HPC loads Fujitsu builds specialized SPARC64 fx processors with a new instruction extensions set, called HPC-ACE (High Performance Computing – Arithmetic Computational Extensions).",
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"plaintext": "Fujitsu's K computer ranked in the TOP500 June 2011 and November 2011 lists. It combines 88,128 SPARC64 VIIIfx CPUs, each with eight cores, for a total of 705,024 cores—almost twice as many as any other system in the TOP500 at that time. The K Computer was more powerful than the next five systems on the list combined, and had the highest performance-to-power ratio of any supercomputer system. It also ranked in the Green500 June 2011 list, with a score of 824.56 MFLOPS/W. In the November 2012 release of TOP500, the K computer ranked , using by far the most power of the top three. It ranked on the corresponding Green500 release. Newer HPC processors, IXfx and XIfx, were included in recent PRIMEHPC FX10 and FX100 supercomputers.",
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"plaintext": "Tianhe-2 (TOP500 as of November 2014) has a number of nodes with Galaxy FT-1500 OpenSPARC-based processors developed in China. However, those processors did not contribute to the LINPACK score.",
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"plaintext": " ERC32— based on SPARC V7 specification",
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"plaintext": " Ross Technology, Inc.— a SPARC microprocessor developer during the 1980s and 1990s",
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"plaintext": " Sparcle— a modified SPARC with multiprocessing support used by the MIT Alewife project",
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"plaintext": " LEON— a space rated SPARC V8 processor.",
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"plaintext": " R1000— a Russian quad-core microprocessor based on SPARC V9 specification",
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"plaintext": " SPARC International, Inc.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " SPARC Technical Documents",
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},
{
"plaintext": " OpenSPARC Architecture specification ",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hypervisor/Sun4v Reference Materials",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fujitsu SPARC64 V, VI, VII, VIIIfx, IXfx Extensions and X / X+ Specification ",
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"section_name": "External links",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Fujitsu SPARC Roadmap",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " SPARC processor images and descriptions",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The Rough Guide to MBus Modules (SuperSPARC, hyperSPARC)",
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}
]
| [
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"Instruction_set_architectures",
"SPARC_microprocessor_architecture",
"Sun_microprocessors",
"32-bit_computers",
"64-bit_computers"
]
| 273,190 | 6,819 | 466 | 146 | 0 | 0 | SPARC | RISC instruction set architecture | []
|
36,956 | 1,101,573,809 | Cappuccino | [
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"plaintext": "A cappuccino (; ; cappuccini) is an espresso-based coffee drink that originated in Italy and is prepared with steamed milk foam (microfoam).",
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"plaintext": "Variations of the drink involve the use of cream instead of milk, using non-dairy milk substitutes and flavoring with cinnamon or chocolate powder. It is typically smaller in volume than a caffè latte, with a thicker layer of microfoam.",
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"plaintext": "The Viennese bestowed the name \"Kapuziner\", possibly in the 18th century, on a version that included whipped cream and spices of unknown origin. The Italian cappuccino was unknown outside Italy until the 1930s, and seems to be born out of Viennese-style cafés in Trieste and other Italian areas in Austria-Hungary through the Kapuziner coffee in the early 20th century. The drink spread from Trieste, the main coffee port in Central Europe, throughout Italy, especially after World War I and later worldwide, and can be found at a number of establishments.",
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"plaintext": "Outside of Italy, cappuccino is a coffee drink that today is typically composed of a single espresso shot and hot milk, with the surface topped with foamed milk. Cappuccinos are most often prepared with an espresso machine. The espresso is poured into the bottom of the cup, followed by a similar amount of hot milk, which is prepared by heating and texturing the milk using the espresso machine steam wand. The top third of the drink consists of milk foam; this foam can be decorated with artistic drawings made with the same milk, called latte art.",
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"plaintext": "In a traditional cappuccino, as served in Europe and artisan coffee houses in the United States, the total of espresso and milk/foam make up between approximately . Commercial coffee restaurant chains in the US more often serve the cappuccino as a drink or larger. In Italy, a cappuccino consists of of espresso; the rest of the cup is filled with equal parts of milk and foam. Outside of Italy, the ratios of espresso, milk, and foam typically equal 1/3 each.",
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"plaintext": "Cappuccino is traditionally small (180ml maximum) with a thick layer of foam, while \"latte\" traditionally is larger (200–300ml). Caffè latte is often served in a large glass; cappuccino mostly in a 150–180ml cup with a handle. Cappuccino traditionally has a layer of textured milk microfoam exceeding 1cm in thickness; microfoam is frothed/steamed milk in which the bubbles are so small and so numerous that they are not seen, but it makes the milk lighter and thicker. As a result, the microfoam will remain partly on top of the mug when the espresso is poured in correctly as well as mix well with the rest of the cappuccino.",
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"plaintext": "The World Barista Championships have been arranged annually since 2000, and during the course of the competition, the competing barista must produce—for four sensory judges—among other drinks four cappuccinos, defined in WBC Rules and Regulations as \"[...] a coffee and milk beverage that should produce a harmonious balance of rich, sweet milk and espresso [....] The cappuccino is prepared with one (1) single shot of espresso, textured milk and foam. (\"Textured milk\" is milk that has been aerated to its proper foam level.) A minimum of 1 centimeter of foam depth [....] A cappuccino is a beverage between 150ml and 180ml in total volume [....].\"",
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"plaintext": "'Cappuccino' comes from Latin Caputium, later borrowed in German/Austrian and modified into Kapuziner. It is the diminutive form of cappuccio in Italian, meaning \"hood\" or something that covers the head, thus cappuccino literally means \"small capuchin\".",
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"plaintext": "The coffee beverage has its name not from the hood but from the colour of the hooded robes worn by monks and nuns of the Capuchin order. This colour is quite distinctive, and capuchin was a common description of the colour of red-brown in 17th century Europe. The Capuchin monks chose the particular design of their orders' robes both in colour and shape of the hood back in the 16th century, inspired by Francis of Assisi's preserved 13th century vestments. The long and pointed hood was characteristic and soon gave the brothers the nickname \"capuchins\" (hood-wearing). It was, however, the choice of red-brown as the order's vestment colour that, as early as the 17th century, saw \"capuchin\" used also as a term for a specific colour. While Francis of Assisi humbly used uncoloured and un-bleached wool for his robes, the Capuchins coloured their vestments to differ from Augustinians, Benedictines, Franciscans, and other orders.",
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"plaintext": "The word cappuccino, in its Italian form, is not known in Italian writings until the 20th century, but the German language Kapuziner is mentioned as a coffee beverage in the 18th century in Austria, and is described as, \"coffee with sugar, egg yolks and cream\", in dictionary entries from 1800 onwards. Kapuziner was by the First World War a common coffee drink in cafés in the parts of northern Italy which at that time still belonged to Austria.",
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"plaintext": "The use of fresh milk in coffee in cafés and restaurants is a newer phenomenon (from the 20th century), introduced when refrigeration became common. The use of full cream is known much further back in time (but not in the use as whipped cream [chantilly]), as this was a product more easily stored and frequently used also in cooking and baking. Thus, a kapuziner was prepared with a very small amount of cream to get the capuchin colour. Today, kapuziner is still served in Viennese traditional cafés, comprising still black coffee with only a few drops of cream (in some establishments developed into a dollop of whipped cream).",
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"plaintext": "The consumption of coffee in Europe was initially based on the traditional Ottoman preparation of the drink, by bringing to boil the mixture of coffee and water together, sometimes adding sugar. The British seem to have started filtering and steeping coffee already in the second part of the 18th century, and France and continental Europe followed suit. By the 19th century, coffee was brewed in different devices designed for both home and public cafés.",
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"plaintext": "Adding milk to coffee was mentioned by Europeans already in the 1700s, and sometimes advised.",
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"plaintext": "Cappuccino originated as the coffee beverage kapuziner in the Viennese coffee houses in the 1700s, at the same time as the counterpart coffee beverage named Franziskaner: kapuziner shows up on coffee house menus all over the Habsburg monarchy around this time, and is in 1805 described in a Wörterbuch (dictionary) as \"coffee with cream and sugar\" (although it does not say how it is composed). Kapuziner is mentioned again in writings in the 1850s, described as \"coffee with cream, spices and sugar\". Around the same time, the coffee beverage melange is mentioned in writings, explained as a blend of coffee and milk, presumably similar to the modern day caffè latte or Wiener Melange. Other coffees containing cream surfaced in Vienna, and outside Austria these are referred to as \"Viennese coffee\" or \"café Viennois\", coffee with whipped cream. Predecessors of Irish coffee, sweetened coffee with different alcohols, topped with whipped cream also spread out from Vienna.",
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"plaintext": "Kapuziner took its name from the colour of coffee with a few drops of cream, so nicknamed because the Capuchin monks in Vienna and elsewhere wore vestments with this colour. Another popular coffee was Franziskaner, with more cream, referring to the somewhat lighter brown colour of the robes of monks of the Franciscan order. Kapuziner coffee spread throughout Central Europe and thus also in the Italian-speaking parts of the Habsburg monarchy. The main port of the empire, the city of Trieste, already had many Viennese coffee houses back then.",
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"plaintext": "\"Cappuccino\" as written today (in Italian) is first mentioned in northern Italy in the 1930s, and photographs from that time depict the drink resembling \"Viennese\", a coffee topped with whipped cream sprinkled with cinnamon or chocolate. The Italian cappuccino evolved and developed in the following decades: the steamed milk atop is a later addition, and in the US a slight misunderstanding has led to the naming of this \"cap\" of milk foam \"monk's head\", although it originally had nothing to do with the name of the beverage.",
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"plaintext": "Although coffee was brewed differently all over Europe after the Second World War, in Italy, espresso machines became widespread only during the 1950s, and \"cappuccino\" was redefined, now made from espresso and frothed milk (although far from the quality of \"microfoam\" steamed milk today). As the espresso machines improved, so did the dosing of coffee and the heating of the milk. Outside Italy, cappuccino spread but was generally made from dark coffee with whipped cream, as it still is in large parts of Europe even in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Kapuziner remained unchanged on the Austrian coffee menu, even in Trieste, which by 1920 belonged to Italy, and in Bratislava, Budapest, Prague, and other cities of the former empire.",
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"plaintext": "Espresso machines were introduced at the beginning of the 20th century, after Luigi Bezzera of Milan filed the first patent in 1901, although the first generations of machines certainly did not make espresso the way we define it today.",
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"plaintext": "Coffee making in cafés changed in the first decades of the 20th century. These first machines made it possible to serve coffee espresso specifically to each customer. The cups were still the same size, and the dose of beans was ground coarse as before. The too high temperature of the boilers scalded the coffee, and several attempts at improving this came in the years after the First World War.",
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"plaintext": "After the Second World War, the Italians launched the \"age of crema\", as the new coffee machines could create a higher pressure, leading to a finer grind and the now classic crema.",
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"plaintext": "The first small cups appeared in the 1950s, and the machines could by then also heat milk, thus, the modern cappuccino was born. In Vienna, espresso bars were introduced in the 1950s, leading to both the kapuziner and the new-born Italian cappuccino's being served as two different beverages alongside each other.",
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"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, espresso coffee initially gained popularity in the form of the cappuccino, influenced by the British custom of drinking coffee with milk, the desire for a longer drink to preserve the café as a destination, and the exotic texture of the beverage.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, cappuccino spread alongside espresso in Italian American neighborhoods, such as Boston's North End, New York's Little Italy, and San Francisco's North Beach. New York City's Caffe Reggio (founded 1927) claims to have introduced cappuccino to the United States, while San Francisco's Caffe Trieste (founded 1956) claims to have introduced it to the west coast; the earlier Tosca Cafe in San Francisco (founded 1919) served a \"cappuccino\" earlier, but this was without coffee, and instead consisted of chocolate, steamed milk, and brandy.",
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"plaintext": "As cappuccino is defined today, in addition to a single shot of espresso, the most important factors in preparing a cappuccino are the texture and temperature of the milk. When a barista steams the milk for a cappuccino, microfoam is created by introducing very tiny bubbles of air into the milk, giving the milk a velvety texture. The traditional cappuccino consists of a single espresso, on which the barista pours the hot foamed milk, resulting in a thick milk foam on top. Variations could be made adding another shot of espresso resulting in a double cappuccino. Attaining the correct ratio of foam requires close attention while steaming the milk, thus making the cappuccino one of the most difficult espresso-based beverages to make properly. A skilled barista may obtain artistic shapes (latte art) while pouring the milk on the top of the espresso coffee.",
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"plaintext": "Cappuccino was traditionally a taste largely appreciated in Europe, Australia, South America, and some of North America. By the mid-1990s, cappuccino was made more available to North Americans, as upscale coffee houses sprang up.",
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"plaintext": "In Italy and throughout continental Europe, cappuccino is traditionally consumed in the morning, usually as part of breakfast, often with some kind of pastry. Italians generally do not drink cappuccino with meals other than breakfast, although they often drink espresso after lunch or dinner. In Italy, cappuccino is usually consumed up to 11:00a.m., since cappuccinos are milk-based and considered too heavy to drink later in the day. Instead, espresso is usually ordered after a meal due to the belief that the lack of milk aids in digestion. In North America, cappuccinos have become popular concurrent with the boom in the American coffee industry through the late 1990s and early 2000s, especially in the urban Pacific Northwest.",
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"plaintext": "Cappuccino is traditionally served in cups. By the start of the 21st century, a modified \"short-cut\" version was being served by fast-food chains in servings up to .",
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"plaintext": "Although size is what varies most among different cappuccinos, there are two main ways of preparing cappuccino: one is the traditional or classical way with a cap of milk foam; the other is the \"latte art\" way. The former follows the traditional idea of the cappuccino being prepared by espresso, steamed milk and milk foam. The latter follows the same recipe, but is served more often in smaller cups, and the textured milk is gently poured in and finished with a pattern in the surface crèma. The illustrations in this article show the preparation methods.",
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"plaintext": "Cappuccino Freddo is the cold version of a cappuccino, and the drink usually has a small amount of cold frothed milk atop it. The drink is available in Greece, Cyprus and parts of Italy.",
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"plaintext": "In Rome, coffee bars have the drink already prepared and chilled. In cities of Northern Italy like Milan, the Cappuccino Freddo is less common. Instead, gelato da bere (a thick blend of gelato and espresso) or shakerato (espresso and ice shaken together) are more popular. The term has also spread throughout the Mediterranean region where foam is added to the drink just before serving, often varying from the Italian original. A caffè freddo or freddo espresso is a cold version of an espresso (without milk).",
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"plaintext": "In North America, the terms \"Cappuccino Freddo\" or \"Iced cappuccino\", if offered, may be somewhat of a misnomer if the characteristic frothed milk is omitted in the iced variation. For example, at Starbucks, without the frothed milk the drink is called an \"iced latte\".",
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"plaintext": "In Greece and Cyprus, a cold cappuccino is widespread known as Freddo Cappuccino, as opposed to Cappuccino Freddo. Despite its Italian name, the drink both tastes and is prepared differently from its Italian counterpart, and is uncommon in Italy and outside of Greece. The Freddo Cappuccino is topped with a cold milk-based foam known as afrógala (), which is created by blending cold milk using an electric frother. These frothers are commonplace in Greek coffee shops due to their usage during the preparation of frappé coffee. The foam is then added to espresso poured over ice.",
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"plaintext": "Along with the Freddo Espresso, they were conceived in Greece in 1991 and are in higher demand during summer. Outside Greece and Cyprus, Freddo Cappucino or Cappuccino Freddo is mostly found in coffee shops and delis catering to the Greek expat community. In 2017, Starbucks added the Cappuccino Freddo to branch menus in Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, the Tim Hortons coffee chain sells iced coffee cappuccino under the brand name Iced Capps. The coffee drink mix comes to the stores as a thick black syrup which is mixed at three parts water to one part syrup in a Slurpee machine. The frozen coffee drink is then blended with cream at the time of service (or blended with milk, or chocolate milk upon customer request). The Ice Capp can also be prepared as a Supreme, which includes a flavour shot, whipped topping, and either caramel or chocolate syrup. The chain also carries iced coffee on both its Canadian and U.S. menus.",
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"plaintext": "Other milk and espresso drinks similar to the cappuccino include:",
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"plaintext": " Caffè macchiato (sometimes called espresso macchiato) is a significantly shorter drink, which consists of espresso with only a small amount of milk.",
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"plaintext": " Cortado is a Spanish hybrid: a slightly shorter drink, which consists of espresso mixed with milk in a 1:1 to 1:2 ratio, and is not topped with foam. Cafè Cortado has traditionally been served in a small glass on a saucer, and its character comes from the Spanish preference of coffee beans and roast plus condensed milk replacing fresh dairy milk. Modern coffee shops have started using fresh milk.",
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"plaintext": " Flat white is a hybrid which is popular in Australia and New Zealand. It is in between a cappuccino and a caffè latte ('flat' indicating little or no foam), typically prepared with a double shot of espresso and a little latte art atop. A flat white is prepared with a milder espresso and no robusta.",
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"plaintext": " Latte (short for \"caffè latte\") is a larger drink, with the same amount of espresso, but with more milk and a varying amount of foam, served in a large cup or tall glass.",
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"plaintext": " Steamer or babyccino is a drink of frothed milk without coffee (hence no caffeine). In the United States it often has flavoured syrup added, while in Commonwealth countries it instead often has a dusting of cocoa powder.",
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"plaintext": " List of coffee drinks",
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"plaintext": " Free newsletter featuring articles on the quality of espresso, chemical and sensory analysis, and market trends.",
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| [
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"Italian_cuisine",
"Italian_drinks",
"Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin"
]
| 159,774 | 37,876 | 159 | 74 | 0 | 0 | cappuccino | coffee drink | []
|
36,960 | 1,105,078,358 | Kenneth_Williams | [
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"plaintext": "Kenneth Charles Williams (22 February 1926– 15 April 1988) was an English actor. He was best known for his comedy roles and in later life as a raconteur and diarist. He was one of the main ensemble in 26 of the 31 Carry On films, and appeared in many British television programmes and radio comedies, including series with Tony Hancock and Kenneth Horne, as well as being a regular panellist on BBC Radio 4's comedy panel show Just a Minute from its second series in 1968 until his death 20 years later.",
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"plaintext": "Williams grew up in Central London in a working-class family; he claimed his father spoke cockney. He served in the Royal Engineers during World War II, where he first became interested in becoming an entertainer. After a short spell in repertory theatre as a serious actor, he turned to comedy and achieved national fame in Hancock's Half Hour. He sustained continued success throughout the 1960s and 1970s with his regular appearances in Carry On films, and subsequently kept himself in the public eye with chat shows and other television work.",
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"plaintext": "Williams was fondly regarded in the entertainment industry; in private life, however, he suffered from depression. He kept a series of diaries throughout his life that achieved posthumous acclaim.",
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"plaintext": "Kenneth Charles Williams was born on 22 February 1926 in Bingfield Street, Kings Cross, London. His parents were Charles George Williams, who managed a hairdressers in the Kings Cross area, and Louisa Alexandra ( Morgan), who worked in the salon. Charles was a Methodist who had \"a hatred of loose morals and effeminacy\", according to Barry Took, Williams's biographer. Charles thought the theatre immoral and effeminate, although his son aspired to be involved in the profession from an early age. Between 1935 and 1956, Williams lived with his parents in a flat above his father's barber shop at 57 Marchmont Street, Bloomsbury.",
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"plaintext": "When Hancock steered his show away from what he considered gimmicks and silly voices, Williams found he had less to do. Tiring of this reduced status, he joined Kenneth Horne in Beyond Our Ken (1958–64), and its sequel, Round the Horne (1965–68). His roles in Round the Horne included Rambling Syd Rumpo, the eccentric folk singer; Dr Chou En Ginsberg, MA (failed), Oriental criminal mastermind; J. Peasemold Gruntfuttock, telephone heavy breather and dirty old man; and Sandy of the camp couple Julian and Sandy (Julian was played by Hugh Paddick). Their double act was characterised by double entendres and Polari, the homosexual argot.",
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"plaintext": "Williams also appeared in West End revues including Share My Lettuce with Maggie Smith, written by Bamber Gascoigne, and Pieces of Eight with Fenella Fielding. The latter included material specially written for him by Peter Cook, then a student at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Cook's \"One Leg Too Few\" and \"Interesting Facts\" were part of the show and became routines in his own performances. Williams's last revue, in 1961, was One Over The Eight at the Duke of York's Theatre, with Sheila Hancock.",
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"plaintext": "Williams worked regularly in British film during the late 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, mainly in the Carry On series (1958–78) with its double entendre humour; and appeared in the series more than any other actor. The films were commercially successful but Williams claimed the cast were poorly paid. In his diaries, Williams wrote that he earned more in a St Ivel advert than for any Carry On film, although he was still earning the average Briton's annual salary in a month for the latter. He often privately criticised and \"dripped vitriol\" upon the films, considering them beneath him, even though he continued to appear in them. This became the case with many of the films and shows in which he appeared. He was quick to find fault with his own work, and also that of others. Despite this, he spoke fondly of the Carry Ons in interviews. Peter Rogers, producer of the series, recollected, \"Kenneth was worth taking care of because, while he cost very little—£5,000 a film, he made a great deal of money for the franchise.\"",
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"plaintext": "Williams was a regular on the BBC Radio impromptu-speaking panel game Just a Minute from its second season in 1968 until his death. He frequently got into arguments with host Nicholas Parsons and other guests on the show. (Russell Davies, editor of The Kenneth Williams Letters, explains that Williams's \"famous tirades on the programme occurred when his desire to entertain was fuelled by his annoyance.\") He was also remembered for such phrases as \"I've come all the way from Great Portland Street\" (i.e. one block away) and \"They shouldn't have women on the show!\" (directed at Sheila Hancock, Aimi MacDonald and others). He once talked for almost a minute about a supposed Austrian psychiatrist called Heinrich Swartzberg, correctly guessing that the show's creator, Ian Messiter, had just made the name up.",
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"plaintext": "On television, he co-hosted his own TV variety series on BBC2 with the Young Generation entitled Meanwhile, On BBC2, which ran for 10 episodes from 17 April 1971. He was a frequent contributor to the 1973–74 revival of What's My Line?, hosted the weekly entertainment show International Cabaret and was a regular reader on the children's storytelling series Jackanory on BBC1, hosting 69 episodes. He also narrated and provided all of the voices for the BBC children's cartoon Willo the Wisp (1981).",
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"plaintext": "On 14 October 1962, Kenneth's father, Charlie Williams, was taken to hospital after drinking carbon tetrachloride that had been stored in a cough-mixture bottle. Kenneth, who had never got on well with his father, refused to visit him. Charlie died the following day and, an hour after being given the news, Kenneth went on stage in the West End. The coroner's court recorded a verdict of accidental death due to corrosive poisoning by carbon tetrachloride. Kenneth believed his father had committed suicide, because the circumstances leading to the poisoning seemed unlikely to have happened by bad luck. Williams was later denied a visa to the United States, when it emerged that Scotland Yard kept a file on him relating to his father's death – the suspicion being that he had poisoned his father.",
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"plaintext": "Williams often said that he was asexual and celibate, and his diaries appear to substantiate his claims — at least from his early forties onwards. He lived alone all his adult life and had few close companions apart from his mother, and no significant romantic relationships. His diaries contain references to unconsummated or barely consummated homosexual dalliances, which he describes as \"traditional matters\" or \"tradiola\". He befriended gay playwright Joe Orton, who wrote the role of Inspector Truscott in Loot (1965) for him, and had holidays in Morocco with Orton and his lover, Kenneth Halliwell. Other close friends included Stanley Baxter, Gordon Jackson and his wife Rona Anderson, Sheila Hancock, and Maggie Smith and her playwright husband, Beverley Cross. Williams was also fond of fellow Carry On regulars Barbara Windsor, Bernard Bresslaw, Peter Butterworth, Kenneth Connor, Hattie Jacques and Joan Sims.",
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"plaintext": "From the mid-1950s, Williams lived in a succession of small rented flats in central London. After his father died, his mother Louisa lived near him, and then in the flat next to his. His last home was a flat on Osnaburgh Street, Bloomsbury (since demolished).",
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"plaintext": "Williams rarely revealed details of his private life although, in two half-hour documentary programmes in 1977 on BBC Radio London entitled Carry On Kenneth, he spoke openly to Owen Spencer-Thomas about his loneliness, despondency and sense of underachievement. ",
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"plaintext": "He died on 15 April 1988 in his flat. His last words, recorded in his diary, were \"Oh, what's the bloody point?\" and the cause of death was an overdose of barbiturates. An inquest recorded an open verdict, because it was not possible to establish whether his death was suicide or an accident. His diaries reveal that he had often had suicidal thoughts, and some of his earliest diaries record periodic feelings that there was no point in living. His authorised biography argues that Williams did not take his own life but died of an accidental overdose. The actor had doubled his dosage of antacid without discussing it with his doctor. That, combined with the mixture of medication, is the widely accepted cause of death. He had a stock of painkilling tablets and it is argued that he would have taken more of them if he had been intending suicide. He was cremated at East Finchley Cemetery, and his ashes were scattered in the memorial gardens. Williams left an estate worth just under £540,000 ().",
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"plaintext": "In April 2008 Radio 4 broadcast the two-part The Pain of Laughter: The Last Days of Kenneth Williams. The programmes were researched and written by Wes Butters and narrated by Rob Brydon. Butters purchased a collection of Williams's personal belongings from the actor's godson, Robert Chidell, to whom they had been bequeathed.",
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"plaintext": "The first of the programmes said that, towards the end of his life and struggling with depression and ill health, Williams abandoned Christianity following discussions with the poet Philip Larkin. Williams had been brought up a Wesleyan and then a Methodist, though he spent much of his life struggling with Christianity's teachings on homosexuality.",
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"plaintext": "Kenneth Williams Unseen by Wes Butters and Russell Davies, the first Williams biography in 15 years, was published in October 2008.",
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"plaintext": "An authorised biography, Born Brilliant: The Life of Kenneth Williams, by Christopher Stevens, was published in October 2010. This drew for the first time on the full Williams archive of diaries and letters, which had been stored in a London bank for 15 years following publication of edited extracts. The biography notes that Williams used a variety of handwriting styles and colours in his journals, switching between different hands on the page.",
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"plaintext": "David Benson's 1996 Edinburgh Fringe show, Think No Evil of Us: My Life with Kenneth Williams, saw Benson playing Williams; after touring, the show ran in London's West End. Benson reprised his performance at the 2006 Edinburgh Fringe and continues to tour.",
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"plaintext": "Williams was played by Adam Godley in Terry Johnson's play Cleo, Camping, Emmanuelle and Dick, which premiered at the National Theatre in 1998. Godley reprised the role in the subsequent film adaptation, Cor, Blimey!",
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"plaintext": "A flat in the Osnaburgh Street block in which Williams lived from 1972 until his death was bought by Rob Brydon and Julia Davis for the writing of their comedy series Human Remains. The building was demolished in 2007.",
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"plaintext": "Williams is commemorated by a blue plaque at the address of his father's barber shop, 57 Marchmont Street, London, where he lived from 1935 to 1956. The plaque was unveiled on 11 October 2009 by Leslie Phillips, Bill Pertwee and Nicholas Parsons, with whom Williams performed.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 February 2014—on what would have been Williams' 88th birthday—an English Heritage blue plaque was unveiled at Farley Court off Marylebone Road, where Williams lived between 1963 and 1970. Speaking at the ceremony, his Carry On co-star Barbara Windsor said: \"Kenny was a one off, a true original\".",
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"plaintext": " Saint Joan at the Arts Theatre and New Theatre, London (1954)",
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"plaintext": " The World of Kenneth Williams 1970, Decca SPA 64. Stereo edition of recordings from the 1950s and 1960s.",
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"plaintext": " The Bona World of Julian and Sandy 1976, DJM DJF20487",
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"plaintext": " Castle on Luke Street 1978, Sanctuary Records, SU0803. Roy Castle narrated eight stories from the David Lewis Series of books on Side 1. Williams recorded \"Lost and Found\" on Side 2. Dora Bryan, Derek Nimmo and Thora Hird narrated one story each.",
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"plaintext": " Williams also released several albums as Rambling Syd Rumpo.",
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"plaintext": " Kenneth Williams read eight Just William stories for Argo in the early 1980s.",
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"plaintext": " An audio reading of Monkey, Arthur Waley's translation of Journey to the West, for Nimbus Records (1981). Re-released on MP3 CD:NI5888, in 2008.",
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"plaintext": " Parlour Poetry: Comic, Patriotic and Improving Verse from the Victorian Age: (1978): Saydisc Label: SDL294: CD Re-release : 2009.",
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"plaintext": "There are also several recordings of Round the Horne and Just a Minute that include Williams.",
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"plaintext": " Acid Drops ",
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"plaintext": " Back Drops ",
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"plaintext": " Just Williams ",
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"plaintext": " I Only Have To Close My Eyes ",
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"plaintext": " The Kenneth Williams Diaries ",
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"plaintext": " The Kenneth Williams Letters ",
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"plaintext": "In particle physics, a pion (or a pi meson, denoted with the Greek letter pi: ) is any of three subatomic particles: , , and . Each pion consists of a quark and an antiquark and is therefore a meson. Pions are the lightest mesons and, more generally, the lightest hadrons. They are unstable, with the charged pions and decaying after a mean lifetime of 26.033nanoseconds (seconds), and the neutral pion decaying after a much shorter lifetime of 85attoseconds (seconds). Charged pions most often decay into muons and muon neutrinos, while neutral pions generally decay into gamma rays.",
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"plaintext": "The exchange of virtual pions, along with vector, rho and omega mesons, provides an explanation for the residual strong force between nucleons. Pions are not produced in radioactive decay, but commonly are in high-energy collisions between hadrons. Pions also result from some matter–antimatter annihilation events. All types of pions are also produced in natural processes when high-energy cosmic-ray protons and other hadronic cosmic-ray components interact with matter in Earth's atmosphere. In 2013, the detection of characteristic gamma rays originating from the decay of neutral pions in two supernova remnants has shown that pions are produced copiously after supernovas, most probably in conjunction with production of high-energy protons that are detected on Earth as cosmic rays.",
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"plaintext": "The pion also plays a crucial role in cosmology, by imposing an upper limit on the energies of cosmic rays surviving collisions with the cosmic microwave background, through the Greisen–Zatsepin–Kuzmin limit.",
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"plaintext": "Theoretical work by Hideki Yukawa in 1935 had predicted the existence of mesons as the carrier particles of the strong nuclear force. From the range of the strong nuclear force (inferred from the radius of the atomic nucleus), Yukawa predicted the existence of a particle having a mass of about 100MeV/c. Initially after its discovery in 1936, the muon (initially called the \"mu meson\") was thought to be this particle, since it has a mass of 106MeV/c. However, later experiments showed that the muon did not participate in the strong nuclear interaction. In modern terminology, this makes the muon a lepton, and not a meson. However, some communities of astrophysicists continue to call the muon a \"mu-meson\". The pions, which turned out to be examples of Yukawa's proposed mesons, were discovered later: the charged pions in 1947, and the neutral pion in 1950.",
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"plaintext": "During 1939–1942, Debendra Mohan Bose and Bibha Chowdhuri exposed Ilford half-tone photographic plates in the high altitude mountainous regions of Darjeeling, India and observed long curved ionizing tracks that appeared to be different from the tracks of alpha particles or protons. In a series of articles published in Nature, they identified a cosmic particle having an average mass close to 200 times the mass of electron, today known as pions. In 1947, the charged pions were again found independently by the collaboration led by Cecil Powell at the University of Bristol, in England. The discovery article had four authors: César Lattes, Giuseppe Occhialini, Hugh Muirhead and Powell. Since the advent of particle accelerators had not yet come, high-energy subatomic particles were only obtainable from atmospheric cosmic rays. Photographic emulsions based on the gelatin-silver process were placed for long periods of time in sites located at high-altitude mountains, first at Pic du Midi de Bigorre in the Pyrenees, and later at Chacaltaya in the Andes Mountains, where the plates were struck by cosmic rays. ",
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"plaintext": "After development, the photographic plates were inspected under a microscope by a team of about a dozen women. Marietta Kurz was the first person to detect the unusual \"double meson\" tracks, characteristic for a pion decaying into a muon, but they were too close to the edge of the photographic emulsion and deemed incomplete. A few days later, Irene Roberts observed the tracks left by pion decay that appeared in the discovery paper. Both women are credited in the figure captions in the article.",
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"plaintext": "In 1948, Lattes, Eugene Gardner, and their team first artificially produced pions at the University of California's cyclotron in Berkeley, California, by bombarding carbon atoms with high-speed alpha particles. Further advanced theoretical work was carried out by Riazuddin, who in 1959 used the dispersion relation for Compton scattering of virtual photons on pions to analyze their charge radius.",
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"plaintext": "Since the neutral pion is not electrically charged, it is more difficult to detect and observe than the charged pions are. Neutral pions do not leave tracks in photographic emulsions or Wilson cloud chambers. The existence of the neutral pion was inferred from observing its decay products from cosmic rays, a so-called \"soft component\" of slow electrons with photons. The was identified definitively at the University of California's cyclotron in 1950 by observing its decay into two photons. Later in the same year, they were also observed in cosmic-ray balloon experiments at Bristol University.",
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"plaintext": "The use of pions in medical radiation therapy, such as for cancer, was explored at a number of research institutions, including the Los Alamos National Laboratory's Meson Physics Facility, which treated 228patients between 1974 and 1981 in New Mexico, and the TRIUMF laboratory in Vancouver, British Columbia.",
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"plaintext": "In the standard understanding of the strong force interaction as defined by quantum chromodynamics, pions are loosely portrayed as Goldstone bosons of spontaneously broken chiral symmetry. That explains why the masses of the three kinds of pions are considerably less than that of the other mesons, such as the scalar or vector mesons. If their current quarks were massless particles, it could make the chiral symmetry exact and thus the Goldstone theorem would dictate that all pions have a zero mass.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, it was shown by Gell-Mann, Oakes and Renner (GMOR) that the square of the pion mass is proportional to the sum of the quark masses times the quark condensate: , with the quark condensate. This is often known as the GMOR relation and it explicitly shows that in the massless quark limit. The same result also follows from Light-front holography.",
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"plaintext": "Empirically, since the light quarks actually have minuscule nonzero masses, the pions also have nonzero rest masses. However, those masses are almost an order of magnitude smaller than that of the nucleons, roughly ≈ ≈ 45MeV, where are the relevant current-quark masses in MeV, around 5−10MeV.",
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"plaintext": "The pion can be thought of as one of the particles that mediate the residual strong interaction between a pair of nucleons. This interaction is attractive: it pulls the nucleons together. Written in a non-relativistic form, it is called the Yukawa potential. The pion, being spinless, has kinematics described by the Klein–Gordon equation. In the terms of quantum field theory, the effective field theory Lagrangian describing the pion-nucleon interaction is called the Yukawa interaction.",
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"plaintext": "The nearly identical masses of and indicate that there must be a symmetry at play: this symmetry is called the SU(2) flavour symmetry or isospin. The reason that there are three pions, , and , is that these are understood to belong to the triplet representation or the adjoint representation 3 of SU(2). By contrast, the up and down quarks transform according to the fundamental representation 2 of SU(2), whereas the anti-quarks transform according to the conjugate representation 2*.",
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"plaintext": "With the addition of the strange quark, the pions participate in a larger, SU(3), flavour symmetry, in the adjoint representation, 8, of SU(3). The other members of this octet are the four kaons and the eta meson.",
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"plaintext": "Pions are pseudoscalars under a parity transformation. Pion currents thus couple to the axial vector current and so participate in the chiral anomaly.",
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"plaintext": "Pions, which are mesons with zero spin, are composed of first-generation quarks. In the quark model, an up quark and an anti-down quark make up a , whereas a down quark and an anti-up quark make up the , and these are the antiparticles of one another. The neutral pion is a combination of an up quark with an anti-up quark or a down quark with an anti-down quark. The two combinations have identical quantum numbers, and hence they are only found in superpositions. The lowest-energy superposition of these is the , which is its own antiparticle. Together, the pions form a triplet of isospin. Each pion has isospin (I=1) and third-component isospin equal to its charge (Iz=+1,0or−1).",
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"plaintext": "The mesons have a mass of and a mean lifetime of . They decay due to the weak interaction. The primary decay mode of a pion, with a branching fraction of 0.999877, is a leptonic decay into a muon and a muon neutrino:",
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"plaintext": "{|",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || ",
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"plaintext": "|--",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || ",
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"plaintext": "The second most common decay mode of a pion, with a branching fraction of 0.000123, is also a leptonic decay into an electron and the corresponding electron antineutrino. This \"electronic mode\" was discovered at CERN in 1958:",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || ",
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"plaintext": "|--",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || ",
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"plaintext": "The suppression of the electronic decay mode with respect to the muonic one is given approximately (up to a few percent effect of the radiative corrections) by the ratio of the half-widths of the pion–electron and the pion–muon decay reactions,",
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"plaintext": "and is a spin effect known as helicity suppression.",
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"plaintext": "Its mechanism is as follows: The negative pion has spin zero; therefore the lepton and the antineutrino must be emitted with opposite spins (and opposite linear momenta) to preserve net zero spin (and conserve linear momentum). However, because the weak interaction is sensitive only to the left chirality component of fields, the antineutrino has always left chirality, which means it is right-handed, since for massless anti-particles the helicity is opposite to the chirality. This implies that the lepton must be emitted with spin in the direction of its linear momentum (i.e., also right-handed). If, however, leptons were massless, they would only interact with the pion in the left-handed form (because for massless particles helicity is the same as chirality) and this decay mode would be prohibited. Therefore, suppression of the electron decay channel comes from the fact that the electron's mass is much smaller than the muon's. The electron is relatively massless compared with the muon, and thus the electronic mode is greatly suppressed relative to the muonic one, virtually prohibited.",
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"plaintext": "Although this explanation suggests that parity violation is causing the helicity suppression, the fundamental reason lies in the vector-nature of the interaction which dictates a different handedness for the neutrino and the charged lepton. Thus, even a parity conserving interaction would yield the same suppression.",
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"plaintext": "Also observed, for charged pions only, is the very rare \"pion beta decay\" (with branching fraction of about 10−8) into a neutral pion, an electron and an electron antineutrino (or for positive pions, a neutral pion, a positron, and electron neutrino).",
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"plaintext": "|--",
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"plaintext": "The rate at which pions decay is a prominent quantity in many sub-fields of particle physics, such as chiral perturbation theory. This rate is parametrized by the pion decay constant (π), related to the wave function overlap of the quark and antiquark, which is about .",
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"plaintext": "| || → || 2 .",
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"plaintext": "The decay → 3 (as well as decays into any odd number of photons) is forbidden by the C-symmetry of the electromagnetic interaction: The intrinsic C-parity of the is +1, while the C-parity of a system of photons is (1).",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || || + || .",
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"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "The third largest established decay mode () is the double-Dalitz decay, with both photons undergoing internal conversion which leads to further suppression of the rate:",
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"plaintext": "{|",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || || + || || + || .",
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"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "The fourth largest established decay mode is the loop-induced and therefore suppressed (and additionally helicity-suppressed) leptonic decay mode ():",
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"plaintext": "{|",
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"plaintext": "| || → || || + || .",
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{
"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "The neutral pion has also been observed to decay into positronium with a branching fraction on the order of . No other decay modes have been established experimentally. The branching fractions above are the PDG central values, and their uncertainties are omitted, but available in the cited publication.",
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"plaintext": "[a] Make-up inexact due to non-zero quark masses.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pionium",
"section_idx": 5,
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"plaintext": "Quark model",
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"plaintext": "Static forces and virtual-particle exchange",
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"plaintext": "Sanford-Wang parameterisation",
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"plaintext": " Gerald Edward Brown and A. D. Jackson, The Nucleon-Nucleon Interaction (1976), North-Holland Publishing, Amsterdam ",
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"plaintext": " Mesons at the Particle Data Group",
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| [
"Mesons"
]
| 4,097 | 12,151 | 417 | 154 | 0 | 0 | pion | lightest meson with a quark and an antiquark | [
"pi meson",
"pi-meson",
"π-meson"
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|
36,968 | 1,107,813,029 | Beef | [
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"plaintext": "In prehistoric times, humans hunted aurochs and later domesticated them. Since that time, numerous breeds of cattle have been bred specifically for the quality or quantity of their meat. Today, beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, after pork and poultry. As of 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China were the largest producers of beef.",
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"plaintext": "Beef can be prepared in various ways; cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often ground or minced, as found in most hamburgers. Beef contains protein, iron, and vitamin B12. Along with other kinds of red meat, high consumption is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer and coronary heart disease, especially when processed. Beef has a high environmental impact, being a primary driver of deforestation with the highest greenhouse gas emissions of any agricultural product.",
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"plaintext": "The word beef is from the Latin word bōs, in contrast to cow which is from Middle English cou (both words have the same Indo-European root ). After the Norman Conquest, the French-speaking nobles who ruled England naturally used French words to refer to the meats they were served. Thus, various Anglo-Saxon words were used for the animal (such as nēat, or cu for adult females) by the peasants, but the meat was called boef (ox) (Modern French bœuf) by the French nobles — who did not often deal with the live animal — when it was served to them. This is one example of the common English dichotomy between the words for animals (with largely Germanic origins) and their meat (with Romanic origins) that is also found in such English word-pairs as pig/pork, deer/venison, sheep/mutton and chicken/poultry (also the less common goat/chevon). Beef is cognate with bovine through the Late Latin bovīnus. The rarely used plural form of beef is beeves.",
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"plaintext": "People have eaten the flesh of bovines since prehistoric times; some of the earliest known cave paintings, such as those of Lascaux, show aurochs in hunting scenes. People domesticated cattle to provide ready access to beef, milk, and leather. Cattle have been domesticated at least twice over the course of evolutionary history. The first domestication event occurred around 10,500 years ago with the evolution of Bos taurus. The second was more recent, around 7,000 years ago, with the evolution of Bos indicus in the Indus Valley. There is a possible third domestication event 8,500 years ago, with a potential third species Bos africanus arising in Africa.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the growth of the beef business was largely due to expansion in the Southwest. Upon the acquisition of grasslands through the Mexican–American War of 1848, and later the expulsion of the Plains Indians from this region and the Midwest, the American livestock industry began, starting primarily with the taming of wild longhorn cattle. Chicago and New York City were the first to benefit from these developments in their stockyards and in their meat markets.",
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"plaintext": "Beef cattle are raised and fed using a variety of methods, including feedlots, free range, ranching, backgrounding and intensive animal farming. Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), commonly referred to as factory farms, are commonly used to meet the demand of beef production. CAFOs supply 70.4% of cows in the US market and 99% of all meat in the United States supply. Cattle CAFOs can also be a source of E. coli contamination in the food supply due to the prevalence of manure in CAFOs. These E. coli contaminations include one strain, E. coli O157:H7, which can be toxic to humans, because cattle typically hold this strain in their digestive system. Another consequence of unsanitary conditions created by high-density confinement systems is increased use of antibiotics in order to prevent illness. An analysis of FDA sales data by the Natural Resources Defense Council found 42% of medically important antibiotic use in the U.S. was on cattle, posing concerns about the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria.",
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"plaintext": "The consumption of beef poses numerous threats to the natural environment. Of all agricultural products, beef requires some of the most land and water, and its production results in the greatest amount of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), air pollution, and water pollution. A 2021 study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and estimated that beef contributed about 4 billion tonnes (9%) of anthropogenic greenhouse gases in 2010. Cattle populations graze around 26% of all land on Earth, not including the large agricultural fields that are used to grow cattle feed. According to FAO, \"Ranching-induced deforestation is one of the main causes of loss of some unique plant and animal species in the tropical rainforests of Central and South America as well as carbon release in the atmosphere.\" Beef is also the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all converted land being used to rear cattle. 91% of Amazon land deforested since 1970 has been converted to cattle ranching. 41% of global deforestation from 2005 to 2013 has been attributed to the expansion of beef production. This is due to the higher ratio of net energy of gain to net energy of maintenance where metabolizable energy intake is higher. The ratio of feed required to produce an equivalent amount of beef (live weight) has been estimated at 7:1 to 43:1, compared with about 2:1 for chicken. However, assumptions about feed quality are implicit in such generalizations. For example, production of a pound of beef cattle live weight may require between 4 and 5 pounds of feed high in protein and metabolizable energy content, or more than 20 pounds of feed of much lower quality. A simple exchange of beef to soy beans (a common feed source for cattle) in Americans' diets would, according to one estimate, result in meeting between 46 and 74 percent of the reductions needed to meet the 2020 greenhouse gas emission goals of the United States as pledged in 2009. A 2021 CSIRO trial concluded that feeding cattle a 3% diet of the seaweed Asparagopsis taxiformis could reduce the methane component of their emissions by 80%.",
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"plaintext": "Some scientists claim that the demand for beef is contributing to significant biodiversity loss as it is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production. The 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services also concurs that the beef industry plays a significant role in biodiversity loss. Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming, which is mostly cattle.",
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"plaintext": "Some kinds of beef may receive special certifications or designations based on criteria including their breed (Certified Angus Beef, Certified Hereford Beef), origin (Kobe beef, Carne de Ávila, Belgian Blue), or the way the cattle are treated, fed or slaughtered (organic, grass-fed, Kosher, or Halal beef). Some countries regulate the marketing and sale of beef by observing criteria post-slaughter and classifying the observed quality of the meat.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the United States, Brazil, and China produced the most beef with 12.22 million tons, 9.9 million tons, and 6.46 million tons respectively. The top 3 beef exporting countries in 2019 were Australia (14.8% of total exports), the United States (13.4% of total exports), and Brazil (12.6% of total exports). Beef production is also important to the economies of Japan, Argentina, Uruguay, Canada, Paraguay, Mexico, Belarus and Nicaragua.",
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"plaintext": "As per 2020 (Metric tons), Brazil was the largest beef exporter in the world in 2020 followed by Australia, United States, India (Includes Carabeef only) and Argentina",
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"plaintext": "Brazil, Australia, the United States and India accounted for roughly 61% of the world's beef exports",
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"plaintext": "Top 10 cattle and beef producing countries (2009, 2010)",
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"plaintext": "The world produced 60.57 million metric tons of beef in 2020, down 950K metric tons from the prior year.",
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"plaintext": "Major decline for production of beef was from India up to 510k and Australia down to 309K metric tons from the prior year",
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"plaintext": "National cattle herds (Per 1000 Head)",
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"plaintext": "Most beef can be used as is by merely cutting into certain parts, such as roasts, short ribs or steak (filet mignon, sirloin steak, rump steak, rib steak, rib eye steak, hanger steak, etc.), while other cuts are processed (corned beef or beef jerky). Trimmings, on the other hand, which are usually mixed with meat from older, leaner (therefore tougher) cattle, are ground, minced or used in sausages. The blood is used in some varieties called blood sausage. Other parts that are eaten include other muscles and offal, such as the oxtail, liver, tongue, tripe from the reticulum or rumen, glands (particularly the pancreas and thymus, referred to as sweetbread), the heart, the brain (although forbidden where there is a danger of bovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE, commonly referred to as mad cow disease), the kidneys, and the tender testicles of the bull (known in the United States as calf fries, prairie oysters, or Rocky Mountain oysters). Some intestines are cooked and eaten as is, but are more often cleaned and used as natural sausage casings. The bones are used for making beef stock. Meat from younger cows (calves) is called veal. Beef from steers and heifers is similar.",
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"plaintext": "Beef is first divided into primal cuts, large pieces of the animal initially separated by butchering. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut. The term \"primal cut\" is quite different from \"prime cut\", used to characterize cuts considered to be of higher quality. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes more tender as distance from hoof and horn increases. Different countries and cuisines have different cuts and names, and sometimes use the same name for a different cut; for example, the cut described as \"brisket\" in the United States is from a significantly different part of the carcass than British brisket.",
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"plaintext": "To improve tenderness of beef, it is often aged (i.e., stored refrigerated) to allow endogenous proteolytic enzymes to weaken structural and myofibrillar proteins. Wet aging is accomplished using vacuum packaging to reduce spoilage and yield loss. Dry aging involves hanging primals (usually ribs or loins) in humidity-controlled coolers. Outer surfaces dry out and can support growth of molds (and spoilage bacteria, if too humid), resulting in trim and evaporative losses.",
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"plaintext": "Evaporation concentrates the remaining proteins and increases flavor intensity; the molds can contribute a nut-like flavor. After two to three days there are significant effects. The majority of the tenderizing effect occurs in the first 10 days. Boxed beef, stored and distributed in vacuum packaging, is, in effect, wet aged during distribution. Premium steakhouses dry age for 21 to 28 days or wet age up to 45 days for maximum effect on flavor and tenderness.",
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"plaintext": "Meat from less tender cuts or older cattle can be mechanically tenderized by forcing small, sharp blades through the cuts to disrupt the proteins. Also, solutions of exogenous proteolytic enzymes (papain, bromelin or ficin) can be injected to augment the endogenous enzymes. Similarly, solutions of salt and sodium phosphates can be injected to soften and swell the myofibrillar proteins. This improves juiciness and tenderness. Salt can improve the flavor, but phosphate can contribute a soapy flavor.",
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"plaintext": "These methods are applicable to all types of meat and some other foodstuffs.",
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"plaintext": "Beef can be cooked to various degrees, from very rare to well done. The degree of cooking corresponds to the temperature in the approximate center of the meat, which can be measured with a meat thermometer. Beef can be cooked using the sous-vide method, which cooks the entire steak to the same temperature, but when cooked using a method such as broiling or roasting it is typically cooked such that it has a \"bulls eye\" of doneness, with the least done (coolest) at the center and the most done (warmest) at the outside.",
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"plaintext": "Meat can be cooked in boiling oil, typically by shallow frying, although deep frying may be used, often for meat enrobed with breadcrumbs as in milanesas or finger steaks. Larger pieces such as steaks may be cooked this way, or meat may be cut smaller as in stir frying, typically an Asian way of cooking: cooking oil with flavorings such as garlic, ginger and onions is put in a very hot wok. Then small pieces of meat are added, followed by ingredients which cook more quickly, such as mixed vegetables. The dish is ready when the ingredients are 'just cooked'.",
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"plaintext": "Moist heat cooking methods include braising, pot roasting, stewing and sous-vide. These techniques are often used for cuts of beef that are tougher, as these longer, lower-temperature cooking methods have time to dissolve connecting tissue which otherwise makes meat remain tough after cooking.",
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"plaintext": " Stewing or simmering",
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"plaintext": "simmering meat, whole or cut into bite-size pieces, in a water-based liquid with flavorings. This technique may be used as part of pressure cooking.",
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"plaintext": " Braising",
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"plaintext": "cooking meats, in a covered container, with small amounts of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, braised meat is not fully immersed in liquid, and usually is browned before the oven step.",
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"plaintext": " Sous-vide",
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"plaintext": "Sous-vide, French for \"under vacuum\", is a method of cooking food sealed in airtight plastic bags in a water bath for a long time—72 hours is not unknown—at an accurately determined temperature much lower than normally used for other types of cooking. The intention is to maintain the integrity of ingredients and achieve very precise control of cooking. Although water is used in the method, only moisture in or added to the food bags is in contact with the food.",
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"plaintext": "Meat has usually been cooked in water which is just simmering, such as in stewing; higher temperatures make meat tougher by causing the proteins to contract. Since thermostatic temperature control became available, cooking at temperatures well below boiling, (sous-vide) to (slow cooking), for prolonged periods has become possible; this is just hot enough to convert the tough collagen in connective tissue into gelatin through hydrolysis, with minimal toughening.",
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"plaintext": "With the adequate combination of temperature and cooking time, pathogens, such as bacteria will be killed, and pasteurization can be achieved. Because browning (Maillard reactions) can only occur at higher temperatures (above the boiling point of water), these moist techniques do not develop the flavors associated with browning. Meat will often undergo searing in a very hot pan, grilling or browning with a torch before moist cooking (though sometimes after).",
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"plaintext": "Thermostatically controlled methods, such as sous-vide, can also prevent overcooking by bringing the meat to the exact degree of doneness desired, and holding it at that temperature indefinitely. The combination of precise temperature control and long cooking duration makes it possible to be assured that pasteurization has been achieved, both on the surface and the interior of even very thick cuts of meat, which can not be assured with most other cooking techniques. (Although extremely long-duration cooking can break down the texture of the meat to an undesirable degree.)",
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"plaintext": "Beef can be cooked quickly at the table through several techniques. In hot pot cooking, such as shabu-shabu, very thinly sliced meat is cooked by the diners at the table by immersing it in a heated pot of water or stock with vegetables. In fondue bourguignonne, diners dip small pieces of beef into a pot of hot oil at the table. Both techniques typically feature accompanying flavorful sauces to complement the meat.",
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"plaintext": "Steak tartare is a French dish made from finely chopped or ground (minced) raw meat (often beef). More accurately, it is scraped so as not to let even the slightest of the sinew fat get into the scraped meat. It is often served with onions, capers, seasonings such as fresh ground pepper and Worcestershire sauce, and sometimes raw egg yolk.",
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"plaintext": "The Belgian or Dutch dish filet américain is also made of finely chopped ground beef, though it is seasoned differently, and either eaten as a main dish or can be used as a dressing for a sandwich. Kibbeh nayyeh is a similar Lebanese and Syrian dish. And in Ethiopia, a ground raw meat dish called tire siga or kitfo is eaten (upon availability).",
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"plaintext": "Carpaccio of beef is a thin slice of raw beef dressed with olive oil, lemon juice and seasoning. Often, the beef is partially frozen before slicing to allow very thin slices to be cut.",
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"plaintext": "Yukhoe is a variety of hoe, raw dishes in Korean cuisine which is usually made from raw ground beef seasoned with various spices or sauces. The beef part used for yukhoe is tender rump steak. For the seasoning, soy sauce, sugar, salt, sesame oil, green onion, and ground garlic, sesame seed, black pepper and juice of bae (Korean pear) are used. The beef is mostly topped with the yolk of a raw egg.",
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"plaintext": "Bresaola is an air-dried, salted beef that has been aged about two to three months until it becomes hard and a dark red, almost purple, colour. It is lean, has a sweet, musty smell and is tender. It originated in Valtellina, a valley in the Alps of northern Italy's Lombardy region. Bündnerfleisch is a similar product from neighbouring Switzerland. Chipped beef is an American industrially produced air-dried beef product, described by one of its manufacturers as being \"similar to bresaola, but not as tasty.\"",
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"plaintext": "Beef jerky is dried, salted, smoked beef popular in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "Biltong is a cured, salted, air dried beef popular in South Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Pastrami is often made from beef; raw beef is salted, then partly dried and seasoned with various herbs and spices, and smoked.",
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"plaintext": "Corned beef is a cut of beef cured or pickled in a seasoned brine. The corn in corned beef refers to the grains of coarse salts (known as corns) used to cure it. The term corned beef can denote different styles of brine-cured beef, depending on the region. Some, like American-style corned beef, are highly seasoned and often considered delicatessen fare.",
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"plaintext": "Spiced beef is a cured and salted joint of round, topside, or silverside, traditionally served at Christmas in Ireland. It is a form of salt beef, cured with spices and saltpetre, intended to be boiled or broiled in Guinness or a similar stout, and then optionally roasted for a period after. There are various other recipes for pickled beef. Sauerbraten is a German variant.",
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"plaintext": "Beef is the third most widely consumed meat in the world, accounting for about 25% of meat production worldwide, after pork and poultry at 38% and 30% respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Beef is a source of complete protein and it is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of Niacin, Vitamin B12, iron and zinc. Red meat is the most significant dietary source of carnitine and, like any other meat (pork, fish, veal, lamb etc.), is a source of creatine. Creatine is converted to creatinine during cooking.",
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"plaintext": "Consumption of red meat, and especially processed red meat, is known to increase the risk of bowel cancer and some other cancers.",
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"plaintext": "A 2010 meta-analysis found that processed red meat (and all processed meat) was correlated with a higher risk of coronary heart disease, although based on the limited studies that separated the two, no such association was found for unprocessed red meat. As of 2020, there is substantial evidence for a link between high consumption of red meat and coronary heart disease.",
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"plaintext": "Some cattle raised in the United States feed on pastures fertilized with sewage sludge. Elevated dioxins may be present in meat from these cattle.",
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"plaintext": "Ground beef has been subject to recalls in the United States, due to Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination:",
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"plaintext": " January 2011, One Great Burger expands recall.",
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"plaintext": " February 2011, American Food Service, a Pico Rivera, Calif. establishment, is recalling approximately of fresh ground beef patties and other bulk packages of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.",
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"plaintext": " March 2011, beef recalled by Creekstone Farms Premium Beef due to E. coli concerns.",
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"plaintext": " April 2011, National Beef Packaging recalled more than of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.",
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"plaintext": " May 2011, Irish Hills Meat Company of Michigan, a Tipton, Mich., establishment is recalling approximately of ground beef products that may be contaminated with E. coli O157:H7.",
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"plaintext": " September 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.",
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{
"plaintext": " December 2011, Tyson Fresh Meats recalled of ground beef due to E. coli contamination.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " January 2012, Hannaford Supermarkets recalled all ground beef with sell by dates 17 December 2011 or earlier.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " September 2012, XL Foods recalled more than 1800 products believed to be contaminated with E. coli 0157:H7. The recalled products were produced at the company's plant in Brooks, Alberta, Canada; this was the largest recall of its kind in Canadian History.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, the use of meat and bone meal in cattle feed resulted in the world's first outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or, colloquially, mad cow disease) in the United Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Since then, other countries have had outbreaks of BSE:",
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"plaintext": " In May 2003, after a cow with BSE was discovered in Alberta, Canada, the American border was closed to live Canadian cattle, but was reopened in early 2005.",
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"plaintext": " In June 2005, Dr. John Clifford, chief veterinary officer for the United States Department of Agriculture animal health inspection service, confirmed a fully domestic case of BSE in Texas. Clifford would not identify the ranch, calling that \"privileged information.\" The 12-year-old animal was alive at the time when Oprah Winfrey raised concerns about cannibalistic feeding practices on her show which aired 16 April 1996.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the EU, through the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), proposed a roadmap to gradually lift the restrictions on the feed ban. In 2013, the ban on feeding mammal-based products to cattle, was amended to allow for certain milk, fish, eggs, and plant-fed farm animal products to be used.",
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"plaintext": "Most Indic religions reject the killing and eating of cows. Hinduism prohibits cow beef known as Go-Maans in Sanskrit. Bovines have a sacred status in India especially the cow, due to their provision of sustenance for families. Bovines are generally considered to be integral to the landscape. However, they do not consider the cow to be a god.",
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"plaintext": "Many of India's rural economies depend on cattle farming; hence they have been revered in society. Since the Vedic period, cattle, especially cows, were venerated as a source of milk, and dairy products, and their relative importance in transport services and farming like ploughing, row planting, ridging. Veneration grew with the advent of Jainism and the Gupta period. In medieval India, Maharaja Ranjit Singh issued a proclamation on stopping cow slaughter. Conflicts over cow slaughter often have sparked religious riots that have led to loss of human life and in one 1893 riot alone, more than 100 people were killed for the cause.",
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"plaintext": "For religious reasons, the ancient Egyptian priests also refrained from consuming beef. Buddhists and Sikhs are also against wrongful slaughtering of animals, but they don't have a wrongful eating doctrine. In the Indigenous American tradition a white buffalo calf is considered sacred; they call it Pte Ska Win (White Buffalo Calf Woman).",
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"plaintext": "In ancient China, the killing of cattle and consumption of beef was prohibited, as they were valued for their role in agriculture. This custom is still followed by a few Chinese families across the world.",
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"plaintext": "During the season of Lent, Orthodox Christians and Catholics periodically give up meat and poultry (and sometimes dairy products and eggs) as a religious act. Observant Jews and Muslims may not eat any meat or poultry which has not been slaughtered and treated in conformance with religious laws.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the North Indian states prohibit the killing of cow and consumption of beef for religious reasons. Certain Hindu castes and sects continue to avoid beef from their diets. Article 48 of the Constitution of India mandates the state may take steps for preserving and improving the bovine breeds, and prohibit the slaughter, of cows and calves and other milch and draught cattle. Article 47 of the Constitution of India provides states must raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health as among its primary duties, based on this a reasonableness in slaughter of common cattle was instituted, if the animals ceased to be capable of breeding, providing milk, or serving as draught animals. The overall mismanagement of India's common cattle is dubbed in academic fields as \"India's bovine burden.\" In 2017, a rule against the slaughter of cattle and the eating of beef was signed into law by presidential assent as a modified version of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960. The original act, however, did permit the humane slaughter of animals for use as food.",
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"plaintext": "Existing meat export policy in India prohibits the export of beef (meat of cow, oxen and calf). Bone-in meat, a carcass, or half carcass of buffalo is also prohibited from export. Only the boneless meat of buffalo, meat of goat and sheep and birds is permitted for export. In 2017, India sought a total \"beef ban\" and Australian market analysts predicted that this would create market opportunities for leather traders and meat producers there and elsewhere. Their prediction estimated a twenty percent shortage of beef and a thirteen percent shortage of leather in the world market.",
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"plaintext": "The cow is the national animal of Nepal, and slaughter of cattle is prohibited by law.",
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"plaintext": "In 2003, Cuba banned cow slaughter due to severe shortage of milk and milk products.",
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"plaintext": " Argentine beef",
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"plaintext": " Beef Australia",
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"plaintext": " Beef hormone controversy",
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"plaintext": " Bovine Meat and Milk Factors",
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"plaintext": " Buffalo meat",
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"plaintext": " Carnism",
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"plaintext": " Environmental impact of meat production",
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"plaintext": " List of beef dishes",
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"plaintext": " List of meat animals",
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"plaintext": " Pink slime",
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"plaintext": " Veal",
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},
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"plaintext": " USDA beef grading standards (PDF)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Beef State Documentary produced by Nebraska Educational Telecommunications",
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| [
"Beef",
"Cattle_products",
"Meat_by_animal"
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| 192,628 | 33,762 | 1,521 | 253 | 0 | 0 | beef | meat from cattle | [
"bovine meat",
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|
36,969 | 1,106,160,868 | Bread | [
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"plaintext": "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour (usually wheat) and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cultures' diet. It is one of the oldest human-made foods, having been of significance since the dawn of agriculture, and plays an essential role in both religious rituals and secular culture.",
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"plaintext": "Bread may be leavened by naturally occurring microbes (e.g. sourdough), chemicals (e.g. baking soda), industrially produced yeast, or high-pressure aeration, which creates the gas bubbles that fluff up bread. In many countries, commercial bread often contains additives to improve flavor, texture, color, shelf life, nutrition, and ease of production.",
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"plaintext": "Bread is one of the oldest prepared foods. Evidence from 30,000 years ago in Europe and Australia revealed starch residue on rocks used for pounding plants. It is possible that during this time, starch extract from the roots of plants, such as cattails and ferns, was spread on a flat rock, placed over a fire and cooked into a primitive form of flatbread. The world's oldest evidence of bread-making has been found in a 14,500-year-old Natufian site in Jordan's northeastern desert. Around 10,000 BC, with the dawn of the Neolithic age and the spread of agriculture, grains became the mainstay of making bread. Yeast spores are ubiquitous, including on the surface of cereal grains, so any dough left to rest leavens naturally.",
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"plaintext": "An early leavened bread was baked as early as 6000 BC by the Sumerians, who may have passed on their knowledge to the Egyptians around 3000 BC. The Egyptians refined the process and started adding yeast to the flour. The Sumerians were already using ash to supplement the dough as it was baked.",
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"plaintext": "There were multiple sources of leavening available for early bread. Airborne yeasts could be harnessed by leaving uncooked dough exposed to air for some time before cooking. Pliny the Elder reported that the Gauls and Iberians used the foam skimmed from beer, called barm, to produce \"a lighter kind of bread than other peoples\" such as barm cake. Parts of the ancient world that drank wine instead of beer used a paste composed of grape juice and flour that was allowed to begin fermenting, or wheat bran steeped in wine, as a source for yeast. The most common source of leavening was to retain a piece of dough from the previous day to use as a form of sourdough starter, as Pliny also reported.",
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"plaintext": "The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all considered the degree of refinement in the bakery arts as a sign of civilization.",
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"plaintext": "The Chorleywood bread process was developed in 1961; it uses the intense mechanical working of dough to dramatically reduce the fermentation period and the time taken to produce a loaf. The process, whose high-energy mixing allows for the use of grain with a lower protein content, is now widely used around the world in large factories. As a result, bread can be produced very quickly and at low costs to the manufacturer and the consumer. However, there has been some criticism of the effect on nutritional value.",
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"plaintext": "Bread is the staple food of the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Europe, and in European-derived cultures such as those in the Americas, Australia, and Southern Africa. This is in contrast to parts of South and East Asia, where rice or noodles are the staple. Bread is usually made from a wheat-flour dough that is cultured with yeast, allowed to rise, and finally baked in an oven. The addition of yeast to the bread explains the air pockets commonly found in bread. Owing to its high levels of gluten (which give the dough sponginess and elasticity), common or bread wheat is the most common grain used for the preparation of bread, which makes the largest single contribution to the world's food supply of any food.",
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"plaintext": "Bread is also made from the flour of other wheat species (including spelt, emmer, einkorn and kamut). Non-wheat cereals including rye, barley, maize (corn), oats, sorghum, millet and rice have been used to make bread, but, with the exception of rye, usually in combination with wheat flour as they have less gluten.",
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"plaintext": "Gluten-free breads are made using flours from a variety of ingredients such as almonds, rice, sorghum, corn, legumes such as beans, and tubers such as cassava. Since these foods lack gluten, dough made from them may not hold its shape as the loaves rise, and their crumb may be dense with little aeration. Additives such as xanthan gum, guar gum, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), corn starch, or eggs are used to compensate for the lack of gluten.",
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"plaintext": "In wheat, phenolic compounds are mainly found in hulls in the form of insoluble bound ferulic acid, where it is relevant to wheat resistance to fungal diseases.",
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"plaintext": "Rye bread contains phenolic acids and ferulic acid dehydrodimers.",
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"plaintext": "Three natural phenolic glucosides, secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, p-coumaric acid glucoside and ferulic acid glucoside, can be found in commercial breads containing flaxseed.",
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"plaintext": "Glutenin and gliadin are functional proteins found in wheat bread that contribute to the structure of bread. Glutenin forms interconnected gluten networks within bread through interchain disulfide bonds. Gliadin binds weakly to the gluten network established by glutenin via intrachain disulfide bonds. Structurally, bread can be defined as an elastic-plastic foam (same as styrofoam). The glutenin protein contributes to its elastic nature, as it is able to regain its initial shape after deformation. The gliadin protein contributes to its plastic nature, because it demonstrates non-reversible structural change after a certain amount of applied force. Because air pockets within this gluten network result from carbon dioxide production during leavening, bread can be defined as a foam, or a gas-in-solid solution.",
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"plaintext": "Acrylamide, like in other starchy foods that have been heated higher than 120°C (248°F), has been found in recent years to occur in bread. Acrylamide is neurotoxic, has adverse effects on male reproduction and developmental toxicity and is carcinogenic. A study has found that more than 99 percent of the acrylamide in bread is found in the crust.",
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"plaintext": "A study by the University of Hohenheim found that industrially produced bread typically has a high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates due to a short rising time (often only one hour). The high proportion of FODMAP carbohydrates in such bread then causes flatulence. This is particularly problematic in intestinal diseases such as irritable bowel syndrome. While in traditional bread making the dough rises for several hours, industrial breads rise for a much shorter time, usually only one hour. However, a sufficiently long rising time is important to break down the indigestible FODMAP carbohydrates. Some flours (for example, spelt, emmer and einkorn) contain fewer FODMAPs, but the difference between grain types is relatively small (between 1 and 2 percent by weight). Instead, 90% of the FODMAPs that cause discomfort can be broken down during a rising time of 4 hours. In the study, whole-grain yeast doughs were examined after different rising times; the highest level of FODMAPs was present after one hour in each case and decreased thereafter. The study thus shows that it is essentially the baking technique and not the type of grain that determines whether a bread is well tolerated or not. A better tolerance of bread made from original cereals can therefore not be explained by the original cereal itself, but rather by the fact that traditional, artisanal baking techniques are generally used when baking original cereals, which include a long dough process. The study also showed that a long rising time also breaks down undesirable phytates more effectively, flavors develop better, and the finished bread contains more biologically accessible trace elements.",
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"plaintext": "Bread can be served at many temperatures; once baked, it can subsequently be toasted. It is most commonly eaten with the hands, either by itself or as a carrier for other foods. Bread can be spread with butter, dipped into liquids such as gravy, olive oil, or soup; it can be topped with various sweet and savory spreads, or used to make sandwiches containing meats, cheeses, vegetables, and condiments.",
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"plaintext": "Bread is used as an ingredient in other culinary preparations, such as the use of breadcrumbs to provide crunchy crusts or thicken sauces; toasted cubes of bread, called croutons, are used as a salad topping; seasoned bread is used as stuffing inside roasted turkey; sweet or savoury bread puddings are made with bread and various liquids; egg and milk-soaked bread is fried as French toast; and bread is used as a binding agent in sausages, meatballs and other ground meat products.",
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"plaintext": "Nutritionally, bread is categorized as a source of grains in the food pyramid. Further, it is a good source of carbohydrates and nutrients such as magnesium, iron, selenium, B vitamins, and dietary fiber.",
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"plaintext": "Bread crust is formed from surface dough during the cooking process. It is hardened and browned through the Maillard reaction using the sugars and amino acids due to the intense heat at the bread surface. The crust of most breads is harder, and more complexly and intensely flavored, than the rest. Old wives' tales suggest that eating the bread crust makes a person's hair curlier. Additionally, the crust is rumored to be healthier than the remainder of the bread. Some studies have shown that this is true as the crust has more dietary fiber and antioxidants such as pronyl-lysine.",
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"plaintext": "Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed (e.g., mantou), fried (e.g., puri), or baked on an unoiled frying pan (e.g., tortillas). It may be leavened or unleavened (e.g. matzo). Salt, fat and leavening agents such as yeast and baking soda are common ingredients, though bread may contain other ingredients, such as milk, egg, sugar, spice, fruit (such as raisins), vegetables (such as onion), nuts (such as walnut) or seeds (such as poppy).",
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"plaintext": "Methods of processing dough into bread include the straight dough process, the sourdough process, the Chorleywood bread process and the sponge and dough process.",
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"plaintext": "Professional bread recipes are stated using the baker's percentage notation. The amount of flour is denoted to be 100%, and the other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of that amount by weight. Measurement by weight is more accurate and consistent than measurement by volume, particularly for dry ingredients. The proportion of water to flour is the most important measurement in a bread recipe, as it affects texture and crumb the most. Hard wheat flours absorb about 62% water, while softer wheat flours absorb about 56%. Common table breads made from these doughs result in a finely textured, light bread. Most artisan bread formulas contain anywhere from 60 to 75% water. In yeast breads, the higher water percentages result in more CO2 bubbles and a coarser bread crumb. 500 grams (1 pound) of flour yields a standard loaf of bread or two baguettes.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium propionate is commonly added by commercial bakeries to retard the growth of molds.",
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"plaintext": "Flour is grain ground to a powdery consistency. Flour provides the primary structure, starch and protein to the final baked bread. The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the bread dough and the finished bread. While bread can be made from all-purpose wheat flour, a specialty bread flour, containing more protein (12–14%), is recommended for high-quality bread. If one uses a flour with a lower protein content (9–11%) to produce bread, a shorter mixing time is required to develop gluten strength properly. An extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the dough, which gives the finished product a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers.",
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"plaintext": "Wheat flour, in addition to its starch, contains three water-soluble protein groups (albumin, globulin, and proteoses) and two water-insoluble protein groups (glutenin and gliadin). When flour is mixed with water, the water-soluble proteins dissolve, leaving the glutenin and gliadin to form the structure of the resulting bread. When relatively dry dough is worked by kneading, or wet dough is allowed to rise for a long time (see no-knead bread), the glutenin forms strands of long, thin, chainlike molecules, while the shorter gliadin forms bridges between the strands of glutenin. The resulting networks of strands produced by these two proteins are known as gluten. Gluten development improves if the dough is allowed to autolyse.",
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"plaintext": "Water, or some other liquid, is used to form the flour into a paste or dough. The weight or ratio of liquid required varies between recipes, but a ratio of three parts liquid to five parts flour is common for yeast breads. Recipes that use steam as the primary leavening method may have a liquid content in excess of one part liquid to one part flour. Instead of water, recipes may use liquids such as milk or other dairy products (including buttermilk or yogurt), fruit juice, or eggs. These contribute additional sweeteners, fats, or leavening components, as well as water.",
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"plaintext": "Fats, such as butter, vegetable oils, lard, or that contained in eggs, affect the development of gluten in breads by coating and lubricating the individual strands of protein. They also help to hold the structure together. If too much fat is included in a bread dough, the lubrication effect causes the protein structures to divide. A fat content of approximately 3% by weight is the concentration that produces the greatest leavening action. In addition to their effects on leavening, fats also serve to tenderize breads and preserve freshness.",
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"plaintext": "Bread improvers and dough conditioners are often used in producing commercial breads to reduce the time needed for rising and to improve texture and volume and to give antistaling effects. The substances used may be oxidising agents to strengthen the dough or reducing agents to develop gluten and reduce mixing time, emulsifiers to strengthen the dough or to provide other properties such as making slicing easier, or enzymes to increase gas production.",
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"plaintext": "Salt (sodium chloride) is very often added to enhance flavor and restrict yeast activity. It also affects the crumb and the overall texture by stabilizing and strengthening the gluten. Some artisan bakers forego early addition of salt to the dough, whether wholemeal or refined, and wait until after a 20-minute rest to allow the dough to autolyse.",
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"plaintext": "Mixtures of salts are sometimes employed, such as employing potassium chloride to reduce the sodium level, and monosodium glutamate to give flavor (umami).",
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"plaintext": "Leavening is the process of adding gas to a dough before or during baking to produce a lighter, more easily chewed bread. Most bread eaten in the West is leavened.",
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"plaintext": "A simple technique for leavening bread is the use of gas-producing chemicals. There are two common methods. The first is to use baking powder or a self-raising flour that includes baking powder. The second is to include an acidic ingredient such as buttermilk and add baking soda; the reaction of the acid with the soda produces gas. Chemically leavened breads are called quick breads and soda breads. This method is commonly used to make muffins, pancakes, American-style biscuits, and quick breads such as banana bread.",
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"plaintext": "Many breads are leavened by yeast. The yeast most commonly used for leavening bread is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the same species used for brewing alcoholic beverages. This yeast ferments some of the carbohydrates in the flour, including any sugar, producing carbon dioxide. Commercial bakers often leaven their dough with commercially produced baker's yeast. Baker's yeast has the advantage of producing uniform, quick, and reliable results, because it is obtained from a pure culture. Many artisan bakers produce their own yeast with a growth culture. If kept in the right conditions, it provides leavening for many years.",
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"plaintext": "The baker's yeast and sourdough methods follow the same pattern. Water is mixed with flour, salt and the leavening agent. Other additions (spices, herbs, fats, seeds, fruit, etc.) are not needed to bake bread, but are often used. The mixed dough is then allowed to rise one or more times (a longer rising time results in more flavor, so bakers often \"punch down\" the dough and let it rise again), loaves are formed, and (after an optional final rising time) the bread is baked in an oven.",
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"plaintext": "Many breads are made from a \"straight dough\", which means that all of the ingredients are combined in one step, and the dough is baked after the rising time; others are made from a \"pre-ferment\" in which the leavening agent is combined with some of the flour and water a day or so ahead of baking and allowed to ferment overnight. On the day of baking, the rest of the ingredients are added, and the process continues as with straight dough. This produces a more flavorful bread with better texture. Many bakers see the starter method as a compromise between the reliable results of baker's yeast and the flavor and complexity of a longer fermentation. It also allows the baker to use only a minimal amount of baker's yeast, which was scarce and expensive when it first became available. Most yeasted pre-ferments fall into one of three categories: \"poolish\" or \"pouliche\", a loose-textured mixture composed of roughly equal amounts of flour and water (by weight); \"biga\", a stiff mixture with a higher proportion of flour; and \"pâte fermentée\", which is simply a portion of dough reserved from a previous batch.",
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"plaintext": "Sourdough is a type of bread produced by a long fermentation of dough using naturally occurring yeasts and lactobacilli. It usually has a mildly sour taste because of the lactic acid produced during anaerobic fermentation by the lactobacilli.",
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"plaintext": "Sourdough breads are made with a sourdough starter. The starter cultivates yeast and lactobacilli in a mixture of flour and water, making use of the microorganisms already present on flour; it does not need any added yeast. A starter may be maintained indefinitely by regular additions of flour and water. Some bakers have starters many generations old, which are said to have a special taste or texture. At one time, all yeast-leavened breads were sourdoughs. Recently there has been a revival of sourdough bread in artisan bakeries.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, peasant families throughout Europe baked on a fixed schedule, perhaps once a week. The starter was saved from the previous week's dough. The starter was mixed with the new ingredients, the dough was left to rise, and then a piece of it was saved (to be the starter for next week's bread).",
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"plaintext": "The rapid expansion of steam produced during baking leavens the bread, which is as simple as it is unpredictable. Steam-leavening is unpredictable since the steam is not produced until the bread is baked. Steam leavening happens regardless of the raising agents (baking soda, yeast, baking powder, sour dough, beaten egg white) included in the mix. The leavening agent either contains air bubbles or generates carbon dioxide. The heat vaporises the water from the inner surface of the bubbles within the dough. The steam expands and makes the bread rise. This is the main factor in the rising of bread once it has been put in the oven. CO2 generation, on its own, is too small to account for the rise. Heat kills bacteria or yeast at an early stage, so the CO2 generation is stopped.",
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"plaintext": "Salt-rising bread employs a form of bacterial leavening that does not require yeast. Although the leavening action is inconsistent, and requires close attention to the incubating conditions, this bread is making a comeback for its cheese-like flavor and fine texture.",
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"plaintext": "Aerated bread was leavened by carbon dioxide being forced into dough under pressure. From the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries, bread made this way was somewhat popular in the United Kingdom, made by the Aerated Bread Company and sold in its high-street tearooms. The company was founded in 1862, and ceased independent operations in 1955.",
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"plaintext": "The Pressure-Vacuum mixer was later developed by the Flour Milling and Baking Research Association for the Chorleywood bread process. It manipulates the gas bubble size and optionally the composition of gases in the dough via the gas applied to the headspace.",
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"plaintext": "The Old English word for bread was hlaf (hlaifs in Gothic: modern English loaf), which appears to be the oldest Teutonic name. Old High German hleib and modern German Laib derive from this Proto-Germanic word, which was borrowed into some Slavic (Czech chléb, Polish bochen chleba, Russian khleb) and Finnic (Finnish leipä, Estonian leib) languages as well.",
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"plaintext": "The Middle and Modern English word bread appears in Germanic languages, such as West Frisian brea, Dutch brood, German Brot, Swedish bröd, and Norwegian and Danish brød; it may be related to brew or perhaps to break, originally meaning \"broken piece\", \"morsel\".",
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"plaintext": "Bread has a significance beyond mere nutrition in many cultures because of its history and contemporary importance. Bread is also significant in Christianity as one of the elements (alongside wine) of the Eucharist, and in other religions including Paganism.",
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"plaintext": "In many cultures, bread is a metaphor for basic necessities and living conditions in general. For example, a \"bread-winner\" is a household's main economic contributor and has little to do with actual bread-provision. This is also seen in the phrase \"putting bread on the table\". The Roman poet Juvenal satirized superficial politicians and the public as caring only for \"panem et circenses\" (bread and circuses). In Russia in 1917, the Bolsheviks promised \"peace, land, and bread.\" The term \"breadbasket\" denotes an agriculturally productive region. In parts of Northern, Central, Southern and Eastern Europe bread and salt is offered as a welcome to guests. In India, life's basic necessities are often referred to as \"roti, kapra aur makan\" (bread, cloth, and house).",
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"plaintext": "Words for bread, including \"dough\" and \"bread\" itself, are used in English-speaking countries as synonyms for money. A remarkable or revolutionary innovation may be called the best thing since \"sliced bread\". The expression \"to break bread with someone\" means \"to share a meal with someone\". The English word \"lord\" comes from the Anglo-Saxon hlāfweard, meaning \"bread keeper.\"",
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"plaintext": "Bread is sometimes referred to as \"the staff of life\", although this term can refer to other staple foods in different cultures: the Oxford English Dictionary defines it as \"bread (or similar staple food)\". This is sometimes thought to be a biblical reference, but the nearest wording is in Leviticus 26 \"when I have broken the staff of your bread\". The term has been adopted in the names of bakery firms.",
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"plaintext": " s",
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"plaintext": " Kaplan, Steven Laurence: Good Bread is Back: A Contemporary History of French Bread, the Way It Is Made, and the People Who Make It. Durham/ London: Duke University Press, 2006. ",
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"plaintext": " Jacob, Heinrich Eduard: Six Thousand Years of Bread. Its Holy and Unholy History. Garden City / New York: Doubleday, Doran and Comp., 1944. New 1997: New York: Lyons & Burford, Publishers (Foreword by Lynn Alley), <",
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"plaintext": " Spiekermann, Uwe: Brown Bread for Victory: German and British Wholemeal Politics in the Inter-War Period, in: Trentmann, Frank and Just, Flemming (ed.): Food and Conflict in Europe in the Age of the Two World Wars. Basingstoke / New York: Palgrave, 2006, pp.143–71, ",
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| [
"Breads",
"Staple_foods",
"World_cuisine",
"Ancient_dishes",
"Wheat_dishes",
"Types_of_food"
]
| 7,802 | 43,876 | 1,216 | 257 | 0 | 0 | bread | food made of flour and water | []
|
36,971 | 1,104,084,947 | Arctic | [
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"plaintext": "The Arctic ( or ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean, adjacent seas, and parts of Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia (Murmansk, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), Sweden and the United States (Alaska). Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost (permanently frozen underground ice) containing tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants and human societies. Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.",
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"plaintext": "The word Arctic comes from the Greek word (arktikos), \"near the Bear, northern\" and from the word (arktos), meaning bear. The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the \"Great Bear\", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the \"Little Bear\", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris, the current north Pole Star, or North Star).",
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"plaintext": "There are a number of definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists, is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below ; the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than . High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as , and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately . Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea ice shrinkage, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane release as the permafrost thaws. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking. Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to some time around 2067.",
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"plaintext": "Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).",
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"plaintext": "Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and caribou. They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, Grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and several species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, orcas, and belugas. An excellent and famous example of a ring species exists and has been described around the Arctic Circle in the form of the Larus gulls.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic includes copious natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.",
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"plaintext": "During the Cretaceous time period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.",
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"plaintext": "However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70°N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BCE. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture. The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during the period of 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec/Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE. Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "The Dorset/Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture. Others believe the Thule displaced the Dorset.",
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"plaintext": "By 1300 CE, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century (Inughuit, Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia, the United States, Canada, and Greenland.",
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"plaintext": "Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi, Evenks, Iñupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, Gwich'in, and Yupik.",
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"plaintext": "The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations. The council operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.",
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"plaintext": "Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters. Arctic shipping is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes.",
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"plaintext": "Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.",
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"plaintext": "No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.",
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"plaintext": "Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996), Russia (ratified in 1997), Canada (ratified in 2003) and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004) launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.",
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"plaintext": "On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The flag-placing during Arktika 2007 generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.",
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"plaintext": "Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration, blocking any \"new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean,\" and pledging \"the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims.\"",
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"plaintext": "As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the Russian EEZ.",
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"plaintext": "The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge are an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission.",
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"plaintext": "Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations regards it as an international strait, which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometres by the ice flow.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.",
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"plaintext": "There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio Earth Summit, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to the major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming. ",
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"plaintext": "The effects of global warming in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.",
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"plaintext": "The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average, resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases.",
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"plaintext": "Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs, and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route. One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. ",
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"plaintext": "In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.",
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"plaintext": " Arctic Ocean",
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"plaintext": " Baffin Bay",
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"plaintext": " Beaufort Sea",
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"plaintext": " Barents Sea",
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"plaintext": " Bering Sea",
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"plaintext": " Bering Strait",
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"plaintext": " Chukchi Sea",
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"plaintext": " Davis Strait",
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"plaintext": " Brian W. Coad, James D. Reist. (2017). Marine Fishes of Arctic Canada. University of Toronto Press. ",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " \"Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic\" – 24-page special journal issue (Fall 2009), Swords and Ploughshares, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " GLOBIO Human Impact maps Report on human impacts on the Arctic",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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{
"plaintext": " Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: The Arctic at the Crossroads of Geopolitical Interests Russian Politics and Law, 2012, Vol.50, No.2, pp.34–54",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Käpylä, Juha & Mikkola, Harri: The Global Arctic: The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the United States and the European Union FIIA Briefing Paper 133, August 2013, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. The Arctic at the crossroads of geopolitical interests // Russian Politics and Law, 2012. Vol. 50, No. 2. p. 34–54",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": " Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic? Defense & Security Analysis, September 2014.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy: between hard and soft power? Polar Journal, April 2014.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " McCannon, John. A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation. Reaktion Books and University of Chicago Press, 2012. ",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Arctic Report Card",
"section_idx": 16,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Blossoming Arctic",
"section_idx": 16,
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},
{
"plaintext": " International Arctic Research Center",
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| [
"Arctic",
"Geography_of_Eastern_Europe",
"Geography_of_North_America",
"North_Asia",
"Geography_of_Northeast_Asia",
"Geography_of_Northern_Europe",
"Geography_of_Siberia",
"Polar_regions_of_the_Earth"
]
| 25,322 | 32,039 | 3,085 | 197 | 0 | 0 | Arctic | polar region on the Earth's northern hemisphere | [
"North frigid zone",
"Circumpolar Arctic",
"Arctic Region",
"High North",
"the Arctic"
]
|
36,972 | 1,105,362,267 | Tony_Hancock | [
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"plaintext": "Anthony John Hancock (12 May 1924 25 June 1968) was an English comedian and actor.",
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"plaintext": "High-profile during the 1950s and early 1960s, he had a major success with his BBC series Hancock's Half Hour, first broadcast on radio from 1954, then on television from 1956, in which he soon formed a strong professional and personal bond with comic actor Sid James. Although Hancock's decision to cease working with James, when it became known in early 1960, disappointed many at the time, his last BBC series in 1961 contains some of his best-remembered work (including \"The Blood Donor\" and \"The Radio Ham\"). After breaking with his scriptwriters Ray Galton and Alan Simpson later that year, his career declined.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock was born in Southam Road, Hall Green, Birmingham (then in Warwickshire), but, from the age of three, he was brought up in Bournemouth (then in Hampshire), where his father, John Hancock, who ran the Railway Hotel in Holdenhurst Road, worked as a comedian and entertainer.",
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"plaintext": "After his father's death in 1934, Hancock and his brothers lived with their mother and stepfather Robert Gordon Walker at a small hotel called Durlston Court, in Gervis Road, Bournemouth. He attended Durlston Court Preparatory School, part of Durlston boarding school near Swanage (the name of which his parents adopted for their hotel) and Bradfield College in Reading, Berkshire, but left school at the age of fifteen.",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, during the Second World War, Hancock joined the RAF Regiment. Following a failed audition for the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA), he ended up on the Ralph Reader Gang Show touring production of \"Wings\". After the war, he returned to the stage and eventually worked as resident comedian at the Windmill Theatre, a venue which helped to launch the careers of many comedians at the time. A favourable press review of his work at the Windmill was seen in July 1948. \"But mention must made of a new young comedian…who with a piano partner, gives some brilliant thumbnail impressions of a “dud” concert party.\" He took part in radio shows such as Workers' Playtime and Variety Bandbox. In July 1949, he was praised for his work in the summer presentation of \"Flotsam's Follies\" at the Esplanade Concert Hall, Bognor Regis. Christmas 1949 saw him in the part of \"Buttons\" in the Cinderella pantomime at the Royal Artillery, Woolwich. In June 1950, he opened in the \"Ocean Revue\" at the Ocean, Clacton Pier which ran for three months. At Christmas 1950, Hancock was in the \"Red Riding Hood\" pantomime at the Theatre Royal Nottingham playing the part of Jolly Jenkins, the Baron's page.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1951–52, for one series beginning on August 3, 1951, Hancock was a cast member of Educating Archie, in which he mainly played the tutor (or foil) to the nominal star, a ventriloquist's dummy. His appearance in this radio show brought him national recognition, and a catchphrase he used frequently in the show, \"Flippin' kids!\", became popular parlance. The same year, he began to make regular appearances on BBC Television's light entertainment show Kaleidoscope, and almost starred in his own series to be written by Larry Stephens, Hancock's best man at his first wedding. In 1954, he was given his own eponymous BBC radio show, Hancock's Half Hour.",
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"plaintext": "Working with scripts from Ray Galton and Alan Simpson, Hancock's Half Hour lasted for seven years and over a hundred episodes in its radio form, and, from 1956, ran concurrently with an equally successful BBC television series with the same name. The show starred Hancock as \"Anthony Aloysius St John Hancock\", living in the shabby \"23 Railway Cuttings\" in East Cheam. Most episodes portrayed his everyday life as a struggling comedian with aspirations toward straight acting. Some episodes, however, changed this to show him as being a successful actor and/or comedian, or occasionally as having a different career completely, such as a struggling (and incompetent) barrister. Radio episodes were prone to more surreal storylines, which would have been impractical on television, such as Hancock buying a puppy that grows to be as tall as himself.",
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"plaintext": "Sidney James featured in both the radio and TV versions, while the radio version also included regulars Bill Kerr, Kenneth Williams and, successively, Moira Lister, Andrée Melly and Hattie Jacques. The series rejected the variety format then dominant in British radio comedy and instead used a form drawn more from everyday life: the situation comedy, with the humour coming from the characters and the circumstances in which they find themselves. Owing to a contractual wrangle with producer Jack Hylton, Hancock had an ITV series, The Tony Hancock Show, during this period, which ran in 1956-57.",
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"plaintext": "During the run of his BBC radio and television series, Hancock became an enormous star in Britain. Unlike most other comedians at the time, he was able to clear the streets while families gathered together to listen to the eagerly awaited episodes. His character changed slightly over the series, but even in the earliest episodes the key facets of \"the lad himself\" were evident. \"Sunday Afternoon at Home\" and \"The Wild Man of the Woods\" were top-rating shows and were later released on an LP record.",
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"plaintext": "As an actor with considerable experience in films, Sidney James became more important to the show when the television version began. The regular cast was reduced to just the two men, allowing the humour to come from the interaction between them. James's character was the realist of the two, puncturing Hancock's pretensions. His character would often be dishonest and exploit Hancock's apparent gullibility during the radio series, but in the television version there appeared to be a more genuine friendship between them. Hancock's highly-strung personality made the demands of live broadcasts a constant worry, with the result that, starting from the autumn 1959 series, all episodes of the series were recorded before transmission. Up until then, every British television comedy show had been performed live, owing to the technical limitations of the time. He was also the first performer to receive a £1,000 fee for his performances in a half-hour show.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock became anxious that his work with James was turning them into a double act, and he told close associates in late 1959, just after the fifth television series had finished being recorded, that he would end his professional association with Sid James after a final series. Hancock left others to tell James. His last BBC series in 1961, retitled simply Hancock, was without James. Two episodes are among his best-remembered: \"The Blood Donor\", in which he goes to a clinic to give blood, contains some famous lines, including \"I don't mind giving a reasonable amount, but a pint! That's very nearly an armful!\"; in \"The Radio Ham\", Hancock plays an amateur radio enthusiast who receives a mayday call from a yachtsman in distress, but his incompetence prevents him from taking his position. Both of these programmes were re-recorded a few months later for a commercial 1961 LP, produced in the same manner as the radio episodes.",
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"plaintext": "Returning home with his wife from recording \"The Bowmans\", an episode based around a parody of The Archers, Hancock was involved in a car accident and was thrown through the windscreen. He was not badly hurt, but suffered concussion and was unable to learn his lines for \"The Blood Donor\", the next show due to be recorded. The result was that his performance depended on the use of teleprompters, and he is seen looking away from other actors when delivering lines. From this time onwards, Hancock came to rely on teleprompters instead of learning scripts whenever he had career difficulties.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1960, Hancock appeared on the BBC's Face to Face, a half-hour in-depth interview programme conducted by former Labour MP John Freeman. Freeman asked Hancock many soul-searching questions about his life and work. Hancock, who deeply admired his interviewer, often appeared uncomfortable with the questions, but answered them frankly and honestly. Hancock had always been highly self-critical, and it is often argued that this interview heightened this tendency, contributing to his later difficulties. According to Roger, his brother, \"It was the biggest mistake he ever made. I think it all started from that really. ...Self-analysis - that was his killer.\"",
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"plaintext": "Cited as evidence is his gradual ostracism of those who contributed to his success, such as Sidney James and his scriptwriters, Galton and Simpson. His reasoning was that, to refine his craft, he had to ditch catch-phrases and become realistic. He argued, for example, that whenever an ad-hoc character was needed, such as a policeman, it would be played by someone like Kenneth Williams, who would appear with his well-known oily catchphrase 'Good evening'. Hancock believed the comedy suffered because people did not believe in the policeman, knowing it was just Williams doing a funny voice.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock starred in the film The Rebel (1961), in which he plays the role of an office worker-turned-artist who finds himself successful after a move to Paris, but only as the result of mistaken identity. Although a success in Britain, the film was not well received in the United States: owing to a contemporary American television series of the same name, the film had to be retitled, and the new title, Call Me Genius, inflamed American critics. Bosley Crowther in The New York Times thought Hancock \"even less comical\" than Norman Wisdom.",
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"plaintext": "His break with Galton and Simpson took place at a meeting held in October 1961, where he also broke with his long-term agent Beryl Vertue. During the previous six months, the writers had developed – without payment and in consultation with the comedian – three scripts for Hancock's second starring film vehicle. Worried that the projects were wrong for him, the first two had been abandoned incomplete; the third was written to completion at the writers' insistence, only for Hancock to reject it. It is believed that he had not read any of the screenplays. The result of the break was that he chose to separately develop something previously discussed, and the writers were ultimately commissioned to write a Comedy Playhouse series for the BBC, one of which, \"The Offer\", emerged as the pilot for Steptoe and Son. That \"something previously discussed\" became The Punch and Judy Man, for which Hancock hired writer Philip Oakes, who moved in with the comedian to co-write the screenplay.",
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"plaintext": "In The Punch and Judy Man (1963), Hancock plays a struggling seaside entertainer who dreams of a better life; Sylvia Syms plays his nagging social climber of a wife, and John Le Mesurier a sand sculptor. The extent to which the character played by Hancock had merged with his real personality is clear in the film, which owes much to his memories of his childhood in Bournemouth.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock moved to ATV in 1962 with different writers, though Oakes, retained as an advisor, disagreed over script ideas and the two men severed their professional (but not personal) relationship. The initial writer of Hancock's ATV series, Godfrey Harrison, had scripted the successful George Cole radio series A Life Of Bliss, and also Hancock's first regular television appearances on Fools Rush In (a segment of Kaleidoscope) more than a decade earlier. Harrison had trouble meeting deadlines, so other writers were commissioned, including Terry Nation.",
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"plaintext": "The ATV series was transmitted in early 1963, on the same evenings as the second series of Steptoe and Son, written by Hancock's former writers, Galton and Simpson. Critical comparisons did not favour Hancock's series. Around 1965, Hancock made a series of 11 television adverts for the Egg Marketing Board. Hancock starred in the adverts with Patricia Hayes as the character \"Mrs Cravatte\" in an attempt to revive the Galton and Simpson style of scripts. Slightly earlier, in 1963, he had featured in a spoof Hancock Report – hired by Lord Beeching to promote his plan to reduce railway mileage in advertisements. Hancock reportedly wanted to be paid what Beeching was paid annually – £34,000; he was offered half that amount for his services.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock continued to make regular appearances on British television until 1967, including a 50 minute show for BBC2 from the Royal Festival Hall, which was poorly received. By then his alcoholism was seriously affecting his performances. Two unsuccessful variety series for ABC Weekend TV, The Blackpool Show (1966) and Hancock's (1967), were his last work for British television. He tried a role in a Disney film - The Adventures of Bullwhip Griffin - but was sacked after reportedly having trouble with the mock-Shakespearian dialogue. He collapsed with a liver attack on 1 January 1967 and was told he would die within three months if he continued drinking. In December 1967, while recovering from a broken rib from a drunken fall, he became ill with pneumonia. His final television appearances were in Australia under a contract to make a 13-part series for the Seven Network. However, after arriving in Australia in March 1968, only three programmes were completed and remained unaired for nearly four years. These shows are the only existing television footage of him in colour, as all his shows up to this point had been made for black-and-white television.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1950 Hancock married Cicely Romanis, a Lanvin model, after a brief courtship.",
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"plaintext": "Freddie Ross worked as his publicist from 1954 and became more involved in his life, eventually becoming his mistress. He divorced Cicely in 1965 and married Ross in December of that year. This second marriage was short-lived. During these years Hancock was also involved with Joan Le Mesurier (née Malin), the new wife of actor John Le Mesurier, Hancock's best friend and a regular supporting character-actor from his television series. Joan was later to describe the relationship in her book Lady Don't Fall Backwards, including the claim that her husband readily forgave the affair; he is quoted as saying that if it had been anyone else he would not have understood it, but with Tony Hancock it made sense. In July 1966 Freddie took an overdose but survived. Arriving in Blackpool to record an edition of his variety series, Hancock was met by pressmen asking about his wife's attempted suicide. The final dissolution of the marriage took place a few days before Hancock's own suicide.",
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"plaintext": "Cicely developed her own problems with alcohol and died from a fall in 1969, the year after the death of her former husband. Freddie Hancock survived her broken marriage and resumed her career as a prominent publicist and agent in the film and television industry. Based in New York City for many years, she founded the East Coast chapter of BAFTA, the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.",
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"plaintext": "Hancock took his own life by overdosing, in Sydney, on 25 June 1968, aged 44. He was found dead in his Bellevue Hill flat with an empty vodka bottle and a scattering of amylo-barbitone tablets.",
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"plaintext": "In one of his suicide notes he wrote: \"Things just seemed to go too wrong too many times.\" His ashes were taken to England by satirist Willie Rushton and were buried in St Dunstan's Church in Cranford, London.",
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"plaintext": "Asked by Van Morrison about his relationship with Hancock, Spike Milligan commented in 1989: \"Very difficult man to get on with. He used to drink excessively. You felt sorry for him. He ended up on his own. I thought, he's got rid of everybody else, he's going to get rid of himself and he did.\"",
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"plaintext": "There is a sculpture by Bruce Williams (1996) in his honour in Old Square, Corporation Street, Birmingham, a plaque on the house where he was born in Hall Green, Birmingham, and a plaque on the wall of the hotel in Bournemouth where he spent some of his early life. There is also a plaque, placed by the Dead Comics Society, at 10 Grey Close, Hampstead Garden Suburb, London, where he lived in 1947 and 1948. In 2014, an English Heritage blue plaque was placed to commemorate Hancock at 20 Queen's Gate Place in South Kensington, London, where he lived between 1952 and 1958.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2002 poll, BBC radio listeners voted Hancock their favourite British comedian. Commenting on this poll, Ray Galton and Alan Simpson observed that modern-day creations such as Alan Partridge and David Brent owed much of their success to mimicking dominant features of Tony Hancock's character. \"The thing they've all got in common is self-delusion,\" they remarked, in a statement issued by the BBC. \"They all think they're more intelligent than everyone else, more cultured, that people don't recognise their true greatness – self-delusion in every sense. And there's nothing people like better than failure.\" Mary Kalemkerian, Head of Programmes for BBC 7, commented: \"Classic comedians such as Tony Hancock and the Goons are obviously still firm favourites with BBC radio listeners. Age doesn't seem to matter – if it's funny, it's funny.\" Dan Peat of the Tony Hancock Appreciation Society said of the poll: \"It's fantastic news. If he was alive, he would have taken it one of two ways. He would probably have made some kind of dry crack, but in truth he would have been chuffed.\"",
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"plaintext": "The last eight or so years of Hancock's life were the subject of a BBC1 television film, called Hancock (1991), starring Alfred Molina. Another drama, Fantabulosa! (BBC Four, 2006), saw Martin Trenaman play the role of Hancock with Michael Sheen as Williams. Hancock's affair with Joan Le Mesurier was also dramatised in Hancock and Joan on BBC Four and transmitted in 2008 as part of the 'Curse of Comedy' season. Hancock was portrayed by Ken Stott and Joan by Maxine Peake.",
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"plaintext": "Musician Pete Doherty is a fan of Hancock and named the first album by his band the Libertines Up the Bracket after one of Hancock's catchphrases. He also wrote a song called \"Lady Don't Fall Backwards\" after the book at the centre of the Hancock's Half Hour episode \"The Missing Page\". Hancock is also referenced in the lyrics to The Libertines’ 2015 song \"You're My Waterloo \".",
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"plaintext": "Paul Merton, in 1996, appeared in remakes of six of Galton and Simpson's Hancock scripts, which were not critically well received. In 2014, five of the wiped radio instalments of Hancock's Half Hour, chosen by Galton and Simpson, were re-staged for BBC Radio 4 under the umbrella title The Missing Hancocks, with Kevin McNally taking the title role.",
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"plaintext": "Playwright Roy Smiles' play about Tony Hancock: The Lad Himself, was staged at the Edinburgh Festival in 2013 with Mark Brailsford as Tony Hancock. ",
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"plaintext": "Episodes and anthologies from the radio series were released on vinyl LP in the 1960s, as well as four re-makes of television scripts; an annual LP was issued of radio episodes (without the incidental music) between 1980 and 1984. Much of this material was also available on cassette in later years.",
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"plaintext": "The BBC issued CDs of the surviving 74 radio episodes in six box sets, one per series, with the sixth box containing several out-of-series specials. This was followed by the release of one large box set containing all the others in a special presentation case; while it includes no extra material, the larger box alone (without any CDs) still fetches high prices on online marketplaces like eBay, where Hancock memorabilia remains a thriving industry. There have also been numerous VHS releases of the BBC television series.",
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"plaintext": "While five separate Region 2 DVDs were previously issued, some of the surviving episodes were unavailable until The Tony Hancock BBC Collection (eight DVDs) appeared in 2007. Episodes of the radio series are often broadcast on the digital radio station BBC Radio 4 Extra.",
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"plaintext": " David Nathan and Freddie Hancock Hancock, (1969 [1996]), William Kimber, BBC Consumer Publishing, ",
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"plaintext": " Roger Wilmut Tony Hancock: 'Artiste', A Tony Hancock Companion, 1978, Eyre Methuen - with full details of Hancock's stage, radio, TV and film appearances.",
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"plaintext": " Edward Joffe Hancock's Last Stand: The Series That Never Was, June 1998, foreword by June Whitfield, Book Guild Ltd Publishing, - an account of Hancock's final days, written by the man who found Hancock's body after his suicide.",
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"plaintext": " Cliff Goodwin When the Wind Changed: The Life and Death of Tony Hancock, 2000, Arrow - an extended, comprehensive biography.",
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"plaintext": " John Fisher Tony Hancock: The Definitive Biography, 2008, Harper, ",
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"plaintext": " Omnibus: Hancock (1985): a BBC documentary which seriously looked at Hancock's life and work, and his legacy. With contributions by Beryl Vertue, Galton & Simpson, Bill Kerr and producers Dennis Main Wilson and Duncan Wood.",
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"plaintext": " Tony Hancock profiled at British Classic Comedy",
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36,973 | 1,107,145,512 | Pashtuns | [
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"plaintext": "Today, the Pashtuns are a collection of diversely scattered communities present across the length and breadth of India, with the largest populations principally settled in the plains of northern and central India. Following the partition of India in 1947, many of them migrated to Pakistan. The majority of Indian Pashtuns are Urdu-speaking communities, who have assimilated into the local society over the course of generations. Pashtuns have influenced and contributed to various fields in India, particularly politics, the entertainment industry and sports.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtuns are also found in smaller numbers in the eastern and northern parts of Iran. Records as early as the mid-1600s report Durrani Pashtuns living in the Khorasan Province of Safavid Iran. After the short reign of the Ghilji Pashtuns in Iran, Nader Shah defeated the last independent Ghilji ruler of Kandahar, Hussain Hotak. In order to secure Durrani control in southern Afghanistan, Nader Shah deported Hussain Hotak and large numbers of the Ghilji Pashtuns to the Mazandaran Province in northern Iran. The remnants of this once sizable exiled community, although assimilated, continue to claim Pashtun descent. During the early 18th century, in the course of a very few years, the number of Durrani Pashtuns in Iranian Khorasan, greatly increased. Later the region became part of the Durrani Empire itself. The second Durrani king of Afghanistan, Timur Shah Durrani was born in Mashhad. Contemporary to Durrani rule in the east, Azad Khan Afghan, an ethnic Ghilji Pashtun, formerly second in charge of Azerbaijan during Afsharid rule, gained power in the western regions of Iran and Azerbaijan for a short period. According to a sample survey in 1988, 75 percent of all Afghan refugees in the southern part of the Iranian Khorasan Province were Durrani Pashtuns.",
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"plaintext": "Indian and Pakistani Pashtuns have utilised the British/Commonwealth links of their respective countries, and modern communities have been established starting around the 1960s mainly in the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia but also in other commonwealth countries (and the United States). Some Pashtuns have also settled in the Middle East, such as in the Arabian Peninsula. For example, about 300,000 Pashtuns migrated to the Persian Gulf countries between 1976 and 1981, representing 35% of Pakistani immigrants.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the multiple wars in Afghanistan since the late 1970s, various waves of refugees (Afghan Pashtuns, but also a sizeable number of Tajiks, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen and Afghan Sikhs) have left the country as asylum seekers.",
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"plaintext": "There are 1.3 million Afghan refugees in Pakistan and 1 million in Iran. Others have claimed asylum in the United Kingdom, United States and European Union countries through Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "A prominent institution of the Pashtun people is the intricate system of tribes. The Pashtuns remain a predominantly tribal people, but the trend of urbanisation has begun to alter Pashtun society as cities such as Kandahar, Peshawar, Quetta and Kabul have grown rapidly due to the influx of rural Pashtuns. Despite this, many people still identify themselves with various clans.",
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"plaintext": "The tribal system has several levels of organisation: the tribe they are in is from four 'greater' tribal groups: the Sarbani, the Bettani, the Gharghashti, and the Karlani, the tabar (tribe), is then divided into kinship groups called khels, which in turn is divided into smaller groups (pllarina or plarganey), each consisting of several extended families called kahols.",
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"plaintext": "Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that early humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago. Since the 2nd millennium BC, cities in the region now inhabited by Pashtuns have seen invasions and migrations, including by Ancient Indian peoples, Ancient Iranian peoples, the Medes, Persians, and Ancient Macedonians in antiquity, Kushans, Hephthalites, Arabs, Turks, Mongols, and others. In recent times, people of the Western world have explored the area as well.",
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"plaintext": "The early precursors to modern-day Pashtuns may have been old Iranian tribes that spread throughout the eastern Iranian plateau.",
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"plaintext": "According to Yu. V. Gankovsky:",
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"plaintext": "Gankovsky proposes Ephthalite origin for Pashtuns but others draw a different conclusion. Ghilji tribe has been connected to the Khalaj people. According to Abdul Hai Habibi, some oriental scholars hold that the second largest Pasthun tribe, the Ghiljis, are the descendants of a mixed race of Hephthalite and Pakhtas who have been living in Afghanistan since the Vedic Aryan period. But according to Sims-Williams, archaeological documents do not support the suggestion that the Khalaj were the Hephthalites' successors. According to Georg Morgenstierne, the Durrani tribe who were known as the \"Abdali\" before the formation of the Durrani Empire 1747, might be connected to with the Hephthalites; Aydogdy Kurbanov endorses this view who proposes that after the collapse of the Hephthalite confederacy, Hephthalite likely assimilated into different local populations.",
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"plaintext": "The ethnogenesis of the Pashtun ethnic group is unclear but historians have come across references to various ancient peoples called Pakthas (Pactyans) between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC, who may be their early ancestors. However, there are many conflicting theories amongst historians and the Pashtuns themselves.",
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"plaintext": "Mohan Lal states:",
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"plaintext": "Willem Vogelsang states:",
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"plaintext": "Pashtuns are tied to the history of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and northern India: following Muslim conquests from the 7th to 11th centuries, many Pashtun warriors invaded and conquered much of the northern parts of South Asia during the periods of the Suris and Durranis.",
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"plaintext": "Pashto is generally classified as an Eastern Iranian language. It shares features with the Munji language, which is the closest existing language to the extinct Bactrian, but also shares features with the Sogdian language, as well as Khwarezmian, Shughni, Sanglechi, and Khotanese Saka. It is suggested by some that Pashto may have originated in the Badakhshan region and is connected to a Saka language akin to Khotanese. In fact major linguist Georg Morgenstierne has described Pashto as a Saka dialect and many others have observed the similarities between Pashto and other Saka languages as well, suggesting that the original Pashto speakers might have been a Saka group. Furthemore Pashto and Ossetian, another Scythian-descending language, share cognates in their vocabulary which other Eastern Iranian languages lack Cheung suggests a common isogloss between Pashto and Ossetian which he explains by an undocumented Saka dialect being spoken close to reconstructed Old Pashto which was likely spoken north of the Oxus at that time. Others however have suggested a much older Iranic ancestor given the affinity to Old Avestan.",
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"plaintext": "There is mention of the tribe called Pakthās who were one of the tribes that fought against Sudas in the Dasarajna - the Battle of the Ten Kings - of the Rigveda (RV 7.18.7) dated between 1500 and 1200 BCE. The Pakthās are mentioned:",
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"plaintext": "Heinrich Zimmer connects them with a tribe mentioned by Herodotus (Pactyans), and with Pashtuns in Afghanistan and Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "Herodutus in 430 BCE mentions in the Histories:",
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"plaintext": "These Pactyans lived on the eastern frontier of the Achaemenid Arachosia Satrapy as early as the 1st millennium BCE, present day Afghanistan. Herodotus also mentions a tribe of known as Aparytai (Ἀπαρύται) Thomas Holdich has linked them with the Pashtun tribe: Afridis as all these tribes have been placed in the Indus valley. Herodotus states:",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Marquart made the connection of the Pashtuns with names such as the Parsiētai (Παρσιῆται), Parsioi (Πάρσιοι) that were cited by Ptolemy 150 CE. The text from Ptolemy:",
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"plaintext": "Strabo, the Greek geographer, in the Geographica (written between 43 BC to 23 AD) makes mention of the Pasiani (Πασιανοί), this has been identified with Pashtuns given that Pashto is an Eastern-Iranian language and Pashtuns reside in the area once termed Ariana. Strabo states:",
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"plaintext": "This is considered a different rendering of Ptolemy's Parsioi (Πάρσιοι). Johnny Cheung, reflecting on Ptolemy's Parsioi (Πάρσιοι) and Strabo's Pasiani (Πασιανοί) states: \"Both forms show slight phonetic substitutions, viz. of υ for ι, and the loss of r in Pasianoi is due to perseveration from the preceding Asianoi. They are therefore the most likely candidates as the (linguistic) ancestors of modern day Pashtuns.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages until the advent of modern Afghanistan in the 18th century and the division of Pashtun territory by the 1893 Durand Line, Pashtuns were often referred to as ethnic \"Afghans\".",
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"plaintext": "The earliest mention of the name Afghan (Abgân - αβγανο) is by Shapur I of the Sasanian Empire during the 3rd century CE. In the 4th century the word \"Afghans/Afghana\" (αβγανανο) as a reference to the Pashtun people is mentioned in the Bactrian documents, they mention an Afghan chief named Bredag Watanan in connection with the Hephtalites and in the context of some stolen horses. Interestingly the documents mention the Afghans far in the north of Afghanistan around modern Kunduz, Baghlan and Samangan in historical Bactria",
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"plaintext": "Other reference from the same documents :",
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"plaintext": "The name Afghan is later recorded in the 6th century CE in the form of \"Avagāṇa\" [अवगाण] by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in his Brihat-samhita.",
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"plaintext": "Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, visiting the Afghanistan region several times between 630 and 644 CE also speaks about them. In Shahnameh 1–110 and 1–116, it is written as Awgaan. According to several scholars such as V. Minorsky, the name \"Afghan\" is documented several times in the 982 CE Hudud-al-Alam.",
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"plaintext": "Hudud ul-'alam also speaks of a king in Ninhar (Nangarhar), who had Muslim, Afghan and Hindu wives. Writing in the 11th century AD, Al-Biruni in his Tarikh al Hind, In the western frontier mountains of India there live various tribes of the Afghans, and extend up to the neighbourhood of the Sindh Valley, It was reported that between 1039 and 1040 CE Mas'ud I of the Ghaznavid Empire sent his son to subdue a group of rebel Afghans near Ghazni. An army of Arabs, Afghans, Khiljis and others was assembled by Arslan Shah Ghaznavid in 1119 CE. Another army of Afghans and Khiljis was assembled by Bahram Shah Ghaznavid in 1153 CE. Muhammad of Ghor, ruler of the Ghorids, also had Afghans in his army along with others. A famous Moroccan travelling scholar, Ibn Battuta, visiting Afghanistan following the era of the Khalji dynasty in early 1300s gives his description of the Afghans.",
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"plaintext": "Muhammad Qasim Hindu Shah (Ferishta), writes about Afghans and their country called Afghanistan in the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "Pashto is classified under the Eastern Iranian sub-branch of the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. Those who speak a Southern dialect of Pashto refer to themselves as Pashtuns, while those who speak Northern Dialect call themselves Pukhtuns. These native people compose the core of ethnic Pashtuns who are found in southeastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The Pashtuns have oral and written accounts of their family tree. Lineage is considered very important.",
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"plaintext": "Some anthropologists lend credence to the oral traditions of the Pashtun tribes themselves. For example, according to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, the theory of Pashtun descent from Israelites is traced to Nimat Allah al-Harawi, who compiled a history for Khan-e-Jehan Lodhi in the reign of Mughal Emperor Jehangir in the 17th century. The 13th century Tabaqat-i Nasiri discusses the settlement of immigrant Bani Israel at the end of the 8th century CE in the Ghor region of Afghanistan, settlement attested by Jewish inscriptions in Ghor. Historian André Wink suggests that the story \"may contain a clue to the remarkable theory of the Jewish origin of some of the Afghan tribes which is persistently advocated in the Persian-Afghan chronicles.\" These references to Bani Israel agree with the commonly held view by Pashtuns that when the twelve tribes of Israel were dispersed, the tribe of Joseph, among other Hebrew tribes, settled in the Afghanistan region. This oral tradition is widespread among the Pashtun tribes. There have been many legends over the centuries of descent from the Ten Lost Tribes after groups converted to Christianity and Islam. Hence the tribal name Yusufzai in Pashto translates to the \"son of Joseph\". A similar story is told by many historians, including the 14th century Ibn Battuta and 16th century Ferishta. However, the similarity of names can also be traced to the presence of Arabic through Islam.",
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"plaintext": "One conflicting issue in the belief that the Pashtuns descend from the Israelites is that the Ten Lost Tribes were exiled by the ruler of Assyria, while Maghzan-e-Afghani says they were permitted by the ruler to go east to Afghanistan. This inconsistency can be explained by the fact that Persia acquired the lands of the ancient Assyrian Empire when it conquered the Empire of the Medes and Chaldean Babylonia, which had conquered Assyria decades earlier. But no ancient author mentions such a transfer of Israelites further east, or no ancient extra-Biblical texts refer to the Ten Lost Tribes at all.",
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"plaintext": "Some Afghan historians have maintained that Pashtuns are linked to the ancient Israelites. Mohan Lal quoted Mountstuart Elphinstone who wrote:",
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"plaintext": "This theory has been criticised by not being substantiated by historical evidence. Dr. Zaman Stanizai criticises this theory:",
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"plaintext": "According to genetic studies Pashtuns have a greater R1a1a*-M198 modal halogroup than Jews:",
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"plaintext": "Some Pashtun tribes claim descent from Arabs, including some claiming to be Sayyids (descendants of Muhammad). Some groups from Peshawar and Kandahar believe to be descended from Greeks who arrived with Alexander the Great. According to Firasat et al. 2007, only a small proportion of Pashtuns may descend from Greeks, but they also suggest that Greek ancestry may also have come from Greek slaves brought by Xerxes I. Some like the Ghilji also claim Turkish descent having settled in the Hindu Kush area and began to assimilate much of the culture and language of the Pashtun tribes already present there.",
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"plaintext": "One historical account connects the Pashtuns to a possible Ancient Egyptian past but this lacks supporting evidence. ",
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"plaintext": "Henry Walter Bellew (1864) was of the view that the Pashtuns likely have mixed Greek and Rajput roots. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire expanded influence on the Pashtuns until 305BCE when they gave up dominating power to the Indian Maurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty.",
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"plaintext": "Vogelsang (2002) suggests that a single origin of the Pashtuns is unlikely but rather they are a tribal confederation.",
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"plaintext": "Their modern past stretches back to the Delhi Sultanate, particularly the Hotak dynasty and the Durrani Empire. The Hotaks were Ghilji tribesmen who rebelled against the Safavids and seized control over much of Persia from 1722 to 1729. This was followed by the conquests of Ahmad Shah Durrani who was a former high-ranking military commander under Nader Shah. He created the last Afghan empire that covered most of what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, Indian Punjab, as well as the Kohistan and Khorasan provinces of Iran. After the decline of the Durrani dynasty in the first half of the 19th century under Shuja Shah Durrani, the Barakzai dynasty took control of the empire. Specifically, the Mohamedzai subclan held Afghanistan's monarchy from around 1826 to the end of Zahir Shah's reign in 1973. Former President Hamid Karzai is from the Popalzai tribe of Kandahar.",
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"plaintext": "The Pashtuns in Afghanistan resisted British designs upon their territory and kept the Russians at bay during the so-called \"Great Game\". By playing the two super powers against each other, Afghanistan remained an independent sovereign state and maintained some autonomy (see the Siege of Malakand). During the reign of Abdur Rahman Khan (1880–1901), Pashtun regions were politically divided by the Durand Line, and what is today western Pakistan fell within British India as a result of the border. In the 20th century, many politically active Pashtun leaders living under British rule of undivided India supported Indian independence, including Ashfaqulla Khan, Abdul Samad Khan Achakzai, Ajmal Khattak, Bacha Khan and his son Wali Khan (both members of the Khudai Khidmatgar), and were inspired by Mohandas Gandhi's non-violent method of resistance. Some Pashtuns also worked in the Muslim League to fight for an independent Pakistan, including Yusuf Khattak and Abdur Rab Nishtar who was a close associate of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.",
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"plaintext": "The Pashtuns of Afghanistan attained complete independence from British political intervention during the reign of Amanullah Khan, following the Third Anglo-Afghan War. By the 1950s a popular call for Pashtunistan began to be heard in Afghanistan and the new state of Pakistan. This led to bad relations between the two nations. The Afghan monarchy ended when President Daoud Khan seized control of Afghanistan from his cousin Zahir Shah in 1973, which opened doors for a proxy war by neighbors and the rise of Marxism. In April 1978, Daoud Khan was assassinated along with his family and relatives. Mujahideen commanders began being recruited in neighboring Pakistan for a guerrilla warfare against the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan - the Marxist government was also dominated by Pashtun Khalqists. In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded its southern neighbor Afghanistan in order to defeat a rising insurgency. The mujahideen were funded by the United States, Saudi Arabia, China and others, and included some Pashtun commanders such as Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and Jalaluddin Haqqani. In the meantime, millions of Pashtuns fled their native land to live among other Afghan diaspora in Pakistan and Iran, and from there tens of thousands proceeded to North America, the European Union, the Middle East, Australia and other parts of the world.",
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"plaintext": "Many high-ranking government officials in Afghanistan are Pashtuns, including: Zalmay Rasoul, Abdul Rahim Wardak, Omar Zakhilwal, Ghulam Farooq Wardak, Anwar ul-Haq Ahady, Yousef Pashtun and Amirzai Sangin. The list of current governors of Afghanistan, as well as the parliamentarians in the House of the People and House of Elders, include large percentage of Pashtuns. The Chief of staff of the Afghan National Army, Sher Mohammad Karimi, and Commander of the Afghan Air Force, Mohammad Dawran, as well as Chief Justice of Afghanistan Abdul Salam Azimi and Attorney General Mohammad Ishaq Aloko also belong to the Pashtun ethnic group.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtuns not only played an important role in South Asia but also in Central Asia and the Middle East. Many of the non-Pashtun groups in Afghanistan have adopted the Pashtun culture and use Pashto as a second language. For example, many leaders of non-Pashtun ethnic groups in Afghanistan practice Pashtunwali to some degree and are fluent in Pashto language. These include Ahmad Shah Massoud, Ismail Khan, Mohammed Fahim, Bismillah Khan Mohammadi, and many others. The Afghan royal family, which was represented by King Zahir Shah, belongs to the Mohammadzai tribe of Pashtuns. Other prominent Pashtuns include the 17th-century poets Khushal Khan Khattak and Rahman Baba, and in contemporary era Afghan Astronaut Abdul Ahad Mohmand, former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Zalmay Khalilzad, and Ashraf Ghani Ahmadzai among many others.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the Bollywood film stars in India have Pashtun ancestry; some of the most notable ones are Aamir Khan, Shahrukh Khan, Salman Khan, Feroz Khan, Madhubala, Kader Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Soha Ali Khan, Sara Ali Khan, and Zarine Khan. In addition, one of India's former presidents, Zakir Hussain, belonged to the Afridi tribe. Mohammad Yunus, India's former ambassador to Algeria and advisor to Indira Gandhi, is of Pashtun origin and related to the legendary Bacha Khan.",
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"plaintext": "The wars in Afghanistan altered the balance of power in the country - Pashtuns were historically dominant in the country, but the emergence of well-organized armed groups consisting of Tajiks, Uzbeks and Hazaras, combined with politically fragmented Pashtuns, reduced their influence on the state. In 1992, following the mujahideen victory, Burhanuddin Rabbani became the first non-Pashtun President in Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1990s, Pashtuns were the primary ethnic group in the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Taliban regime). The Northern Alliance that was fighting against the Taliban also included a number of Pashtuns. Among them were Abdullah Abdullah, Abdul Qadir and his brother Abdul Haq, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, Asadullah Khalid, Hamid Karzai and Gul Agha Sherzai. The Taliban regime was ousted in late 2001 during the US-led War in Afghanistan and replaced with the Karzai administration. This was followed by the Ghani administration.",
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"plaintext": "The long wars in Afghanistan have led to Pashtuns on both sides of the border gaining a \"reputation\" for violence. Conflict as well as the Taliban have also led to a decline in traditional Pashtun customs including Pashtun music and poetry. Some activists and intellectuals are trying to rebuild Pashtun intellectualism and its pre-war culture.",
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"plaintext": "According to a study from 2012 called \"Afghanistan from a Y-chromosome perspective\", the study from a sample size of 190 showed R1a1a-M198 to be the most dominant haplogroup in Pashtuns at 67.4%. In the north, it peaks at 50% while in the south, it peaks at 65.8%. R1a-Z2125 occurs at a frequency of 40% in Pashtuns from Northern Afghanistan. This subclade is also predominantly present among Tajik, Turkmen, Uzbek, and Bashkir ethnic groups, as well as in some populations in the Caucasus and Iran.",
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"plaintext": "Haplogroup G-M201 reaches 14.7% in Afghan Pashtuns and is the second most frequent haplogroup in Pashtuns from southern Afghanistan. It is virtually absent from all other Afghan populations. This haplogroup is reported at high frequencies in the Caucasus and is thought to be associated with the Neolithic expansion throughout the region.",
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"plaintext": "Haplogroup L-M20 exhibits substantial disparity in its distribution on either side of the Hindu Kush range, with 25% of Pashtuns from northern Afghanistan belonging to this lineage, compared with only 4.8% of males from the south. Paragroup L3*-M357 accounts for the majority of L-M20 chromosomes among Afghan Pashtuns in both the north and south.",
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"plaintext": "According to a Mitochondrial DNA analysis of four ethnic groups of Afghanistan, the majority of mtDNA among Afghan Pashtuns belongs to West Eurasian lineages, and share a greater affinity with West Eurasian and Central Asian populations rather than to populations of South Asia or East Asia. The haplogroup analysis indicates the Pashtuns and Tajiks share some sort of ancestral heritage. The study also states that among the studied ethnic groups, the Pashtuns have the greatest HVS-I sequence diversity.",
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"plaintext": "A 2019 study on autosomal STR profiles of the populations of South and North Afghanistan states:",
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"plaintext": "Among historians, anthropologists, and the Pashtuns themselves, there is some debate as to who exactly qualifies as a Pashtun. The most prominent views are:",
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"plaintext": " Pashtuns are predominantly an Eastern Iranian people, who use Pashto as their first language, and originate from Afghanistan and Pakistan. This is the generally accepted academic view.",
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"plaintext": " They are those who follow Pashtunwali.",
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"plaintext": " Pashtuns are those whose related through patrilineal descent. This may be traced back to legendary times, in accordance with the legend of Qais Abdur Rashid, the figure regarded as their progenitor in folklore.",
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"plaintext": "These three definitions may be described as the ethno-linguistic definition, the religious-cultural definition and the patrilineal definition, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The ethno-linguistic definition is the most prominent and accepted view as to who is and is not a Pashtun. Generally, this most common view holds that Pashtuns are defined within the parameters of having mainly eastern Iranian ethnic origins, sharing a common language, culture and history, living in relatively close geographic proximity to each other, and acknowledging each other as kinsme. Thus, tribe that speak disparate yet mutually intelligible dialects of Pashto acknowledge each other as ethnic Pashtuns, and even subscribe to certain dialects as \"proper\", such as the Pukhto spoken by the Yusufzai, Gigyani tribe, Ghilji and other tribes in Eastern Afghanistan and the Pashto spoken by the Kakar, Wazir, Khilji and Durranis in Southern Afghanistan. These criteria tend to be used by most Pashtuns in Afghanistan and Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "The Durranis and Ghiljis (or Ghilzais) are the two largest groups of Pashtuns, with approximately two-thirds of Afghan Pashtuns belonging to these confederations. The Durrani tribe has been more urban and politically successful, while the Ghiljis are larger, more rural, and apparently tougher. In the 18th century, the two collaborated at times and at other times fought each other. With a few gaps, Durranis ruled modern Afghanistan continuously until the Saur Revolution of 1978; the new communist rulers were Ghilji.",
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"plaintext": "Tribal allegiances are stronger among the Ghilji, while governance of the Durrani confederation is more to do with cross-tribal structures of land ownership.",
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"plaintext": "The cultural definition requires Pashtuns to adhere to Pashtunwali codes. Orthodox tribesmen, may refuse to recognise any non-Muslim as a Pashtun. However, others tend to be more flexible and sometimes define who is Pashtun based on cultural and not religious criteria: Pashtun society is not homogenous by religion. The overwhelming majority of Pashtuns are Sunni, with a tiny Shia community (the Turi and partially the Bangash tribe) in the Kurram and Orakzai agencies of FATA, Pakistan. There are also Hindu Pashtuns, sometimes known as the Sheen Khalai, who have moved predominantly to India.",
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"plaintext": "The patrilineal definition is based on an important orthodox law of Pashtunwali which mainly requires that only those who have a Pashtun father are Pashtun. This law has maintained the tradition of exclusively patriarchal tribal lineage. This definition places less emphasis on what language one speaks, such as Pashto, Dari, Hindko, Urdu, Hindi or English. There are various communities who claim Pashtun origin but are largely found among other ethnic groups in the region who generally do not speak the Pashto language. These communities are often considered overlapping groups or are simply assigned to the ethno-linguistic group that corresponds to their geographic location and mother tongue. The Niazi is one of these groups.",
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"plaintext": "Claimants of Pashtun heritage in South Asia have mixed with local Muslim populations and are referred to as Pathan, the Hindustani form of Pashtun. These communities are usually partial Pashtun, to varying degrees, and often trace their Pashtun ancestry through a paternal lineage. The Pathans in India have lost both the language and presumably many of the ways of their ancestors, but trace their fathers' ethnic heritage to the Pashtun tribes.",
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"plaintext": "Smaller number of Pashtuns living in Pakistan are also fluent in Hindko, Seraiki and Balochi. These languages are often found in areas such as Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Attock, Khanewal, Multan, Dera Ismail Khan and Balochistan.",
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"plaintext": "Some Indians claim descent from Pashtun soldiers who settled in India by marrying local women during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. No specific population figures exist, as claimants of Pashtun descent are spread throughout the country. Notably, the Rohillas, after their defeat by the British, are known to have settled in parts of North India and intermarried with local ethnic groups. They are believed to have been bilingual in Pashto and Urdu until the mid-19th century. Some Urdu-speaking Muhajir people of India claiming descent from Pashtuns began moving to Pakistan in 1947. Many Pathans chose to live in the Republic of India after the partition of India and Khan Mohammad Atif, a professor at the University of Lucknow, estimates that \"The population of Pathans in India is twice their population in Afghanistan\".",
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"plaintext": "During the 19th century, when the British were accepting peasants from British India as indentured servants to work in the Caribbean, South Africa and other far away places, Rohillas who had lost their empire were unemployed and restless were sent to places as far as Trinidad, Surinam, Guyana, and Fiji, to work with other Indians on the sugarcane fields and perform manual labour. Many of these immigrants stayed there and formed unique communities of their own. Some of them assimilated with the other South Asian Muslim nationalities to form a common Indian Muslim community in tandem with the larger Indian community, losing their distinctive heritage. Their descendants mostly speak English and other local languages. Some Pashtuns travelled to as far away as Australia during the same era.",
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"plaintext": "Pashto is the mother tongue of Pashtuns. It is one of the two national languages of Afghanistan. In Pakistan, although being the second-largest language being spoken, it is often neglected officially in the education system. This has been criticised as adversely impacting the economic advancement of Pashtuns, as students do not have the ability to comprehend what is being taught in other languages fully. Robert Nichols remarks:",
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"plaintext": "Pashto is categorised as an Eastern Iranian language, but a remarkably large number of words are unique to Pashto. Pashto morphology in relation to verbs is complex compared to other Iranian languages. In this respect MacKenzie states:",
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"plaintext": "Pashto has a large number of dialects: generally divided into Northern, Southern and Central groups; and also Tarino or Waṇetsi as distinct group. As Elfenbein notes: \"Dialect differences lie primarily in phonology and lexicon: the morphology and syntax are, again with the exception of Wanetsi, quite remarkably uniform\". Ibrahim Khan provides the following classification on the letter ښ: the Northern Western dialect (e.g. spoken by the Ghilzai) having the phonetic value , the North Eastern (spoken by the Yusafzais etc.) having the sound , the South Western (spoken by the Abdalis etc.) having and the South Eastern (spoken by the Kakars etc.) having . He illustrates that the Central dialects, which are spoken by the Karlāṇ tribes, can also be divided on the North and South distinction but provides that in addition these Central dialects have had a vowel shift which makes them distinct: for instance represented by aleph the non-Central dialects becoming in Banisi dialect.",
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"plaintext": "The first Pashto alphabet was developed by Pir Roshan in the 16th century. In 1958, a meeting of Pashtun scholars and writers from both Afghanistan and Pakistan, held in Kabul, standardised the present Pashto alphabet.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtun culture is mostly based on Pashtunwali and the usage of the Pashto language. Pre-Islamic traditions, dating back to Alexander's defeat of the Persian Empire in 330BC, possibly survived in the form of traditional dances, while literary styles and music reflect influence from the Persian tradition and regional musical instruments fused with localised variants and interpretation. Poetry is a big part of Pashtun culture and it has been for centuries.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtun culture is a unique blend of native customs and depending on the region with some influences from Western or Southern Asia. Like other Muslims, Pashtuns celebrate Ramadan and Eid al-Fitr. Pashtuns in Afghanistan also celebrate Nauruz, which is the Persian New Year dating back to Zoroastrianism. The Kabul dialect is used to standardize the present Pashto alphabet.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtunwali () refers to an ancient self-governing tribal system that regulates nearly all aspects of Pashtun life ranging from community to personal level. One of the better known tenets is Melmastyā́ (), hospitality and asylum to all guests seeking help. Perceived injustice calls for Badál (), swift revenge. Many aspects promote peaceful co-existence, such as Nənawā́te (), the humble admission of guilt for a wrong committed, which should result in automatic forgiveness from the wronged party. These and other basic precepts of Pashtunwali continue to be followed by many Pashtuns, especially in rural areas.",
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"plaintext": "Another prominent Pashtun institution is the lóya jirgá () or 'grand council' of elected elders. Most decisions in tribal life are made by members of the jirgá (), which has been the main institution of authority that the largely egalitarian Pashtuns willingly acknowledge as a viable governing body.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of Pashtuns use Pashto as their native tongue, believed to belong to the Indo-Iranian language family, and is spoken by up to 60million people. It is written in the Pashto-Arabic script and is divided into two main dialects, the southern \"Pashto\" and the northern \"Pukhto\". The language has ancient origins and bears similarities to extinct languages such as Avestan and Bactrian. Its closest modern relatives may include Pamir languages, such as Shughni and Wakhi, and Ossetic. Pashto may have ancient legacy of borrowing vocabulary from neighbouring languages including such as Persian and Vedic Sanskrit. Modern borrowings come primarily from the English language.",
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"plaintext": "Fluency in Pashto is often the main determinant of group acceptance as to who is considered a Pashtun. Pashtun nationalism emerged following the rise of Pashto poetry that linked language and ethnic identity. Pashto has national status in Afghanistan and regional status in neighboring Pakistan. In addition to their native tongue, many Pashtuns are fluent in Dari, English and Urdu. Throughout their history, poets, prophets, kings and warriors have been among the most revered members of Pashtun society. Early written records of Pashto began to appear around the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest describes Sheikh Mali's conquest of Swat. Pir Roshan is believed to have written a number of Pashto books while fighting with the Mughals. Pashtun scholars such as Abdul Hai Habibi and others believe that the earliest Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana as proof. Amir Kror Suri, son of Amir Polad Suri, was an 8th-century folk hero and king from the Ghor region in Afghanistan. However, this is disputed by several European experts due to lack of strong evidence.",
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"plaintext": "The advent of poetry helped transition Pashto to the modern period. Pashto literature gained significant prominence in the 20th century, with poetry by Ameer Hamza Shinwari who developed Pashto Ghazals. In 1919, during the expanding of mass media, Mahmud Tarzi published Seraj-al-Akhbar, which became the first Pashto newspaper in Afghanistan. In 1977, Khan Roshan Khan wrote Tawarikh-e-Hafiz Rehmatkhani which contains the family trees and Pashtun tribal names. Some notable poets include Khushal Khan Khattak, Afzal Khan Khattak, Ajmal Khattak, Pareshan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Anaa, Hamza Shinwari, Ahmad Shah Durrani, Timur Shah Durrani, Shuja Shah Durrani, Ghulam Muhammad Tarzi, and Ghani Khan.",
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"plaintext": "Recently, Pashto literature has received increased patronage, but many Pashtuns continue to rely on oral tradition due to relatively low literacy rates and education. Pashtun society is also marked by some matriarchal tendencies. Folktales involving reverence for Pashtun mothers and matriarchs are common and are passed down from parent to child, as is most Pashtun heritage, through a rich oral tradition that has survived the ravages of time.",
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"plaintext": "Pashto media has expanded in the last decade, with a number of Pashto TV channels becoming available. Two of the popular ones are the Pakistan-based AVT Khyber and Pashto One. Pashtuns around the world, particularly those in Arab countries, watch these for entertainment purposes and to get latest news about their native areas. Others are Afghanistan-based Shamshad TV, Radio Television Afghanistan, and Lemar TV, which has a special children's show called Baghch-e-Simsim. International news sources that provide Pashto programs include BBC Pashto and Voice of America.",
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"plaintext": "Producers based in Peshawar have created Pashto-language films since the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtun performers remain avid participants in various physical forms of expression including dance, sword fighting, and other physical feats. Perhaps the most common form of artistic expression can be seen in the various forms of Pashtun dances. One of the most prominent dances is Attan, which has ancient roots. A rigorous exercise, Attan is performed as musicians play various native instruments including the dhol (drums), tablas (percussions), rubab (a bowed string instrument), and toola (wooden flute). With a rapid circular motion, dancers perform until no one is left dancing, similar to Sufi whirling dervishes. Numerous other dances are affiliated with various tribes notably from Pakistan including the Khattak Wal Atanrh (eponymously named after the Khattak tribe), Mahsood Wal Atanrh (which, in modern times, involves the juggling of loaded rifles), and Waziro Atanrh among others. A sub-type of the Khattak Wal Atanrh known as the Braghoni involves the use of up to three swords and requires great skill. Young women and girls often entertain at weddings with the Tumbal (Dayereh) which is an instrument.",
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"plaintext": "The Afghanistan national cricket team, which has many Pashtun players, was formed in the early 2000s. ",
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"plaintext": "One of the most popular sports among Pashtuns is cricket, which was introduced to South Asia during the early 18th century with the arrival of the British. Many Pashtuns have become prominent international cricketers in the Pakistan national cricket team, including Imran Khan, Shahid Afridi, Majid Khan, Misbah-ul-Haq, Younis Khan, Umar Gul, Junaid Khan, Fakhar Zaman, Mohammad Rizwan, Usman Shinwari and Yasir Shah. Australian cricketer Fawad Ahmed is of Pakistani Pashtun origin who has played for the Australian national team.",
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"plaintext": "Football (soccer) is also one of the most popular sports among Pashtuns. The Former captain and now the current assistant coach of Pakistan national football team, Muhammad Essa, is an ethnic Pashtun. ",
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"plaintext": "In Afghanistan, the Pashtuns still practice the sport of Buzkashi. The horse-mounted players attempt to place a goat or calf carcass in a goal circle.",
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"plaintext": "Jahangir Khan and Jansher Khan became professional squash players. Although now retired, they are engaged in promoting the sport through the Pakistan Squash Federation. Maria Toorpakai Wazir is the first female Pashtun squash player. Pakistan also produced other world champions of Pashtun origin: Hashim Khan, Roshan Khan, Azam Khan, Mo Khan and Qamar Zaman.In recent decades Hayatullah Khan Durrani, Pride of Performance legendary caver from Quetta, has been promoting mountaineering, rock climbing and Caving in Balochistan, Pakistan. Mohammad Abubakar Durrani International Canoeing shining star of Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "Snooker and billiards are played by young Pashtun men, mainly in urban areas where snooker clubs are found. Several prominent international recognized snooker players are from the Pashtun area, including Saleh Mohammed. Although traditionally very less involved in sports than boys, Pashtun girls sometimes play volleyball, basketball, football, and cricket, especially in urban areas.",
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"plaintext": "Makha is a traditional archery sport in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, played with a long arrow (gheshai) having a saucer shaped metallic plate at its distal end, and a long bow.",
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"plaintext": "Before the Islamization of their territory, the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults such as Zoroastrianism, ancient Iranian religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. The region of Arachosia, around Kandahar and Quetta in modern-day southern Afghanistan and western Pakistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia and is thus considered by some to be the \"second homeland of Zoroastrianism\". The Khalaj of Kabul, supposed ancestors of the modern Ghilji Pashtuns, used to worship various local ancient Iranian gods such as the fire God Atar. The historic region of Gandhara used to be dominantly Hindu and Buddhist. Buddhism, in its own unique syncretic form, was also common throughout the whole region, people would be patrons of Buddhism but still worship local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana, Anahita or Mihr(Mithra).",
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"plaintext": "In folklore, it is believed that most Pashtuns are descendants of Qais Abdur Rashid, who is purported to have been an early convert to Islam and thus bequeathed the faith to the early Pashtun population. The legend says that after Qais heard of the new religion of Islam, he travelled to meet Muhammad in Medina and returned to Afghanistan as a Muslim. He purportedly had four children: Sarban, Batan, Ghourghusht and Karlan. This theory has been criticised, for not being substantiated by historical evidence and based on post-Arabic influence.",
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"plaintext": "The Muslim conquest of Afghanistan was not completed until the 10th century under Ghaznavid and Ghurid dynasty's rule who patronized Muslim religious institutions. The Caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 A.D.) conducted raids against non-Muslim rulers of a Kabul and Zabul. Al-Utbi in Tarikh Yamini states that the Afghans and Khaljis, living between Laghman and Peshawar, took the oath of allegiance to Sabuktigin and were recruited into his army.",
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"plaintext": "The overwhelming majority of Pashtuns follow Sunni Islam, belonging to the Hanafi school of thought. There are some Shia Pashtun communities in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan and in neighbouring northeastern section of Paktia Province of Afghanistan. The Shias belong to the Turi tribe while the Bangash tribe is approximately 50% Shia and the rest Sunni, who are mainly found in and around the Parachinar, Kurram, Hangu, Kohat and Orakzai areas in Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "A legacy of Sufi activity may be found in some Pashtun regions, especially in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa area, as evident in songs and dances. Many Pashtuns are prominent Ulema, Islamic scholars, such as Maulana Aazam an author of more than five hundred books including Tafasee of the Quran as Naqeeb Ut Tafaseer, Tafseer Ul Aazamain, Tafseer e Naqeebi and Noor Ut Tafaseer etc., as well as Muhammad Muhsin Khan who has helped translate the Noble Quran, Sahih Al-Bukhari and many other books to the English language. Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani was a 19th-century Islamic ideologist and one of the founders of Islamic modernism. Although his ethnicity is disputed by some, he is widely accepted in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region as well as in the Arab world, as a Pashtun from the Kunar Province of Afghanistan. Like other non Arabic-speaking Muslims, many Pashtuns are able to read the Quran but not understand the Arabic language implicit in the holy text itself. Translations, especially in English, are scarcely far and in between understood or distributed. This paradox has contributed to the spread of different versions of religious practices and Wahabism, as well as political Islamism (including movements such as the Taliban) having a key presence in Pashtun society. In order to counter radicalisation and fundamentalism, the United States began spreading its influence in Pashtun areas. Many Pashtuns want to reclaim their identity from being lumped in with the Taliban and international terrorism, which is not directly linked with Pashtun culture and history.",
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"plaintext": "Lastly, little information is available on non-Muslim as there is limited data regarding irreligious groups and minorities, especially since many of the Hindu and Sikh Pashtuns migrated from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa after the partition of India and later, after the rise of the Taliban.",
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"plaintext": "A small Pashtun Hindu community, known as the Sheen Khalai meaning 'blue skinned' (referring to the color of Pashtun women's facial tattoos), migrated to Unniara, Rajasthan, India after partition. Prior to 1947, the community resided in the Quetta, Loralai and Maikhter regions of the British Indian province of Baluchistan. They are mainly members of the Pashtun Kakar tribe. Today, they continue to speak Pashto and celebrate Pashtun culture through the Attan dance.",
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"plaintext": "There is also a minority of Pashtun Sikhs in some tribal areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, including in Tirah, Orakzai, Kurram, Malakand, and Swat. Due to the ongoing insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, like many other tribal Pashtuns, some Pashtun Sikhs were internally displaced from their ancestral villages to settle in cities like Peshawar and Nankana Sahib.",
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"plaintext": "In Pashtun society there are three levels of women's leadership and legislative authority: the national level, the village level, and the family level. The national level includes women such as Nazo Tokhi (Nazo Anaa), Zarghona Anaa, and Malalai of Maiwand. Nazo Anaa was a prominent 17th century Pashto poet and an educated Pashtun woman who eventually became the \"Mother of Afghan Nationalism\" after gaining authority through her poetry and upholding of the Pashtunwali code. She used the Pashtunwali law to unite the Pashtun tribes against their Persian enemies. Her cause was picked up in the early 18th century by Zarghona Anaa, the mother of Ahmad Shah Durrani.",
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"plaintext": "The lives of Pashtun women vary from those who reside in conservative rural areas, such as the tribal belt, to those found in relatively freer urban centres. At the village level, the female village leader is called \"qaryadar\". Her duties may include witnessing women's ceremonies, mobilising women to practice religious festivals, preparing the female dead for burial, and performing services for deceased women. She also arranges marriages for her own family and arbitrates conflicts for men and women. Though many Pashtun women remain tribal and illiterate, others have become educated and gainfully employed.",
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"plaintext": "In Afghanistan, the decades of war and the rise of the Taliban caused considerable hardship among Pashtun women, as many of their rights were curtailed by a rigid interpretation of Islamic law. The difficult lives of Afghan female refugees gained considerable notoriety with the iconic image Afghan Girl (Sharbat Gula) depicted on the June 1985 cover of National Geographic magazine.",
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"plaintext": "Modern social reform for Pashtun women began in the early 20th century, when Queen Soraya Tarzi of Afghanistan made rapid reforms to improve women's lives and their position in the family. She was the only woman to appear on the list of rulers in Afghanistan. Credited with having been one of the first and most powerful Afghan and Muslim female activists. Her advocacy of social reforms for women led to a protest and contributed to the ultimate demise of King Amanullah's reign in 1929. In 1942, Madhubala (Mumtaz Jehan), the Marilyn Monroe of India, entered the Bollywood film industry. Bollywood blockbusters of the 1970s and 1980s starred Parveen Babi, who hailed from the lineage of Gujarat's historical Pathan community: the royal Babi Dynasty. Other Indian actresses and models, such as Zarine Khan, continue to work in the industry. Civil rights remained an important issue during the 1970s, as feminist leader Meena Keshwar Kamal campaigned for women's rights and founded the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) in the 1977.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtun women these days vary from the traditional housewives who live in seclusion to urban workers, some of whom seek or have attained parity with men. But due to numerous social hurdles, the literacy rate remains considerably lower for Pashtun females than for males. Abuse against women is present and increasingly being challenged by women's rights organisations which find themselves struggling with conservative religious groups as well as government officials in both Pakistan and Afghanistan. According to a 1992 book, \"a powerful ethic of forbearance severely limits the ability of traditional Pashtun women to mitigate the suffering they acknowledge in their lives.\"",
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"plaintext": "Despite obstacles, many Pashtun women have begun a process of slow change. A rich oral tradition and resurgence of poetry has inspired many Pashtun women seeking to learn to read and write. Further challenging the status quo, Vida Samadzai was selected as Miss Afghanistan in 2003, a feat that was received with a mixture of support from those who back the individual rights of women and those who view such displays as anti-traditionalist and un-Islamic. Some Pashtun women have attained political office in Pakistan. In Afghanistan, following recent elections, the proportion of female political representatives is one of the highest in the world. A number of Pashtun women are found as TV hosts, journalists and actors. Khatol Mohammadzai serves as Brigadier general in the military of Afghanistan, another Pashtun female became a fighter pilot in the Pakistan Air Force. Some other notable Pashtun women include Suhaila Seddiqi, Zeenat Karzai, Shukria Barakzai, Fauzia Gailani, Naghma, Najiba Faiz, Tabassum Adnan, Sana Safi, Malalai Kakar, Malala Yousafzai, and the late Ghazala Javed.",
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"plaintext": "Pashtun women often have their legal rights curtailed in favour of their husbands or male relatives. For example, though women are officially allowed to vote in Afghanistan and Pakistan, some have been kept away from ballot boxes by males. Another tradition that persists is swara (a form of child marriage), which was declared illegal in Pakistan in 2000 but continues in some parts. Substantial work remains for Pashtun women to gain equal rights with men, who remain disproportionately dominant in most aspects of Pashtun society. Human rights organisations continue to struggle for greater women's rights, such as the Afghan Women's Network and the Aurat Foundation in Pakistan which aims to protect women from domestic violence.",
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{
"plaintext": "Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Durrani Empire. Defeated the Maratha Empire at the Third Battle of Panipat. He is considered to be the founder of modern-day Afghanistan. ",
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"plaintext": "Mirwais Hotak, revolted against Safavid Iran and established the Hotak dynasty.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Mahmud Hotak, second ruler of the Hotaki dynasty and Shah of Persia. He Invaded Persia and overthrew the Safavid dynasty.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Azad Shah Afghan, military commander famous for conquering parts of Central and Western Iran, as well as Kurdistan and Gilan.",
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"plaintext": "Hamid Karzai, head of the Popalzai tribe and served as President of Afghanistan from 22 December 2001 to 29 September 2014.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Mohammad Ashraf Ghani, the previous president Islamic republic of Afghanistan.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Mohammad Najibullah, Afghan politician ",
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},
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"plaintext": "Gulbuddin Hekmatyar",
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},
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"plaintext": "Hafizullah Amin",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mohammed Daoud Khan",
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"section_name": "Notable people",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Mohammed Zahir Shah",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ayub Khan (Hindko Speaker)",
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"section_name": "Notable people",
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},
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"plaintext": "Yahya Khan",
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"section_name": "Notable people",
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},
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"plaintext": "Amanullah Khan ",
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"section_name": "Notable people",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shaheen Afridi, Pakistani cricketer.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Rashid Khan, Afghan cricketer.",
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},
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"plaintext": "Khalilullah Khalili, Pashtun poet of the Persian language. ",
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"plaintext": "Sher Shah Suri, founder and 16th century ruler of the Sur Empire. Defeated the Mughal Empire at the Battle of Chausa.",
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"section_name": "Notable people",
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"plaintext": "Rahman Baba, Pashto poet and Sufi Dervish. ",
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"plaintext": "Bahlul Lodi, founder and 15th century ruler of the Lodi dynasty. ",
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"plaintext": "Sikandar Lodi, Sultan of the Lodi dynasty. He gained control of Bihar and founded the modern city of Agra.",
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"plaintext": "Abdul Ahad Mohmand, first Afghan cosmonaut, made Pashto the 4th language spoken in space",
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"plaintext": "Madhubala, Indian actress of Pashtun descent. Famous for her portrayal of Anarkali in the 1960 film Mughal-e-Azam, which was the highest grossing film in India at that point of time.",
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"plaintext": "Nazo Tokhi, Afghan poetess and writer in the Pashto language. Mother of the 18th century Afghan King Mirwais Hotak. ",
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"plaintext": "Wazir Akbar Khan, Afghan prince, general and emir. Famous for his role in the First Anglo-Afghan War, particularly for the massacre of Elphinstone's army. ",
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"plaintext": "Abdul Ghafoor Breshna, painter, music composer, poet and film director. Breshna is regarded as one of Afghanistan's most talented artists. He is the artist behind the painting 1747 coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani, sketch of Sher Shah Suri and the Afghan national anthem of the Republic of Afghanistan. ",
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"plaintext": "Malalai of Maiwand, national folk hero of Afghanistan. Rallied Pashtun fighters to defeat the British during the Second Anglo-Afghan war. ",
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"plaintext": "Pir Roshan, warrior, poet, Sufi and revolutionary leader. Created the first known Pashto alphabet. He's also the founder of the Roshani movement/the enlightened movement.",
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"plaintext": "Hamza Shinwari, prominent Pashto poet. He is considered a bridge between classic Pashto literature and modern literature.",
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"plaintext": "Abdul Ghani Khan, philosopher, poet, eartist, writer and politician. ",
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"plaintext": "Ahmad Zahir, dubbed the \"Elvis of Afghanistan\", Ahmad Zahir is considered to be the best singer in Afghanistan's history. Most of his songs are in Persian, albeit he also made many songs in Pashto, Russian, English and Urdu.",
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"plaintext": "Mirza Mazhar Jan-e-Janaan, renowned Hanafi Maturidi Naqshbandi Sufi poet, distinguished as one of the \"four pillars of Urdu poetry\".",
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"plaintext": " Pashtun culture",
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"plaintext": " List of Pashtun empires and dynasties",
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"plaintext": " Pashto literature and poetry",
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"plaintext": " Pashtun diaspora",
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"plaintext": " Pashtun tribes",
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"plaintext": " Pashtun nationalism",
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"plaintext": " Pashtunistan",
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"plaintext": " Pashtunization",
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"plaintext": " Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan",
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"plaintext": " Note: population statistics for Pashtuns (including those without a notation) in foreign countries were derived from various census counts, the UN, the CIA's The World Factbook and Ethnologue.",
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"plaintext": " Ahmad, Aisha and Boase, Roger. 2003. \"Pashtun Tales from the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier: From the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier.\" Saqi Books (1 March 2003). .",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ahmad, Jamil. 2012. \"The Wandering Falcon.\" Riverhead Trade. . A loosely connected collection of short stories focused on life in the Pashtun tribal regions.",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ahmed, Akbar S. 1976. \"Millennium and Charisma among Pathans: A Critical Essay in Social Anthropology.\" London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.",
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"target_page_ids": [
15950685
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"plaintext": " Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980. \"Pukhtun economy and society.\" London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Banuazizi, Ali and Myron Weiner (eds.). 1994. \"The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East).\" Syracuse University Press. .",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Banuazizi, Ali and Myron Weiner (eds.). 1988. \"The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East).\" Syracuse University Press. .",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Caroe, Olaf. 1984. The Pathans: 500B.C.-A.D. 1957'' (Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints). Oxford University Press. .",
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"target_page_ids": [
13786289
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"anchor_spans": [
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"plaintext": " Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1985. \"Peshawar: Historic city of the Frontier.\" Sang-e-Meel Publications (1995). .",
"section_idx": 14,
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"target_page_ids": [
1629691
],
"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Docherty, Paddy. The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion: A History of Invasion and Empire. 2007. Faber and Faber. . The Khyber Pass: A History of Empire and Invasion",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " Dupree, Louis. 1997. \"Afghanistan.\" Oxford University Press. .",
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"plaintext": " Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. \"An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India: comprising a view of the Afghaun nation.\" Akadem. Druck- u. Verlagsanst (1969). online version.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
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"plaintext": " Habibi, Abdul Hai. 2003. \"Afghanistan: An Abridged History.\" Fenestra Books. .",
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"plaintext": " Hopkirk, Peter. 1984. \" The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia\" Kodansha Globe; Reprint edition. .",
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2365645
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"plaintext": " Spain, James W. (1962; 2nd edition 1972). \"The Way Of The Pathans.\" Oxford University Press. .",
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8101427
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"plaintext": " Wardak, Ali \"Jirga – A Traditional Mechanism of Conflict Resolution in Afghanistan\" , 2003, online at UNPAN (the United Nations Online Network in Public Administration and Finance).",
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| [
"Social_groups_of_Khyber_Pakhtunkhwa",
"Social_groups_of_Balochistan,_Pakistan",
"Ethnic_groups_in_Pakistan",
"Ethnic_groups_in_Afghanistan",
"Ethnic_groups_in_India",
"Iranian_ethnic_groups",
"Ethnic_groups_divided_by_international_borders",
"Pashtun_people",
"Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia"
]
| 2,556,103 | 57,606 | 2,901 | 900 | 0 | 0 | Pashtuns | Iranic ethnic group native to Afghanistan and Western Pakistan | [
"Pathans",
"Ethnic Afghans"
]
|
36,975 | 1,102,760,942 | Electric_boat | [
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"plaintext": "An early electric boat was developed by the German inventor Moritz von Jacobi in 1839 in St Petersburg, Russia. It was a boat which carried 14 passengers at . It was successfully demonstrated to Emperor Nicholas I of Russia on the Neva River.",
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"plaintext": "It took more than 30 years of battery and motor development before the electric boat became a practical proposition. This method of propulsion enjoyed something of a golden age from about 1880 to 1920, when gasoline-powered outboard motors became the dominant method. Gustave Trouvé, a French electrical engineer, patented a small electric motor in 1880. He initially suggested that the motor could power a set of paddle wheels to propel boats on the water, and later argued for the use of a propeller.",
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"plaintext": "An Austrian émigré to Britain, Anthony Reckenzaun, was instrumental in the development of the first practical electric boats. While working as an engineer for the Electrical Power Storage Company, he undertook much original and pioneering work on various forms of electric traction. In 1882 he designed the first significant electric launch driven by storage batteries, and named the boat Electricity. The boat had a steel hull and was over seven metres long. The batteries and electric equipment were hidden from view beneath the seating area, increasing the space available for the accommodation of passengers. The boats were used for leisure excursions up and down the River Thames and provided a very smooth, clean and quiet trip. The boat could run for six hours and operate at an average speed of 8 miles per hour.",
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"plaintext": "Moritz Immisch established his company in 1882 in partnership with William Keppel, 7th Earl of Albemarle, specializing in the application of electric motors to transportation. The company employed Magnus Volk as a manager in the development of their electric launch department. After 12 months of experimental work starting in 1888 with a randan skiff, the firm commissioned the construction of hulls which they equipped with electrical apparatus. The world's first fleet of electric launches for hire, with a chain of electrical charging stations, was established along the River Thames in the 1880s. An 1893 pleasure map of the Thames shows eight \"charging stations for electric launches\" between Kew (Strand-on-the-Green) and Reading (Caversham). The company built its headquarters on the island called Platt's Eyot.",
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"plaintext": "From 1889 until just before the First World War the boating season and regattas saw the silent electric boats plying their way up and downstream.",
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"plaintext": "The company's electric launches were widely used by the rich as a conveyance along the river. Grand ships were constructed of teak or mahogany and furnished luxuriously, with stained glass windows, silk curtains and velvet cushions. William Sargeant was commissioned by Immisch's company to build the Mary Gordon in 1898 for Leeds City Council for use on the Roundhay Park Lake - the boat still survives and is currently being restored. This 70-foot long luxury pleasure craft could carry up to 75 passengers in comfort. Launches were exported elsewhere - they were used in the Lake District and all over the world.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1893 Chicago World Fair 55 launches developed from Anthony Reckenzaun's work carried more than a million passengers. Electric boats had an early period of popularity between around 1890 and 1920, before the emergence of the internal combustion engine drove them out of most applications.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the electric boats of this era were small passenger boats on non-tidal waters at a time when the only power alternative was steam.",
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"plaintext": "With the advent of the gasoline-powered outboard motor, the use of electric power on boats declined from the 1920s. However, in a few situations, the use of electric boats has persisted from the early 20th century to the present day. One of these is on the Königssee lake, near Berchtesgaden in south-eastern Germany. Here the lake is considered so environmentally sensitive that steam and motor boats have been prohibited since 1909. Instead the Bayerische Seenschifffahrt company and its predecessors have operated a fleet of electric launches to provide a public passenger service on the lake.",
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"plaintext": "The first electrically powered submarines were built in the 1890s, such as the Spanish Peral submarine, launched in 1888. Since then, electric power has been used almost exclusively for the powering of submarines underwater (traditionally by batteries), although diesel was used for directly powering the propeller while on the surface until the development of diesel–electric transmission by the US Navy in 1928, in which the propeller was always powered by an electric motor, energy coming from batteries while submerged or diesel generator while surfaced.",
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"plaintext": "The use of combined fuel and electric propulsion (combined diesel–electric or gas, or CODLOG) has gradually been extended over the years to the extent that some modern liners such as the Queen Mary 2 use only electric motors for the actual propulsion, powered by diesel and gas turbine engines. The advantages include being able to run the fuel engines at an optimal speed at all times and being able to mount the electric motor in a pod which may be rotated by 360° for increased manoeuvrability. Note that this is not actually an electric boat, but rather a variant of diesel–electric or turbine-electric propulsion, similar to the diesel or electric propulsion used on submarines since WWI.",
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"plaintext": "The use of electricity alone to power boats stagnated apart from their outboard use as trolling motors until the Duffy Electric Boat Company of California started mass-producing small electric craft in 1968. It was not until 1982 that the Electric Boat Association was formed and solar powered boats started to emerge. To reduce friction and increase range, some boats use hydrofoils.",
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"plaintext": "The main components of the drive system of any electrically powered boat are similar in all cases, and similar to the options available for any electric vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "Electric energy has to be obtained for the battery bank from some source like the sun.",
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"plaintext": " A mains charger allows the boat to be charged from shore-side power when available. Shore-based power stations are subject to much stricter environmental controls than the average marine diesel or outboard motor. By purchasing green electricity it is possible to operate electric boats using sustainable or renewable energy. For large vessels, an onshore battery may be necessary to provide more short-term power than the grid can supply. ",
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"plaintext": " Solar panels can be built into the boat in reasonable areas in the deck, cabin roof or as awnings. Some solar panels, or photovoltaic arrays, can be flexible enough to fit to slightly curved surfaces and can be ordered in unusual shapes and sizes. Nonetheless, the heavier, rigid mono-crystalline types are more efficient in terms of energy output per square meter. The efficiency of solar panels rapidly decreases when they are not pointed directly at the sun, so some way of tilting the arrays while under way is very advantageous.",
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"plaintext": " Towed generators are common on long-distance cruising yachts and can generate a lot of power when travelling under sail. If an electric boat has sails as well, and will be used in deep water (deeper than about ), then a towed generator can help build up battery charge while sailing (there is no point in trailing such a generator while under electric propulsion as the extra drag from the generator would waste more electricity than it generates). Some electric power systems use the free-wheeling drive propeller to generate charge through the drive motor when sailing, but this system, including the design of the propeller and any gearing, cannot be optimised for both functions. It may be better locked off or feathered while the towed generator's more efficient turbine gathers energy.",
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"plaintext": " Wind turbines are common on cruising yachts and can be very well suited to electric boats. There are safety considerations regarding the spinning blades, especially in a strong wind. It is important that the boat is big enough that the turbine can be mounted out of the way of all passengers and crew under all circumstances, including when alongside a dock, a bank or a pier. It is also important that the boat is big enough and stable enough that the top hamper created by the turbine on its pole or mast does not compromise its stability in a strong wind or gale. Large enough wind generators could produce a completely wind-powered electric boat. No such boats are yet known although a few mechanical wind turbine powered boats exist.",
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"plaintext": " In hybrid electric boats, if a boat has an internal combustion engine anyway, then its alternator will provide significant charge when it is running. Two schemes are in use: the combustion engine and the electric motor are both coupled to the drive (parallel hybrid), or the combustion engine drives a generator only for charging the storage batteries (series hybrid).",
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"plaintext": "In all cases, a charge regulator is needed. This ensures that the batteries are charged at their maximum safe rate when power is available, without overheating or internal damage, and that they are not overcharged when nearing full charge.",
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"plaintext": "There have been significant technical advances in battery technology in recent years, and more are to be expected in the future.",
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"plaintext": " Lead–acid batteries were still the most viable option until the advent of larger, lithium-ion batteries mass-produced for electric cars from approximately 2012 onwards. Deep-cycle, 'traction' batteries are the obvious choice. They are heavy and bulky, but not much more so than the diesel engine, tanks and fittings that they may replace. They need to be securely mounted, low down and centrally situated in the boat. It is essential that they cannot move around under any circumstances. Care must be taken that there is no risk of the strong acid being spilled in the event of a capsize as this could be very dangerous. Venting of explosive hydrogen and oxygen gases is also necessary. Typical lead-acid batteries must be kept topped-up with distilled water.",
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"plaintext": " Valve-regulated lead-acid batteries (VRLA), usually known as sealed lead-acid, gel, or AGM batteries, minimize the risk of spillage, and gases are only vented when the batteries are overcharged. These batteries require minimal maintenance, as they cannot and usually do not need to be refilled with water.",
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"plaintext": " Nickel metal hydride, lithium-ion and other battery types are becoming available, but are still expensive. These are the kind of batteries currently common in rechargeable hand tools like drills and screwdrivers, but they are relatively new to this environment. They require different charge controllers to those that suit lead-acid types.",
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"plaintext": " Lithium-ion in this case usually means lithium iron phosphate batteries, which although are heavier than other lithium-ion, is safer for marine application. They are expensive but in applications which need reliability and ruggedness like ferries which run most of the day (10–12 hours/day) this is the best option. It has a much longer life - 5 to 7 years life-cycle.",
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"plaintext": " Fuel cells or flow batteries may provide significant advantages in years to come. Today (2017) however they are still expensive and require specialist equipment and knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "The size of the battery bank determines the range of the boat under electric power. The speed at which the boat is motored also affects range – a lower speed can make a big difference to the energy required to move a hull. Other factors that affect range include sea-state, currents, windage and any charge that can be reclaimed while under way, for example by solar panels in full sun. A wind turbine in a good wind will help, and motor-sailing in any wind could do so even more.",
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"plaintext": "To make the boat usable and manoeuvrable, a simple-to-operate forward/stop/backwards speed controller is needed. This must be efficient—i.e. it must not get hot and waste energy at any speed—and it must be able to stand the full current that could conceivably flow under any full-load condition. One of the most common types of speed controllers uses pulse-width modulation (PWM). PWM controllers send high frequency pulses of power to the motor(s). As more power is needed the pulses become longer in duration.",
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"plaintext": "A wide variety of electric motor technologies are in use. Traditional field-wound DC motors were and still are used. Today many boats use lightweight permanent magnet DC motors. The advantage of both types is that while the speed can be controlled electronically, this is not a requirement. Some boats use AC motors or permanent magnet brushless motors. The advantages of these are the lack of commutators which can wear out or fail and the often lower currents allowing thinner cables; the disadvantages are the total reliance on the required electronic controllers and the usually high voltages which require a high standard of insulation.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional boats use an inboard motor powering a propeller through a propeller shaft complete with bearings and seals. Often a gear reduction is incorporated in order to be able to use a larger more efficient propeller. This can be a traditional gear box, coaxial planetary gears or a transmission with belts or chains. Because of the inevitable loss associated with gearing, many drives eliminate it by using slow high-torque motors. The electric motor can be encapsulated into a pod with the propeller and fixed outside the hull (saildrive) or on an outboard fixture (outboard motor).",
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"plaintext": "There are as many types of electric boat as there are boats with any other method of propulsion, but some types are significant for various reasons.",
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"plaintext": " Historical and restored electric boats, such as the Mary Gordon Electric Boat, exist and are often important projects for those involved.",
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"plaintext": " Range anxiety is a common concern for those considering electric propulsion on a boat. In 2018, the crew of Rigging Doctor on board Wisdom crossed the Atlantic Ocean with an electric motor. ",
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"plaintext": " Canal, river and lake boats. Electric boats, with their limited range and performance, have tended to be used mostly on inland waterways, where their complete lack of local pollution is a significant advantage. Electric drives are also available as auxiliary propulsion for sailing yachts on inland waters.",
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"plaintext": " Electric outboards and trolling motors have been available for some years at prices from about $100 (US) up to several thousand. These require external batteries in the bottom of the boat, but are otherwise practical one-piece items. Most available electric outboards are not as efficient as custom drives, but are optimised for their intended use, e.g. for inland waterway fishermen. They are quiet and they do not pollute the water or the air, so they do not scare away or harm fish, birds and other wildlife. Combined with modern waterproof battery packs, electric outboards are also ideal for yacht tenders and other inshore pleasure boats.",
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"plaintext": " Cruising yachts usually have an auxiliary engine, and there are two main uses for it: One is to power ahead or motor-sail at sea when the wind is light or from the wrong direction. The other is to provide the last 10 minutes or so of propulsion when the boat is in port and needs to be manoeuvred into a tight berth in a crowded and confined marina or harbour. Electric propulsion is not suitable for prolonged cruising at full power although the power required to motor slowly in light airs and calm seas is small. Regarding the second case, electric drives are ideally suited as they can be finely controlled and can provide substantial power for short periods of time.",
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"plaintext": " Commercial ferries:",
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"plaintext": "Norway's first battery-electric ferry is , with capacity for 120 cars and 12 trucks. , it has operated for 106,000km. Its battery holds 1 MWh of energy, but the 9-minute charge time is sometimes not enough, and more battery capacity is to be installed. Norway has scheduled several other electric ferry projects. Based on operational data, Siemens concludes in a life cycle analysis that 61 of Norway's 112 diesel ferry routes could be replaced by electric ferries with a payback time of 5 years. The analysis includes auxiliary costs such as chargers, grid, and so on.",
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"plaintext": "In Finland Föri, the historic Turku city ferry across the Aura River to Abo, was converted to all-electric propulsion in April 2017. The vessel was introduced as a wood-burning steam ferry in 1904, converted to diesel operation in 1955 and now provides a continuous daily service from 0615 to late evening for foot and cycle passengers on battery power. Charging takes place at night.",
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"plaintext": "Other projects are considered in Canada, Sweden and Denmark.",
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"plaintext": "India's First Solar Ferry, a 75-passenger boat, that is powered by sun and grid charging with lithium batteries, began service in 2017. Based on the predictions of consumption the payback time is 3 years.",
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"plaintext": "Some ferries can charge their onboard batteries while docked by using a pantograph.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, ferries can include, sometimes free, charging points for the passengers' transported electric bicycle, electric motorcycles and electric cars.",
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"plaintext": " Diesel–electric hybrid: There is a third potential use for a diesel auxiliary and that is to charge the batteries, when they suddenly start to wane far from shore in the middle of the night, or at anchor after some days of living aboard. In this case, where this kind of use is to be expected, perhaps on a larger cruising yacht, then a combined diesel–electric solution may be designed from the start. The diesel engine is installed with the prime purpose of charging the battery banks, and the electric motor with that of propulsion. There is some reduction in efficiency if motoring for long distances as the diesel's power is converted first to electricity and then to motion, but there is a balancing saving every time the wind-, sail- and solar-charged batteries are used for manoeuvring and for short journeys without starting the diesel. There is the flexibility of being able to start the diesel as a pure generator whenever required. The main losses are in weight and installation cost, but on the bigger cruising boats that may sit at anchor running large diesels for hours every day, these are not too big an issue, compared to the savings that can be made at other times. An example is the fishing boat Selfa El-Max 1099, with 135kWh battery and 80kW diesel generator. An LNG-powered supply vessel started operation in 2016 with a 653kWh/1600kW battery acting as spinning reserve during dynamic positioning, saving 15-30% fuel.",
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"plaintext": " Solar powered: A boat propelled by direct solar energy is a marine solar vehicle. The available sunlight is almost always converted to electricity by solar cells, temporarily stored in accumulator batteries, and used to drive a propeller through an electric motor. Power levels are usually on the order of a few hundred watts to a few kilowatts. Solar powered boats started to become known around 1985 and in 1995 the first commercial solar passenger boats appeared. Solar powered boats have been used successfully at sea. The first crossing of the Atlantic Ocean was achieved in the winter of 2006/2007 by the solar catamaran Sun21. (see also List of solar-powered boats)",
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"plaintext": "Trolley boats are a special category of electric boats are the vessels receiving their electrical power by wire. This may involve overhead wires, where one or two wires are fixed over the water and the boat can make contact with them to draw electric current, or a waterproof tether cable may be used to connect the boat to shore. In case of a single overhead wire the electrical circuit has to be closed by the water itself, giving rise to a larger resistance and corrosion of the electrodes. In case of two wires no electric current has to be sent through the water, but the twin wires, which cause a short-circuit whenever they come into contact with each other, complicate the construction.",
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"plaintext": "Naturally the boat has to stay close to the wire, or its tether point, and therefore it is limited in its manoeuvrability. For ferries and on narrow canals this is no problem. The Straussee Ferry in Strausberg, Germany is an example. It crosses a lake along a 370m trajectory and is powered by 170V from a single overhead wire. The Kastellet ferry crosses a wide shipping channel in Sweden, using a submergible tethered supply cable which is lowered to the sea-bed when the ferry is docked at the opposite terminal to its tethering point.",
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"plaintext": "In the on the Marne-Rhine Canal a bipolar overhead line provides 600V DC to an electrical tug, pulling itself and several ships through the 4877m tunnel along a submerged chain. This prevents the buildup of diesel exhaust fumes in the tunnel. Another example was the experimental on the Kleinmachnower See, 17km south-west of Berlin. It was used from 1903 until 1910 and had current collection poles based on those used by trolley buses.",
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"plaintext": "All the component parts of any boat have to be manufactured and will eventually have to be disposed of. Some pollution and use of other energy sources are inevitable during these stages of the boat's life and electric boats are no exception. The benefits to the global environment that are achieved by the use of electric propulsion are manifested during the working life of the boat, which can be many years. These benefits are also most directly felt in the sensitive and beautiful environments in which such a boat is used.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Pollution and embodied energy",
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"plaintext": "A 2016 life-cycle study in Norway states that electric ferries and hybrid offshore supply ships compensate for the environmental effects of producing lithium-ion batteries in less than 2 months.",
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"plaintext": "The British Classic Boat magazine carried a pro and con article entitled Electric debate in May 2010, when lead-acid batteries dominated the battery market, and fossil fuels dominated the UK electricity system. Jamie Campbell argued against electric boating on four main counts, which were rebuffed by Kevin Desmond and Ian Rutter of the Electric Boat Association. Jamie Campbell asserted that electric propulsion can no more be justified afloat than a Seagull outboard motor, proposing wooden sailing boats and rowing dinghies as \"by far the most environmentally sensitive and renewable options for recreational boating\".",
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"plaintext": "Campbell asserts that the lack of pollution from an electric boat \"reeks of nimbyism\" as \"the discharge is all in someone else's back yard\" and that the provision of re-charging points may involve digging up miles of habitat. Desmond responds that while there is no doubt that rechargeable batteries derive their energy from power stations (when not charged on board by solar and wind generation), noisier internal-combustion-engined boats obtain their fuel from even further away and that, once installed a power cable is less environmentally disruptive than a petrol station. Rutter notes that electric boats tend to recharge overnight, using 'base load'.",
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"plaintext": "While there are losses in the charge/discharge cycle and in the conversion of electricity to motive power, Rutter points out that most electric boats need only about to cruise at , a common maximum river speed and that a petrol or diesel engine producing only is considerably more inefficient. While Campbell refers to heavy batteries requiring a \"load-bearing hull\" and \"cranky, even unseaworthy vessels\", Desmond points out that electric boaters tend to prefer efficient, low-wash hull forms that are more friendly to river banks.",
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"plaintext": "Campbell discusses the pollution that \"traditional\" batteries put into the water when a boat sinks, but Desmond says that electric boats are no more liable to sinking than other types and lists the leakage of fuel, engine oil and coolant additives as inevitable when an internal-combustion-engined boat sinks. Rutter points to the \"very nasty cocktail of pollutants\" that come out of a diesel wet exhaust in normal use.",
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"plaintext": "Campbell mentions \"all manner of noxious chemicals ... involved in battery manufacture\", but Rutter describes them as being \"lead and sulphuric acid with a few extra trace metals in a modest plastic box\" with a potential lifetime of 10–12 years. Desmond says that the US has a 98% recycling rate for lead acid batteries and that the battery and lead-smelting industries observe some of the tightest pollution control standards in the world.",
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"plaintext": "The article mentions 25% and 30% discounts being offered to electric boaters by the UK Environment Agency and the Broads Authority and that battery powered vehicles have the carbon footprint of their petrol equivalents. It is claimed that a typical recharge after a day's cruising costs £1.50, without the use of solar or wind power.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the Tûranor PlanetSolar, a 35-metre long, 26-metre wide catamaran yacht powered by 537 square metres of solar panels, was unveiled. On 4 May 2012 it completed a circumnavigation of the Earth in Monaco after 585 days and visiting 28 different countries, without using any fossil fuel. It is so far the largest solar-powered boat ever built.",
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"plaintext": "India's first solar ferry - the Aditya - a 75-passenger boat fully powered by sun, is under construction. It is expected to be completed by the middle of 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Japan's biggest shipping line Nippon Yusen and Nippon Oil Corporation said solar panels capable of generating 40 kilowatts of electricity would be placed on top of a 60,000 tonne car carrier ship to be used by Toyota Motor Corporation.",
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"plaintext": "The Monaco yacht company Wally has announced a \"gigayacht\" designed for billionaires torn between buying a mansion and a superyacht. The Why 58 x 38 is designed to have an autonomous cruising range of 12,000 miles at 12 knots by means of 900m2 of solar panels which generate 150kW to assist the diesel–electric motors and optional Skysails.",
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"plaintext": " Catalina 30",
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"plaintext": " DC distribution system (ship propulsion)",
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"plaintext": " Electric outboard motor",
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"plaintext": " Frisian Solar Challenge",
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"plaintext": " Hydrogen-powered ship",
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"plaintext": " Integrated electric propulsion",
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"plaintext": " Lloyd's Register",
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"plaintext": " Open source hardware",
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"plaintext": " Oceanvolt",
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"plaintext": " Renewable energy",
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"plaintext": " Solar Splash",
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"plaintext": " Trolley boat",
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"plaintext": " e5 Project",
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"plaintext": " Electric Boat Design",
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"plaintext": " Electric passenger Boat Designed for the city of Bordeaux (France)",
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"plaintext": " Electric Boat Association (UK nonprofit)",
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"plaintext": " Electric Boat Association (Australia nonprofit)",
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"plaintext": " Electric Boat Association (US nonprofit)",
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"plaintext": " Electric Seas Organization (US nonprofit)",
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"plaintext": " Getting to Zero Coalition",
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"plaintext": " Project of making of 10 Passenger Solar Boat",
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| [
"Electric_boats",
"Marine_propulsion",
"Russian_inventions",
"Vehicles_introduced_in_1975"
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| 1,326,749 | 2,776 | 93 | 159 | 0 | 0 | electric boat | type of watercraft | [
"Plug-In ships"
]
|
36,976 | 1,104,110,043 | General_Dynamics_Electric_Boat | [
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"plaintext": "General Dynamics Electric Boat (GDEB) is a subsidiary of General Dynamics Corporation. It has been the primary builder of submarines for the United States Navy for more than 100 years. The company's main facilities are a shipyard in Groton, Connecticut, a hull-fabrication and outfitting facility in Quonset Point, Rhode Island, and a design and engineering facility in New London, Connecticut.",
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"plaintext": "The company was founded in 1899 by Isaac Rice as the Electric Boat Company to build John Philip Holland's submersible ship designs, which were developed at Lewis Nixon's Crescent Shipyard in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Holland VI was the first submarine that this shipyard built, which became when it was commissioned into the United States Navy on April 11, 1900—the first submarine to be officially commissioned. The success of Holland VI created a demand for follow-up models (A class or ) that began with the prototype submersible Fulton built at Electric Boat. Some foreign navies were interested in John Holland's latest submarine designs, and so purchased the rights to build them under licensing contracts through the company; these included the United Kingdom's Royal Navy, the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Imperial Russian Navy, and the Royal Netherlands Navy.",
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"plaintext": "From 1907 to 1925 Electric Boat designed submarines for the Navy and subcontracted their construction to the Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts and other shipyards. During this era, the company designed submarines of the B, C, D, E, K, L, M, N, AA-1, O, R, and S classes.",
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"plaintext": "During the World War I era, the company and its subsidiaries (notably the Electric Launch Company, or Elco) built 85 submarines via subcontractors and 722 submarine chasers for the US Navy, and 580 80-foot motor launches for the British Royal Navy.",
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"plaintext": "After the war, the US Navy did not order another submarine from Electric Boat until in 1931. Cuttlefish was the first submarine built at EB's plant in Groton, Connecticut which has ever since been its primary submarine manufacturing facility. EB was the lead yard for several classes of submarines (Perch, Salmon, Sargo, Tambor, Gar, Mackerel and Gato) prior to World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in the early 1930s, EB was one of only two major US submarine manufacturers (the other being the Portsmouth Navy Yard) until the late 1950s. Three other yards (Manitowoc, Mare Island, and Cramp) produced submarines only during World War II. Several other yards including Mare Island built submarines in the late 1950s through the early 1970s. Since that time, only Electric Boat and Newport News have built submarines for the US Navy.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, the company built 74 submarines, while Elco built nearly 400 PT boats, and Electric Boat ranked 77th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.",
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"plaintext": "In 1952, Electric Boat was reorganized as General Dynamics Corporation under John Jay Hopkins. General Dynamics acquired Convair the following year, and the holding company assumed the \"General Dynamics\" name while the submarine-building operation reverted to the \"Electric Boat\" name.",
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"plaintext": "Electric Boat built the first nuclear submarine which was launched in January 1954, and the first ballistic missile submarine in 1959. Submarines of the , , , and es were also constructed by Electric Boat. In 2002, EB conducted preservation work on Nautilus, preparing her for her berth at the US Navy Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton, Connecticut where she now resides as a museum. Electric Boat's first submarine Holland was scrapped in 1932.",
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"plaintext": "From the mid-1970s to the present, EB has been one of only two submarine manufacturers in the United States with the other being Newport News Shipbuilding in Virginia.",
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"plaintext": "Electric Boat overhauls and undertakes repair work on fast attack class boats. The company built the Ohio-class ballistic missile submarines and Seawolf-class submarines, as well as others. In April 2014, EB was awarded a $17.8billion contract with Naval Sea Systems Command for ten Block IV Virginia-class attack submarines. It is the largest single shipbuilding contract in the service's history. The company builds the submarine along with Huntington Ingalls Industries Newport News Shipbuilding. The boats of Block IV Virginias will cost less than Block III, as Electric Boat reduced the cost of the submarines by increasing efficiency in the construction process. The submarines of this type will build on the improvements to allow the boats to spend less time in the yard. In 2019 EB received a contract with Naval Sea Systems command to begin procuring materials for the Block V variant of the Virginia-Class. This upgrade brings the Virginia payload module, which enables Tomahawk missiles to be carried by the submarine.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1980s, structural welding defects had been covered up by falsified inspection records, and this led to significant delays and expenses in the delivery of several submarines being built at Electric Boat's shipyard. In some cases, the repairs resulted in practically dismantling and then rebuilding what had been a nearly completed submarine. The yard tried to pass the vast cost overruns directly on to the Navy, while Admiral Hyman G. Rickover demanded from Electric Boat's general manager P. Takis Veliotis that the yard make good on its \"shoddy\" workmanship.",
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"plaintext": "The Navy eventually settled with General Dynamics in 1981, paying out $634million of $843million in Los Angeles-class submarines cost-overrun and reconstruction claims. As it happened, the Navy was also the yard's insurer, liable to compensate the company for losses and other mishaps. The concept of reimbursing General Dynamics under these conditions was initially considered \"preposterous,\" in the words of Secretary of the Navy John Lehman, but the eventual legal basis of General Dynamics' reimbursement claims to the Navy for the company's poor workmanship included insurance compensation. Veliotis was subsequently indicted by a federal grand jury under racketeering and fraud charges in 1983 for demanding $1.3million in kickbacks from a subcontractor. He escaped into exile and a life of luxury in his native Greece, where he remained a fugitive from U.S. justice.",
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"plaintext": "This list does not include submarines built by other companies under contract to Electric Boat.",
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"plaintext": "General Dynamics Electric Boat built every unique US Navy submarine after 1931, excepting and the purely experimental and .",
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"plaintext": "General Dynamics Electric Boat built at least one unit of every class of serially-produced US Navy submarines after 1931, excepting the and classes.",
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"plaintext": "EB built 1 of 2 total in the class",
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"plaintext": "6 of 12 total in class, all diesel-electric",
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"plaintext": "41 of 77 total in class, all diesel-electric",
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"plaintext": "40 of 120 total in class, all diesel-electric",
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"plaintext": "Unique submarine",
"section_idx": 2,
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{
"plaintext": "Unique submarine",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "1 of 4 total in class",
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"plaintext": "3 of 14 total in class",
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},
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"plaintext": "Unique submarine",
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},
{
"plaintext": "2 of 5 total in class",
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16,
21
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},
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"section_idx": 2,
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},
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"plaintext": "4 of 9 total in class",
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"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Ships built",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": "11 of 37 total in class",
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"plaintext": "6 of 12 total in class",
"section_idx": 2,
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": "Unique submarine",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Ships built",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Unique submarine",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Ships built",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "33 of 62 total in class",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Ships built",
"target_page_ids": [
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23
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},
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"plaintext": "18 of 18 total in class",
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},
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"plaintext": "3 of 3 total in class",
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"plaintext": " Gardiner, Robert, Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1906–1921 Conway Maritime Press, 1985. .",
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"plaintext": " The Defender: The Story of General Dynamics, by Roger Franklin. Published by Harper and Row 1986.",
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{
"plaintext": " Brotherhood of Arms: General Dynamics and The Business of Defending America, by Jacob Goodwin. Published 1985. Random House.",
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"plaintext": " The Legend of Electric Boat, Serving The Silent Service. Published by Write Stuff Syndicate, 1994 and 2007. Written by Jeffery L. Rodengen.",
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"plaintext": " International Directory of Company Histories Volume 86 under General Dynamics/Electric Boat Corporation, July 2007; pp.136–139. Published by St James Press/Thomson Gale Group.",
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"plaintext": " Who Built Those Subs? Naval History Magazine, Oct. 1998 125th Anniversary issue, pp.31–34. Written by Richard Knowles Morris PhD. Published by The United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md. Copyrighted 1998.",
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"plaintext": "The Klaxon, The U.S. Navy's official submarine force newsletter, April 1992. Published by the Nautilus Memorial Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton/New London, CT.",
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"plaintext": " \"The Ups and Downs of Electric Boat\" John D. Alden, United States Naval Institute, Proceedings Magazine, 1 July 1999, p.64.",
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"plaintext": " Running Critical: The Silent War, Rickover, and General Dynamics, by Patrick Tyler. Published by Harper & Row 1986.",
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"plaintext": " Electric Launch Company (Elco) - former subsidiary which manufactured electric yachts, and PT boats during World War II",
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"plaintext": " Electro-Dynamic Company - former subsidiary of Electric Boat which manufactured electric motors and generators",
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"plaintext": " Submarine Boat Company - former subsidiary of Electric Boat which ran a shipyard during WWI producing steel cargo vessels, and slightly beyond",
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"plaintext": " General Dynamics Electric Boat web site",
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"plaintext": " Electric Boat information page on General Dynamics Corporation site",
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36,979 | 1,107,813,045 | Rice | [
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"plaintext": "Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or less commonly Oryza glaberrima (African rice). The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated, although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza.",
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"plaintext": "As a cereal grain, domesticated rice is the most widely consumed staple food for over half of the world's human population, especially in Asia and Africa. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize. Since sizable portions of sugarcane and maize crops are used for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important food crop with regard to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one-fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by humans. There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally. ",
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"plaintext": "The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound irrigation planning but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth state, and deters vermin. While flooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, all other methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods and a different approach for fertilizing the soil.",
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"plaintext": "Rice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years. Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures worldwide. Production and consumption of rice is estimated to have been responsible for 4% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "The rice plant can grow to tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. It has long, slender leaves long and broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) long and thick.",
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"plaintext": "The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained. The grains of long-grain rice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arròs negre, in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed. A stickier short-grain rice is used for sushi; the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape when cooked. Short-grain rice is used extensively in Japan, including to accompany savoury dishes. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.",
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"plaintext": "Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is fully cooked and then dried, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.",
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"plaintext": "Rinsing rice before cooking removes much of the starch, thereby reducing the extent to which individual grains will stick together. This yields a fluffier rice, whereas not rinsing yields a stickier and creamier result. Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients.",
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"plaintext": "Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several hours.",
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"plaintext": "Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR), activates enzymes and enhances amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to improve the nutritional value of brown rice. This method is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may be cooked in a volume of water equal to the volume of dry rice plus any evaporation losses. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto); this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani in India and Pakistan.",
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"plaintext": "In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Rice may be made into congee (also called rice porridge or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is a traditional food for the sick.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is the staple food of over half the world's population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world's dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.",
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"plaintext": "Cooked unenriched long-grain white rice is composed of 68% water, 28% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and negligible fat (table). A reference serving of it provides of food energy and contains no micronutrients in significant amounts, with all less than 10% of the Daily Value (DV) (table). Cooked short-grain white rice provides the same food energy and contains moderate amounts of B vitamins, iron, and manganese (10–17% DV) per 100-gram serving (table).",
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"plaintext": "A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, such as white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties having different prevalence across world regions. It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether and how the rice is polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption.",
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"plaintext": "A 2018 World Health Organization (WHO) guideline showed that fortification of rice to reduce malnutrition may involve different micronutrient strategies, including iron only, iron with zinc, vitamin A, and folic acid, or iron with other B-complex vitamins, such as thiamin, niacin, vitamin B6, and pantothenic acid. A systematic review of clinical research on the efficacy of rice fortification showed the strategy had the main effect of reducing the risk of iron deficiency by 35% and increasing blood levels of hemoglobin. The guideline established a major recommendation: \"Fortification of rice with iron is recommended as a public health strategy to improve the iron status of populations, in settings where rice is a staple food.\"",
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"plaintext": "Rice grown experimentally under elevated carbon dioxide levels, similar to those predicted for the year 2100 as a result of human activity, had less iron, zinc, and protein, as well as lower levels of thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid, and pantothenic acid.",
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"plaintext": "The following table shows the nutrient content of rice and other major staple foods in a raw form on a dry weight basis to account for their different water contents.",
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"plaintext": "As arsenic is a natural element in soil, water, and air, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) monitors the levels of arsenic in foods, particularly in rice products used commonly for infant food. While growing, rice plants tend to absorb arsenic more readily than other food crops, requiring expanded testing by the FDA for possible arsenic-related risks associated with rice consumption in the United States. In April 2016, the FDA proposed a limit of 100 parts per billion (ppb) for inorganic arsenic in infant rice cereal and other foods to minimize exposure of infants to arsenic. For water contamination by arsenic, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has set a lower standard of 10 ppb.",
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"plaintext": "Arsenic is a Group 1 carcinogen. The amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton, such as in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas. White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, which account collectively for 76 percent of American-produced rice, had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils. Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in one study. China has set a limit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice.",
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"plaintext": "Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at . When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production. One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present.",
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"plaintext": "Rice starch is used as a cosmetic dusting powder and to stiffen laundry (starching).",
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"plaintext": "Rice growth and production are affected by: the environment, soil properties, biotic conditions, and cultural practices. Environmental factors include rainfall and water, temperature, photoperiod, solar radiation and, in some instances, tropical storms. Soil factors refer to soil type and their position in uplands or lowlands. Biotic factors deal with weeds, insects, diseases, and crop varieties.",
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"plaintext": "Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability. Generally, rice does not thrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and grow herein and it can survive flooding.",
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"plaintext": " Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and flood prone",
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"section_name": "Rice-growing environments",
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"plaintext": " Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season and the dry season",
"section_idx": 4,
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"plaintext": " Deep water or floating rice",
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"plaintext": " Coastal wetland",
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"plaintext": " Upland rice (also known as hill rice or Ghaiya rice) is well known for its drought tolerance",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, world production of paddy rice was s, led by China and India with a combined 52% of this total. Other major producers were Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam. The five major producers accounted for 72% of total production, while the top fifteen producers accounted for 91% of total world production in 2017 (see table on right). Developing countries account for 95% of the total production.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural population and their food security. It is mainly cultivated by small farmers in holdings of less than one hectare. Rice is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop or non-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition of much of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the food security of over half the world population.",
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"plaintext": "Many rice grain producing countries have significant losses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmer's inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank – FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developing nations, on average, every year, because of post-harvest problems and poor infrastructure. Some sources claim the post-harvest losses exceed 40%. Not only do these losses reduce food security in the world, the study claims that farmers in developing countries such as China, India and others lose approximately US$89 billion of income in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poor transport, the lack of proper storage and retail. One study claims that if these post-harvest grain losses could be eliminated with better infrastructure and retail network, in India alone enough food would be saved every year to feed 70 to 100 million people.",
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"plaintext": "===Processing===",
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"plaintext": "The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a rice huller to remove the chaff (the outer husks of the grain) (see: rice hulls). At this point in the process, the product is called brown rice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran, i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating white rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks some important nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet which does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent the disease beriberi.",
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"plaintext": "Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called polished rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in general), parboiled, or processed into flour. White rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble substance which is resistant to washing.",
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"plaintext": "In some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice (also known as converted rice and easy-cook rice) is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice grain. The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice, because the process causes nutrients from the outer husk (especially thiamine) to move into the endosperm, so that less is subsequently lost when the husk is polished off during milling. Parboiled rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking, as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type of rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa are also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice.",
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"plaintext": "Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.",
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"plaintext": "Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice does not contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice can be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually a week to 30 days – gaba rice).",
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"plaintext": "Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating. Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil or butter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to make mochi.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health, and should be combined with other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish, or meat.",
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"plaintext": "Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' water content and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gas law means either lowering the local pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation, resulting in a puffy texture. Bulk raw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm3. It decreases to less than one-tenth that when puffed.",
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"plaintext": "Unmilled rice, known as \"paddy\" (Indonesia and Malaysia: padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when the grains have a moisture content of around 25%. In most Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely the product of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out manually, although there is a growing interest in mechanical harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers themselves, but is also frequently done by seasonal labor groups. Harvesting is followed by threshing, either immediately or within a day or two. Again, much threshing is still carried out by hand but there is an increasing use of mechanical threshers. Subsequently, paddy needs to be dried to bring down the moisture content to no more than 20% for milling.",
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"plaintext": "A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laid out to dry along roads. However, in most countries the bulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills, with village-level drying being used for paddy to be consumed by farm families. Mills either sun dry or use mechanical driers or both. Drying has to be carried out quickly to avoid the formation of molds. Mills range from simple hullers, with a throughput of a couple of tonnes a day, that simply remove the outer husk, to enormous operations that can process a day and produce highly polished rice. A good mill can achieve a paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but smaller, inefficient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. These smaller mills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but only service farmers who want to mill their paddy for their own consumption.",
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"plaintext": "Because of the importance of rice to human nutrition and food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tend to be subject to considerable state involvement. While the private sector plays a leading role in most countries, agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in the Philippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Corporation of India are all heavily involved in purchasing of paddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributing rice to poorer people. BULOG and NFA monopolise rice imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls all exports from Vietnam.",
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"plaintext": "World trade figures are very different from those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally. In economic terms, the global rice trade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantile trade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic food staple, and various governments subject its trade to a wide range of controls and interventions.",
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"plaintext": "Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% of imports. While there are numerous importers of rice, the exporters of rice are limited. Just five countries—Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India—in decreasing order of exported quantities, accounted for about three-quarters of world rice exports in 2002. However, this ranking has been rapidly changing in recent years. In 2010, the three largest exporters of rice, in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand, Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became the largest exporter of rice with a 100% increase in its exports on year-to-year basis, and Thailand slipped to third position. Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India accounted for nearly 70% of the world rice exports.",
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"plaintext": "The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnam were Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aromatic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice in early 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and will become the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in 2013. According to a USDA report, the world's largest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (), Vietnam (), Thailand (), Pakistan () and the United States ().",
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"plaintext": "Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulf countries. In common with other West African countries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production. However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it to smuggling from neighboring countries. Parboiled rice is particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China and India are the two largest producers of rice in the world, both countries consume the majority of the rice produced domestically, leaving little to be traded internationally.",
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"plaintext": "The average world yield for rice was , in 2010. Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010, with a nationwide average of .",
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"plaintext": "Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center set a world record for rice yield in 2010 at on a demonstration plot. In 2011, this record was reportedly surpassed by an Indian farmer, Sumant Kumar, with in Bihar, although this claim has been disputed by both Yuan and India's Central Rice Research Institute. These efforts employed newly developed rice breeds and System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a recent innovation in rice farming.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2007 to May 2008, the price of grains rose greatly due to droughts in major producing countries (particularly Australia), increased use of grains for animal feed and US subsidies for bio-fuel production. Although there was no shortage of rice on world markets this general upward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by consumers, government rice export bans (in particular, by Vietnam and India) and inflated import orders by the Philippines marketing board, the National Food Authority. This caused significant rises in rice prices. In late April 2008, prices hit 24 US cents a pound, twice the price of seven months earlier. Over the period of 2007 to 2013, the Chinese government has substantially increased the price it pays domestic farmers for their rice, rising to per metric ton by 2013. The 2013 price of rice originating from other southeast Asian countries was a comparably low per metric ton.",
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"plaintext": "On April 30, 2008, Thailand announced plans for the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries (OREC) with the intention that this should develop into a price-fixing cartel for rice. However, little progress had been made to achieve this.",
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"plaintext": ", world food consumption of rice was of paddy equivalent ( of milled equivalent), while the largest consumers were China consuming of paddy equivalent (28.7% of world consumption) and India consuming of paddy equivalent (23.1% of world consumption).",
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"plaintext": "Between 1961 and 2002, per capita consumption of rice increased by 40% worldwide. A paper from the Korean Society of Crop Science anticipated that consumption would increase to 590 million tons by 2040, and that consumption would decline in Asia and increase in other parts of the world.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is the most important crop in Asia. In Cambodia, for example, 90% of the total agricultural area is used for rice production. Per capita, Bangladesh ranks as the country with the highest rice consumption, followed by Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and Indonesia.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25 years, fueled in part by commercial applications such as beer production. Almost one in five adult Americans now report eating at least half a serving of white or brown rice per day.",
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"plaintext": "The worldwide production of rice accounts for more greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in total than that of any other plant food. It was estimated in 2021 to be responsible for 30% of agricultural methane emissions and 11% of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions. Methane release is caused by long-term flooding of rice fields, inhibiting the soil from absorbing atmospheric oxygen, a process causing anaerobic fermentation of organic matter in the soil. A 2021 study estimated that rice contributed 2 billion tonnes of anthropogenic greenhouse gases in 2010, of the 47 billion total. The study added up GHG emissions from the entire lifecycle, including production, transportation, and consumption, and compared the global totals of different foods. The total for rice was half the total for beef.",
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"plaintext": "A 2010 study found that, as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the 20th century, the rice yield growth rate has decreased in many parts of Asia, compared to what would have been observed had the temperature and solar radiation trends not occurred. The yield growth rate had fallen 10–20% at some locations. The study was based on records from 227 farms in Thailand, Vietnam, Nepal, India, China, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The mechanism of this falling yield was not clear, but might involve increased respiration during warm nights, which expends energy without being able to photosynthesize. More detailed analysis of rice yields by the International Rice Research Institute forecast 20% reduction in yields in Asia per degree Celsius of temperature rise. Rice becomes sterile if exposed to temperatures above 35 degrees for more than one hour during flowering and consequently produces no grain.",
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"plaintext": "Rice requires slightly more water to produce than other grains. Rice production uses almost a third of Earth's fresh water. Water outflows from rice fields through transpiration, evaporation, seepage, and percolation. It is estimated that it takes about of water need to be supplied to account for all of these outflows and produce of rice.",
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"plaintext": "Rice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of rice seeds). Rice pests include weeds, pathogens, insects, nematode, rodents, and birds. A variety of factors can contribute to pest outbreaks, including climatic factors, improper irrigation, the overuse of insecticides and high rates of nitrogen fertilizer application. Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks. For example, rice gall midge and army worm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season, while thrips outbreaks are associated with drought.",
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"plaintext": "Major rice insect pests include: the brown planthopper (BPH), several species of stemborers—including those in the genera Scirpophaga and Chilo, the rice gall midge, several species of rice bugs, notably in the genus Leptocorisa, defoliators such as the rice: leafroller, hispa and grasshoppers. The fall army worm, a species of Lepidoptera, also targets and causes damage to rice crops. Rice weevils attack stored produce.",
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"plaintext": "Several nematode species infect rice crops, causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci), White tip disease (Aphelenchoide bessei), and root knot disease (Meloidogyne graminicola). Some nematode species such as Pratylenchus spp. are most dangerous in upland rice of all parts of the world. Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella oryzae) is a migratory endoparasite which on higher inoculum levels will lead to complete destruction of a rice crop. Beyond being obligate parasites, they also decrease the vigor of plants and increase the plants' susceptibility to other pests and diseases.",
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"plaintext": "These include the apple snail Pomacea canaliculata, panicle rice mite, rats, and the weed Echinochloa crusgali.",
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"plaintext": "Rice blast, caused by the fungus Magnaporthe grisea, is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation. It and bacterial leaf streak (caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) are perennially the two worst rice diseases worldwide, and such is their importance - and the importance of rice - that they are both among the top 10 diseases of plants in general. Other major fungal and bacterial rice diseases include sheath blight (caused by Rhizoctonia solani), false smut (Ustilaginoidea virens), bacterial panicle blight (Burkholderia glumae), sheath rot (Sarocladium oryzae), and bakanae (Fusarium fujikuroi). Viral diseases exist, such as rice ragged stunt (vector: BPH), and tungro (vector: Nephotettix spp). Many viral diseases, especially those vectored by planthoppers and leafhoppers, are major causes of losses across the world. There is also an ascomycete fungus, Cochliobolus miyabeanus, that causes brown spot disease in rice.",
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"plaintext": "Crop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable. In other words, to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened. Sustainable pest management is based on four principles: biodiversity, host plant resistance (HPR), landscape ecology, and hierarchies in a landscape—from biological to social. At present, rice pest management includes cultural techniques, pest-resistant rice varieties, and pesticides (which include insecticide). Increasingly, there is evidence that farmers' pesticide applications are often unnecessary, and even facilitate pest outbreaks. By reducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests, misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pest outbreaks. The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that an 87.5% reduction in pesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers. IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003, respectively, which discouraged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management in Vietnam.",
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"plaintext": "Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks. Some synthetic chemicals, such as the herbicide 2,4-D, cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and thereby increase the plant's resistance to some types of pests. Conversely, other chemicals, such as the insecticide imidacloprid, can induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that cause the plant to become more susceptible to attacks by certain types of pests. 5-Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in rice.",
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"plaintext": "Botanicals, so-called \"natural pesticides\", are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests. Botanicals include extracts of leaves, or a mulch of the leaves themselves. Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena odorata) over the surface of fields after planting. This practice probably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination. Farmers also claim the leaves are a natural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations. ",
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"plaintext": "Among rice cultivars, there are differences in the responses to, and recovery from, pest damage. Many rice varieties have been selected for resistance to insect pests. Therefore, particular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems. The genetically based ability of a rice variety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance. Three main types of plant resistance to pests are recognized as nonpreference, antibiosis, and tolerance. Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects prefer to avoid; antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue; and tolerance is the capacity of a plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation.",
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"plaintext": "Over time, the use of pest-resistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance. When a rice variety is no longer able to resist pest infestations, resistance is said to have broken down. Rice varieties that can be widely grown for many years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to withstand the pests are said to have durable resistance. Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened by plant breeders to discover new sources of durable resistance.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonthica, which is of local importance for this crop.",
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"plaintext": "While most rice is bred for crop quality and productivity, there are varieties selected for characteristics such as texture, smell, and firmness. There are four major categories of rice worldwide: indica, japonica, aromatic and glutinous. The different varieties of rice are not considered interchangeable, either in food preparation or agriculture, so as a result, each major variety is a completely separate market from other varieties. It is common for one variety of rice to rise in price while another one drops in price.",
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"plaintext": "Rice cultivars also fall into groups according to environmental conditions, season of planting, and season of harvest, called ecotypes. Some major groups are the Japan-type (grown in Japan), \"buly\" and \"tjereh\" types (Indonesia); sali (or aman—main winter crop), ahu (also aush or ghariya, summer), and boro (spring) (Bengal and Assam). Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding, and these are generally called \"floating rice\".",
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"plaintext": "The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines, with over 100,000 rice accessions held in the International Rice Genebank. Rice cultivars are often classified by their grain shapes and texture. For example, Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky, as some long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than short-grain cultivars. Chinese restaurants often serve long-grain as plain unseasoned steamed rice though short-grain rice is common as well. Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice are short-grain. Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as \"glutinous rice\" (note: glutinous refer to the glue-like characteristic of rice; does not refer to \"gluten\") to make zongzi. The Japanese table rice is a sticky, short-grain rice. Japanese sake rice is another kind as well.",
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"plaintext": "Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati (ਬਾਸਮਤੀ) (grown in the North), long and medium-grained Patna rice, and in South India (Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (also called as Bangaru theegalu). In the state of Tamil Nadu, the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown in the delta regions of the Kaveri River. Kaveri is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects the geographic region where it is grown. In the Western Indian state of Maharashtra, a short grain variety called Ambemohar is very popular. This rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom.",
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"plaintext": "Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavors; the most noted cultivars are Thai fragrant rice, Basmati, Patna rice, Vietnamese fragrant rice, and a hybrid cultivar from America, sold under the trade name Texmati. Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-like aroma and flavor. In Indonesia, there are also red and black cultivars.",
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"plaintext": "High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa and other dry ecosystems, called the new rice for Africa (NERICA) cultivars, have been developed. It is hoped that their cultivation will improve food security in West Africa.",
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"plaintext": "Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars, indica and japonica, were published in April 2002. Rice was chosen as a model organism for the biology of grasses because of its relatively small genome (~430 megabase pairs). Rice was the first crop with a complete genome sequence.",
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"plaintext": "On December 16, 2002, the UN General Assembly declared the year 2004 the International Year of Rice. The declaration was sponsored by more than 40 countries.",
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"plaintext": "Varietal development has ceremonial and historical significance for some cultures (see below). The Thai kings have patronised rice breeding since at least the reign of Chulalongkorn, and his great-great-grandson Vajiralongkorn released five particular rice varieties to celebrate his coronation.",
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"plaintext": "The high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase global food production. This project enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture, and into industrial sectors. The first \"Rice Car\", IR8 was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which is based in the Philippines at the University of the Philippines' Los Baños site. IR8 was created through a cross between an Indonesian variety named \"Peta\" and a Chinese variety named \"Dee Geo Woo Gen.\"",
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"plaintext": "Scientists have identified and cloned many genes involved in the gibberellin signaling pathway, including GAI1 (Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice). Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead to significantly reduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype. Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically as the shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically. Assimilates become redirected to grain production, amplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield. In the presence of nitrogen fertilizers, and intensive crop management, these varieties increase their yield two to three times.",
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"plaintext": "As the UN Millennium Development project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa, the \"Green Revolution\" is cited as the model for economic development. With the intent of replicating the successful Asian boom in agronomic productivity, groups like the Earth Institute are doing research on African agricultural systems, hoping to increase productivity. An important way this can happen is the production of \"New Rices for Africa\" (NERICA). These rices, selected to tolerate the low input and harsh growing conditions of African agriculture, are produced by the African Rice Center, and billed as technology \"from Africa, for Africa\". The NERICA have appeared in The New York Times (October 10, 2007) and International Herald Tribune (October 9, 2007), trumpeted as miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence. Ongoing research in China to develop perennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability and food security.",
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"plaintext": "Ventria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin, lysozyme which are proteins usually found in breast milk, and human serum albumin, These proteins have antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal effects.",
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"plaintext": "Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in oral rehydration solutions which are used to treat diarrheal diseases, thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence. Such supplements may also help reverse anemia.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the varying levels that water can reach in regions of cultivation, flood tolerant varieties have long been developed and used. Flooding is an issue that many rice growers face, especially in South and South East Asia where flooding annually affects . Standard rice varieties cannot withstand stagnant flooding of more than about a week, mainly as it disallows the plant access to necessary requirements such as sunlight and essential gas exchanges, inevitably leading to plants being unable to recover.",
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"plaintext": "In the past, this has led to massive losses in yields, such as in the Philippines, where in 2006, rice crops worth $65million were lost to flooding. Recently developed cultivars seek to improve flood tolerance.",
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"plaintext": "Drought represents a significant environmental stress for rice production, with of rainfed rice production in South and South East Asia often at risk. Under drought conditions, without sufficient water to afford them the ability to obtain the required levels of nutrients from the soil, conventional commercial rice varieties can be severely affected—for example, yield losses as high as 40% have affected some parts of India, with resulting losses of around US$800million annually.",
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"plaintext": "The International Rice Research Institute conducts research into developing drought-tolerant rice varieties, including the varieties 5411 and Sookha dhan, currently being employed by farmers in the Philippines and Nepal respectively. In addition, in 2013 the Japanese National Institute for Agrobiological Sciences led a team which successfully inserted the DEEPER ROOTING 1 (DRO1) gene, from the Philippine upland rice variety Kinandang Patong, into the popular commercial rice variety IR64, giving rise to a far deeper root system in the resulting plants. This facilitates an improved ability for the rice plant to derive its required nutrients in times of drought via accessing deeper layers of soil, a feature demonstrated by trials which saw the IR64 + DRO1 rice yields drop by 10% under moderate drought conditions, compared to 60% for the unmodified IR64 variety.",
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"plaintext": "Soil salinity poses a major threat to rice crop productivity, particularly along low-lying coastal areas during the dry season. For example, roughly of the coastal areas of Bangladesh are affected by saline soils. These high concentrations of salt can severely affect rice plants' normal physiology, especially during early stages of growth, and as such farmers are often forced to abandon these otherwise potentially usable areas.",
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"plaintext": "Progress has been made, however, in developing rice varieties capable of tolerating such conditions; the hybrid created from the cross between the commercial rice variety IR56 and the wild rice species Oryza coarctata is one example. O. coarctata is capable of successful growth in soils with double the limit of salinity of normal varieties, but lacks the ability to produce edible rice. Developed by the International Rice Research Institute, the hybrid variety can utilise specialised leaf glands that allow for the removal of salt into the atmosphere. It was initially produced from one successful embryo out of 34,000 crosses between the two species; this was then backcrossed to IR56 with the aim of preserving the genes responsible for salt tolerance that were inherited from O. coarctata. Extensive trials are planned prior to the new variety being available to farmers by approximately 2017–18.",
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"plaintext": "When the problem of soil salinity arises it will be opportune to select salt tolerant varieties (IRRI or to resort to soil salinity control.",
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"plaintext": "Soil salinity is often measured as the electric conductivity (EC) of the extract of a saturated soil paste (ECe). The EC units are usually expressed in decisiemens per metre or dS/m. The critical ECe value of 5.5 dS/m in the figure, obtained from measurements in farmers' fields, indicates that the rice crop is slightly salt sensitive.",
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"plaintext": "Producing rice in paddies is harmful for the environment due to the release of methane by methanogenic bacteria. These bacteria live in the anaerobic waterlogged soil, and live off nutrients released by rice roots. Researchers have recently reported in Nature that putting the barley gene SUSIBA2 into rice creates a shift in biomass production from root to shoot (above ground tissue becomes larger, while below ground tissue is reduced), decreasing the methanogen population, and resulting in a reduction of methane emissions of up to 97%. Apart from this environmental benefit, the modification also increases the amount of rice grains by 43%, which makes it a useful tool in feeding a growing world population.",
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"plaintext": "Rice is used as a model organism for investigating the molecular mechanisms of meiosis and DNA repair in higher plants. Meiosis is a key stage of the sexual cycle in which diploid cells in the ovule (female structure) and the anther (male structure) produce haploid cells that develop further into gametophytes and gametes. So far, 28 meiotic genes of rice have been characterized. Studies of rice gene OsRAD51C showed that this gene is necessary for homologous recombinational repair of DNA, particularly the accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaks during meiosis. Rice gene OsDMC1 was found to be essential for pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis, and rice gene OsMRE11 was found to be required for both synapsis of homologous chromosomes and repair of double-strand breaks during meiosis.",
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"plaintext": "Rice plays an important role in certain religions and popular beliefs. In many cultures relatives will scatter rice during or towards the end of a wedding ceremony in front of the bride and groom.",
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"plaintext": "The pounded rice ritual is conducted during weddings in Nepal. The bride gives a leafplate full of pounded rice to the groom after he requests it politely from her.",
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"plaintext": "In the Philippines rice wine, popularly known as tapuy, is used for important occasions such as weddings, rice harvesting ceremonies and other celebrations.",
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"plaintext": "Dewi Sri is the traditional rice goddess of the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese people in Indonesia. Most rituals involving Dewi Sri are associated with the mythical origin attributed to the rice plant, the staple food of the region. In Thailand, a similar rice deity is known as Phosop; she is a deity more related to ancient local folklore than a goddess of a structured, mainstream religion. The same female rice deity is known as Po Ino Nogar in Cambodia and as Nang Khosop in Laos. Ritual offerings are made during the different stages of rice production to propitiate the Rice Goddess in the corresponding cultures.",
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"plaintext": "A 2014 study of Han Chinese communities found that a history of farming rice makes cultures more psychologically interdependent, whereas a history of farming wheat makes cultures more independent.",
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"plaintext": "A Royal Ploughing Ceremony is held in certain Asian countries to mark the beginning of the rice planting season. It is still honored in the kingdoms of Cambodia and Thailand. The 2,600-year-old tradition begun by Śuddhodana in Kapilavastu was revived in the republic of Nepal in 2017 after a lapse of a few years.",
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"plaintext": "Thai king Vajiralongkorn released five particular rice varieties to celebrate his coronation.",
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"plaintext": " Artificial rice",
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"plaintext": " Glutinous rice",
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"plaintext": " List of dried foods",
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"plaintext": " List of rice cultivars",
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"plaintext": " List of rice dishes",
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"plaintext": " Maratelli rice",
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"plaintext": " Mushroom production on rice straw",
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"plaintext": " Leaf Color Chart",
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"plaintext": " Post-harvest losses",
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"plaintext": " Puffed rice",
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"plaintext": " Rice Belt",
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"plaintext": " Rice bran oil",
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"plaintext": " Rice bread",
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"plaintext": " Rice wine",
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"plaintext": " Rice writing",
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"plaintext": " Rijsttafel",
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"plaintext": " Risotto",
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"plaintext": " Straw",
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| 5,090 | 69,119 | 6,155 | 383 | 0 | 0 | rice | staple grain of Oryza and Zizania species | []
|
36,980 | 1,106,902,800 | Clay | [
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"plaintext": "Clay is the oldest known ceramic material. Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay and used it for making pottery. Some of the earliest pottery shards have been dated to around 14,000BC, and clay tablets were the first known writing medium. Clay is used in many modern industrial processes, such as paper making, cement production, and chemical filtering. Between one-half and two-thirds of the world's population live or work in buildings made with clay, often baked into brick, as an essential part of its load-bearing structure.",
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"plaintext": "Clay is a very common substance. Shale, formed largely from clay, is the most common sedimentary rock. Although many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay, clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size and mineralogy. Silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. Mixtures of sand, silt and less than 40% clay are called loam. Soils high in swelling clays (expansive clay), which are clay minerals that readily expand in volume when they absorb water, are a major challenge in civil engineering.",
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"plaintext": "The defining mechanical property of clay is its plasticity when wet and its ability to harden when dried or fired. Clays show a broad range of water content within which they are highly plastic, from a minimum water content (called the plastic limit) where the clay is just moist enough to mould, to a maximum water content (called the liquid limit) where the moulded clay is just dry enough to hold its shape. The plastic limit of kaolinite clay ranges from about 36% to 40% and its liquid limit ranges from about 58% to 72%. High-quality clay is also tough, as measured by the amount of mechanical work required to roll a sample of clay flat. Its toughness reflects a high degree of internal cohesion.",
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"plaintext": "Clay has a high content of clay minerals that give it its plasticity. Clay minerals are hydrous aluminium phyllosilicate minerals, composed of aluminium and silicon ions bonded into tiny, thin plates by interconnecting oxygen and hydroxide ions. These plates are tough but flexible, and in moist clay, they adhere to each other. The resulting aggregates give clay the cohesion that makes it plastic. In kaolinite clay, the bonding between plates is provided by a film of water molecules that hydrogen bond the plates together. The bonds are weak enough to allow the plates to slip past each other when the clay is being moulded, but strong enough to hold the plates in place and allow the moulded clay to retain its shape after it is moulded. When the clay is dried, most of the water molecules are removed, and the plates hydrogen bond directly to each other, so that the dried clay is rigid but still fragile. If the clay is moistened again, it will once more become plastic. When the clay is fired to the earthenware stage, a dehydration reaction removes additional water from the clay, causing clay plates to irreversibly adhere to each other via stronger covalent bonding, which strengthens the material. The clay mineral kaolinite is transformed into a non-clay material, metakaolin, which remains rigid and hard if moistened again. Further firing through the stoneware and porcelain stages further recrystallizes the metakaolin into yet stronger minerals such as mullite.",
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"plaintext": "The tiny size and plate form of clay particles gives clay minerals a high surface area. In some clay minerals, the plates carry a negative electrical charge that is balanced by a surrounding layer of positive ions (cations), such as sodium, potassium, or calcium. If the clay is mixed with a solution containing other cations, these can swap places with the cations in the layer around the clay particles, which gives clays a high capacity for ion exchange. The chemistry of clay minerals, including their capacity to retain nutrient cations such as potassium and ammonium, is important to soil fertility.",
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"plaintext": "Clay is a common component of sedimentary rock. Shale is formed largely from clay and is the most common of sedimentary rocks. However, most clay deposits are impure. Many naturally occurring deposits include both silts and clay. Clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size and mineralogy. Silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays. There is, however, some overlap in particle size and other physical properties. The distinction between silt and clay varies by discipline. Geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 μm (clays being finer than silts), sedimentologists often use 4–5 μm, and colloid chemists use 1 μm. Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils' Atterberg limits. ISO 14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silt particles as being larger. Mixtures of sand, silt and less than 40% clay are called loam.",
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"plaintext": "Some clay minerals (such as smectite) are described as swelling clay minerals, because they have a great capacity to take up water, and they increase greatly in volume when they do so. When dried, they shrink back to their original volume. This produces distinctive textures, such as mudcracks or \"popcorn\" texture, in clay deposits. Soils containing swelling clay minerals (such as bentonite) pose a considerable challenge for civil engineering, because swelling clay can break foundations of buildings and ruin road beds.",
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"plaintext": "Clay minerals most commonly form by prolonged chemical weathering of silicate-bearing rocks. They can also form locally from hydrothermal activity. Chemical weathering takes place largely by acid hydrolysis due to low concentrations of carbonic acid, dissolved in rainwater or released by plant roots. The acid breaks bonds between aluminium and oxygen, releasing other metal ions and silica (as a gel of orthosilicic acid).)",
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"plaintext": "The clay minerals formed depend on the composition of the source rock and the climate. Acid weathering of feldspar-rich rock, such as granite, in warm climates tends to produce kaolin. Weathering of the same kind of rock under alkaline conditions produces illite. Smectite forms by weathering of igneous rock under alkaline conditions, while gibbsite forms by intense weathering of other clay minerals.",
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"plaintext": "There are two types of clay deposits: primary and secondary. Primary clays form as residual deposits in soil and remain at the site of formation. Secondary clays are clays that have been transported from their original location by water erosion and deposited in a new sedimentary deposit. Secondary clay deposits are typically associated with very low energy depositional environments such as large lakes and marine basins.",
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"plaintext": "The main groups of clays include kaolinite, montmorillonite-smectite, and illite. Chlorite, vermiculite, talc, and pyrophyllite are sometimes also classified as clay minerals. There are approximately 30 different types of \"pure\" clays in these categories, but most \"natural\" clay deposits are mixtures of these different types, along with other weathered minerals. Clay minerals in clays are most easily identified using X-ray diffraction rather than chemical or physical tests.",
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"plaintext": "Varve (or varved clay) is clay with visible annual layers that are formed by seasonal deposition of those layers and are marked by differences in erosion and organic content. This type of deposit is common in former glacial lakes. When fine sediments are delivered into the calm waters of these glacial lake basins away from the shoreline, they settle to the lake bed. The resulting seasonal layering is preserved in an even distribution of clay sediment banding.",
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"plaintext": "Quick clay is a unique type of marine clay indigenous to the glaciated terrains of Norway, North America, Northern Ireland, and Sweden. It is a highly sensitive clay, prone to liquefaction, and has been involved in several deadly landslides.",
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"plaintext": "Modelling clay is used in art and handicraft for sculpting.",
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"plaintext": "Clays are used for making pottery, both utilitarian and decorative, and construction products, such as bricks, walls, and floor tiles. Different types of clay, when used with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Prehistoric humans discovered the useful properties of clay. Some of the earliest pottery shards recovered are from central Honshu, Japan. They are associated with the Jōmon culture, and recovered deposits have been dated to around 14,000BC. Cooking pots, art objects, dishware, smoking pipes, and even musical instruments such as the ocarina can all be shaped from clay before being fired. ",
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"plaintext": "Clay tablets were the first known writing medium. Scribes wrote by inscribing them with cuneiform script using a blunt reed called a stylus. Purpose-made clay balls were used as sling ammunition. Clay is used in many industrial processes, such as paper making, cement production, and chemical filtering. Bentonite clay is widely used as a mold binder in the manufacture of sand castings.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional uses of clay as medicine goes back to prehistoric times. An example is Armenian bole, which is used to soothe an upset stomach. Some animals such as parrots and pigs ingest clay for similar reasons. Kaolin clay and attapulgite have been used as anti-diarrheal medicines.",
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"plaintext": "Clay as the defining ingredient of loam is one of the oldest building materials on Earth, among other ancient, naturally-occurring geologic materials such as stone and organic materials like wood. Also a primary ingredient in many natural building techniques, clay is used to create adobe, cob, cordwood, and structures and building elements such as wattle and daub, clay plaster, clay render case, clay floors and clay paints and ceramic building material. Clay was used as a mortar in brick chimneys and stone walls where protected from water.",
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"plaintext": "The forecasted mass of clay minerals to be discharged into the tailings of ore processing makes up millions of tons. Worryingly, when macro- and micro-components are found in non-hazardous concentrations, fewer efforts are put into the environmental management of the tailings, though technogenic sediments offer prospects for reuse and valorization beyond their traditional disposal. Saponite is a demonstrative example of the tailings constituent that is often left unfairly mistreated. Electrochemical separation helps to obtain modified saponite-containing products with high smectite-group minerals concentrations, lower mineral particles size, more compact structure, and greater surface area. These characteristics open possibilities for the manufacture of high-quality ceramics and heavy-metal sorbents from saponite-containing products. Furthermore, tail grinding occurs during the preparation of the raw material for ceramics; this waste reprocessing is of high importance for the use of clay pulp as a neutralizing agent, as fine particles are required for the reaction. Experiments on the Histosol deacidification with the alkaline clay slurry demonstrated that neutralization with the average pH level of 7.1 is reached at 30% of the pulp added and an experimental site with perennial grasses proved the efficacy of the technique.",
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"plaintext": "Clay, relatively impermeable to water, is also used where natural seals are needed, such as in the cores of dams, or as a barrier in landfills against toxic seepage (lining the landfill, preferably in combination with geotextiles). Studies in the early 21st century have investigated clay's absorption capacities in various applications, such as the removal of heavy metals from waste water and air purification.",
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"plaintext": " Clay mineral nomenclature American Mineralogist.",
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"plaintext": " Ehlers, Ernest G. and Blatt, Harvey (1982). 'Petrology, Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic' San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company. .",
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"plaintext": " Hillier S. (2003) \"Clay Mineralogy.\" pp 139–142 In Middleton G.V., Church M.J., Coniglio M., Hardie L.A. and Longstaffe F.J. (Editors) Encyclopedia of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.",
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"plaintext": " The Clay Minerals Group of the Mineralogical Society",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Information about clays used in the UK pottery industry",
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"plaintext": " The Clay Minerals Society",
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"plaintext": " Organic Matter in Clays",
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"Natural_materials",
"Sedimentology",
"Sediments",
"Phyllosilicates",
"Soil-based_building_materials"
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| 42,302 | 27,486 | 3,556 | 129 | 0 | 0 | clay | soft rock based compound often used for sculpture and tools | []
|
36,981 | 1,096,311,713 | Birmingham_(disambiguation) | [
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"plaintext": " G-BDXJ, the former British Airways Boeing 747-200 City of Birmingham",
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"plaintext": " LMS Coronation Class (4)6235 City of Birmingham, an LMS Coronation Class steam railway locomotive",
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"plaintext": " Birmingham, a star in the constellation Cygnus",
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| 865,761 | 668 | 5 | 66 | 0 | 0 | Birmingham | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
36,982 | 1,104,444,936 | Backronym | [
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"plaintext": "A backronym is an acronym formed from an already existing word by expanding its letters into the words of a phrase. Backronyms may be invented with either serious or humorous intent, or they may be a type of false etymology or folk etymology. The word is a portmanteau of back and acronym.",
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"plaintext": "Many United States Congress bills have backronyms as their names; examples include the American CARES Act of 2020, which stands for the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act, the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act of 2001, and the DREAM Act (Development, Relief, and Education for Alien Minors). In the 113th Congress (2013) there were over 240 bills with such names.",
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"plaintext": "Sometimes a backronym is reputed to have been used in the formation of the original word, and amounts to a false etymology or an urban legend. Acronyms were rare in the English language prior to the 1930s, and most etymologies of common words or phrases that suggest origin from an acronym are false.",
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"plaintext": "Examples include posh, an adjective describing stylish items or members of the upper class. A popular story derives the word as an acronym from \"port out, starboard home\", referring to 19th-century first-class cabins on ocean liners, which were shaded from the sun on outbound voyages east (e.g. from Britain to India) and homeward voyages west. The word's actual etymology is unknown, but more likely related to Romani påš xåra (\"half-penny\") or to Urdu (borrowed from Persian) safed-pōśh (\"white robes\"), a term for wealthy people. ",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, the distress signal SOS is often believed to be an abbreviation for \"Save Our Ship\" or \"Save Our Souls\" but was chosen because it has a simple and unmistakable Morse code representation three dots, three dashes, three dots, sent without any pauses between characters.",
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"plaintext": "More recent examples include the brand name Adidas, named after company founder Adolf \"Adi\" Dassler but falsely believed to be an acronym for \"All Day I Dream About Sport\"; The word Wiki, said to stand for \"What I Know Is\", but in fact derived from the Hawaiian phrase wiki-wiki meaning \"fast\"; or Yahoo!, sometimes claimed to mean \"Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle\", but in fact chosen because Yahoo's founders liked the word's meaning of \"rude, unsophisticated, uncouth\" (taken from Jonathan Swift's book Gulliver's Travels).",
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"plaintext": " Acrostic",
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"plaintext": " Mnemonic",
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"plaintext": " Pseudo-acronym",
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"plaintext": " Recursive acronym",
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"plaintext": " Satiric misspelling",
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| [
"Acronyms",
"Etymology",
"Folklore",
"Neologisms",
"Types_of_words",
"1980s_neologisms"
]
| 636,300 | 18,813 | 517 | 36 | 0 | 0 | backronym | specially constructed phrase meant to represent an acronym | [
"inverse acronym"
]
|
36,983 | 1,106,613,031 | Recursive_acronym | [
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"plaintext": "A recursive acronym is an acronym that refers to itself, and appear most frequently in computer programming. The term was first used in print in 1979 in Douglas Hofstadter's book An Eternal Golden Braid, in which Hofstadter invents the acronym GOD, meaning \"GOD Over Djinn\", to help explain infinite series, and describes it as a recursive acronym. Other references followed, however the concept was used as early as 1968 in John Brunner's science fiction novel Stand on Zanzibar. In the story, the acronym EPT (Education for Particular Task) later morphed into \"Eptification for Particular Task\".",
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"plaintext": "Recursive acronyms typically form backwardly: either an existing ordinary acronym is given a new explanation of what the letters stand for, or a name is turned into an acronym by giving the letters an explanation of what they stand for, in each case with the first letter standing recursively for the whole acronym.",
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"plaintext": "In computing, an early tradition in the hacker community, especially at MIT, was to choose acronyms and abbreviations that referred humorously to themselves or to other abbreviations. Perhaps the earliest example in this context is the backronym \"Mash Until No Good\", which was created in 1960 to describe Mung, and revised to \"Mung Until No Good\". It lived on as a recursive command in the editing language TECO.[3] In 1977 programmer Ted Anderson coined TINT (\"TINT Is Not TECO\"), an editor for MagicSix. This inspired the two MIT Lisp Machine editors called EINE (\"EINE Is Not Emacs\", German for one) and ZWEI (\"ZWEI Was EINE Initially\", German for two), in turn inspiring Anderson's retort SINE (\"SINE is not EINE\"). Richard Stallman followed with GNU (GNU's Not Unix). ",
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"plaintext": "Recursive acronym examples often include negatives, such as denials that the thing defined is or resembles something else (which the thing defined does in fact resemble or is even derived from), to indicate that, despite the similarities, it was distinct from the program on which it was based.",
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"plaintext": "An earlier example appears in a 1976 textbook on data structures, in which the pseudo-language SPARKS is used to define the algorithms discussed in the text. \"SPARKS\" is claimed to be a non-acronymic name, but \"several cute ideas have been suggested\" as expansions of the name. One of the suggestions is \"Smart Programmers Are Required to Know SPARKS\". (this example is tail recursive)",
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"plaintext": " Allegro: Allegro Low LEvel Game ROutines (early versions for Atari ST were called \"Atari Low Level Game Routines\")",
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"plaintext": " AROS: AROS Research Operating System (originally Amiga Research Operating System)",
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"plaintext": " ATI: ATI Technologies Inc.",
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"plaintext": " BIRD: BIRD Internet Routing Daemon",
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"plaintext": " CAVE: CAVE Automatic Virtual Environment",
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"plaintext": " cURL: Curl URL Request Library",
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"plaintext": " Darcs: Darcs Advanced Revision Control System",
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"plaintext": " EINE: EINE Is Not Emacs",
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"plaintext": " FIJI: FIJI Is Just ImageJ",
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"plaintext": " GiNaC: GiNaC is Not a CAS (Computer Algebra System)",
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"plaintext": " GNU: GNU's Not Unix",
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"plaintext": " GPE: GPE Palmtop Environment",
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"plaintext": " gRPC: grpc Remote Procedure Calls",
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"plaintext": " LAME: LAME Ain't an MP3 Encoder",
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{
"plaintext": " LiVES: LiVES is a Video Editing System",
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"plaintext": " MINT: MINT Is Not TRAC",
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{
"plaintext": " MiNT: MiNT is Not TOS (later changed to \"MiNT is Now TOS\")",
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"plaintext": " Mung: Mung Until No Good",
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"plaintext": " Nano: Nano's Another editor",
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{
"plaintext": " Nagios: Nagios Ain't Gonna Insist On Sainthood (a reference to the previous name of Nagios, \"Netsaint\"; agios [αγιος] is the Greek word for \"saint\")",
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{
"plaintext": " NiL: NiL Isn't Liero",
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"plaintext": " Ninja-ide: Ninja-IDE Is Not Just Another IDE",
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},
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"plaintext": " PHP: PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor (from \"Personal Home Page Tools,\" more frequently referenced as \"PHP Tools.\")",
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"plaintext": " PINE: PINE Is Nearly Elm, originally; PINE now officially stands for \"Pine Internet News and E-mail\"",
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"plaintext": " PIP: PIP Installs Packages",
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"plaintext": " P.I.P.S.: P.I.P.S. Is POSIX on Symbian",
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"plaintext": " PNG: officially \"Portable Network Graphics\", but unofficially \"PNG's not GIF\".",
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},
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"plaintext": " RPM: RPM Package Manager",
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},
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"plaintext": " SPARQL: SPARQL Protocol And RDF Query Language",
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"plaintext": " TikZ: TikZ ist kein Zeichenprogramm (German; TikZ is not a drawing program)",
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"plaintext": " TiLP: TiLP is a Linking Program",
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"plaintext": " TIP: TIP isn't Pico",
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"plaintext": " TRESOR: TRESOR Runs Encryption Securely Outside RAM",
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"plaintext": " UIRA: UIRA Isn't a Recursive Acronym",
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"plaintext": " WINE: WINE Is Not an Emulator (Originally, Windows Emulator)",
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"plaintext": " XAMPP: XAMPP Apache MariaDB PHP Perl",
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"plaintext": " XINU: XINU Is Not Unix",
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"plaintext": " XNA: XNA's Not Acronymed",
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"plaintext": " YAML: YAML Ain't Markup Language (initially \"Yet Another Markup Language\")",
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"plaintext": " Zinf: Zinf Is Not FreeAmp",
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"plaintext": " ZWEI: ZWEI Was EINE Initially (\"eins\" and \"zwei\" are German for \"one\" and \"two\" respectively)",
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"plaintext": " BWIA: BWIA West Indies Airways (formerly British West Indian Airways)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Cygnus Solutions: \"Cygnus, Your GNU Solutions\"",
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},
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"plaintext": " HIJOS: Hijos por la Identidad y la Justicia contra el Olvido y el Silencio",
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},
{
"plaintext": " HIM: HIM International Music, Taiwanese independent record label",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " JACK: JACK Audio Connection Kit",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " KGS: KGS Go Server",
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},
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"plaintext": " MEGA: MEGA Encrypted Global Access",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " MIATA: MIATA is Always the Answer",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " MOM: MOM's Organic Market",
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"section_name": "Other examples",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " SAAB: Saab Automobile AB",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Other examples",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " VISA: Visa International Service Association",
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"section_name": "Other examples",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
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"plaintext": " XBMC: XBMC Media Center (originally Xbox Media Center)",
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"section_name": "Other examples",
"target_page_ids": [
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"plaintext": " ZINC: ZINC Is Not Commercial",
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"plaintext": " TTP: a technology project in the Dilbert comic strip. The initials stand for \"The TTP Project\".",
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"plaintext": " GRUNGE: defined by Homer Simpson in The Simpsons episode That '90s Show as \"Guitar Rock Utilizing Nihilist Grunge Energy\", another uncommon example of a recursive acronym whose recursive letter is neither the first nor the last letter.",
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"plaintext": " BOB: the primary antagonist from the series Twin Peaks. His name itself is an acronym standing for \"Beware of BOB\".",
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"plaintext": " KOS-MOS: a character from the Xenosaga series of video games. \"KOS-MOS\" is a recursive acronym meaning \"Kosmos Obey Strategical Multiple Operating Systems\". It is unclear if it counts as a true recursive acronym, however, as the Kosmos referred to in the acronym may simply be an alternate spelling of cosmos.",
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"plaintext": " The GNU Hurd project is named with a mutually recursive acronym: \"Hurd\" stands for \"Hird of Unix-Replacing Daemons\", and \"Hird\" stands for \"Hurd of Interfaces Representing Depth.\"",
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"plaintext": " RPM, PHP, XBMC and YAML were originally conventional acronyms which were later redefined recursively. They are examples of, or may be referred to as, backronymization, where the official meaning of an acronym is changed.",
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"plaintext": " Jini claims the distinction of being the first recursive anti-acronym: 'Jini Is Not Initials'. It might, however, be more properly termed an anti-backronym because the term \"Jini\" never stood for anything in the first place. The more recent \"XNA\", on the other hand, was deliberately designed that way.",
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"plaintext": " Most recursive acronyms are recursive on the first letter, which is therefore an arbitrary choice, often selected for reasons of humour, ease of pronunciation, or consistency with an earlier acronym that used the same letters for different words, such as PHP, which now stands for \"PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor\", but was originally \"Personal Home Page\". However YOPY, \"Your own personal YOPY\" is recursive on the last letter.",
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"plaintext": " A joke implying that the middle initial \"B.\" in the name of Benoit B. Mandelbrot stands for \"Benoit B. Mandelbrot\" plays on the idea that fractals, which Mandelbrot studied, repeat themselves at smaller and smaller scales when examined closely.",
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"plaintext": " According to Hayyim Vital, a 16th–17th century kabbalist, the Hebrew word adam (אדם, meaning \"man\") is an acronym for adam, dibbur, maaseh (man, speech, deed).",
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"plaintext": " (Redundant Acronym Syndrome syndrome)",
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"plaintext": " TLA, the three-letter acronym for three-letter acronyms",
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"plaintext": " , which intentionally uses the acronym \"OWL\"",
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"plaintext": "Acronimo",
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]
| [
"Acronyms",
"Recursion",
"Rhetoric",
"Self-reference",
"Types_of_words",
"Word_play"
]
| 466,981 | 5,879 | 72 | 104 | 0 | 0 | recursive acronym | acronym whose meaning refers to itself | []
|
36,984 | 1,105,024,861 | Salmon | [
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"plaintext": "Typically, salmon are anadromous: they hatch in fresh water, migrate to the ocean, then return to fresh water to reproduce. However, populations of several species are restricted to fresh water throughout their lives. Folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they hatched to spawn. Tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a returning salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems; the percent of straying depends on the species of salmon. Homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"salmon\" comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn might have originated from salire, meaning \"to leap\". The nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the North Atlantic, as well as many species commonly named trout. The genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon. Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have been established in Patagonia, as well.",
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"plaintext": "Also, there are several other species which are not true salmon, as in the above list but have common names which refer to them as being salmon. Of those listed below, the Danube salmon or huchen is a large freshwater salmonid related to the salmon above, but others are marine fishes of the unrelated Perciformes order:",
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"plaintext": "Eosalmo driftwoodensis, the oldest known salmon in the fossil record, helps scientists figure how the different species of salmon diverged from a common ancestor. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago. Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record indicate that salmon divergence occurred long before the glaciers (of Quaternary glaciation) began their cycle of advance and retreat.",
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"plaintext": "Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean.",
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"plaintext": "Landlocked salmon (Salmo salar m. sebago) live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee. They are not a different species from the Atlantic salmon but have independently evolved a non-migratory life cycle, which they maintain even when they could access the ocean.",
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"plaintext": "Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) are also known in the United States as king salmon or blackmouth salmon, and as spring salmon in British Columbia. Chinooks are the largest of all Pacific salmon, frequently exceeding . The name tyee is used in British Columbia to refer to Chinook over 30 pounds, and in the Columbia River watershed, especially large Chinooks were once referred to as June hogs. Chinook salmon are known to range as far north as the Mackenzie River and Kugluktuk in the central Canadian arctic, and as far south as the Central California coast.",
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"plaintext": "Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) is known as dog, keta, or calico salmon in some parts of the US. This species has the widest geographic range of the Pacific species: in the eastern Pacific from north of the Mackenzie River in Canada to south of the Sacramento River in California and in the western Pacific from Lena River in Siberia to the island of Kyūshū in the Sea of Japan.",
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"plaintext": "Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) are also known in the US as silver salmon. This species is found throughout the coastal waters of Alaska and British Columbia and as far south as Central California (Monterey Bay). It is also now known to occur, albeit infrequently, in the Mackenzie River.",
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"plaintext": "Masu salmon or cherry salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) are found only in the western Pacific Ocean in Japan, Korea, and Russia. A land-locked subspecies known as the Taiwanese salmon or Formosan salmon (Oncorhynchus masou formosanus) is found in central Taiwan's Chi Chia Wan Stream.",
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"plaintext": "Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), known as humpies in southeast and southwest Alaska, are found in the western Pacific from Lena River in Siberia to Korea, found throughout northern Pacific, and in the eastern Pacific from the Mackenzie River in Canada to northern California, usually in shorter coastal streams. It is the smallest of the Pacific species, with an average weight of .",
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"plaintext": "Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) is also known in the US (especially Alaska) as red salmon. This lake-rearing species is found in the eastern Pacific from Bathurst Inlet in the Canadian Arctic to Klamath River in California, and in the western Pacific from the Anadyr River in Siberia to northern Hokkaidō island in Japan. Although most adult Pacific salmon feed on small fish, shrimp, and squid, sockeye feed on plankton they filter through gill rakers. Kokanee salmon are the land-locked form of sockeye salmon.",
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"plaintext": "Danube salmon, or huchen (Hucho hucho), are the largest permanent freshwater salmonid species.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon eggs are laid in freshwater streams typically at high latitudes. The eggs hatch into alevin or sac fry. The fry quickly develop into parr with camouflaging vertical stripes. The parr stay for six months to three years in their natal stream before becoming smolts, which are distinguished by their bright, silvery colour with scales that are easily rubbed off. Only 10% of all salmon eggs are estimated to survive to this stage.",
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"plaintext": "The smolt body chemistry changes, allowing them to live in salt water. While a few species of salmon remain in fresh water throughout their life cycle, the majority are anadromous and migrate to the ocean for maturation: in these species, smolts spend a portion of their out-migration time in brackish water, where their body chemistry becomes accustomed to osmoregulation in the ocean. This body chemistry change is hormone-driven, causing physiological adjustments in the function of osmoregulatory organs such as the gills, which leads to large increases in their ability to secrete salt. Hormones involved in increasing salinity tolerance include insulin-like growth factor I, cortisol, and thyroid hormones, which permits the fish to endure the transition from a freshwater environment to the ocean.",
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"plaintext": "The salmon spend about one to five years (depending on the species) in the open ocean, where they gradually become sexually mature. The adult salmon then return primarily to their natal streams to spawn. Atlantic salmon spend between one and four years at sea. When a fish returns after just one year's sea feeding, it is called a grilse in Canada, Britain, and Ireland. Grilse may be present at spawning, and go unnoticed by large males, releasing their own sperm on the eggs.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to spawning, depending on the species, salmon undergo changes. They may grow a hump, develop canine-like teeth, or develop a kype (a pronounced curvature of the jaws in male salmon). All change from the silvery blue of a fresh-run fish from the sea to a darker colour. Salmon can make amazing journeys, sometimes moving hundreds of miles upstream against strong currents and rapids to reproduce. Chinook and sockeye salmon from central Idaho, for example, travel over and climb nearly from the Pacific Ocean as they return to spawn. Condition tends to deteriorate the longer the fish remain in fresh water, and they then deteriorate further after they spawn, when they are known as kelts. In all species of Pacific salmon, the mature individuals die within a few days or weeks of spawning, a trait known as semelparity. Between 2 and 4% of Atlantic salmon kelts survive to spawn again, all females. However, even in those species of salmon that may survive to spawn more than once (iteroparity), postspawning mortality is quite high (perhaps as high as 40 to 50%).",
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"plaintext": "To lay her roe, the female salmon uses her tail (caudal fin), to create a low-pressure zone, lifting gravel to be swept downstream, excavating a shallow depression, called a redd. The redd may sometimes contain 5,000 eggs covering . The eggs usually range from orange to red. One or more males approach the female in her redd, depositing sperm, or milt, over the roe. The female then covers the eggs by disturbing the gravel at the upstream edge of the depression before moving on to make another redd. The female may make as many as seven redds before her supply of eggs is exhausted.",
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"plaintext": "Each year, the fish experiences a period of rapid growth, often in summer, and one of slower growth, normally in winter. This results in ring formation around an earbone called the otolith (annuli), analogous to the growth rings visible in a tree trunk. Freshwater growth shows as densely crowded rings, sea growth as widely spaced rings; spawning is marked by significant erosion as body mass is converted into eggs and milt.",
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"plaintext": "Freshwater streams and estuaries provide important habitat for many salmon species. They feed on terrestrial and aquatic insects, amphipods, and other crustaceans while young, and primarily on other fish when older. Eggs are laid in deeper water with larger gravel and need cool water and good water flow (to supply oxygen) to the developing embryos. Mortality of salmon in the early life stages is usually high due to natural predation and human-induced changes in habitat, such as siltation, high water temperatures, low oxygen concentration, loss of stream cover, and reductions in river flow. Estuaries and their associated wetlands provide vital nursery areas for the salmon prior to their departure to the open ocean. Wetlands not only help buffer the estuary from silt and pollutants, but also provide important feeding and hiding areas.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon not killed by other means show greatly accelerated deterioration (phenoptosis, or \"programmed aging\") at the end of their lives. Their bodies rapidly deteriorate right after they spawn as a result of the release of massive amounts of corticosteroids.",
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"plaintext": "As adults, salmon eat a variety of other sea creatures, including smaller fish such as lanternfish, herrings, sand lances, and barracudina. They also eat krill, squid, and polychaete worms. They are also known to eat grasshoppers.",
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"plaintext": "In the Pacific Northwest and Alaska, salmon are keystone species, supporting wildlife such as birds, bears and otters. The bodies of salmon represent a transfer of nutrients from the ocean, rich in nitrogen, sulfur, carbon and phosphorus, to the forest ecosystem.",
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"plaintext": "Grizzly bears function as ecosystem engineers, capturing salmon and carrying them into adjacent wooded areas. There they deposit nutrient-rich urine and feces and partially eaten carcasses. Bears are estimated to leave up to half the salmon they harvest on the forest floor, in densities that can reach 4,000 kilograms per hectare, providing as much as 24% of the total nitrogen available to the riparian woodlands. The foliage of spruce trees up to from a stream where grizzlies fish salmon have been found to contain nitrogen originating from fished salmon.",
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"plaintext": "Beavers also function as ecosystem engineers; in the process of clear-cutting and damming, beavers alter their ecosystems extensively. Beaver ponds can provide critical habitat for juvenile salmon. An example of this was seen in the years following 1818 in the Columbia River Basin.",
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"plaintext": "In 1818, the British government made an agreement with the U.S. government to allow U.S. citizens access to the Columbia catchment (see Treaty of 1818). At the time, the Hudson's Bay Company sent word to trappers to extirpate all furbearers from the area in an effort to make the area less attractive to U.S. fur traders. In response to the elimination of beavers from large parts of the river system, salmon runs plummeted, even in the absence of many of the factors usually associated with the demise of salmon runs. Salmon recruitment can be affected by beavers' dams because dams can:",
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"plaintext": "Slow the rate at which nutrients are flushed from the system; nutrients provided by adult salmon dying throughout the fall and winter remain available in the spring to newly hatched juveniles",
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"plaintext": "Provide deeper water pools where young salmon can avoid avian predators",
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"plaintext": "Increase productivity through photosynthesis and by enhancing the conversion efficiency of the cellulose-powered detritus cycle",
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"plaintext": "Create slow-water environments where juvenile salmon put the food they ingest into growth rather than into fighting currents",
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"plaintext": "Increase structural complexity with many physical niches where salmon can avoid predators",
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"plaintext": "Beavers' dams are able to nurture salmon juveniles in estuarine tidal marshes where the salinity is less than 10ppm. Beavers build small dams of generally less than high in channels in the myrtle zone. These dams can be overtopped at high tide and hold water at low tide. This provides refuges for juvenile salmon so they do not have to swim into large channels where they are subject to predation.",
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"plaintext": "It has been discovered that rivers which have seen a decline or disappearance of anadromous lampreys, loss of the lampreys also affects the salmon in a negative way. Like salmon, anadromous lampreys stop feeding and die after spawning, and their decomposing bodies release nutrients into the stream. Also, along with species like rainbow trout and Sacramento sucker, lampreys clean the gravel in the rivers during spawning. Their larvae, called ammocoetes, are filter feeders which contribute to the health of the waters. They are also a food source for the young salmon, and being fattier and oilier, it is assumed predators prefer them over salmon offspring, taking off some of the predation pressure on smolts. Adult lampreys are also the preferred prey of seals and sea lions, which can eat 30 lampreys to every salmon, allowing more adult salmon to enter the rivers to spawn without being eaten by the marine mammals.",
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"plaintext": "According to Canadian biologist Dorothy Kieser, the myxozoan parasite Henneguya salminicola is commonly found in the flesh of salmonids. It has been recorded in the field samples of salmon returning to the Haida Gwaii Islands. The fish responds by walling off the parasitic infection into a number of cysts that contain milky fluid. This fluid is an accumulation of a large number of parasites.",
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"plaintext": "Henneguya and other parasites in the myxosporean group have complex life cycles, where the salmon is one of two hosts. The fish releases the spores after spawning. In the Henneguya case, the spores enter a second host, most likely an invertebrate, in the spawning stream. When juvenile salmon migrate to the Pacific Ocean, the second host releases a stage infective to salmon. The parasite is then carried in the salmon until the next spawning cycle. The myxosporean parasite that causes whirling disease in trout has a similar life cycle. However, as opposed to whirling disease, the Henneguya infestation does not appear to cause disease in the host salmon—even heavily infected fish tend to return to spawn successfully.",
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"plaintext": "According to Dr. Kieser, a lot of work on Henneguya salminicola was done by scientists at the Pacific Biological Station in Nanaimo in the mid-1980s, in particular, an overview report which states, \"the fish that have the longest fresh water residence time as juveniles have the most noticeable infections. Hence in order of prevalence, coho are most infected followed by sockeye, chinook, chum and pink. As well, the report says, at the time the studies were conducted, stocks from the middle and upper reaches of large river systems in British Columbia such as Fraser, Skeena, Nass and from mainland coastal streams in the southern half of B.C., \"are more likely to have a low prevalence of infection.\" The report also states, \"It should be stressed that Henneguya, economically deleterious though it is, is harmless from the view of public health. It is strictly a fish parasite that cannot live in or affect warm blooded animals, including man\".",
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"plaintext": "According to Klaus Schallie, Molluscan Shellfish Program Specialist with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, \"Henneguya salminicola is found in southern B.C. also and in all species of salmon. I have previously examined smoked chum salmon sides that were riddled with cysts and some sockeye runs in Barkley Sound (southern B.C., west coast of Vancouver Island) are noted for their high incidence of infestation.\"",
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"plaintext": "Sea lice, particularly Lepeophtheirus salmonis and various Caligus species, including C. clemensi and C. rogercresseyi, can cause deadly infestations of both farm-grown and wild salmon. Sea lice are ectoparasites which feed on mucus, blood, and skin, and migrate and latch onto the skin of wild salmon during free-swimming, planktonic nauplii and copepodid larval stages, which can persist for several days.",
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"plaintext": "Large numbers of highly populated, open-net salmon farms",
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"plaintext": "can create exceptionally large concentrations of sea lice; when exposed in river estuaries containing large numbers of open-net farms, many young wild salmon are infected, and do not survive as a result. Adult salmon may survive otherwise critical numbers of sea lice, but small, thin-skinned juvenile salmon migrating to sea are highly vulnerable. On the Pacific coast of Canada, the louse-induced mortality of pink salmon in some regions is commonly over 80%.",
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"plaintext": "The risk of injury caused by underwater pile driving has been studied by Dr. Halvorsen and her co-workers. The study concluded that the fish are at risk of injury if the cumulative sound exposure level exceeds 210 dB relative to 1 μPa2 s.",
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"plaintext": "As can be seen from the production chart at the left, the global capture reported by different countries to the FAO of commercial wild salmon has remained fairly steady since 1990 at about one million tonnes per year. This is in contrast to farmed salmon (below) which has increased in the same period from about 0.6 million tonnes to well over two million tonnes.",
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"plaintext": "Nearly all captured wild salmon are Pacific salmon. The capture of wild Atlantic salmon has always been relatively small, and has declined steadily since 1990. In 2011 only 2,500 tonnes were reported. In contrast about half of all farmed salmon are Atlantic salmon.",
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"plaintext": "Recreational salmon fishing can be a technically demanding kind of sport fishing, not necessarily congenial for beginning fishermen. A conflict exists between commercial fishermen and recreational fishermen for the right to salmon stock resources. Commercial fishing in estuaries and coastal areas is often restricted so enough salmon can return to their natal rivers where they can spawn and be available for sport fishing. On parts of the North American west coast sport salmon fishing completely replaces inshore commercial fishing. In most cases, the commercial value of a salmon can be several times less than the value attributed to the same fish caught by a sport fisherman. This is \"a powerful economic argument for allocating stock resources preferentially to sport fishing.\"",
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"plaintext": "Salmon aquaculture is a major contributor to the world production of farmed finfish, representing about US$10billion annually. Other commonly cultured fish species include tilapia, catfish, sea bass, carp and bream. Salmon farming is significant in Chile, Norway, Scotland, Canada and the Faroe Islands; it is the source for most salmon consumed in the United States and Europe. Atlantic salmon are also, in very small volumes, farmed in Russia and Tasmania, Australia.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon are carnivorous. They are fed a meal produced from catching other wild fish and other marine organisms. Salmon farming leads to a high demand for wild forage fish. Salmon require large nutritional intakes of protein, and farmed salmon consume more fish than they generate as a final product. On a dry weight basis, 2–4kg of wild-caught fish are needed to produce one kg of salmon. As the salmon farming industry expands, it requires more wild forage fish for feed, at a time when 75% of the world's monitored fisheries are already near to or have exceeded their maximum sustainable yield. The industrial-scale extraction of wild forage fish for salmon farming affects the survivability of the wild predator fish which rely on them for food.",
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"plaintext": "Work continues on substituting vegetable proteins for animal proteins in the salmon diet. This substitution results in lower levels of the highly valued omega-3 fatty acid content in the farmed product.",
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"plaintext": "Intensive salmon farming uses open-net cages, which have low production costs. It has the drawback of allowing disease and sea lice to spread to local wild salmon stocks.",
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"plaintext": "Another form of salmon production, which is safer but less controllable, is to raise salmon in hatcheries until they are old enough to become independent. They are released into rivers in an attempt to increase the salmon population. This system is referred to as ranching. It was very common in countries such as Sweden, before the Norwegians developed salmon farming, but is seldom done by private companies. As anyone may catch the salmon when they return to spawn, a company is limited in benefiting financially from their investment.",
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"plaintext": "Because of this, the ranching method has mainly been used by various public authorities and nonprofit groups, such as the Cook Inlet Aquaculture Association, as a way to increase salmon populations in situations where they have declined due to overharvesting, construction of dams, and habitat destruction or fragmentation. Negative consequences to this sort of population manipulation include genetic \"dilution\" of the wild stocks. Many jurisdictions are now beginning to discourage supplemental fish planting in favour of harvest controls, and habitat improvement and protection.",
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"plaintext": "A variant method of fish stocking, called ocean ranching, is under development in Alaska. There, the young salmon are released into the ocean far from any wild salmon streams. When it is time for them to spawn, they return to where they were released, where fishermen can catch them.",
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"plaintext": "An alternative method to hatcheries is to use spawning channels. These are artificial streams, usually parallel to an existing stream, with concrete or rip-rap sides and gravel bottoms. Water from the adjacent stream is piped into the top of the channel, sometimes via a header pond, to settle out sediment. Spawning success is often much better in channels than in adjacent streams due to the control of floods, which in some years can wash out the natural redds. Because of the lack of floods, spawning channels must sometimes be cleaned out to remove accumulated sediment. The same floods that destroy natural redds also clean the regular streams. Spawning channels preserve the natural selection of natural streams, as there is no benefit, as in hatcheries, to use prophylactic chemicals to control diseases.",
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"plaintext": "Farm-raised salmon are fed the carotenoids astaxanthin and canthaxanthin to match their flesh colour to wild salmon to improve their marketability. Wild salmon get these carotenoids, primarily astaxanthin, from eating shellfish and krill.",
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"plaintext": "One proposed alternative to the use of wild-caught fish as feed for the salmon, is the use of soy-based products. This should be better for the local environment of the fish farm, but producing soy beans has a high environmental cost for the producing region. The fish omega-3 fatty acid content would be reduced compared to fish-fed salmon.",
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"plaintext": "Another possible alternative is a yeast-based coproduct of bioethanol production, proteinaceous fermentation biomass. Substituting such products for engineered feed can result in equal (sometimes enhanced) growth in fish. With its increasing availability, this would address the problems of rising costs for buying hatchery fish feed.",
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"plaintext": "Yet another attractive alternative is the increased use of seaweed. Seaweed provides essential minerals and vitamins for growing organisms. It offers the advantage of providing natural amounts of dietary fiber and having a lower glycemic load than grain-based fish meal. In the best-case scenario, widespread use of seaweed could yield a future in aquaculture that eliminates the need for land, freshwater, or fertilizer to raise fish.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon population levels are of concern in the Atlantic and in some parts of the Pacific. The population of wild salmon declined markedly in recent decades, especially North Atlantic populations, which spawn in the waters of western Europe and eastern Canada, and wild salmon in the Snake and Columbia River systems in northwestern United States.",
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"plaintext": "Alaska fishery stocks are still abundant, and catches have been on the rise in recent decades, after the state initiated limitations in 1972. Some of the most important Alaskan salmon sustainable wild fisheries are located near the Kenai River, Copper River, and in Bristol Bay. Fish farming of Pacific salmon is outlawed in the United States Exclusive Economic Zone, however, there is a substantial network of publicly funded hatcheries, and the State of Alaska's fisheries management system is viewed as a leader in the management of wild fish stocks.",
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"plaintext": "In Canada, returning Skeena River wild salmon support commercial, subsistence and recreational fisheries, as well as the area's diverse wildlife on the coast and around communities hundreds of miles inland in the watershed. The status of wild salmon in Washington is mixed. Of 435 wild stocks of salmon and steelhead, only 187 of them were classified as healthy; 113 had an unknown status, one was extinct, 12 were in critical condition and 122 were experiencing depressed populations.",
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"plaintext": "The commercial salmon fisheries in California have been either severely curtailed or closed completely in recent years, due to critically low returns on the Klamath and or Sacramento rivers, causing millions of dollars in losses to commercial fishermen. Both Atlantic and Pacific salmon are popular sportfish.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon populations have been established in all the Great Lakes. Coho stocks were planted by the state of Michigan in the late 1960s to control the growing population of non-native alewife. Now Chinook (king), Atlantic, and coho (silver) salmon are annually stocked in all Great Lakes by most bordering states and provinces. These populations are not self-sustaining and do not provide much in the way of a commercial fishery, but have led to the development of a thriving sport fishery.",
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"plaintext": "Wild, self sustaining Pacific salmon populations have been established in New Zealand, Chile, and Argentina. They are highly prized by sport fishers, but others worry about displacing native fish species. Also, and especially in Chile (Aquaculture in Chile), both Atlantic and Pacific salmon are used in net pen farming.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020 researchers reported widespread declines in the sizes of four species of wild Pacific salmon: Chinook, chum, coho, and sockeye. These declines have been occurring for 30 years, and are thought to be associated with climate change and competition with growing numbers of pink and hatchery salmon.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon is a popular food. Classified as an oily fish, salmon is considered to be healthy due to the fish's high protein, high omega-3 fatty acids, and high vitamin D content. Salmon is also a source of cholesterol, with a range of depending on the species. According to reports in the journal Science, farmed salmon may contain high levels of dioxins. PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) levels may be up to eight times higher in farmed salmon than in wild salmon, but still well below levels considered dangerous. Nonetheless, according to a 2006 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, the benefits of eating even farmed salmon still outweigh any risks imposed by contaminants. Farmed salmon has a high omega 3 fatty acid content comparable to wild salmon. The type of omega-3 present may not be a factor for other important health functions.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon flesh is generally orange to red, although white-fleshed wild salmon with white-black skin colour occurs. The natural colour of salmon results from carotenoid pigments, largely astaxanthin, but also canthaxanthin, in the flesh. Wild salmon get these carotenoids from eating krill and other tiny shellfish.",
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"plaintext": "The vast majority of Atlantic salmon available around the world are farmed (almost 99%), whereas the majority of Pacific salmon are wild-caught (greater than 80%). Canned salmon in the US is usually wild Pacific catch, though some farmed salmon is available in canned form. Smoked salmon is another popular preparation method, and can either be hot or cold smoked. Lox can refer to either cold-smoked salmon or salmon cured in a brine solution (also called gravlax). Traditional canned salmon includes some skin (which is harmless) and bone (which adds calcium). Skinless and boneless canned salmon is also available.",
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"plaintext": "Raw salmon flesh may contain Anisakis nematodes, marine parasites that cause anisakiasis. Before the availability of refrigeration, the Japanese did not consume raw salmon. Salmon and salmon roe have only recently come into use in making sashimi (raw fish) and sushi.",
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"plaintext": "To the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, salmon is considered a vital part of the diet. Specifically, the indigenous peoples of Haida Gwaii, located near former Queen Charlotte Island in British Columbia, rely on salmon as one of their main sources of food, although many other bands have fished Pacific waters for centuries. Salmon are not only ancient and unique, but it is important because it is expressed in culture, art forms, and ceremonial feasts. Annually, salmon spawn in Haida, feeding on everything on the way upstream and down. Within the Haida nation, salmon is referred to as \"tsiin\", and is prepared in several ways including smoking, baking, frying, and making soup.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, there has always been enough salmon, as people would not overfish, and only took what they needed. In 2003, a report on First Nation participation in commercial fisheries, including salmon, commissioned by BC's Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries found that there were 595",
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"plaintext": "First Nation-owned and operated commercial vessels in the province. Of those vessels, First Nations' members owned 564. However, employment within the industry has decreased overall by 50% in the last decade, with 8,142 registered commercial fishermen in 2003. This has affected employment for many fisherman, who rely on salmon as a source of income.",
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"plaintext": "Black bears also rely on salmon as food. The leftovers the bears leave behind are considered important nutrients for the Canadian forest, such as the soil, trees, and plants. In this sense, the salmon feed the forest and in return receive clean water and gravel in which to hatch and grow, sheltered from extremes of temperature and water flow in times of high and low rainfall. However, the condition of the salmon in Haida has been affected in recent decades. Due to logging and development, much of the salmon's habitat (i.e., Ain River) has been destroyed, resulting in the fish being close to endangered. For residents, this has resulted in limits on catches, in turn, has affected families diets, and cultural events such as feasts. Some of the salmon systems in danger include: the Davidon, Naden, Mamim, and Mathers. It is clear that further protection is needed for salmon, such as their habitats, where logging commonly occurs.",
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"plaintext": "The salmon has long been at the heart of the culture and livelihood of coastal dwellers, which can be traced as far back as 5,000 years when archeologists discovered Nisqually tribes remnants. The original distribution of the Genus Oncorhynchus covered the Pacific Rim coastline. History shows salmon used tributaries, rivers and estuaries without regard to jurisdiction for 18–22 million years. Baseline data is near impossible to recreate based on the inconsistent historical data, but confirmed there have been massive depletion since the 1900s. The Pacific Northwest was once sprawled with native inhabitants who practiced eco management, to ensure little degradation was caused by their actions to salmon habitats. As animists, the indigenous people relied not only for salmon for food, but spiritual guidance. The role of the salmon spirit guided the people to respect ecological systems such as the rivers and tributaries the salmon used for spawning. Natives often used the entire fish and left no waste by creating items such turning the bladder into glue, bones for toys, and skin for clothing and shoes. The first salmon ceremony was introduced by indigenous tribes on the pacific coast, which consists of three major parts. First is the welcoming of the first catch, then comes the cooking and lastly, the return of the bones to the Sea to induce hospitality so that other salmon would give their lives to the people of that village. ",
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"plaintext": "Many tribes such as the Yurok had a taboo against harvesting the first fish that swam upriver in summer, but once they confirmed that the salmon had returned in abundance they would begin to catch them in plentiful. The indigenous practices were guided by deep ecological wisdom, which was eradicated when Euro-American settlements began to be developed. Salmon have a much grander history than what is presently shown today. The Salmon that once dominated the Pacific Ocean are now just a fraction in population and size. The Pacific salmon population is now less than 1–3% of what it was when Lewis and Clark arrived at the region. In his 1908 State of the Union address, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt observed that the fisheries were in significant decline:",
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"plaintext": "The salmon fisheries of the Columbia River are now but a fraction of what they were twenty-five years ago, and what they would be now if the United States Government had taken complete charge of them by intervening between Oregon and Washington. During these twenty-five years the fishermen of each State have naturally tried to take all they could get, and the two legislatures have never been able to agree on joint action of any kind adequate in degree for the protection of the fisheries. At the moment the fishing on the Oregon side is practically closed, while there is no limit on the Washington side of any kind, and no one can tell what the courts will decide as to the very statutes under which this action and non-action result. Meanwhile very few salmon reach the spawning grounds, and probably four years hence the fisheries will amount to nothing; and this comes from a struggle between the associated, or gill-net, fishermen on the one hand, and the owners of the fishing wheels up the river.",
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"plaintext": "On the Columbia River the Chief Joseph Dam completed in 1955 completely blocks salmon migration to the upper Columbia River system.",
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"plaintext": "The Fraser River salmon population was affected by the 1914 slide caused by the Canadian Pacific Railway at Hells Gate. The 1917 catch was one quarter of the 1913 catch.",
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"plaintext": "The origin of the word for \"salmon\" was one of the arguments about the location of the origin of the Indo-European languages.",
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"plaintext": "The salmon is an important creature in several strands of Celtic mythology and poetry, which often associated them with wisdom and venerability. In Irish folklore, fishermen associated salmon with fairies and thought it was unlucky to refer to them by name. In Irish mythology, a creature called the Salmon of Knowledge plays key role in the tale The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn. In the tale, the Salmon will grant powers of knowledge to whoever eats it, and is sought by poet Finn Eces for seven years. Finally Finn Eces catches the fish and gives it to his young pupil, Fionn mac Cumhaill, to prepare it for him. However, Fionn burns his thumb on the salmon's juices, and he instinctively puts it in his mouth. In so doing, he inadvertently gains the Salmon's wisdom. Elsewhere in Irish mythology, the salmon is also one of the incarnations of both Tuan mac Cairill and Fintan mac Bóchra.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon also feature in Welsh mythology. In the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, the Salmon of Llyn Llyw is the oldest animal in Britain, and the only creature who knows the location of Mabon ap Modron. After speaking to a string of other ancient animals who do not know his whereabouts, King Arthur's men Cai and Bedwyr are led to the Salmon of Llyn Llyw, who lets them ride its back to the walls of Mabon's prison in Gloucester.",
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"plaintext": "In Norse mythology, after Loki tricked the blind god Höðr into killing his brother Baldr, Loki jumped into a river and transformed himself into a salmon to escape punishment from the other gods. When they held out a net to trap him he attempted to leap over it but was caught by Thor who grabbed him by the tail with his hand, and this is why the salmon's tail is tapered.",
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"plaintext": "Salmon are central spiritually and culturally to Native American mythology on the Pacific coast, from the Haida and Coast Salish peoples, to the Nuu-chah-nulth peoples in British Columbia.",
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"plaintext": " Atlas of Pacific Salmon, Xanthippe Augerot and the State of the Salmon Consortium, University of California Press, 2005, hardcover, 152 pages, ",
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"plaintext": " Making Salmon: An Environmental History of the Northwest Fisheries Crisis, Joseph E. Taylor III, University of Washington Press, 1999, 488 pages, ",
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"plaintext": " Trout and Salmon of North America, Robert J. Behnke, Illustrated by Joseph R. Tomelleri, The Free Press, 2002, hardcover, 359 pages, ",
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"plaintext": " Come back, salmon, By Molly Cone, Sierra Club Books, 48 pages, – A book for juveniles describes the restoration of 'Pigeon Creek'.",
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"plaintext": " The salmon: their fight for survival, By Anthony Netboy, 1973, Houghton Mifflin Co., 613 pages, ",
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{
"plaintext": " A River Lost, by Blaine Harden, 1996, WW Norton Co., 255 pages, . (Historical view of the Columbia River system).",
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{
"plaintext": " River of Life, Channel of Death, by Keith C. Peterson, 1995, Confluence Press, 306 pages, . (Fish and dams on the Lower Snake River.)",
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"plaintext": " Salmon, by Dr Peter Coates, 2006, ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Lackey, Robert T (2000) \"Restoring Wild Salmon to the Pacific Northwest: Chasing an Illusion?\" In: Patricia Koss and Mike Katz (Eds) What we don't know about Pacific Northwest fish runs: An inquiry into decision-making under uncertainty, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon. Pages 91–143.",
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{
"plaintext": " Mills D (2001) \"Salmonids\" In: pp.252–261, Steele JH, Thorpe SA and Turekian KK (2010) Marine Biology: A Derivative of the Encyclopedia of Ocean Sciences, Academic Press. .",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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},
{
"plaintext": "NEWS January 31, 2007: U.S. Orders Modification of Klamath River – Dams Removal May Prove More Cost-Effective for allowing the passage of Salmon",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Salmon age and sex composition and mean lengths for the Yukon River area, 2004 / by Shawna Karpovich and Larry DuBois. Hosted by Alaska State Publications Program.",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Trading Tails: Linkages Between Russian Salmon Fisheries and East Asian Markets. Shelley Clarke. (November 2007). 120pp. .",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Salmons Tale, one of the twelve Ionan Tales by Jim MacCool",
"section_idx": 14,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " \"Last Stand of the American Salmon,\" G. Bruce Knecht for Men's Journal",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Plea for the Wanderer, an NFB documentary on West Coast salmon",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Arctic Salmon on Facebook research project studying Pacific salmon in the Arctic and potential links to climate change",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Salmon Collection A collection of documents describing salmon of the Pacific Northwest.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Salmon Nation A movement to create a bioregional community, based on the historic spawning area of Pacific salmon (CA to AK).",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Arctic Salmon Pacific salmon distribution and abundance seems to be increasing in the Arctic. Links to a Canadian research project documenting changes in Pacific salmon and studying Pacific salmon ecology in the Arctic.",
"section_idx": 15,
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]
| [
"Salmon",
"Alaskan_cuisine",
"Commercial_fish",
"Fish_common_names",
"Oily_fish",
"Holarctic_fauna"
]
| 2,796,766 | 63,440 | 2,440 | 255 | 0 | 0 | salmon | subfamily of fish in the trout family | []
|
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"plaintext": "Warren Mitchell (born Warren Misell; 14 January 1926– 14 November 2015) was a British actor. He was a BAFTA TV Award winner and twice a Laurence Olivier Award winner.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1950s, Mitchell appeared on the radio programmes Educating Archie and Hancock's Half Hour. He also performed minor roles in several films. In the 1960s, he rose to prominence in the role of bigoted cockney Alf Garnett in the BBC television sitcom Till Death Us Do Part (1965–75), created by Johnny Speight, which won him a Best TV Actor BAFTA in 1967. He reprised the role in the television sequels Till Death... (ATV, 1981) and In Sickness and in Health (BBC, 1985–92), and in the films Till Death Us Do Part (1969) and The Alf Garnett Saga (1972).",
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"plaintext": "His other film appearances include Three Crooked Men (1958), Carry On Cleo (1964), The Spy Who Came In from the Cold (1965), The Assassination Bureau (1969) and Norman Loves Rose (1982). He held both British and Australian citizenship and enjoyed considerable success in stage performances in both countries, winning Olivier Awards in 1979 for Death of a Salesman and in 2004 for The Price.",
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"plaintext": "Mitchell was born and raised in Stoke Newington, London. His father was a glass and china merchant. His family were Russian Jews (originally surnamed \"Misell\").",
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"plaintext": "He was interested in acting from an early age and attended Gladys Gordon's Academy of Dramatic Arts in Walthamstow from the age of seven. He did well at Southgate County School (now Southgate School), a state grammar school at Palmers Green, Middlesex. He then studied physical chemistry at University College, Oxford, as a Royal Air Force cadet student on a six-month university short course which the armed services sponsored for potential officers. There he met his contemporary, Richard Burton, and together they joined the RAF in October 1944. He completed his navigator training in Canada just as the Second World War ended.",
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"plaintext": "Richard Burton's description of the acting profession had convinced him that it would be better than completing his chemistry degree and so Mitchell attended RADA for two years, performing in the evening with London's Unity Theatre. After a short stint as a DJ on Radio Luxembourg, in 1951, Mitchell became a versatile professional actor with straight and comedy roles on stage, radio, film and television. His first broadcast was as a regular on the radio show Educating Archie, and this led to appearances in both the radio and television versions of Hancock's Half Hour.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 1950s, he regularly appeared on television: as Sean Connery's trainer in boxing drama Requiem for a Heavyweight (1957), with Charlie Drake in the sitcom Drake's Progress (BBC, 1957) and a title role in Three 'Tough' Guys (ITV, 1957), in which he played a bungling criminal. He also appeared in several episodes of Armchair Theatre. During the first of these, Underground (1958), one of the lead actors died during the live performance. He also had roles in The Avengers in addition to many ITC drama series including: William Tell, The Four Just Men, Sir Francis Drake, Danger Man and as a recurrent guest in The Saint, as the second episode of the first season, \"The Latin Touch\" in 1962, depicting an Italian taxi driver.",
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"plaintext": "His cinema début was in Guy Hamilton's Manuela (1957), and he began a career of minor roles as sinister foreign agents, assisted by his premature baldness and facility with Eastern European accents. He appeared in The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1961), the Hammer horror The Curse of the Werewolf (1961), Carry On Cleo (1964), Where Has Poor Mickey Gone? (Gerry Levy, 1964), and Help! (Richard Lester, 1965) and played leads in All the Way Up (James MacTaggart, 1970), The Chain (Jack Gold, 1984), The Dunera Boys (Ben Lewin, 1985) and Foreign Body (Ronald Neame, 1986).",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, Mitchell was cast in the role for which he became best known, as the Conservative-voting, bigoted cockney West Ham United supporter Alf Garnett in a play for the BBC Comedy Playhouse series, broadcast on 22 July 1965. This was the pilot edition of the long-running series Till Death Us Do Part, with Gretchen Franklin, Una Stubbs and Antony Booth. The part of Mum, played by Franklin, was recast with Dandy Nichols in the role when the programme was commissioned as a series. Mitchell's real life persona was different from Alf Garnett, being Jewish, Labour-voting and a staunch supporter of Tottenham Hotspur. The show ran from 1966 to 1975, in seven series, making a total of 53 30-minute episodes. While the series aimed to satirise racism, it actually also gained the support of many bigoted racists who perceived Alf as \"the voice of reason\".",
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"plaintext": "Mitchell reprised the role of Alf Garnett in the films Till Death Us Do Part (1969) and The Alf Garnett Saga (1972), in the ATV series Till Death... (1981), and in the BBC series In Sickness and in Health (1985–92). He also reprised his role as Alf Garnett in 1983 in the television series The Main Attraction where comedians recreated their famous acts from their past in front of a live and television audience (similar to An Audience with... that began in 1976). In 1997 he played the role in An Audience with Alf Garnett. The same year, ITV aired a series of mini-episodes called A Word With Alf, featuring Alf and his friends. All the TV shows and both films were written by Johnny Speight. When Speight died in 1998, the character of Alf Garnett was retired at Mitchell's request.",
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"plaintext": "Mitchell had a long and distinguished career on stage and television. Other small screen roles included a 13-episode series, Men of Affairs with Brian Rix (ITV, 1973–74), based on the West End hit farce Don't Just Lie There, Say Something! There were also performances in 1975 in Play for Today (showing that he could play a serious character role in the episode, Moss), as William Wardle, a crooked accountant in The Sweeney episode Big Spender (Thames Television for ITV, 1978), Lovejoy (BBC), Waking the Dead (BBC), Kavanagh QC (Central Television for ITV, he played a concentration camp survivor in the episode Ancient History), as Shylock in The Merchant of Venice (BBC, 1980) and Gormenghast (BBC, 2000). In 1991 he starred as Ivan Fox, a Jewish atheist from London living in Belfast in So You Think You've Got Troubles, a BBC One comedy series written by Maurice Gran and Laurence Marks. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, his one-man show The Thoughts of Chairman Alf won the Evening Standard Theatre Award for best comedy in London's West End. In 1982, he received an Australian Film Institute Award for best supporting actor in the film Norman Loves Rose. He received two Laurence Olivier Theatre Awards—for playing Willy Loman in Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman (National Theatre, 1979) and as best supporting actor in a 2003 performance of The Price, also by Miller. His role in Death of a Salesman also won him an Evening Standard Theatre Award and was highly praised by Peter Hall. Miller reportedly described Mitchell's performance as \"one of the best interpretations of the part he had ever seen.\"",
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"plaintext": "For over twenty years, Mitchell suffered pain from nerve damage, caused by transverse myelitis, and was a supporter of the Neuropathy Trust. He suffered a mild stroke in August 2004. He was back onstage a week later, reprising his lauded role as a cantankerous old Jew in Arthur Miller's The Price.",
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| 7,970,393 | 13,068 | 199 | 213 | 0 | 0 | Warren Mitchell | English actor (1926-2015) | [
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"plaintext": "The show captured a key feature of Britain in the 1960s—the public perception that the generation gap was widening. Alf (and to a lesser degree his wife) represented the old guard, the traditional and conservative attitudes of the older generation. Alf's battles with his left-wing son-in-law were not just ideological but generational and cultural. His son-in-law and daughter represented the younger generation. They supported the aspects of the new era such as relaxed sexual mores, fashions, music, etc. The same things were anathema to Alf and indicative of everything that was wrong with the younger generation and the liberal attitudes they embraced.",
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"plaintext": "Alf was portrayed as the archetypal working-class Conservative. The subjects that excited him most were football and politics, though his actual knowledge of either was limited. He used language not considered acceptable for television in the 1960s. He often referred to racial minorities as \"coons\" and similar terms. He referred to his Liverpudlian son-in-law as \"Shirley Temple\" or a \"randy Scouse git\" (Randy Scouse Git, as a phrase, caught the ear of Micky Dolenz of the Monkees who heard it while on tour in the UK and used it as the title of the group's next single—though their record label renamed it 'Alternate Title' in the UK market to avoid controversy), and to his wife as a \"silly [old] moo\" (a substitute for 'cow' which was vetoed by the BBC's head of comedy Frank Muir). However, Michael Palin writes in his diary for 16 July 1976 that Warren Mitchell told him that \"silly moo\" was not scripted, \"It came out during a rehearsal when he forgot the line 'Silly old mare'.\" Controversially, the show was one of the earliest mainstream programmes to feature the swear word 'bloody'. The show was one of many held up by Mary Whitehouse as an example of the BBC's moral laxity.",
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"plaintext": "In a demonstration of Speight's satirical skills—after a successful libel action brought against Speight by Mary Whitehouse—he created an episode, first broadcast on 27 February 1967, in which Alf Garnett is depicted as an admirer of Whitehouse. Garnett was seen proudly reading her first book. \"What are you reading?\" his son-in-law asks. When he relates that it is Mary Whitehouse, his son-in-law sniggers. Alf's rejoinder is \"She's concerned for the bleedin' moral fibre of the nation!\" The episode ends with the book being burnt.",
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"plaintext": "Ultimately \"silly moo\" became a comic catchphrase. Another Garnett phrase was \"it stands to reason\", usually before making some patently unreasonable comment. Alf was portrayed as an admirer of Enoch Powell, a right-wing Conservative politician known particularly for his strong opposition to the immigration of immigrants from non-white countries. Alf was also a supporter of West Ham United (a football club based in the East End) and known to make derogatory remarks about \"the Jews up at Spurs\" (referring to Tottenham Hotspur, a north London club with a sizeable Jewish following). This was a playful touch by Speight, knowing that in real life Mitchell was both Jewish and a Spurs supporter.",
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"plaintext": "In interviews, Speight explained he had originally based Alf on his father, an East End docker who was staunchly reactionary and held \"unenlightened\" attitudes toward black people. Speight made clear that he regretted that his father held such attitudes, which Speight regarded as reprehensible. Speight saw the show as a way of ridiculing such views and dealing with his complex feelings about his father.",
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"plaintext": "However, it was later claimed in the book about the series, A Family at War by Mark Ward, that the only similarities between Alf and Johnny Speight's father was that his father was a hard-working East End working-class docker and manual labourer who voted Conservative, revered traditional British values, and was very polite to everyone he met, no matter their background. It is claimed that Johnny picked up the idea for Alf's bigoted personality from railway station porters he met when he had worked in temporary jobs for British Rail in the London area. The political views of both Alf and Mike were reflective of Speight's own perception of people both on the left and the right, with the ignorance and bigotry of those on the right represented by Alf and the idealism of many sections of the left represented by Mike.",
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"plaintext": "Johnny Speight gained a reputation for late delivery of scripts, sometimes unfinished and still in the form of rough notes (which would be finished and finalised as a script by the script editor and cast during rehearsals), either close to, on, or occasionally past the deadline. This was claimed by Speight to ensure maximum topicality for the series, although this was disputed by the programme's first producer, Dennis Main Wilson, who stated that Speight was frequently found late at night in a regular selection of West End bars, and that on more than one occasion the writer had to be physically dragged out of such establishments by Wilson and driven home to get the scripts typed up and finished.",
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"plaintext": "This was the reason for the second series being 10 episodes long rather than the commissioned 13. As three scripts that were scheduled to be recorded and broadcast towards the end of that series were not ready and actors, crew and Speight had already been paid in advance for 13 episodes, it was decided that an Easter Monday Bank Holiday special – \"Till Closing Time Us Do Part\" – would be made and that this would mostly be made up of the cast and crew ad-libbing within the broad confines of a plot. For accounting reasons, this would be considered an 11th episode of the second series. At double the usual length, it also made up for screen time of a 12th episode. The addition of this episode meant that only one week's worth of pay was wasted, rather than three. Normally, a sitcom would have plenty of time (ranging from several weeks to several months) between recording and transmission to iron out any such script delivery problems. However, to ensure maximum topicality, most episodes of the second series of Till Death Us Do Part were recorded less than seven days before their intended transmission date, and as all studios would be booked on other nights for other – sometimes more important – productions, this meant that the recording of Till Death Us Do Part episodes could not be moved to another night or another studio should the script not be ready in time for rehearsals or recording. Should this happen (which it did towards the end of the second series), this would mean no episode ready for transmission that week and – because of the less-than-seven-days gap between recording and transmission, no ready-made stockpile of new, untransmitted episodes to replace them. Other programmes had to be used to fill in the schedule in the last three planned weeks of the second series' 13-episode run. It is because of these problems of topicality delaying (sometimes cancelling) scripts that the third series is noticeably less topical than the second and had some weeks between recording and transmission to act as a \"cushion\" to ensure continuity of the series should one or more episodes fall through.",
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"plaintext": "The late delivery of scripts had been a problem that had first reared its head during production of the first series. The second series got off to a good start in this respect with the first four scripts being delivered ahead of the deadline, but it became clear as that series wore on that Speight was having these problems again. Amongst a myriad of other problems (detailed below), the final straw for the original run appears to have been a script in the final (third) series of eight episodes not being delivered in time for rehearsals to begin and thus losing one episode. This confirmed to the BBC their suspicions that Speight was not an ideal writer to be writing for a topical sitcom like this.",
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"plaintext": "To combat these problems, it was suggested by the production team that there be \"windows\" or \"spaces\" within the script that could easily be excised and replaced with more topical jokes (a frequent tactic used in other topical sitcoms like Yorkshire Television's The New Statesman 20 years later), a suggestion that was initially refused by Speight in the 1960s run of the series but which was taken up during the 1970s run. This came to be particularly useful to ensure maximum topicality during the 1974 series, some episodes of which reflected and satirised the UK Miner's Strike and the Three Day Week. However, Speight's initial refusal to accept these suggestions, combined with his constant demands of pay increases (eventually becoming the highest-paid comedy writer and then - after another increase - the highest-paid TV writer, during a time of strict public-sector pay restraints imposed by the Labour government of Harold Wilson, which was a source of particular embarrassment to the BBC) and the increasing clashes he and the BBC were having with Mary Whitehouse came to a head. Over time, Mary Whitehouse and the National Viewers' and Listeners' Association (NVLA) had several court cases with the BBC directly or indirectly related to the series, some of which Mrs Whitehouse or the NVLA won. During the first two series, the programme was originally broadcast on weeknights in a 7:30pm timeslot – far ahead of the post-9pm watershed and both Mrs Whitehouse and Speight campaigned for such a change in scheduling – the only aspect of the programme that Whitehouse and Speight agreed upon. The reluctance of the BBC to reschedule the series at first can possibly be explained in the fact that the watershed was a relatively new phenomenon at the time and there was no consensus between the BBC and the ITA over what should and shouldn't constitute family-friendly broadcasting, nor when this \"watershed\" should start, the responsibility over what constituted family-friendly viewing being primarily placed with the parents.",
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"plaintext": "Public outcry over the episode \"The Blood Donor\" as being a particularly distasteful episode and a new Chairman of the BBC Board of Governors – Lord Hill (who had been appointed as Lord Normanbrook's successor when Normanbrook died suddenly in June 1967) – taking a rather different, more conservative approach to the running of the BBC than the liberal and laid-back attitude of his predecessor were two other factors that turned up the heat of criticism against the series. Lord Hill had previously been the chairman of the Independent Television Authority and ensured that the ITV network remained relatively controversy-free. He shared many of the same opinions as Mrs Whitehouse and the wider NVLA, which also clashed with the opinions of the then BBC Director General, Hugh Carleton-Greene (he is quoted as having the \"utmost contempt\" for Hill), who had been the series' biggest champion and gleefully ignored Mrs Whitehouse whenever he had to. Many other members of BBC management also voiced their opinions directly to Hill over his appointment, most notably the then Controller of BBC 2, David Attenborough, who compared Hill being Chairman of the BBC Board of Governors to \"giving Rommel the command of the Eighth Army\". It should be added that neither Hill, nor his predecessor, Normanbrook, had any direct influence over the series itself (as the BBC Charter prohibits this), but their relationship with the Director-General indirectly influenced the programme. Because of his total personality and culture clash with Hill, Greene resigned in July 1968 (soon after the series ended its original run) and, with the series' biggest champion now out of the BBC, it looked like the Garnett family would be making no more new appearances on BBC Television, at least for the time being. Another champion of the series – Head of Comedy output at the BBC, Frank Muir had resigned his post between the second and third series to take up a new, similar, post at David Frost's fledgling new ITV franchise London Weekend Television, which would launch on 2 August 1968. His replacement – Michael Mills – recognised that the series had enormous potential but didn't understand why it had to be so topical, controversial or full of swearing and blasphemy, which hugely irritated Speight.",
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"plaintext": "The final straw for the BBC at this time came when a script for the third series – which was intended to be made up of eight episodes – was so late that it missed the scheduled beginning of rehearsals. This episode was intended to be between the transmitted episodes 4 and 5, putting a break in the recording dates and leading to one week's less space between recording and transmission of episodes.",
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"plaintext": "Given the problems the series had given the BBC with steep pay increases in the midst of a government-imposed public sector pay freeze, scripts being delivered in varying degrees of completeness (and sometimes not at all), several court cases (usually libel or blasphemy), hundreds of complaints, several run-ins with Mary Whitehouse and the NVLA, the loss of the series' two biggest champions (first Frank Muir then Hugh Carleton-Greene), the new management having different opinions over the programme and the general stress its production placed on staff (primarily down to the incomplete scripts submitted by Speight), all despite its ratings success over ITV (particularly over Coronation Street) in its first two series and its general popularity as a whole, contributed to the BBC getting cold feet over the programme. A planned fourth series, scheduled for autumn 1968, was scrapped.",
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"plaintext": "The programme was revived in 1972, during a time when the BBC were reviving some of their more successful sitcoms from the 1960s for colour production (Steptoe and Son being an example). A contributory factor to this decision may have been that, since the ITV franchise changes of the summer of 1968, ITV had paid a lot more attention to making sitcoms, particularly those featuring, and appealing to, the working class, which had previously been the preserve of the BBC during the 1960s. This can be attributed as a direct effect of the popularity of Till Death Us Do Part, The Likely Lads and Steptoe and Son, which were the first sitcoms to truly depict the realities of working class life in Britain, and were not set in typical \"middle-class sitcom suburbia\". In amongst these programmes, Till Death Us Do Part would not look as out of place as it did in the late 1960s, particularly now as the show would be less topical (bar some 1974 episodes) but no less political or controversial, as it had originally been. This was of great help to Speight, as it now meant that he did not have to wait until the very last minute to submit completed or half-completed scripts.",
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"plaintext": "However, this was also the series' downfall, as viewers noted the increasingly less-topical plots and the satire was much less vicious than it had been in the 1960s, with the style of the series in both 1975 series bearing little semblance to those transmitted in the late 1960s. Speight has put this down not only to reducing the pressures of working on a topical sitcom but also to his own personal declining interest in politics, which may be an explanation of why In Sickness and In Health was much less political, and not as vicious as its predecessor could be.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, towards the end of the series Dandy Nichols fell ill and was unable to attend the live-audience recordings. So in a later episode Else was seen leaving for Australia, to Alf's dismay. Her scenes were recorded separately from the rest of the episodes. The plan was for Nichols to tape scenes from time to time set in Australia where she would phone Alf or Rita in 1–2-minute segments. But only one episode featured such a scene and the idea was dropped as Nichols' health was poor.",
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"plaintext": "Patricia Hayes, who had been seen from time to time previously as next-door neighbour Min, became a starring character along with her husband Bert, previously played by Bill Maynard and now by Alfie Bass. The show's rating began to suffer and when it was clear Nichols was not returning as hoped by the writer, in 1975, the series was dropped. The final episode saw Alf lose his job and receive a telegram from Else asking for a divorce.",
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"plaintext": "As with most BBC sitcoms Till Death Us Do Part was recorded before a live studio audience. The programmes were recorded onto 2-inch quadruplex videotape. From 1966 to 1968, the show was transmitted in black and white. When the series returned in 1972, it was transmitted in colour. The opening titles/end credits of the first colour episodes originally used the black-and-white sequence from the 1960s tinted in red, as seen on UKTV Gold repeats in 2006.",
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"plaintext": "The house seen in the opening and closing titles to the 1960s episodes was located on Garnet Street in Wapping (from where writer Johnny Speight took the Garnett family name). This terrace was demolished in June 1968 for road widening (which is why the street used in the 1969 film and the opening titles to the colour episodes do not match with the houses used in the original opening sequence). Subsequent to this, in the 1980s, a terrace of newer multicoloured homes and an estate agents took the places of the terraced estate. They are located on Garnet Street in close proximity to the local Wallace James shop, St Peter's Primary School, Gastronomica bar, Docklands General Store and Crane Wharf.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the show's 26 episodes from series 1–3 that were videotaped in black and white and broadcast 1965–68 no longer exist; they were wiped by the BBC during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Currently, most material from twelve episodes still survives, with one episode on the original tape and the rest on film or domestic formats. The surviving 1960s B&W episodes are: \"Arguments, Arguments\"; \"A House With Love in It\"; \"Intolerance\"; \"Peace & Goodwill\"; \"In Sickness and in Health\"; \"State Visit\"; \"Alf's Dilemma\"; \"Till Closing Time Do Us Part\"; \"The Phone\"; \"The Blood Donor\"; and \"Aunt Maud\". Sequences exist from: the pilot episode; \"The Bulldog Breed\"; \"A Wapping Mythology (The Workers' King)\"; and \"The Puppy\".",
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"plaintext": "The public appeal campaign the BBC Archive Treasure Hunt continues to search for lost episodes. In 1997, the long-lost episode \"Alf's Dilemma\" was found in a private collection on a 21-minute 16mm telerecording. This is the episode featuring Garnett reading Mary Whitehouse's first book. The episode was rebroadcast in 1998 on UK Gold. In August 2009, two more black and white episodes, \"In Sickness and in Health\" and \"State Visit\", were returned by a film collector.",
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"plaintext": "The episode \"Intolerance\" was recovered in August 2016. It was screened at the BFI's annual \"Missing Believed Wiped\" event on Saturday 16 December 2016 at their Southbank venue. Network's late 2016 complete DVD box set contains off-air audio recordings of what was then every missing episode. In autumn 2017, a copy of \"Sex Before Marriage\" was recovered.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast the their American counterparts Archie and Edith Bunker, Alf and Else Garnett had a more dysfunctional marriage which involved both constantly hurling insults at each other. ",
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"plaintext": "Unlike Edith, who usually did not react to Archie whenever he insulted her by calling her \"dingbat,\" Else was less happy with her marriage and would call her husband \"pig\" after he called her \"silly moo.\" Unlike Else, Edith also would refrain from sharing her husband's prejudices as well.",
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"plaintext": "Though both the Garnett and Bunker households were intended to represent working class life, Archie Bunker's house was one of more private, cozier quality. In contrast to the Bunker household, Alf Garnett's family lived in a very modest house which, at least in the series’ early seasons, had only one lavatory (and that outdoors), and no telephone.",
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"plaintext": "Like Alf Garnett, Archie Bunker was both conservative-minded and bigoted. However, Alf's attitude and language was more violent. Unlike the more abrasive Alf Garnett, Archie Bunker was regarded as a tamer, watered-down version of his British counterpart, and was even considered a protagonist.",
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"plaintext": "Although Speight said he wrote the series to challenge racism, it was felt by some critics that many people watched it because they agreed with Garnett's views. Anthony Clark of Screenonline stated, \"Sadly, Speight's defence was far from watertight—having a white actor, Spike Milligan, black up and don a turban in one episode is clearly questionable\", and added that \"In Till Death Us Do Part, Alf's lengthy rants go largely unchallenged; his wife does little more than raise an eyebrow, while the responses from daughter Rita and the wholly unsympathetic Mike are often little more than impotent quips or frustrated laughter.\" However, John Cleese defended the series in 2020, saying \"We laughed at Alf's reactionary views. Thus we discredited them, by laughing at him. Of course, there were people—very stupid people—who said 'Thank God someone is saying these things at last'. We laughed at these people too.\"",
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"plaintext": "The linguist Alan Crosby has argued that the constant use of the phrase \"Scouse git\" with reference to Anthony Booth's character spread both the word \"Scouse\" and negative stereotypes of Liverpudlians.",
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"plaintext": "In 1980, the ITV company ATV picked up the series and produced a solo show starring Alf—titled The Thoughts of Chairman Alf at Christmas, transmitted on 26 December. The master copy has been wiped; however, a home video recording is currently available to view at the National Media Museum in Bradford.",
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"plaintext": "In 1981, ATV made six episodes under the title Till Death.... The series had Alf and Else sharing a bungalow with Min (Patricia Hayes) in Eastbourne following the death of her husband Bert (Alfie Bass). Although Rita remained in the cast, Anthony Booth declined to return. Rita's son Michael was now a teenager and a punk rocker (even though he was born in 1972 and therefore should only have been about nine or ten). The series was not a success and when ATV was restructured as Central Television after being awarded the contract for the Midlands region from 1982, it was decided that Till Death... was not to return.",
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"plaintext": "Alf Garnett returned to the BBC in 1985 for In Sickness and in Health. This took Alf and Else (who was now in a wheelchair) onward into old age, and some of Alf's more extreme opinions were found to have mellowed. Una Stubbs made some guest appearances but Anthony Booth was not interested in reprising his role. Eventually, Mike and Rita divorced, and Rita began dating a doctor. After the first series, Dandy Nichols died, and subsequent episodes showed Alf having to deal with life as a widower.",
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"plaintext": "The loss of Else (and later, Rita) as regulars in the cast meant that new characters had to be brought in as antagonists for Alf. These notably included his home help, Winston (played by Eamonn Walker), who was both black and gay, and Alf's prim upstairs neighbour, Mrs. Hollingbery (played by Carmel McSharry), who eventually agreed to marry Alf.",
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"plaintext": "In 1988, Speight was warned about the use of racist language; after discussion, it was decided that Alf's racist language was to be discontinued and the character of Winston was to be written out. With such improvements helping to update the basic concept, In Sickness and in Health ran until 1992.",
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"plaintext": "Warren Mitchell also appeared solo on stage and TV as Alf Garnett, dispensing variations on Alf's homespun reactionary philosophy and singing old music hall songs, most notably in the London Weekend Television show An Audience With Alf Garnett.",
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"plaintext": " Warren Mitchell as Alf Garnett",
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"plaintext": " Una Stubbs as Rita Rawlins, née Garnett",
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"plaintext": "In the Comedy Playhouse pilot, Alf's family name was 'Ramsey' but the BBC changed his name to Garnett for the subsequent series, not wishing to have a character with the same name as England's 1966 football World Cup winning manager.",
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"plaintext": "Two feature films were made based on the series – the first was Till Death Us Do Part (1969), whose first half dealt with the younger Alf and Else during World War II, and whose second half dealt with all the Garnetts in the present day being moved from their East End slum to the new town of Hemel Hempstead, and the adjustments and changes that brought on the family. It gave a nuanced glimpse of British life at the time. The second film, The Alf Garnett Saga (1972), had Adrienne Posta playing the part of Rita and Paul Angelis playing Mike. It is notable for featuring Alf Garnett on an LSD trip.",
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"plaintext": "All six series and the Christmas specials of In Sickness and in Health have been released on DVD by 2 Entertain.",
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"plaintext": " List of films based on British sitcoms",
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"plaintext": "Laughterlog – Detailed article and episode guide on Till Death Us Do Part and all other Alf Garnett spin-offs",
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"plaintext": "G. Schaffer ‘Till Death Us Do Part and the BBC: Racial Politics and the British Working Classes 1965–75’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol 45(2), 454–477. . ",
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"plaintext": "Lost Shows on Till Death Us Do Part",
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"plaintext": "Encyclopedia of Television",
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"plaintext": "Till Death Us Do Part at British TV Comedy",
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"plaintext": "For translation a wide range of manuscripts were reviewed. The Masoretic text, the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Greek Septuagint or (LXX), the Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, the Latin Vulgate, the Syriac Peshitta, the Aramaic Targums, and for the Psalms the Juxta Hebraica of Jerome were all consulted for the Old Testament. The Dead Sea Scrolls were occasionally followed where the Masoretic Text seemed inconsistent. The United Bible Societies Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament text was used for the New Testament.",
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"plaintext": "In Luke 12:38, the phrase \"second or third watch of the night\" employed in the NIV is changed to \"middle of the night or toward daybreak\" in the TNIV.",
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"plaintext": "The TNIV translators have, at times, opted for more traditional Anglo-Saxon or poetic renderings than those found in the NIV. For example, \"the heavens\" is sometimes chosen to replace \"the sky,\" as is the case in Isaiah 50:3: \"I clothe the heavens with darkness and make sackcloth its covering.\"",
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"plaintext": "At times the TNIV offers a different or nuanced understanding of a passage. For example, in the NIV, Psalm 26:3 reads, \"For your love is ever before me, / and I walk continually in your truth.\" The TNIV reads, \"For I have always been mindful of your unfailing love / and have lived in reliance on your faithfulness.\" There are several changes in this one verse, but of special note is the TNIV's translation of the Hebrew word ’emet. The TNIV translators took this word to mean more than simple honesty in Psalm 26:3, referring more specifically to reliability or trustworthiness.",
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"plaintext": "Examples of other changes are \"truly I tell you\" becomes \"I tell you the truth;\" \"fellow workers\" become \"coworkers;\" \"the Jews,\" particularly in John's Gospel, often becomes \"Jewish leaders\" when the context makes the statement's real meaning apparent; and \"miracles,\" especially in John, become the more literal \"signs,\" \"miraculous signs,\" or \"works.\" The word for \"Spirit,\" where there is a good chance it means the Holy Spirit, is now capitalized. \"Peter\" is now rendered \"Cephas\" when the Greek merely transliterates the Hebrew name.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, the TNIV New Testament Audio Bible was published by Hodder & Stoughton. It features an Anglicised Version of the Today's New International Version read by a cast including Tyler Butterworth, Susan Sheridan, Joan Walker, Daniel Philpott, and Anna Bentinck. Available in CD and MP3 format. A downloadable MP3 format can also be found at voxbiblia.com ",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, the International Bible Society released The Books of the Bible, which makes several changes in formatting the text. The TNIV text is used without chapter and verse divisions. Section headings are removed and footnotes are moved to the end of each book. The books are presented in an alternate order, and longer works that were divided over time are restored to their original unity. (For example, 1 and 2 Samuel and 1 and 2 Kings were originally a single book. They are recombined in The Books of the Bible as Samuel-Kings.)",
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| 16,957,561 | 961 | 29 | 96 | 0 | 0 | Today's New International Version | The more modern version of the NIV | []
|
36,995 | 1,107,652,835 | Cambridge | [
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"plaintext": "Cambridge ( ) is a university city and the county town of Cambridgeshire, England, on the River Cam approximately north of London. At the United Kingdom Census 2021, the population of Cambridge was 145,700, with the built-up area partially in neighbouring district of Cambridgeshire being approximately 175,000. Cambridge became an important trading centre during the Roman and Viking ages, and there is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area as early as the Bronze Age. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although modern city status was not officially conferred until 1951.",
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"plaintext": "The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209. The buildings of the university include King's College Chapel, Cavendish Laboratory, and the Cambridge University Library, one of the largest legal deposit libraries in the world. The city's skyline is dominated by several college buildings, along with the spire of the Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church, and the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital. Anglia Ruskin University, which evolved from the Cambridge School of Art and the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, also has its main campus in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology Silicon Fen, which contains industries such as software and bioscience and many start-up companies born out of the university. Over 40 per cent of the workforce have a higher education qualification, more than twice the national average. The Cambridge Biomedical Campus, one of the largest biomedical research clusters in the world includes the headquarters of AstraZeneca, a hotel, and the relocated Royal Papworth Hospital.",
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"plaintext": "The first game of association football took place at Parker's Piece. The Strawberry Fair music and arts festival and Midsummer Fair are held on Midsummer Common, and the annual Cambridge Beer Festival takes place on Jesus Green. The city is adjacent to the M11 and A14 roads. Cambridge station is less than an hour from London King's Cross railway station.",
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"plaintext": "Settlements have existed around the Cambridge area since prehistoric times. The earliest clear evidence of occupation is the remains of a year-old farmstead discovered at the site of Fitzwilliam College. Archaeological evidence of occupation through the Iron Age is a settlement on Castle Hill from the 1st century BC, perhaps relating to wider cultural changes occurring in southeastern Britain linked to the arrival of the Belgae.",
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"plaintext": "The principal Roman site is a small fort () Duroliponte on Castle Hill, just northwest of the city centre around the location of the earlier British village. The fort was bounded on two sides by the lines formed by the present Mount Pleasant, continuing across Huntingdon Road into Clare Street. The eastern side followed Magrath Avenue, with the southern side running near to Chesterton Lane and Kettle's Yard before turning northwest at Honey Hill. It was constructed around AD70 and converted to civilian use around 50 years later. Evidence of more widespread Roman settlement has been discovered including numerous farmsteads and a village in the Cambridge district of Newnham.",
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"plaintext": "A Roman coffin for Etheldreda was found next to the Roman town, and taken back by river for her burial in Ely. (Bede)",
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"plaintext": "Following the Roman withdrawal from Britain around 410, the location may have been abandoned by the Britons, although the site is usually identified as listed among the 28 cities of Britain by the History of the Britons. Evidence exists that the invading Anglo-Saxons had begun occupying the area by the end of the century. Their settlement – also on and around Castle Hill – became known as Grantebrycge. (\"Granta-bridge\"). (By Middle English, the settlement's name had changed to \"Cambridge\", and the lower stretches of the Granta changed their name to match.) Anglo-Saxon grave goods have been found in the area. During this period, Cambridge benefited from good trade links across the hard-to-travel fenlands. By the 7th century, the town was less significant and described by Bede as a \"little ruined city\" containing the burial site of Etheldreda. Cambridge was on the border between the East and Middle Anglian kingdoms and the settlement slowly expanded on both sides of the river.",
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"plaintext": "The arrival of the Vikings was recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 875. Viking rule, the Danelaw, had been imposed by 878 Their vigorous trading habits caused the town to grow rapidly. During this period the centre of the town shifted from Castle Hill on the left bank of the river to the area now known as the Quayside on the right bank. After the Viking period, the Saxons enjoyed a return to power, building churches such as St Bene't's Church, wharves, merchant houses and a mint, which produced coins with the town's name abbreviated to \"Grant\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1068, two years after his conquest of England, William of Normandy built a castle on Castle Hill. Like the rest of the newly conquered kingdom, Cambridge fell under the control of the King and his deputies.",
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"plaintext": "The first town charter was granted by Henry I between 1120 and 1131. It gave Cambridge monopoly of waterborne traffic and hithe tolls and recognised the borough court. The distinctive Round Church dates from this period. In 1209, Cambridge University was founded by Oxford students fleeing from hostility. The oldest existing college, Peterhouse, was founded in 1284.",
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"plaintext": "In 1349 Cambridge was affected by the Black Death. Few records survive but 16 of 40 scholars at King's Hall died. The town north of the river was severely affected being almost wiped out. Following further depopulation after a second national epidemic in 1361, a letter from the Bishop of Ely suggested that two parishes in Cambridge be merged as there were not enough people to fill even one church. With more than a third of English clergy dying in the Black Death, four new colleges were established at the university over the following years to train new clergymen, namely Gonville Hall, Trinity Hall, Corpus Christi and Clare.",
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"plaintext": "In 1382 a revised town charter effects a \"diminution of the liberties that the community had enjoyed\", due to Cambridge's participation in the Peasants' Revolt. The charter transfers supervision of baking and brewing, weights and measures, and forestalling and regrating, from the town to the university.",
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"plaintext": "King's College Chapel, was begun in 1446 by King Henry VI. The chapel was built in phases by a succession of kings of England from 1446 to 1515, its history intertwined with the Wars of the Roses, and completed during the reign of King Henry VIII. The building would become synonymous with Cambridge, and currently is used in the logo for the Cambridge City Council.",
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"plaintext": "Following repeated outbreaks of pestilence throughout the 16th century, sanitation and fresh water were brought to Cambridge by the construction of Hobson's Conduit in the early 1600s. Water was brought from Nine Wells, at the foot of the Gog Magog Hills, into the centre of the town.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge played a significant role in the early part of the English Civil War as it was the headquarters of the Eastern Counties Association, an organisation administering a regional East Anglian army, which became the mainstay of the Parliamentarian military effort before the formation of the New Model Army. In 1643 control of the town was given by Parliament to Oliver Cromwell, who had been educated at Sidney Sussex College. The town's castle was fortified and garrisoned with troops and some bridges were destroyed to aid its defence. Although Royalist forces came within of the town in 1644, the defences were never used and the garrison was stood down the following year.",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th century, in common with many other English towns, Cambridge expanded rapidly, due in part to increased life expectancy and improved agricultural production leading to increased trade in town markets. The Inclosure Acts of 1801 and 1807 enabled the town to expand over surrounding open fields and in 1912 and again in 1935 its boundaries were extended to include Chesterton, Cherry Hinton, and Trumpington.",
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"plaintext": "The railway came to Cambridge in 1845 after initial resistance, with the opening of the Great Eastern Railway's London to Norwich line. The station was outside the town centre following pressure from the university to restrict travel by undergraduates. With the arrival of the railway and associated employment came development of areas around the station, such as Romsey Town. The rail link to London stimulated heavier industries, such as the production of brick, cement and malt.",
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"plaintext": "From the 1930s to the 1980s, the size of the city was increased by several large council estates. The biggest impact has been on the area north of the river, which are now the estates of East Chesterton, King's Hedges, and Arbury where Archbishop Rowan Williams lived and worked as an assistant priest in the early 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "During the Second World War, Cambridge was an important centre for defence of the east coast. The town became a military centre, with an R.A.F. training centre and the regional headquarters for Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Hertfordshire, and Bedfordshire established during the conflict. The town itself escaped relatively lightly from German bombing raids, which were mainly targeted at the railway. 29 people were killed and no historic buildings were damaged. In 1944, a secret meeting of military leaders held in Trinity College laid the foundation for the allied invasion of Europe. During the war Cambridge served as an evacuation centre for over 7,000 people from London, as well as for parts of the University of London.",
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"plaintext": "The city gained its second University in 1992 when Anglia Polytechnic became Anglia Polytechnic University. Renamed Anglia Ruskin University in 2005, the institution has its origins in the Cambridge School of Art opened in 1858 by John Ruskin. The Open University also has a presence in the city, with an office operating on Hills Road.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is situated about north-by-east of London and 95 miles (152 kilometres) east of Birmingham. The city is located in an area of level and relatively low-lying terrain just south of the Fens, which varies between above sea level. The town was thus historically surrounded by low-lying wetlands that have been drained as the town has expanded.",
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"plaintext": "The underlying geology of Cambridge consists of gault clay and Chalk Marl, known locally as Cambridge Greensand, partly overlaid by terrace gravel. A layer of phosphatic nodules (coprolites) under the marl was mined in the 19th century for fertiliser; this became a major industry in the county, and its profits yielded buildings such as the Corn Exchange, Fulbourn Hospital and St. John's Chapel until the Quarries Act 1894 and competition from America ended production.",
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"plaintext": "The River Cam flows through the city from the village of Grantchester, to the southwest. It is bordered by water meadows within the city such as Sheep's Green as well as residential development. Like most cities, modern-day Cambridge has many suburbs and areas of high-density housing. The city centre of Cambridge is mostly commercial, historic buildings, and large green areas such as Jesus Green, Parker's Piece and Midsummer Common. Many of the roads in the centre are pedestrianised.",
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"plaintext": "Population growth has seen new housing developments in the 21st century, with estates such as the CB1 and Accordia schemes near the station, and developments such as Great Kneighton, formally known as Clay Farm, and Trumpington Meadows currently under construction in the south of the city. Other major developments currently being constructed in the city are Darwin Green (formerly NIAB), and University-led developments at West Cambridge and North West Cambridge, (Eddington).",
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"plaintext": "The entire city centre, as well as parts of Chesterton, Petersfield, West Cambridge, Newnham, and Abbey, are covered by an Air Quality Management Area, implemented to counter high levels of nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere.",
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"plaintext": "The city has an oceanic climate. (Köppen: Cfb). Cambridge has an official weather observing station, at the Cambridge University Botanic Garden, about south of the city centre. In addition, the Digital Technology Group of the university's Department of Computer Science and Technology maintains a weather station on the West Cambridge site, displaying current weather conditions online via web browsers or an app, and also an archive dating back to 1995.",
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"plaintext": "The city, like most of the UK, has a maritime climate highly influenced by the Gulf Stream. Located in the driest region of Britain, Cambridge's rainfall averages around per year, around half the national average, The driest recent year was in 2011 with of rain at the Botanic Garden and at the NIAB site. This is just below the semi-arid precipitation threshold for the area, which is 350mm of annual precipitation. Conversely, 2012 was the wettest year on record, with reported. Snowfall accumulations are usually small, in part because of Cambridge's low elevation, and low precipitation tendency during transitional snow events.",
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"plaintext": "Owing to its low-lying, inland, and easterly position within the British Isles, summer temperatures tend to be somewhat higher than areas further west, and often rival or even exceed those recorded in the London area. Cambridge also often records the annual highest national temperature in any given year– in July 2008 at NIAB and in August 2007 at the Botanic Garden are two recent examples. Other years include 1876, 1887, 1888, 1892, 1897, 1899 and 1900. The absolute maximum stands at recorded on 19 July 2022 at Cambridge University Botanic Garden. Before this date, Cambridge held the record for the all-time maximum temperature in the UK, after recording on 25 July 2019. Typically the temperature will reach or higher on over 25 days of the year over the 1981–2010 period, with the annual warmest day averaging over the same period.",
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"plaintext": "The absolute minimum temperature recorded at the Botanic Garden site was , recorded in February 1947, although a minimum of was recorded at the now defunct observatory site in December 1879. More recently the temperature fell to on 11 February 2012, on 22 January 2013 and on 20 December 2010. The average frequency of air frosts ranges from 42.8 days at the NIAB site, to 48.3 days at the Botanic Garden per year over the 1981–2010 period. Typically the coldest night of the year at the Botanic Garden will fall to . Such minimum temperatures and frost averages are typical for inland areas across much of southern and central England.",
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"plaintext": "Sunshine averages around 1,500 hours a year or around 35% of possible, a level typical of most locations in inland central England.",
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"plaintext": "The city contains three Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), at Cherry Hinton East Pit, Cherry Hinton West Pit, and Travellers Pit, and ten Local Nature Reserves (LNRs): Sheep's Green and Coe Fen,",
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"plaintext": "Coldham's Common, Stourbridge Common, Nine Wells, Byron's Pool, West Pit, Paradise, Barnwell West, Barnwell East, and Logan's Meadow.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is completely enclosed by green belt as a part of a wider environmental and planning policy first defined in 1965 and formalised in 1992. While some small tracts of green belt exist on the fringes of the city's boundary, much of the protection is in the surrounding South Cambridgeshire and nearby East Cambridgeshire districts, helping to maintain local green space, prevent further urban sprawl and unplanned expansion of the city, as well as protecting smaller outlying villages from further convergence with each other as well as the city.",
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"plaintext": "At the 2011 Census, the population of the Cambridge contiguous built-up area (urban area) was 158,434, while that of the City Council area was 123,867.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2001 Census held during University term, 89.44% of Cambridge residents identified themselves as white, compared with a national average of 92.12%. Within the university, 84% of undergraduates and 80% of post-graduates identified as white (including overseas students).",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge has a much higher than average proportion of people in the highest paid professional, managerial or administrative jobs (32.6% vs. 23.5%) and a much lower than average proportion of manual workers (27.6% vs. 40.2%). In addition, 41.2% have a higher-level qualification (e.g. degree, Higher National Diploma, Master's or PhD), much higher than the national average proportion (19.7%).",
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"plaintext": "Centre for Cities identified Cambridge as the UK's most unequal city in 2017 and 2018. Residents' income was the least evenly distributed of 57 British cities measured, with its top 6% earners accounting for 19% of its total income and the bottom 20% for only 2%, and a Gini coefficient of 0.460 in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "The town's river link to the surrounding agricultural land, and good road connections to London in the south meant Cambridge has historically served as an important regional trading post. King Henry I granted Cambridge a monopoly on river trade, privileging this area of the economy of Cambridge The town market provided for trade in a wide variety of goods and annual trading fairs such as Stourbridge Fair and Midsummer Fair were visited by merchants from across the country. The river was described in an account of 1748 as being \"often so full of [merchant boats] that the navigation thereof is stopped for some time\". For example, 2000 firkins of butter were brought up the river every Monday from the agricultural lands to the North East, particularity Norfolk, to be unloaded in the town for road transportation to London. Changing patterns of retail distribution and the advent of the railways led to a decline in Cambridge's importance as a market town.",
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"plaintext": "Today Cambridge has a diverse economy with strength in sectors such as research & development, software consultancy, high value engineering, creative industries, pharmaceuticals and tourism. Described as one of the \"most beautiful cities in the world\" by Forbes in 2010, with the view from The Backs being selected as one of the 10 greatest in England by National Trust chair Simon Jenkins, tourism generates over £750million for the city's economy.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge and its surrounds are sometimes referred to as Silicon Fen, an allusion to Silicon Valley, because of the density of high-tech businesses and technology incubators that have developed on science parks around the city. Many of these parks and buildings are owned or leased by university colleges, and the companies often have been spun out of the university. Cambridge Science Park, which is the largest commercial R&D centre in Europe, is owned by Trinity College; St John's is the landlord of St John's Innovation Centre. Technology companies include Abcam, CSR, ARM Limited, CamSemi, Jagex and Sinclair. Microsoft has located its Microsoft Research UK offices in West Cambridge, separate from the main Microsoft UK campus in Reading, and also has an office on Station Road.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge was also the home of Pye Ltd, founded in 1898 by W. G. Pye, who worked in the Cavendish Laboratory; it began by supplying the university and later specialised in wireless telegraphy equipment, radios, televisions and also defence equipment. Pye Ltd evolved into several other companies including TETRA radio equipment manufacturer Sepura. Another major business is Marshall Aerospace located on the eastern edge of the city. The Cambridge Network keeps businesses in touch with each other.",
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"plaintext": "Due to its rapid growth in the 20th century, Cambridge has a congested road network. The M11 motorway from east London terminates to the north-west of the city where it joins the A14, a major freight route which connects the port of Felixstowe on the east coast with the Midlands. The A428 connects the city with the A1 at St Neots: the route continues westwards towards Oxford (as the A421) via Bedford and Milton Keynes. The A10 connects the city to King's Lynn to the north via Ely and is the historic route south to the City of London.",
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"plaintext": "As a university town lying on fairly flat ground and with traffic congestion, Cambridge has the highest level of cycle use in the UK. According to the 2001 census, 25% of residents travelled to work by bicycle. Furthermore, a survey in 2013 found that 47% of residents travel by bike at least once a week.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge has five Park and Ride sites, all of which operate seven days a week and are aimed at encouraging motorists to park near the city's edge. Since 2011, the Cambridgeshire Guided Busway has carried bus services into the centre of Cambridge from St Ives, Huntingdon and other towns and villages along the routes, operated by Stagecoach in the Fens and Whippet. The A service continues on to the railway station and Addenbrookes, before terminating at a new Park and Ride in Trumpington. Since 2017, it has also linked to Cambridge North railway station.",
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"plaintext": "Although Cambridge has its own airport, Cambridge City Airport, it has no scheduled services and is used mainly by charter and training flights and by Marshall Aerospace for aircraft maintenance. London Stansted Airport, about south via the M11 or direct rail, offers a broad range of international destinations.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2020, consultations opened for a transport system known as the Cambridgeshire Autonomous Metro. It would have connected the historic city centre and the existing busway route with the mainline railway stations, Cambridge Science Park, and Haverhill. In May 2021 the newly elected mayor said he was focused instead on a \"revamped bus network\" but would not yet abandon the work done.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge railway station was opened in 1845, initially linking to Bishopsgate station in London, via Bishops Stortford. Further lines opened throughout the 19th century, including the Cambridge and St Ives branch line, the Stour Valley Railway, the Cambridge to Mildenhall railway, and the Varsity Line to Oxford. Another station was opened in Cherry Hinton though, at the time, this was a separate village to Cambridge. Several of these lines were closed during the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Today, Cambridge station has direct rail links to London with termini at (via the Cambridge Line and the East Coast Main Line), (on the West Anglia Main Line) and St Pancras (on the Thameslink line). Commuter trains to King's Cross run every half-hour during peak hours, with a journey time of 53 minutes. Trains also run to and (via the Fen Line), (via the Breckland Line), , Birmingham, , , , Stansted Airport, Brighton and Gatwick Airport railway stations.",
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"plaintext": "A second railway station, Cambridge North, opened on 21 May 2017, having originally planned to open in March 2015. A third railway station, , near Addenbrooke's Hospital, has been proposed; it is expected to open in 2025.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge's two universities, the collegiate University of Cambridge and the local campus of Anglia Ruskin University, serve around 30,000 students, by some estimates. Cambridge University estimated its 2007/08 student population at 17,662, and Anglia Ruskin reports 24,000 students across its two campuses (one of which is outside Cambridge, in Chelmsford) for the same period. ARU now (2019) has additional campuses in London and Peterborough. State provision in the further education sector includes Hills Road Sixth Form College, Long Road Sixth Form College, and Cambridge Regional College.",
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"plaintext": "Both state and independent schools serve Cambridge pupils from nursery to secondary school age. State schools are administered by Cambridgeshire County Council, which maintains 251 schools in total, 35 of them in Cambridge city. Netherhall School, Chesterton Community College, the Parkside Federation (comprising Parkside Community College and Coleridge Community College), North Cambridge Academy and the Christian inter-denominational St Bede's School provide comprehensive secondary education. Many other pupils from the Cambridge area attend village colleges, an educational institution unique to Cambridgeshire, which serve as secondary schools during the day and adult education centres outside of school hours. Independent schools in the city include The Perse School, Stephen Perse Foundation, Sancton Wood School, St Mary's School, Heritage School and The Leys School. The city has one university technical college, Cambridge Academy for Science and Technology, which opened in September 2014.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge played a unique role in the invention of modern football: the game's first set of rules were drawn up by members of the university in 1848. The Cambridge Rules were first played on Parker's Piece and had a 'defining influence on the 1863 Football Association rules' which again were first played on Parker's Piece.",
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"plaintext": "The city is home to Cambridge United FC, who play at the Abbey Stadium. Formed in 1912, as Abbey United, they were elected to the Football League in 1970 and reached the Football League Second Division in 1978, although a serious decline in them in the mid-1980s saw them drop back down to the Football League Fourth Division and almost go out of business. Success returned to the club in the early 1990s when they won two successive promotions and reached the FA Cup quarter finals in both of those seasons and, in 1992, they came close to becoming the first English team to win three successive Football League promotions which would have taken them into the newly created FA Premier League; however, they were beaten in the play-offs and another decline set in. In 2005, they were relegated from the Football League and, for the second time in 20 years, narrowly avoided going out of business. After nine years of non-league football, they returned to the Football League in 2014 by winning the Conference National play-offs.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge Swimming Club, Cambridge Dive team and City of Cambridge Water Polo Club are all based at Parkside Swimming Pool.",
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"plaintext": "Home and training ground to many influential traceurs, Cambridge is well known for its vibrant, and at times high-profile, parkour and freerunning scene.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is home to two real tennis courts (out of about 50 in the world) at Cambridge University Real Tennis Club.Cambridgeshire Cats play American football at Coldham's Common. Cambridge Royals are members of the British Baseball Federation's Triple-A South Division. Cambridge has two cycling clubs: Team Cambridge and Cambridge Cycling Club. Cambridge & Coleridge Athletic Club is the city's track and field club, based at the University of Cambridge's Wilberforce Road track. Cambridge Handball Club compete in the men's England Handball National Super 8 League and the women's England Handball National Super 7 League. There are three field hockey clubs; Cambridge City Hockey Club, Cambridge South Hockey Club and Cambridge Nomads. ",
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"plaintext": "The city is also represented in polo by Cambridge Polo Club, based in Barton, just outside the city. The Romsey Town Rollerbillies play roller derby in Cambridge. Speedway racing was formerly staged at a greyhound stadium in Coldhams Lane.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is known for the sporting events between the University of Cambridge and the University of Oxford, especially the rugby union Varsity Match and the Boat Race, though many of these do not take place within either Cambridge or Oxford.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge's main traditional theatre is the Arts Theatre, a venue with 666 seats in the town centre. The theatre often has touring shows, as well as those by local companies. The largest venue in the city to regular hold theatrical performances is the Cambridge Corn Exchange with a capacity of 1,800 standing or 1,200 seated. Housed within the city's 19th century former corn exchange building the venue was used for a variety of additional functions throughout the 20th century including tea parties, motor shows, sports matches and a music venue with temporary stage. The City Council renovated the building in the 1980s, turning it into a full-time arts venue, hosting theatre, dance and music performances.",
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"plaintext": "The newest theatre venue in Cambridge is the 220-seat J2, part of Cambridge Junction in Cambridge Leisure Park. The venue was opened in 2005 and hosts theatre, dance, live music and comedy The ADC Theatre is managed by the University of Cambridge, and typically has 3 shows a week during term time. It hosts the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club which has produced many notable figures in British comedy. The Mumford Theatre is part of Anglia Ruskin University, and hosts shows by both student and non-student groups. There are also a number of venues within the colleges.",
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"plaintext": "The Fitzwilliam Museum is the city's largest, and is the lead museum of the University of Cambridge Museums. Founded in 1816 from the bequeathment and collections of Richard, Viscount FitzWilliam, the museum was originally located in the building of the Perse Grammar School in Free School Lane. After a brief housing in the University of Cambridge library, it moved to its current, purpose-built building on Trumpington Street in 1848. The museum has five departments: Antiquities; Applied Arts; Coins and Medals; Manuscripts and Printed Books; and Paintings, Drawings and Prints. Other members of the University of Cambridge Museums are the Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, The Polar Museum, The Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, Museum of Classical Archaeology, The Whipple Museum of the History of Science, and the University Museum of Zoology.",
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"plaintext": "The Museum of Cambridge, formerly known as the Cambridge & County Folk Museum, is a social history museum located in a former pub on Castle Street. The Centre for Computing History, a museum dedicated to the story of the Information age, moved to Cambridge from Haverhill in 2013. Housed in a former sewage pumping station, the Cambridge Museum of Technology has a collection of large exhibits related to the city's industrial heritage.",
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"plaintext": "Pink Floyd are the most notable band with roots in Cambridge. The band's former songwriter, guitarist and vocalist Syd Barrett was born and lived in the city, and he and another founding member, Roger Waters, went to school together at Cambridgeshire High School for Boys. David Gilmour, the guitarist who replaced Barrett, was also a Cambridge resident and attended the nearby Perse School. Bands that were formed in Cambridge include Clean Bandit, Henry Cow, The Movies, Katrina and the Waves, The Soft Boys, Ezio The Broken Family Band, Uncle Acid & the Deadbeats, and the pop-classical group the King's Singers, who were formed at the university. Solo artist Boo Hewerdine is from Cambridge, as are drum and bass artists (and brothers) Tone and Logistics. Singers Matthew Bellamy, of the rock band Muse, Tom Robinson, Olivia Newton-John and Charli XCX were born in the city. 2012 Mercury Prize winners Alt-J are based in Cambridge.",
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"plaintext": "Live music venues hosting popular music in the city include the Cambridge Corn Exchange, Cambridge Junction and the Portland Arms, as well as The Blue Moon. ",
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"plaintext": "Started in 1991, the annual Cambridge Music Festival takes place each November. The Cambridge Summer Music Festival takes place in July.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge contains Kettle's Yard gallery of modern and contemporary art and the Heong Gallery which opened to the public in 2016 at Downing College. Anglia Ruskin University operates the publicly accessible Ruskin Gallery within the Cambridge School of Art. Wysing Arts Centre, one of the leading research centres for the visual arts in Europe, is associated with the city, though is located several miles west of Cambridge. Artist-run organisations including Aid & Abet, Cambridge Art Salon, Changing Spaces and Motion Sickness also run exhibitions, events and artists' studios in the city, often in short-term or temporary spaces.",
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"plaintext": "Several fairs and festivals take place in Cambridge, mostly during the British summer. Midsummer Fair dates back to 1211, when it was granted a charter by King John. Today it exists primarily as an annual funfair with the vestige of a market attached and is held over several days around or close to midsummers day. On the first Saturday in June Midsummer Common is the site for Strawberry Fair, a free music and children's fair, with various market stalls. For one week in May, on Jesus Green, the annual Cambridge Beer Festival has been held since 1974.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge Folk Festival is held annually in the grounds of Cherry Hinton Hall. The festival has been organised by the city council since its inception in 1964. The Cambridge Summer Music Festival is an annual festival of classical music, held in the university's colleges and chapels. The Cambridge Shakespeare Festival is an eight-week season of open-air performances of the works of William Shakespeare, held in the gardens of various colleges of the university. Started in 1977, the Cambridge Film Festival was held annually in July, moving to September in 2008 to avoid a clash with the rescheduled Edinburgh Film Festival.",
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"plaintext": "The Cambridge Science Festival, typically held annually in March, is the United Kingdom's largest free science festival. The Cambridge Literary Festival, which focusses on contemporary literary fiction and non-fiction, is held bi-annually in April and November. Between 1975 and 1985 the Cambridge Poetry Festival was held biannually. Other festivals include the annual Mill Road Winter Fair, held the first Saturday of December, the E-luminate Festival, which took place every February from 2013 to 2018, and The Big Weekend, a city outdoor event organised by the City Council every July.",
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"plaintext": "Three Cambridge Free Festivals held in 1969, 1970, and 1971 that featured artists including David Bowie, King Crimson, Roy Harper, Spontaneous Combustion, UFO and others are believed by the festival organiser to have been the first free multiple-day rock music festivals held in the UK.",
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"plaintext": "The city has been the setting for all or part of several novels, including Douglas Adams' Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency, Rose Macaulay's They Were Defeated, Kate Atkinson's Case Histories, Rebecca Stott's Ghostwalk and Robert Harris' Enigma, while Susanna Gregory wrote a series of novels set in 14th century Cambridge. Gwen Raverat, the granddaughter of Charles Darwin, talked about her late Victorian Cambridge childhood in her memoir Period Piece, and The Night Climbers of Cambridge is a book written by Noel Symington under the pseudonym \"Whipplesnaith\" about nocturnal climbing on the colleges and town buildings of Cambridge in the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Fictionalised versions of Cambridge appear in Philippa Pearce's Tom's Midnight Garden and Minnow on the Say, the city renamed as Castleford, and as the home of Tom Sharpe's fictional college in Porterhouse Blue.",
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"plaintext": "ITV TV series Granchester was partly filmed in Cambridge.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is served by Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, with several smaller medical centres in the city and a teaching hospital at Addenbrooke's. Located on the Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Addenbrooke's is one of the largest hospitals in the United Kingdom and is a designated regional trauma centre.",
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"plaintext": "The East of England Ambulance Service covers the city and has an ambulance station on Hills Road. The smaller Brookfields Hospital stands on Mill Road. Cambridgeshire Constabulary provides the city's policing; the main police station is at Parkside, adjacent to the city's fire station, operated by Cambridgeshire Fire and Rescue Service.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge Water Company supplies water services to the city, while Anglian Water provides sewerage services. For the supply of electricity, Cambridge is part of the East of England region, for which the distribution network operator is UK Power Networks. The city has no power stations, though a five-metre wind turbine, part of a Cambridge Regional College development, can be seen in King's Hedges. The Cambridge Electric Supply Company had provided the city with electricity since the early twentieth century from Cambridge power station. Upon nationalisation of the electricity industry in 1948 ownership passed to the British Electricity Authority and later to the Central Electricity Generating Board. Electricity connections to the national grid rendered the small 7.26 megawatt (MW) coal fired power station redundant. It closed in 1965 and was subsequently demolished; in its final year of operation it delivered 2771 MWh of electricity to the city.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Public Libraries Act 1850 the city's first public library, located on Jesus Lane, was opened in 1855. It was moved to the Guildhall in 1862, and is now located in the Grand Arcade shopping centre. The library was reopened in September 2009, after having been closed for refurbishment for 33 months, more than twice as long as was forecast when the library closed for redevelopment in January 2007. As of 2018 the city contains six public libraries, run by the County Council.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is in the Roman Catholic Diocese of East Anglia and is served by the large Gothic Revival Our Lady and the English Martyrs Church at the junction of Hills Road and Lensfield Road, St Laurence's on Milton Road, St Vincent De Paul Church on Ditton Lane and by the church of St Philip Howard, in Cherry Hinton Road.",
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"plaintext": "There is a Russian Orthodox church under the Diocese of Sourozh who worship at the chapel of Westcott House, the Greek Orthodox Church holds services at the purpose-built St Athanasios church under the Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain, while the Romanian Orthodox Church share St Giles' with the Church of England.",
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"plaintext": "An Orthodox synagogue and Jewish student centre is located on Thompson's Lane, operated jointly by the Cambridge Traditional Jewish Congregation and the Cambridge University Jewish Society, which is affiliated to the Union of Jewish Students. The Beth Shalom Reform synagogue which previously met at a local school, opened a purpose-built synagogue in 2015. There is also a student-led egalitarian minyan which holds services on Friday evenings.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge Central Mosque is the main place of worship for Cambridge's community of around 4,000 Muslims. Opened in 2019, it is described as Europe's first eco-friendly mosque and is the first purpose-built mosque within the city. The Abu Bakr Jamia Islamic Centre on Mawson Road and the Omar Faruque Mosque and Cultural Centre in Kings Hedges are additional places of Muslim worship.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge Buddhist Centre, which belongs to Triratna Buddhist Community, was opened in the former Barnwell Theatre on Newmarket Road in 1998. There are also several local Buddhist meditation groups from various Buddhist including Samatha Trust and Buddha Mettā Society.",
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"plaintext": "A Sikh community has met in the city since 1982, and a Gurdwara was opened in Arbury in 2013.",
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"plaintext": "Cambridge is twinned with two cities. Like Cambridge, both have universities and are also similar in population; Heidelberg, Germany since 1965, and Szeged, Hungary since 1987.",
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"plaintext": " Rawle, Tim (author and photographer), John Adamson (editor). Cambridge (new ed. with foreword by William Bortrick). Cambridge: The Oxbridge Portfolio (2016), 204 pp. ",
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"plaintext": "Christian Democracy (, DC) was a Christian democratic political party in Italy. The DC was founded on 15 December 1943 in the Italian Social Republic (Nazi-occupied Italy) as the ideal successor of the Italian People's Party, which had the same symbol, a crusader shield (scudo crociato). As a Catholic-inspired, centrist, catch-all party comprising both centre-right and centre-left political factions, the DC played a dominant role in the politics of Italy for fifty years, and had been part of the government from soon after its inception until its final demise on 16 January 1994 amid the Tangentopoli scandals. Christian Democrats led the Italian government continuously from 1946 until 1981. The party was nicknamed the \"White Whale\" () due to its huge organization and official color. During its time in government, the Italian Communist Party was the largest opposition party.",
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"plaintext": "From 1946 until 1994, the DC was the largest party in the Italian Parliament, governing in successive coalitions, including the Pentapartito system. It originally supported liberal-conservative governments, along with the moderate Italian Democratic Socialist Party, the Italian Liberal Party, and the Italian Republican Party, before moving towards the Organic Centre-left involving the Italian Socialist Party. The party was succeeded by a string of smaller parties, including the Italian People's Party, the Christian Democratic Centre, the United Christian Democrats, and the still active Union of the Centre. Former DC members are also spread among other parties, including the centre-right Forza Italia and the centre-left Democratic Party. It was a founding member of the European People's Party in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "The party was founded as the revival of the Italian People's Party (PPI), a political party created in 1919 by Luigi Sturzo, a Catholic priest. The PPI won over 20% of the votes in the 1919 and 1921 general elections, but was declared illegal by the Fascist dictatorship in 1926 despite the presence of some Popolari in Benito Mussolini's first government.",
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"plaintext": "As World War II was ending, the Christian Democrats started organizing post-Fascist Italy in coalition with all the other mainstream parties, including the Italian Communist Party (PCI), the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), the Italian Liberal Party (PLI), the Italian Republican Party (PRI), the Action Party (Pd'A) and the Labour Democratic Party (PDL). In December 1945 Christian Democrat Alcide De Gasperi was appointed Prime Minister of Italy.",
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"plaintext": "The Christian Democratic Party was used in response to Fascist Italy and used as a mechanism of opposition to communism. The April 18 elections in 1948 were used for and against Communism and the Marshall Plan. The people of Italy were voting based on a way of life, not just a political party. Christian ideals were usually paired with the idea of freedom. The Party found itself in great trouble because if they were to take an extremist stance on communism then they would be seen as pro-fascism. The Christian Democrats then knew they needed to be a center party while also opposing communism. Ultimately, it was not about party success, but about the success of a lifestyle in opposition to the ideals of communism.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1946 general election the DC won 35.2% of the vote.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1947 De Gasperi broke decisively with his Communist and Socialist coalition partners under pressure from U.S. President Harry Truman. This opened the way for a centrist coalition that included the Italian Workers' Socialist Party (PSLI), a centrist break-away from the PSI, as well as its usual allies, the PLI and the PRI.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1948 general election the DC went on to win a decisive victory, with the support of the Catholic Church and the United States, and obtained 48.5% of the vote, its best result ever. Despite his party's absolute majority in the Italian Parliament, De Gasperi continued to govern at the head of the centrist coalition, which was successively abandoned by the Liberals, who hoped for more right-wing policies, in 1950 and the Democratic Socialists, who hoped for more leftist policies, in 1951.",
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"plaintext": "Under De Gasperi, major land reforms were carried out in the poorer rural regions in the early postwar years, with farms appropriated from the large landowners and parcelled out to the peasants. In addition, during its years in office, Christian Democrats passed a number of laws safeguarding employees from exploitation, established a national health service, and initiated low-cost housing in Italy’s major cities.",
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"plaintext": "De Gasperi served as Prime Minister until 1953 and would die a year later. No Christian Democrat would match his longevity in office and, despite the fact that DC's share of vote was always between 38 and 43% from 1953 to 1979, the party was more and more fractious. As a result, Prime Ministers changed more frequently.",
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"plaintext": "From 1954 the DC was led by progressive Christian Democrats, such as Amintore Fanfani, Aldo Moro and Benigno Zaccagnini, supported by the influential left-wing factions. In the 1950s the party formed centrist or moderately centre-left coalitions, and even a short-lived government led by Fernando Tambroni relying on parliamentary support from the Italian Social Movement (MSI), the post-fascist party.",
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"plaintext": "In 1963 the party, under Prime Minister Aldo Moro, formed a coalition with the PSI, which returned to ministerial roles after 16 years, the PSDI and the PRI. Similar \"Organic Centre-left\" governments became usual through the 1960s and the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "From 1976 to 1979 the DC governed with the external support of the PCI, through the Historic Compromise. Moro, who was the party main leader and who had inspired the Compromise, was abducted and murdered by the Red Brigades.",
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"plaintext": "The event was a shock for the party. When Moro was abducted, the government, at the time led by Giulio Andreotti, immediately took a hardline position stating that the \"State must not bend\" on terrorist demands. This was a very different position from the one kept in similar cases before (such as the kidnapping of Ciro Cirillo, a Campanian DC member for whom a ransom was paid thanks to the local ties of the party with Camorra). It was however supported by all the mainstream parties, including the PCI, with the two notable exceptions of the PSI and the Radicals. In the trial for Mafia allegations against Andreotti, it was said that he took the chance of getting rid of a dangerous political competitor by sabotaging all of the rescue options and ultimately leaving the captors with no option but killing him. During his captivity Moro wrote a series of letters, at times very critical of Andreotti. Later the memorial written by Moro during his imprisonment was subject to several plots, including the assassination of journalist Mino Pecorelli and general Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa.",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the 1980s, the DC had lost part of its support over Italian voters. In 1981, Giovanni Spadolini of the PRI was the first non-Christian Democrat to lead a government since 1944, at the head of a coalition comprising the DC, the PSI, the PSDI, the PRI and the PLI, the so-called Pentapartito. In the successive 1983 general election DC suffered one of its largest declines in terms of votes at that point, receiving only 32.5% of the vote cast (-5.8%). Subsequently, Bettino Craxi (leader of the rising PSI) reclaimed for himself the post of Prime Minister, again at the head of a Pentapartito government.",
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"plaintext": "DC re-gained the post of Prime Minister in 1987, after a mild recovery in the 1987 general election (34.2%), and the Pentapartito coalition governed Italy almost continuously until 1993. While Italy experienced continuous economic progress in the 1980s, the Italian economy was being undermined by constant devaluation of the Italian lira and the issuing of excessive amounts of high-interest treasury bonds, so that, between 1982 and 1992, the excessive budget deficit built half of the debt still plaguing the country today.",
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"plaintext": "In 1992 the Mani pulite investigation was started in Milan, uncovering the so-called Tangentopoli scandals (endemic corruption practices at the highest levels), and causing (often controversial) arrests and resignations. After the dismal result in the 1992 general election (29.7%), also due to the rise of Lega Nord in northern Italy, and two years of mounting scandals (which included several Mafia investigations which notably touched Andreotti), the party was disbanded in 1994. In the 1990s most of the politicians prosecuted during those investigations were acquitted, sometimes however on the basis of legal formalities or on the basis of statutory time limit rules.",
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"plaintext": "The DC suffered heavy defeats in the 1993 provincial and municipal elections and the subsequent split of the Mario Segni's Pact, and polling suggested heavy losses in the upcoming 1994 general election. In hopes of changing the party's image, the DC's last secretary, Mino Martinazzoli decided to change the name of the party into Italian People's Party (PPI). Pier Ferdinando Casini, representing the right-wing faction of the party (previously led by Forlani) decided to launch a new party called Christian Democratic Centre and form an alliance with Silvio Berlusconi's new party, Forza Italia (FI). The left-wing factions stayed within the new PPI (albeit a minority which had formed the Social Christians in 1993 and would join forces with the post-communist Democratic Party of the Left), while some right-wingers joined National Alliance. In 1995 the PPI split in two, the PPI and the centre-right United Christian Democrats, which were led by Rocco Buttiglione and also entered in alliance with FI. In the following years, most Christian Democrats joined FI, which became the party with the most ex-DC members in absolute terms and joined the European People's Party.",
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"plaintext": "In economics, the DC preferred competition to cooperation, supported the model of social market economy and rejected the Marxist's idea of class struggle. The party thus advocated collaboration between social classes and was basically a catch-all party which aimed to represent all Italian Catholics, both right-wing and left-wing, under the principle of the \"political unity of Catholics\" against socialism, communism and anarchism. It ultimately represented the majority of Italians who were opposed to the Italian Communist Party. The party was however originally equidistant between the Communists and the hard right represented by the Italian Social Movement.",
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"plaintext": "As a catch-all party, the DC differed from other European Christian Democratic parties, such as the Christian Democratic Union of Germany that were mainly conservative parties, with DC comprising conservative as well as social-democratic and liberal elements. The party was thus divided in many factions and party life was characterised by factionalism and by the double adherence of members to the party and the factions, often identified with individual leaders.",
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"plaintext": "The original centrist and liberal-conservative leadership of Alcide De Gasperi, Giuseppe Pella, Ezio Vanoni and Mario Scelba, was soon replaced by the progressives led by Amintore Fanfani. They were opposed to a right wing whose main leader was Antonio Segni. The party's left wing, with its roots in the left of the late Italian People's Party (Giovanni Gronchi, Achille Grandi and controversial Fernando Tambroni), was reinforced by new leaders such as Giuseppe Dossetti, Giorgio La Pira, Giuseppe Lazzati and Fanfani himself. Most of them were social democrats by European standards.",
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"plaintext": "The party was often led by centrist figures unaffiliated to any faction such as Aldo Moro, Mariano Rumor (both closer to the centre-left) and Giulio Andreotti (closer to the centre-right). Moreover, often, if the government was led by a centre-right Christian Democrat, the party was led by a left-winger and vice versa. This was what happened in the 1950s when Fanfani was party secretary and the government was led by centre-right figures such as Scelba and Segni and in the late 1970s when Benigno Zaccagnini, a progressive, led the party and Andreotti the government: this custom, in clear contrast with the principles of a Westminster system, deeply weakened DC-led governments, that even with great majorities were de facto unable to conciliate the several factions of the party, and ultimately the office of Prime Minister (defined by the Constitution of Italy as a primus inter pares among ministers), turning the Italian party system into a particracy (partitocrazia).",
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"plaintext": "From the 1980s the party was divided between the centre-right led by Arnaldo Forlani (supported also by the party's right wing) and the centre-left led by Ciriaco De Mita (whose supporters included trade unionists and the internal left), with Andreotti holding the balance. De Mita, who led the party from 1982 to 1989, curiously tried to transform the party into a mainstream \"conservative party\" in line with the European People's Party in order to preserve party unity. He was replaced by Forlani in 1989, after that becoming Prime Minister in 1988. Disagreements between de Mita and Forlani brought Andreotti back to prime-ministership from 1989 to 1992.",
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"plaintext": "With the fall of the Berlin Wall, the end of great ideologies and ultimately the Tangentopoli scandals, the heterogeneous nature of the party led it to its collapse. The bulk of the DC joined the new Italian People's Party (PPI), but immediately several centre-right elements led by Pier Ferdinando Casini joined the Christian Democratic Centre (CCD), while others directly joined Forza Italia. A split from the PPI, the United Christian Democrats (CDU), joined Forza Italia and the CCD in the centre-right Pole of Freedoms coalition (later becoming the Pole for Freedoms), while the PPI was a founding member of The Olive Tree centre-left coalition in 1996.",
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"plaintext": "In its early years the party was stronger in Northern Italy, and especially in eastern Lombardy and Veneto, due to the strong Catholic roots of that areas, than in the South, where the Liberal establishment that had governed Italy for decades before the rise of Benito Mussolini had still a grip on voters, as also the Monarchist National Party and the Common Man's Front did. The DC was very weak in Emilia-Romagna and Central Italy, where the Italian Communist Party was the dominant political force.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1948 general election the party had its best result ever (48.5%) and the absolute majority in the Italian Parliament. The party won 66.8% in eastern Lombardy (73.6% in the Province of Bergamo), 60.5% in Veneto (71.9% in the Province of Vicenza), 69.6% in Trentino and 57.8% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia, that is to say where the late Italian People's Party had its strongholds. In the Centre-South the DC gained more than 50% of the vote in Lazio (51.9%), Abruzzo (53.7%) and Campania (50.5%).",
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"plaintext": "From the late 1950s the DC's support started to move South and by the 1980s it was stronger in the South than in the North, with the exception of Veneto, which remained one of the party's strongholds. In the 1983 general election the party suffered a dramatic decrease in term of votes and its electoral geography was very different from 30 or even 10 years before, as the region where it obtained the best result was Apulia (46.0%).",
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"plaintext": "In the 1992 general election the shift was even more evident as the party was over the 40% mark only in some Southern regions (41.1% in Campania, 44.5 in Basilicata and 41.2% in Sicily), while it barely reached 20-25% of the vote in the North. As a result of the rise of Lega Nord, which was stronger precisely in the traditional Christian Democratic heartlands, the DC was reduced to 21.0% in Piedmont (with the League at 16.3%), 32.1% in western Lombardy (League at 25.2%), 31.7% in Veneto (League at 17.3%) and 28.0% in Friuli-Venezia Giulia (League at 17.0%).",
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"plaintext": "As the DC's role was reduced, the 1919 PPI strongholds and the DC's traditional heartlands were to become Lega Nord's power base, while the successor parties of the DC continued to be key political actors only in the South, where the clientelistic way of government practised by the Christian Democrats and their allies had left a mark. In the 1996 general election the League gained 7 out of 8 single-seat constituencies in the Province of Bergamo and 5 out of 6 in the Province of Vicenza, winning well over 40%, while the combined score of the three main post-DC parties (the new PPI, the CCD and the CDU) was highest in Campania (22.3%). In the 1996 Sicilian regional election the combined score of those parties was 26.4%.",
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"plaintext": "The electoral results of the DC in general (Chamber of Deputies) and European Parliament elections since 1946 are shown in the chart below.",
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"plaintext": "Having ruled Italy for over 40 years with no alternative other than the Italian Communist Party, DC members had ample opportunity to abuse their power, and some did. In the 1960s scandals involved frauds such as huge illegal profits in the administration of banana import quotas, and preferential allocation of purposely misprinted (and, therefore, rare) postage stamps. Giovanni Leone was forced to resign as President of the Italian Republic in 1978, after the Lockheed bribery scandals. He was later acquitted.",
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"plaintext": "The party was also invested, like the other parties of the Pentapartito, in the Tangentopoli scandals and in the subsequent Mani pulite. Moreover, as in the 1970s and the 1980s Southern Italy had become the party's stronghold, it was likely that Mafia and dishonest politicians may try to collaborate. DC was the party most associated with Mafia among the public. Leaders such as Antonio Gava, Calogero Mannino, Vito Ciancimino, Salvo Lima and especially Giulio Andreotti were perceived by many to belong to a grey zone between simple corruption and mafia business, even if most of them were later acquitted.",
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"plaintext": "Secretary: Alcide De Gasperi (1944–1946), Attilio Piccioni (1946–1949), Giuseppe Cappi (1949), Paolo Emilio Taviani (1949–1950), Guido Gonella (1950–1953), Alcide De Gasperi (1953–1954), Amintore Fanfani (1954–1959), Aldo Moro (1959–1964), Mariano Rumor (1964–1969), Flaminio Piccoli (1969), Arnaldo Forlani (1969–1973), Amintore Fanfani (1973–1975), Benigno Zaccagnini (1975–1980), Flaminio Piccoli (1980–1982), Ciriaco De Mita (1982–1989), Arnaldo Forlani (1989–1992), Mino Martinazzoli (1992–1994)",
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"plaintext": "President: Alcide De Gasperi (1946–1954), Adone Zoli (1954–1960), Attilio Piccioni (1960–1966), Mario Scelba (1966–1969), Benigno Zaccagnini (1969–1975), Amintore Fanfani (1976), Aldo Moro (1976–1978), Flaminio Piccoli (1978–1980), Arnaldo Forlani (1980–1989), Ciriaco De Mita (1989–1992), Rosa Russo Iervolino (1992–1994)",
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"plaintext": "Party Leader in the Chamber of Deputies: Giovanni Gronchi (1946–1948), Giuseppe Cappi (1948–1949), Giuseppe Spataro (1949), Giuseppe Cappi (1950), Giuseppe Bettiol (1950–1953), Aldo Moro (1953–1956), Attilio Piccioni (1956–1958), Luigi Gui (1958–1962), Benigno Zaccagnini (1962–1968), Fiorentino Sullo (1968), Giulio Andreotti (1968–1972), Flaminio Piccoli (1972–1978), Giovanni Galloni (1978–1979), Gerardo Bianco (1979–1983), Virginio Rognoni (1983–1986), Mino Martinazzoli (1986–1989), Vincenzo Scotti (1989–1990), Antonio Gava (1990–1992), Gerardo Bianco (1992–1994)",
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"plaintext": "Massimo L. Salvadori, Enciclopedia storica, Zanichelli, Bologna 2000",
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"plaintext": "Gianni Baget Bozzo, Il partito cristiano al potere: la DC di De Gasperi e di Dossetti 1945–1954, Vallecchi, Florence 1974",
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"plaintext": "Archive of DC posters – part 1",
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"plaintext": "Archive of DC posters – part 2",
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| [
"1943_establishments_in_Italy",
"1994_disestablishments_in_Italy",
"Catholic_political_parties",
"Christian_democratic_parties_in_Italy",
"Centrist_parties_in_Italy",
"History_of_the_Italian_Republic",
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"Defunct_Christian_political_parties",
"Defunct_political_parties_in_Italy",
"Political_parties_established_in_1943",
"Political_parties_disestablished_in_1994",
"Anti-communist_parties",
"Social_conservative_parties"
]
| 815,348 | 8,463 | 1,553 | 270 | 0 | 0 | Christian Democracy | Italian political party, founded in 1943 and dissolved in 1994 | [
"Democrazia Cristiana",
"DC",
"Christian Democratic Party"
]
|
36,999 | 1,102,797,218 | Carry_On_(franchise) | [
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"plaintext": "A film had appeared in 1957 under the title Carry On Admiral; although this was a comedy in similar vein (and even featured Joan Sims in the cast) it has no connection to the Carry On series itself. The much earlier 1937 film Carry On London is also unrelated (though it coincidentally starred future Carry On performer Eric Barker).",
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"plaintext": "Several other films were planned, scripted (or partly scripted) or entered pre-production before being abandoned:",
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"plaintext": " Carry On Smoking, 1961",
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"plaintext": " The story revolved around a fire station, and various attempts to train a bungling group of new recruits.",
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"plaintext": "See section below.",
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"plaintext": "Scripted by Norman Hudis, about a group of RAF recruits. It got as far as pre-production before being abandoned. Jim Dale was to have a starring role.",
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"plaintext": "Scripted by Talbot Rothwell, a spoof of World War II escape films. The complete script is included in the book The Complete A–Z of Everything Carry On.",
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"plaintext": "A planned spoof of the popular American soap opera Dallas. A script was written and casting offers made to Williams, Connor, Douglas, Sims, Hawtrey and Dale. The production was abandoned when Lorimar Productions demanded a royalty fee of 20 times the total production budget.",
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"plaintext": "Gerald Thomas did some location scouting while on holiday in Australia and spoke to the Australian Film Commission. The production was abandoned when finance fell through. A complete script was written by Vince Powell and is included in the book Fifty Years of Carry On.",
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"plaintext": "Carry On Spaceman was to be released shortly after Carry On Regardless, in 1961. It was scripted by Norman Hudis, and was to satirise interest in the Space Race from the Western world's point of view. The cast was to consist of three would-be astronauts who constantly bungled on their training and their mission into outer space; most likely the trio would have been played by the trinity of Kenneth Williams, Kenneth Connor, and Leslie Phillips that had been established in Carry On Constable.",
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"plaintext": "Three scripts were written for an intended sub-sequel to the successful Carry On Nurse, the second instalment of the Carry On series. The first film was renamed, while the other two were never made.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2009, Carry On London or Carry On Bananas was once again 'back on', with Charlie Higson attached as director, and a different, more modern, cast list involving Paul O'Grady (as the acidic Kenneth Williamsesque character), Jynine James, Lenny Henry, Justin Lee Collins, Jennifer Ellison (as the saucy Barbara Windsor type), Liza Tarbuck (paralleling Hattie Jacques), Meera Syal, James Dreyfus, and Frank Skinner (filling in the Sid James role). Despite new media interest and sets being constructed at Pinewood film studios, the film once again was put on hold, and the project was abandoned after the death of Peter Rogers in April 2009.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2016, producer Jonathan Sothcott of Hereford Films announced plans for a new series of Carry On films, beginning with Carry On Doctors and Carry On Campus. As of early 2017, no news had surfaced on whether the planned reboot was still going ahead. On 12 April 2017, Sothcott confirmed to thehollywoodnews that he was no longer involved with the film series. As of September 2019, three Carry On films were set to be filmed back-to-back, after Brian Baker won the rights to the movies following a legal battle with ITV earlier that year. Production of the new films had been planned to take place in spring 2020. However, filming was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic and little more was heard about the project until after the death of Barbara Windsor in December 2020, when Brian Baker announced that he will be using old footage of the actress in the film, saying \"Barbara will be making an appearance.\" Baker told the Daily Star Sunday that ‘we have got two new stories and we are looking to do one of the old ones again to bring it up to modern day quality - probably Carry On Sergeant.’",
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"plaintext": "The characters and comedy style of the Carry On film series were adapted to a television series titled Carry On Laughing, and several Christmas specials.",
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"plaintext": "In 1971, Music for Pleasure released a long-playing record, Oh! What a Carry On! (MFP MONO 1416), featuring songs performed by Kenneth Williams, Jim Dale, Kenneth Connor, Frankie Howerd, Bernard Bresslaw, Joan Sims, Barbara Windsor, and Dora Bryan.",
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"plaintext": "A 50-minute television documentary, What's a Carry On?, was made in 1998 for the 40th anniversary of the first film. It included archive clips, out-takes and interviews with surviving cast members. It was included as an extra on the DVD release of Carry On Emmannuelle.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2003, a TV series titled Popcorn on S4C ran a Carry On special documentary and interviews, featuring Jynine James. This was in respect of a new Carry On film being produced by Peter Rogers called Carry On London. It featured interviews and clips of the past Carry On films and went into detail about the new film and cast. However, despite the script being signed off and sets constructed at Pinewood film studios, the project was shelved, owing to the untimely death of producer Peter Rogers.",
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"plaintext": "A two-hour radio documentary, Carry On Forever!, presented by Leslie Phillips, was broadcast in two parts on BBC Radio 2 on 19 and 20 July 2010. A three-part television retrospective with the same title, narrated by Martin Clunes, was shown on ITV3 in the UK over Easter 2015.",
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"plaintext": "The success of the Carry On series occasionally led to affectionate parodies of the series by other contemporary comedians:",
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"plaintext": " In The Spitting Image Book, released in 1985, there is a reference to a fictitious made-for-TV film entitled Carry On Up the Rectum, satirising the transparency of the puns used for Carry On Up the Khyber and possibly Carry On Up the Jungle.",
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"plaintext": " Harry Enfield's mockumentary A Life (1989) includes a clip from an imagined film, Carry On Banging (a parody of the more risque approach of the later films, such as Carry On Dick and Carry On Emmannuelle). The setting is the Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp of the 1980s, and featured Barbara Windsor, Jack Douglas and Kenneth Connor.",
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"plaintext": " That Mitchell and Webb Look features the sketch \"Bawdy 1970s Hospital\", which portrays a stereotypical Carry On-style hospital with frequent use of double entendre, except by one doctor who has trouble fitting in as he comes out with simple obscenity, unable to understand the distinction.",
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"plaintext": " A \"flash frame\" of the end shot of Carry On Cowboy is used in series two of The Young Ones.",
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"plaintext": " In Tom Holt's eighth Portable Door novel When It's a Jar (2013) the Carrion franchise offers a \"uniquely quirky blend of spatterfest zombie horror and traditional British slapstick-and-innuendo comedy\" with titles such as Carrion Nursing, Carrion Camping and Carrion Up the Khyber.",
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"plaintext": " In The Goodies' book The Making of the Goodies Disaster Movie, the trio visit the set of Carry On Christ in order to get advice from the Carry On team, while they are filming a scene relating to 'The Feeding of the Five Thousand', with some of the cast noted as Kenneth Williams playing 'Pontius Pilate', Charles Hawtrey as 'A Wise Virgin', Barbara Windsor as 'Not a Wise Virgin' and Hattie Jacques as 'The Five Thousand'.",
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"plaintext": " Clips from several Carry On films are used in In The Movies It Doesn't Hurt (1975), a short film on laboratory safety for schools starring Bernard Bresslaw.",
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"plaintext": " In the song Some Girls Are Bigger Than Others by The Smiths, one of the lines is \"As Anthony said to Cleopatra, as he opened a crate of ale, oh, I say\", making reference to Carry on Cleo.",
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"plaintext": "The Carry On film series has had numerous individual releases on VHS, and a number of VHSs were released in an eighteen VHS box-set on 1 September 2003.",
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"plaintext": "The film series was first released as a DVD box-set on 1 September 2008, by ITV Studios Home Entertainment. Five years later, on 7 October 2013, it was re-released with smaller packaging. All the movies contained in the collection are also available to buy individually.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2013, StudioCanal has released a number of the Carry On films on Blu-ray, beginning with Carry On Screaming! (21 October 2013), Carry On Cleo (5 May 2014), Carry On Cowboy (2 June 2014) and Carry On Jack (7 July 2014).",
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"plaintext": " Carry On Films at The Whippit Inn Detailed information on the Carry On film series",
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"plaintext": " What a Carry On A tribute to the series",
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"plaintext": " Carry on Films at IMDb",
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37,000 | 1,107,111,942 | Palmer_Raids | [
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"plaintext": "The Palmer Raids were a series of raids conducted in November 1919 and January 1920 by the United States Department of Justice under the administration of President Woodrow Wilson to capture and arrest suspected socialists, especially anarchists and communists, and deport them from the United States. The raids particularly targeted Italian immigrants and Eastern European Jewish immigrants with alleged leftist ties, with particular focus on Italian anarchists and immigrant leftist labor activists. The raids and arrests occurred under the leadership of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, with 3,000 arrested. Though 556 foreign citizens were deported, including a number of prominent leftist leaders, Palmer's efforts were largely frustrated by officials at the U.S. Department of Labor, which had authority for deportations and objected to Palmer's methods.",
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"plaintext": "The Palmer Raids occurred in the larger context of the First Red Scare, a period of fear of and reaction against communists in the U.S. in the years immediately following World War I and the Russian Revolution. There were strikes that garnered national attention, and prompted race riots in more than 30 cities, as well as two sets of bombings in April and June 1919, including one bomb mailed to Palmer's home.",
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"plaintext": "During the First World War there was a nationwide campaign in the United States against the real and imagined divided political loyalties of immigrants and ethnic groups, who were feared to have too much loyalty for their nations of origin. In 1915, President Wilson warned against hyphenated Americans who, he charged, had \"poured the poison of disloyalty into the very arteries of our national life.\" \"Such creatures of passion, disloyalty and anarchy\", Wilson continued, \"must be crushed out\". The Russian Revolutions of 1917 added special force to fear of labor agitators and partisans of ideologies like anarchism and communism. The general strike in Seattle in February 1919 represented a new development in labor unrest.",
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"plaintext": "The fears of Wilson and other government officials were confirmed when Galleanists—Italian immigrant followers of the anarchist Luigi Galleani—carried out a series of bombings in April and June 1919. At the end of April, some 30 Galleanist letter bombs had been mailed to a host of individuals, mostly prominent government officials and businessmen, but also law enforcement officials. Only a few reached their targets, and not all exploded when opened. Some people suffered injuries, including a housekeeper in Senator Thomas W. Hardwick's residence, who had her hands blown off. On June 2, 1919, the second wave of bombings occurred, when several much larger package bombs were detonated by Galleanists in eight American cities, including one that damaged the home of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in Washington, D.C. At least one person was killed in this second attack, night watchman William Boehner, and fears were raised because it occurred in the capital. Flyers declaring war on capitalists in the name of anarchist principles accompanied each bomb.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1919, Attorney General Palmer told the House Appropriations Committee that all evidence promised that radicals would \"on a certain day...rise up and destroy the government at one fell swoop.\" He requested an increase in his budget to $2,000,000 from $1,500,000 to support his investigations of radicals, but Congress limited the increase to $100,000.",
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"plaintext": "An initial raid in July 1919 against an anarchist group in Buffalo, New York, achieved little when a federal judge tossed out Palmer's case. He found in the case that the three arrested radicals, charged under a law dating from the Civil War, had proposed transforming the government by using their free speech rights and not by violence. That taught Palmer that he needed to exploit the more powerful immigration statutes that authorized the deportation of alien anarchists, violent or not. To do that, he needed to enlist the cooperation of officials at the Department of Labor. Only the Secretary of Labor could issue warrants for the arrest of alien violators of the Immigration Acts, and only he could sign deportation orders following a hearing by an immigration inspector.",
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"plaintext": "On August 1, 1919, Palmer named 24-year-old J. Edgar Hoover to head a new division of the Justice Department's Bureau of Investigation, the General Intelligence Division (GID), with responsibility for investigating the programs of radical groups and identifying their members. The Boston Police Strike in early September raised concerns about possible threats to political and social stability. On October 17, the Senate passed a unanimous resolution demanding Palmer explain what actions he had or had not taken against radical aliens and why.",
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"plaintext": "At 9pm on November 7, 1919, a date chosen because it was the second anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution, agents of the Bureau of Investigation, together with local police, executed a series of well-publicized and violent raids against the Union of Russian Workers in 12 cities. Newspaper accounts reported some were \"badly beaten\" during the arrests. Many later swore they were threatened and beaten during questioning. Government agents cast a wide net, bringing in some American citizens, passers-by who admitted being Russian, some not members of the Russian Workers. Others were teachers conducting night school classes in space shared with the targeted radical group. Arrests far exceeded the number of warrants. Of 650 arrested in New York City, the government managed to deport just 43.",
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"plaintext": "When Palmer replied to the Senate's questions of October 17, he reported that his department had amassed 60,000 names with great effort. Required by the statutes to work through the Department of Labor, they had arrested 250 dangerous radicals in the November 7 raids. He proposed a new Anti-Sedition Law to enhance his authority to prosecute anarchists.",
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"plaintext": "As Attorney General Palmer struggled with exhaustion and devoted all his energies to the United Mine Workers coal strike in November and December 1919, Hoover organized the next raids. He successfully persuaded the Department of Labor to ease its insistence on promptly alerting those arrested of their right to an attorney. Instead, Labor issued instructions that its representatives could wait until after the case against the defendant was established, \"in order to protect government interests.\" Less openly, Hoover decided to interpret Labor's agreement to act against the Communist Party to include a different organization, the Communist Labor Party. Finally, despite the fact that Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson insisted that more than membership in an organization was required for a warrant, Hoover worked with more compliant Labor officials and overwhelmed Labor staff to get the warrants he wanted. Justice Department officials, including Palmer and Hoover, later claimed ignorance of such details.",
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"plaintext": "The Justice Department launched a series of raids on January 2, 1920, with follow up operations over the next few days. Smaller raids extended over the next 6 weeks. At least 3000 were arrested, and many others were held for various lengths of time. The entire enterprise replicated the November action on a larger scale, including arrests and seizures without search warrants, as well as detention in overcrowded and unsanitary holding facilities. Hoover later admitted \"clear cases of brutality.\" The raids covered more than 30 cities and towns in 23 states, but those west of the Mississippi and south of the Ohio were \"publicity gestures\" designed to make the effort appear nationwide in scope. Because the raids targeted entire organizations, agents arrested everyone found in organization meeting halls, not only arresting non-radical organization members but also visitors who did not belong to a target organization, and sometimes American citizens not eligible for arrest and deportation.",
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"plaintext": "The Department of Justice at one point claimed to have taken possession of several bombs, but after a few iron balls were displayed to the press they were never mentioned again. All the raids netted a total of just four ordinary pistols.",
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"plaintext": "While most press coverage continued to be positive, with criticism only from leftist publications like The Nation and The New Republic, one attorney raised the first noteworthy protest. Francis Fisher Kane, the U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania, resigned in protest. In his letter of resignation to the President and the Attorney General he wrote: \"It seems to me that the policy of raids against large numbers of individuals is generally unwise and very apt to result in injustice. People not really guilty are likely to be arrested and railroaded through their hearings...We appear to be attempting to repress a political party...By such methods, we drive underground and make dangerous what was not dangerous before.\" Palmer replied that he could not use individual arrests to treat an \"epidemic\" and asserted his own fidelity to constitutional principles. He added: \"The Government should encourage free political thinking and political action, but it certainly has the right for its own preservation to discourage and prevent the use of force and violence to accomplish that which ought to be accomplished, if at all, by parliamentary or political methods.\" The Washington Post endorsed Palmer's claim for urgency over legal process: \"There is no time to waste on hairsplitting over infringement of liberty.\"",
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"plaintext": "In a few weeks, after changes in personnel at the Department of Labor, Palmer faced a new and very independent-minded Acting Secretary of Labor in Assistant Secretary of Labor Louis Freeland Post, who canceled more than 2,000 warrants as being illegal. Of the 10,000 arrested, 3,500 were held by authorities in detention; 556 resident aliens were eventually deported under the Immigration Act of 1918.",
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"plaintext": "At a Cabinet meeting in April 1920, Palmer called on Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson to fire Post, but Wilson defended him. The President listened to his feuding department heads and offered no comment about Post, but he ended the meeting by telling Palmer that he should \"not let this country see red.\" Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, who made notes of the conversation, thought the Attorney General had merited the President's \"admonition\", because Palmer \"was seeing red behind every bush and every demand for an increase in wages.\"",
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"plaintext": "Palmer's supporters in Congress responded with an attempt to impeach Louis Post or, failing that, to censure him. The drive against Post began to lose energy when Attorney General Palmer's forecast of an attempted radical uprising on May Day 1920 failed to occur. Then, in testimony before the House Rules Committee on May 7–8, Post proved \"a convincing speaker with a caustic tongue\" and defended himself so successfully that Congressman Edward W. Pou, a Democrat presumed to be an enthusiastic supporter of Palmer, congratulated him: \"I feel that you have followed your sense of duty absolutely.\"",
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"plaintext": "On May 28, 1920, the nascent American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), which was founded in response to the raids, published its Report Upon the Illegal Practices of the United States Department of Justice, which carefully documented unlawful activities in arresting suspected radicals, illegal entrapment by agents provocateur, and unlawful incommunicado detention. Such prominent lawyers and law professors as Felix Frankfurter, Roscoe Pound and Ernst Freund signed it. Harvard Professor Zechariah Chafee criticized the raids and attempts at deportations and the lack of legal process in his 1920 volume Freedom of Speech. He wrote: \"That a Quaker should employ prison and exile to counteract evil-thinking is one of the saddest ironies of our time.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Rules Committee gave Palmer a hearing in June, where he attacked Post and other critics whose \"tender solicitude for social revolution and perverted sympathy for the criminal anarchists...set at large among the people the very public enemies whom it was the desire and intention of the Congress to be rid of.\" The press saw the dispute as evidence of the Wilson administration's ineffectiveness and division as it approached its final months.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1920, a decision by Massachusetts District Court Judge George W. Anderson ordered the discharge of 17 arrested aliens and denounced the Department of Justice's actions. He wrote that \"a mob is a mob, whether made up of Government officials acting under instructions from the Department of Justice, or of criminals and loafers and the vicious classes.\" His decision effectively prevented any renewal of the raids.",
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"plaintext": "Palmer, once seen as a likely presidential candidate, lost his bid to win the Democratic nomination for president later in the year. The anarchist bombing campaign continued intermittently for another twelve years.",
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"plaintext": " Industrial Workers of the World",
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"plaintext": " McCarthyism",
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"plaintext": "Avrich, Paul, The Anarchist Background (Princeton University Press, 1991)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Chafee, Zechariah, Freedom of Speech (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Howe, 1920)",
"section_idx": 7,
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},
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"plaintext": "Coben, Stanley, A. Mitchell Palmer: Politician (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963)",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Daniels, Josephus, The Wilson Era: Years of War and After, 1917–1923 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1946)",
"section_idx": 7,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Dunn, Robert W. The Palmer Raids. New York: International Publishers. 1948.",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Finan, Christopher M., From the Palmer Raids to the Patriot Act: A history of the fight for free speech in America (Boston: Beacon Press, 2007)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Hagedorn, Ann, Savage Peace: Hope and Fear in America, 1919 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Kennedy, David M., Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Murray, Robert K., Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919–1920 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1955)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Pietrusza, David, 1920: The Year of Six presidents (New York: Carroll & Graf, 2007)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "General bibliography",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Post, Louis F., The Deportations Delirium of Nineteen-twenty: A Personal Narrative of a Historic Official Experience (New York, 1923), reissued: , ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"Anti-anarchism_in_the_United_States",
"Anti-communism_in_the_United_States",
"Anti-Italian_sentiment",
"Antisemitism_in_the_United_States",
"Civil_detention_in_the_United_States",
"History_of_the_Industrial_Workers_of_the_World",
"Industrial_Workers_of_the_World_in_the_United_States",
"Italian-American_history",
"Political_and_cultural_purges",
"Political_repression_in_the_United_States",
"Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson",
"November_1919_events",
"December_1919_events",
"January_1920_events"
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|
37,003 | 1,107,422,072 | Prayer_rope | [
{
"plaintext": "A prayer rope ( – komboskini; – chotki (most common term) or – vervitsa (literal translation); ; Romanian: metanii / metanier; Serbian: бројаница / brojanica – broyanitsa; Macedonian: бројаница - broyanitsa; – broyenitsa; Coptic: – mequetaria / mequtaria; Geʽez: – mequteria / mequeteria) is a loop made up of complex woven knots formed in a cross pattern, usually out of wool or silk. Prayer ropes are part of the practice of Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns and are employed by monastics (and sometimes by others) to count the number of times one has prayed the Jesus Prayer or, occasionally, other prayers. The typical prayer rope has thirty three knots, representing the thirty three years of Christ's life. Among the Oriental Orthodoxy, it is used in the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, where it is known by its Coptic or Ge'ez name.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the prayer rope would typically have 100 knots, although prayer ropes with 150, 60, 50, 33, 64 or 41 knots can also be found in use today. There are even small, 10-knot prayer ropes intended to be worn on the finger. Hermits in their cells may have prayer ropes with as many as 300 or 500 knots in them.",
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"plaintext": "Characteristically, the knots of a prayer rope are diamond knots (ABoK #787).",
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"plaintext": "There is typically a knotted cross where the prayer rope is joined together to form a loop, and a few beads at certain intervals between the knots (usually every 10 or 25 knots) for ease in counting. Longer prayer ropes frequently have a tassel at the end of the cross; its purpose is to dry the tears shed due to heartfelt compunction for one's sins. The tassel can also be said to represent the glory of the Heavenly Kingdom, which one can only enter through the Cross. Additionally, the tassel represents an inherited tradition of prayer. The symbol of tassels as tradition coming from Old Testament commandments to Jews to wear tassels on their garments to keep in mind the received laws.",
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"plaintext": "The prayer rope is commonly made out of wool, symbolizing the flock of Christ; though in modern times other materials are used also. The traditional color of the rope is black (symbolizing mourning for one's sins), with either black or colored beads. The beads (if they are colored) and at least a portion of the tassel are traditionally red, symbolizing the blood of Christ and the blood of the martyrs. In recent times, however, prayer ropes have been made in a wide variety of colors.",
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"plaintext": "Though prayer ropes are often tied by monastics, non-monastics are permitted to tie them also. In proper practice, the person tying a prayer rope should be of true faith and pious life and should be praying the Jesus Prayer the whole time.",
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"plaintext": "In (Orthodox) Serbian practice, the 33 knotted prayer rope is worn on the left hand, and when praying, held with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. The 33 knots symbolize the age of Jesus Christ when he was crucified.",
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"plaintext": "Among the Oriental Orthodox, the prayer rope is composed of 41, 64, or 100 beads and is primarily used to recite the Kyrie Eleison (Lord, have mercy) prayer as well as others such as the Lord's Prayer and the Magnificat. In regards to the first two numbers, the first number represents the number lashes inflicted on Jesus (39 according to Jewish custom) alongside the lance wound and crown of thorns, while the latter represents Mary's age upon her Assumption respectively.",
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"plaintext": "When praying, the user normally holds the prayer rope in the left hand, leaving the right hand free to make the Sign of the Cross. When not in use, the prayer rope is traditionally wrapped around the left wrist so that it continues to remind one to pray without ceasing. If this is impractical, it may be placed in the (left) pocket, but should not be hung around the neck or suspended from the belt. The reason for this is humility: one should not be ostentatious or conspicuous in displaying the prayer rope for others to see.",
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"plaintext": "During their tonsure (religious profession), Eastern Orthodox monks and nuns receive a prayer rope, with the words:",
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"plaintext": "Accept, O brother (sister) (name), the sword of the Spirit which is the word of God (Ephesians 6:17) in the everlasting Jesus prayer by which you should have the name of the Lord in your soul, your thoughts, and your heart, saying always: \"Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me a sinner.\"",
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"plaintext": "Orthodoxy regards the prayer rope as the sword of the Spirit, because prayer which is heartfelt and inspired by the grace of the Holy Spirit is a weapon that defeats the Devil.",
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"plaintext": "Among some Orthodox monastics (and occasionally other faithful), the canonical hours and preparation for Holy Communion may be replaced by praying the Jesus Prayer a specified number of times dependent on the service being replaced. In this way prayers can still be said even if the service books are for some reason unavailable or the person is not literate or otherwise unable to recite the service; the prayer rope becomes a very practical tool in such cases, simply for keeping count of the prayers said. However, among some monastics, e.g. hesychasts, this replacement is the norm.",
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"plaintext": "One scheme for replacing the Divine Services with the Jesus Prayer is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Instead of the entire Psalter: 6000 Jesus Prayers",
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},
{
"plaintext": "One kathisma of the Psalter: 300 prayers (100 for each stasis)",
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"plaintext": "Midnight Office: 600",
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"plaintext": "Matins: 1500",
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{
"plaintext": "The Hours without the Inter-Hours: 1000;",
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"plaintext": "The Hours with the Inter-Hours: 1500",
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"plaintext": "Vespers: 600",
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"plaintext": "Great Compline: 700",
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"plaintext": "Small Compline: 400",
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},
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"plaintext": "A Canon or Akathist to the Most Holy Theotokos (Mother of God): 500",
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"plaintext": "Over the centuries, various cell rules have developed to help the individual in the daily use of the prayer rope. However, there is no single, standardized method in use universally throughout the Church. There may be prostrations after each prayer or after a certain number of prayers, depending upon the particular rule being followed.",
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"plaintext": "Not only is the Jesus Prayer used, but Eastern Christians also have many \"breath prayers\". Contrary to thought, they are not to be said using spiritual breathing, as that can only be determined by a spiritual father. Breath prayers continuously repeated on the prayer rope may include: Lord Have Mercy, Come Lord Jesus, Lord I Believe...Help My Unbelief, Lord Save Me, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Among the Orthodox believers of Balkan countries, small 33 knot prayer ropes are frequently worn around the wrist. It is also common, though somewhat less so, to wear the larger 100 knot around the neck.",
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"plaintext": "The history of the prayer rope goes back to the origins of Christian monasticism itself. The invention of the prayer rope is attributed to Pachomius the Great in the fourth century as an aid for illiterate monks to accomplish a consistent number of prayers and prostrations in their cells. Previously, monks would count their prayers by casting pebbles into a bowl, but this was cumbersome, and could not be easily carried about when outside the cell. The use of the rope made it possible to pray the Jesus Prayer unceasingly, whether inside the cell or out, in accordance with Paul the Apostle's injunction to \"Pray without ceasing\" (I Thessalonians 5:17).",
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"plaintext": "It is said that the method of tying the prayer rope had its origins from the father of Orthodox monasticism, Anthony the Great. He started by tying a leather rope with a simple knot for every time he prayed Kyrie Eleison (\"Lord have Mercy\"), but the Devil would come and untie the knots to throw off his count. He then devised a way—inspired by a vision he had of the Theotokos—of tying the knots so that the knots themselves would constantly make the sign of the cross. This is why prayer ropes today are still tied using knots that each contain seven little crosses being tied over and over. The Devil could not untie it because the Devil is vanquished by the Sign of the Cross.",
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"plaintext": "Lestovka",
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"plaintext": "Prayer beads",
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"plaintext": "Rosary",
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"plaintext": "How to tie an Orthodox Prayer Rope knot",
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"plaintext": "How To Make an Orthodox Prayer Rope",
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"plaintext": "The Prayer Rope: Meditations of a Monk of the Holy Mountain Athos",
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"plaintext": "The Cell Rule of Five Hundred of the Optina Monastery",
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"plaintext": "The Prayer Rope and Saint Anthony The Great",
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"plaintext": "The Orthodox Prayer Rope",
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"plaintext": "Orthodox Prayer Beads ",
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| 1,191,595 | 4,890 | 32 | 56 | 0 | 0 | prayer rope | []
|
|
37,004 | 1,104,439,129 | Greco-Roman_mysteries | [
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"plaintext": "Mystery religions, mystery cults, sacred mysteries or simply mysteries, were religious schools of the Greco-Roman world for which participation was reserved to initiates (mystai). The main characterization of this religion is the secrecy associated with the particulars of the initiation and the ritual practice, which may not be revealed to outsiders. The most famous mysteries of Greco-Roman antiquity were the Eleusinian Mysteries, which predated the Greek Dark Ages. The mystery schools flourished in Late Antiquity; Julian the Apostate in the mid 4th century is known to have been initiated into three distinct mystery schools—most notably the mithraists. Due to the secret nature of the school, and because the mystery religions of Late Antiquity were persecuted by the Christian Roman Empire from the 4th century, the details of these religious practices are derived from descriptions, imagery and cross-cultural studies. Much information on the Mysteries come from Marcus Terentius Varro.",
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"plaintext": "Justin Martyr in the 2nd century explicitly noted and identified them as \"demonic imitations\" of the true faith; \"the devils, in imitation of what was said by Moses, asserted that Proserpine was the daughter of Jupiter, and instigated the people to set up an image of her under the name of Kore\" (First Apology). Through the 1st to 4th century, Christianity stood in direct competition for adherents with the mystery schools, insofar as the \"mystery schools too were an intrinsic element of the non-Jewish horizon of the reception of the Christian message\". Beginning in the third century, and especially after Constantine became emperor, components of mystery religions began to be incorporated into mainstream Christian thinking, such as is reflected by the disciplina arcani.",
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"plaintext": "The English word 'mystery' originally appeared as the plural Greek Mystêria, and developed into the Latin mysterium where the English term originates. The etymology of the Greek mystêrion is not entirely clear, though scholars have traditionally thought it to have derived from the Greek myo, meaning \"to close or shut\" (chiefly referring to shutting the eyes, hence one who shuts their eyes and is initiated into the mysteries). Some Hittite scholars suggest that the Greek term derives from the Hittite verb munnae, \"to conceal, to hide, to shut out of sight\".",
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"plaintext": "Mystery religions formed one of three types of Hellenistic religion, the others being the imperial cult, or the ethnic religion particular to a nation or state, and the philosophic religions such as Neoplatonism. ",
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"plaintext": "This is also reflected in the tripartite division of \"theology\"—by Varro—into civil theology (concerning the state religion and its stabilizing effect on society), natural theology (philosophical speculation about the nature of the divine), and mythical theology (concerning myth and ritual).",
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"plaintext": "Mysteries thus supplement rather than compete with civil religion. An individual could easily observe the rites of the state religion, be an initiate in one or more mysteries, and at the same time adhere to a certain philosophical school. Many of the aspects of public religion such as sacrifices, ritual meals, and ritual purification were repeated within the mystery, but with the additional requirement that they take place in secrecy and be confined to a closed set of initiates. The mystery schools offered a niche for the preservation of ancient religious ritual, which was especially in demand by the time of the late Roman Empire, as cultic practices supported the established social and political orders instead of working against them; numerous early strands of Judaism and Christianity, for instance, appeared in opposition to such conditions, whereas the mystery cults, by their very nature, served to strengthen the status quo. ",
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"plaintext": "For this reason, what evidence remains of the older Greek mysteries has been understood as reflecting certain archaic aspects of common Indo-European religion, with parallels in Indo-Iranian religion. The mystery schools of Greco-Roman antiquity include the Eleusinian Mysteries, the Dionysian Mysteries, and the Orphic Mysteries. Some of the many divinities that the Romans nominally adopted from other cultures also came to be worshipped in Mysteries; for instance, Egyptian Isis, Persian Mithras from the Mithraic Mysteries, Thracian/Phrygian Sabazius, and Phrygian Cybele.",
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"plaintext": "The Eleusinian Mysteries were the earliest and most famous of the mystery cults and lasted for over a millennium. Whenever they first originated, by the end of the 5th century BC, they had been heavily influenced by Orphism, and in Late Antiquity, they had become allegorized.",
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"plaintext": "The basis for the Eleusinian Mysteries can be found in a myth concerning the kidnapping of Persephone, daughter of Demeter, the goddess of agriculture, by Hades, the god of the underworld, as told in the Homeric Hymns. Anguished by this event and wishing to persuade Zeus, the king of the gods, to allow the return of her daughter, Demeter caused famine and drought across the land, killing many and depriving the gods of proper sacrifice and worship. Eventually, Zeus permitted Persephone to rejoin her mother, prompting Demeter to end the pestilences which deprived the world of its prosperity. However, because the Fates decreed that whoever ate or drank in the underworld was doomed to spend eternity there, Persephone was still forced to remain in the realm for either four or six months of the year (depending on the telling), as she was tricked by Hades into eating pomegranate seeds of a corresponding amount. Thus, Demeter, in her sadness, neglects to nourish the earth for the months that Persephone is gone, only doing so when she returns, until the process repeats again. These episodic periods became the winter and spring seasons, with the “death” and “rebirth” of Persephone being allegorical for the cycle of life and the experience of all beings.",
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"plaintext": "In the 15th of the month of Boedromion (September/October) in the Attic calendar, as many as 3,000 potential initiates would have gathered in the agora of Athens, the gathering limited to those that spoke Greek and had never killed (as the emphasis on purity grew, this ban would include those who had \"impure\" souls). Like other large festivals such as the Diasia and Thesmophoria, the prospective initiates would bring their own sacrificial animals and hear the festivals proclamation as it began. The next day, they would have gone to the sea and purified themselves and the animals. Three days of rest would pass until the 19th, the agora was once more filled with the initiates at the procession at the sanctuary of Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Two Eleusinian priestesses were at the front of the procession followed by many Greeks holding special items in preparation for the rest of the ceremony, and the procession would leave the city on an hours-long 15-mile journey constantly interrupted by celebration, dances, etc, to the city of Eleusis. The initiates would carry torches on the way to the city. Once the city was reached, the pilgrims would dance into the sanctuary. The next day would begin with sacrifices, and at sunset, the initiates would go to a building called the telestêrion where the actual initiations would commence. The initiates washed themselves to be pure and everyone sat together in silence surrounded by the smell of extinguished torches. The initiation may have taken place over two nights. If so, the first night may have concerned the kidnapping of Persephone by Hades and ended with the goddess's return, whereas the second night concerned the epopteia (the higher degree of the Mysteries) which was a performance that included singing, dancing, potentially the showing of a phallus, a terrifying experience for the audience by the skilled Eleusinian clergy, and the climax of the event which must have included displaying a statue of Demeter and showing of an ear of wheat and a \"birth\" of agricultural wealth. Hence, these mysteries had associations with fertility and agriculture. In an attempt to solve the mystery of how so many people over the span of two millennia could have consistently experienced revelatory states during the culminating ceremony of the Eleusinian Mysteries, numerous scholars have proposed that the power of the Eleusinian Mysteries came from the kykeon's functioning as an entheogen.",
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"plaintext": "The day of the completion of the initiation was called the Plemochoai (after a type of vessel used to conclude a libation), and the new members could now wear a myrtle wreath like the priests. Eventually, the initiates would leave and utter the phrases paks or konks, which referenced the proclamation of a conclusion of an event. The clothing worn by the new members during their journey were used as lucky blankets for children or perhaps were given to their sanctuary.",
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"plaintext": "The second most famous Mysteries were those on the island of Samothrace and promised safety to sailors from the perils of the sea, and most participants would come to be initiated from the neighboring regions. While the information here is even more scarce than that available with the Eleusinian Mysteries (and more late, dating to the Hellenistic and Roman periods), it's known that the Samothracian Mysteries significantly borrowed from the ones at Eleusis (including the word 'Mysteries'), furthermore, archaeological and linguistic data continues elucidating more of what happened at Samothrace. These rituals were also associated with others on neighboring island such as the mysteries of the deities of Cabeiri. Philip II of Macedon and his later wife Olympias were said to have met during the initiation ceremony at Samothrace. Heracles, Jason, Cadmus, Orpheus and the Dioscuri were all said to have been initiated here.",
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"plaintext": "Little is known about any core foundational myths for the entities worshipped by cult initiates at Samothrace; even their identities are unknown, as they tended to be discussed anonymously, being referred to as the \"Samothracian gods\" or the \"Great Gods\". This makes it difficult to reconstruct who they were, though comparisons between the \"gods of Samothrace\" and the Cabeiri, chthonic deities of an indeterminate amount (sometimes twins, or multiple distinct beings) from comparable, pre-Greek or entirely non-Greek cultures such as Thrace or Phrygia have been made. The similarities in regards to what each deity or set of deities were purported to offer - protection on the seas and help in difficult times - display a definite connection, though to what extent is impossible to conclude. It is therefore likely that if the Samothracian gods are not the Cabeiri themselves, elements from this comparative religion, along with Thracian elements of worship present on the island before an established Greek presence, heavily influenced the ideas and practices central to the mystery cult.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike at Eleusis, initiation at Samothrace was not restricted to a narrow few days of the year and lasted from April to November (the sailing season) with a large event likely taking place in June but may have taken place over two nights. Like in Samothrace, the future initiates would enter the sanctuary of Samothrace from the east where they would have entered into a 9-meter in diameter circular space with flagstones and a grandstand of five steps now called the Theatral Circle. Livy records that here, the initiates would listen to a proclamation concerning the absence of crime and bloodshed. Near the beginning of the rituals, like at Eleusis, sacrifices and libations were likely made, where the prospective animal for the sacrifice would have been a ram. The initiates would have moved to a building where the actual initiation took place at night with torches, though archaeologists are unsure of which building it was considering the abundance of possibilities including the Hall of Choral Dancers, the Hieron, the Anaktoron and the Rotunda of Arsinoe II. In the 3rd century, Hippolytus of Rome in his Refutation of All Heresies quotes a Gnostic author who provides a summary of some of the images here;",
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"plaintext": "There stand two statues of naked men in the Anaktoron of the Samothracians, with both hands stretched up toward heaven and their pudenda turned up, just as the statue of Hermes at Kyllene. The aforesaid statues are images of the primal man and of the regenerated, spiritual man who is in every respect consubstantial with that man.",
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"plaintext": "The scarcity of information precludes understanding what went on during the initiation, though there may have been dancing such as at Eleusis associated with the mythology of the search for Harmonia. At the end of the initiation, the initiates were given a purple fillet. There was also a second night of initiation, the epopteia where the \"usual preliminary lustration rites and sacrifices\" took place though not much else can be known besides that it may have been similar to the epopteia at Eleusis and would have climaxed with the showing of a great light.",
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"plaintext": "The initiation of the first night was concluded by banqueting together and many dining rooms have been uncovered by archaeologists in association with the cult at Samothrace. The bowls used for the libation were also left behind, revealed by the thousands of discovered libation bowls at the cult sites. The participants occasionally left behind other materials, such as lamps. In addition to the purple fillet, they also left with a 'Samothracian ring' (magnetic iron ring coated in gold) and some initiates would set up a record of their initiation in the stoa of the sanctuary. The initiation of the second night was also concluded by a banquet.",
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"plaintext": "Worship of the god Mithras was extremely popular among men of the Roman army for several centuries, originating in the 1st century BCE and ending with the persecution of non-Christian faiths within the Empire in the 4th century CE. Imported from Persia and adapted for Roman purposes like many other previously foreign deities, Mithras bears little relation to his Zoroastrian precursor, Mithra, retaining his Phrygian cap and garments, for instance, as a visual reminder of his eastern origins. The cultic acts of adherents were new and distinct, involving underground initiation rituals reserved exclusively for soldiers and complex, allegorical rites only vaguely understood today due to an absence of written sources. Feasting was the primary religious experience of initiated members, along with reenactments of core Mithraic imagery, such as the meal shared between the god Sol Invictus and Mithras, or the bearing of torches by men representing the twins of the rising and setting sun, Cautes and Cautopates.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, scholarship surrounding Mithras' mythological beginnings purport that followers believed the common image of the god emerging from a rock, already a young man, with a dagger in one hand and a torch in the other, was representative of his birth and nativity. New perspectives have appeared in light of continuous study which suppose that this scene instead displays the popular Roman religio-philosophical theme of ascent, whereby the god's emergence from the stone serves to depict his divinity and power over \"earthly mundaneness\". The visual and metaphorical components to the core cult image of Mithras slaying a bull, known as the tauroctony, have also been greatly debated. Propositions that the scene depicts nothing more than the act of sacrifice, well known to Romans through their civil religions and obligatory state festivals, have been accepted for some time, but belief that the scene displays a star-map of major constellations in addition to the usual action of sacrifice has appeared in recent years. As is the case with most other mystery religions, almost no written sources pertaining to the practices, much less the beliefs of adherents, survive. Thus, conjecture and assumption based almost exclusively on archaeological finds and modern interpretations provide only somewhat of a vague understanding.",
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"plaintext": "A system of grades or levels was present in the hierarchical structure of Mithraic religion, the first of these being the rank of Corax (raven), followed by Nymphus or Gryphus (bridegroom), Miles (soldier), Leo (lion), Perses (Persian), Heliodromus (sun-runner), and finally Pater (father) as the highest. Though precise details are difficult to determine and certainly varied between locations, one general depiction of an initiation ritual at Capua has it that men were blindfolded and walked into the subterranean chamber known as a Mithraeum where the rites and practices of the cult would be performed. Initiates were naked, bound with their arms behind them, and kneeled before a priest, whereupon they would be released from their bondage, crowned, but not permitted to rise until a particular moment. The initiation was confirmed by a handshake, as members would henceforth be referred to as syndexioi, or those \"united by the handshake\". Little is known about the cult's practices subsequent to initiation, as the highly secretive nature of the religion as well as a substantial absence of written texts makes it difficult to determine what precisely took place in regular meetings, beyond the payment of a membership fee. ",
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"plaintext": " Cult of Despoina– An Arcadian cult worshipping a goddess who was believed to be the daughter of Poseidon and Demeter.",
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"plaintext": " Cult of Attis– A Greek cult that was not followed in Rome until its early days as an empire. It followed the Story of Attis, a godlike figure who was eventually killed by a boar sent by Zeus.",
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"plaintext": " Cults of Cybele– A number of cults following Cybele, or Magna Mater, were present in Greece, Anatolia, and Rome. This cult followed Cybele, which was an Anatolian \"mother goddess\". However, after it became present in Rome, the Romans reinvented Cybele as a Trojan goddess. In Rome, the cults of Cybele were often restricted and gained few members because of strictures against castration, which was considered a ritual necessary for initiation. This was later replaced with animal sacrifice, but numbers were still limited. ",
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"plaintext": " Mysteries of Isis– This was a rather present and more well-known cult. While most of the mystery cults revolved around Hellenistic culture and religion, the cults of Isis worshipped the Egyptian goddess of wisdom and magic. It emerged during the Hellenistic Era (323 BCE through 30 CE).",
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"plaintext": "Jupiter Dolichenus– Roman reimagining of a foreign, \"oriental\" deity comparable to the head Olympian figure, Jupiter.",
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"plaintext": " Cult of Trophonius– A Hellenistic cult surrounding a minor god/hero. A number of people went to his temples to receive an oracle.",
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"plaintext": " Dionysian Mysteries– This was a small cult with unknown origins. It is believed to have pre-dated Greece and possibly originated from Crete or North Africa. Its rituals were based on a theme of seasonal life and rebirth.",
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"plaintext": " Orphism– Another of the more famous mystery cults, this cult followed the story of Orpheus, a mythical poet who descended to the underworld and back. The Orphic Mysteries' worship centered around the god Dionysus and his dual role as a god of death and rebirth, supposedly as revealed by Orpheus.",
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"plaintext": " Cult of Sabazios– This cult worshipped a nomadic horseman god called Sabazios. He was a Thracian/Phrygian god, but the Greeks and Romans syncretized him with Zeus/Jupiter and Dionysus.",
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"plaintext": " Cult of Serapis– A cult following the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis. He and his cult gained a decent amount of popularity in Rome, causing him to replace Osiris as the consort of Isis outside of Egypt. He was worshipped in processions and sanctuaries.",
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"plaintext": "Towards the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, it was becoming more popular in German scholarship to connect the origins of Christianity with heavy influence from the mystery cults, if not labeling Christianity itself as a mystery cult. This trend was partly the result of the increasing growth of critical historical analysis of Christianity's history, as exemplified by David Strauss's Das Leben Jesu (1835–36) and the secularizing trend among scholars that sought to derive Christianity from its pagan surroundings. Scholars, for example, began attempting to derive Paul's theology from a Mithraic mystery cult in Tarsus, even though no mystery cult existed there nor did a Mithraic mystery cult exist before the end of the 1st century. The attitudes of scholars began to change as Egyptology continued emerging as a discipline and a seminal article published by Arthur Nock in 1952 that noted the near absence of mystery terminology in the New Testament. While some have tried to tie the origins of rites in Christianity such as baptism and the Eucharist to mystery religions, it has been demonstrated that the origins of baptism rather lie in Jewish purificatory ritual and that cult meals were so widespread in the ancient world that attempting to demonstrate their origins from any one source is arbitrary. Searches for Christianity deriving content from mystery religions has also been unsuccessful; many of them (such as the mysteries of Eleusis and Samothrace) had no content but rather limited themselves to showing objects in initiation.",
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"plaintext": "Later interaction between Christianity and mystery religions did take place. Christianity has its own initiation ritual, baptism, and beginning in the fourth century, Christians began to refer to their sacraments, such as baptism, with the word mysterion, the Greek term that was also used for a mystery rite. In this case, the word meant that Christians did not discuss their most important rites with non-Christians who might misunderstand or disrespect them. Their rites thus acquired some of the aura of secrecy that surrounded the mystery cults.",
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"plaintext": "Even in ancient times these similarities were controversial. Non-Christians in the Roman Empire in the early centuries CE, such as Lucian and Celsus, thought Christianity and the mystery cults resembled each other. Reacting to these claims by outsiders, early Christian apologists, such as Justin Martyr, denied that these cults had influenced their religion. The seventeenth-century Protestant scholar Isaac Casaubon brought up the issue again by accusing the Catholic Church of deriving its sacraments from the rituals of the mystery cults. Charles-François Dupuis, in the late eighteenth century, went further by claiming that Christianity itself sprang from the mystery cults. Intensified by religious disputes between Protestants, Catholics, and non-Christians, the controversy has continued to the present day.",
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"plaintext": " Bacchanalia",
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"plaintext": " Dianic Wicca",
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"plaintext": " Discordianism",
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"plaintext": " Mysticism",
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"plaintext": "Blakely, Sandra (2018). Starry Twins and Mystery Rites: From Samothrace to Mithras. Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 58(1-4). .",
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"plaintext": "Keller, M.L. (1988). The Eleusinian Mysteries of Demeter and Persephone: Fertility, Sexuality, and Rebirth. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 4(1).",
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"plaintext": "Martin, L.H. (2021). Seeing the Mithraic Tauroctony, Numen, 68(4).",
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"plaintext": "Rives, J.B. (2010). Graeco-Roman Religion in the Roman Empire: Old Assumptions and New Approaches. Currents in Biblical Research, 8(2).",
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"plaintext": " Aneziri, Sophia. Die Vereine der Dionysischen Techniten im Kontext der hellenistischen Gesellschaft (Stuttgart, 2003).",
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"plaintext": " Casadio, Giovanni Casadio and Johnston, Patricia A. (eds), Mystic Cults in Magna Graecia (Austin, TX, University of Texas Press, 2009).",
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37,008 | 1,092,321,710 | Communist_party | [
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"plaintext": "A communist party is a political party that seeks to realize the socio-economic goals of communism. The term communist party was popularized by the title of The Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848) by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As a vanguard party, the communist party guides the political education and development of the working class (proletariat). As a ruling party, the communist party exercises power through the dictatorship of the proletariat. Vladimir Lenin developed the idea of the communist party as the revolutionary vanguard, when the socialist movement in Imperial Russia was divided into ideologically opposed factions, the Bolshevik faction (\"of the majority\") and the Menshevik faction (\"of the minority\"). To be politically effective, Lenin proposed a small vanguard party managed with democratic centralism which allowed centralized command of a disciplined cadre of professional revolutionaries. Once a policy was agreed upon, realizing political goals required every Bolshevik's total commitment to the agreed-upon policy.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast, the Menshevik faction, which initially included Leon Trotsky, emphasized that the party should not neglect the importance of mass populations in realizing a communist revolution. In the course of the revolution, the Bolshevik party which became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) assumed government power in Russia after the October Revolution in 1917. With the creation of the Communist International (Comintern) in 1919, the concept of communist party leadership was adopted by many revolutionary parties, worldwide. In an effort to standardize the international communist movement ideologically and maintain central control of the member parties, the Comintern required that its members use the term \"communist party\" in their names.",
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"plaintext": "Under the leadership of the CPSU, the interpretations of orthodox Marxism were applied to Russia and led to the emergence of Leninist and Marxist–Leninist political parties throughout the world. After the death of Lenin, the Comintern's official interpretation of Leninism was the book Foundations of Leninism (1924) by Joseph Stalin.",
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"plaintext": "As the membership of a communist party was to be limited to active cadres in Lenin's theory, there was a need for networks of separate organizations to mobilize mass support for the party. Typically, communist parties built up various front organizations whose membership was often open to non-communists. In many countries, the single most important front organization of the communist parties was its youth wing. During the time of the Communist International, the youth leagues were explicit communist organizations, using the name 'Young Communist League'. Later the youth league concept was broadened in many countries, and names like 'Democratic Youth League' were adopted.",
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"plaintext": "Some trade unions and students', women's, peasants', and cultural organizations have been connected to communist parties. Traditionally, these mass organizations were often politically subordinated to the political leadership of the party. After the fall of communist party regimes in the 1990s, mass organizations sometimes outlived their communist party founders.",
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"plaintext": "At the international level, the Communist International organized various international front organizations (linking national mass organizations with each other), such as the Young Communist International, Profintern, Krestintern, International Red Aid, Sportintern, etc. Many of these organizations were disbanded after the dissolution of the Communist International. After the Second World War new international coordination bodies were created, such as the World Federation of Democratic Youth, International Union of Students, World Federation of Trade Unions, Women's International Democratic Federation and the World Peace Council. The Soviet Union unified many of the Comintern's original goals among its East European allies under the aegis of a new organization, the Cominform.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, in countries where communist parties were struggling to attain state power, the formation of wartime alliances with non-communist parties and wartime groups was enacted (such as the National Liberation Front of Albania). Upon attaining state power these Fronts were often transformed into nominal (and usually electoral) \"National\" or \"Fatherland\" Fronts in which non-communist parties and organizations were given token representation (a practice known as Blockpartei), the most popular examples of these being the National Front of East Germany (as a historical example) and the United Front of the People's Republic of China (as a modern-day example). Other times the formation of such Fronts were undertaken without the participation of other parties, such as the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Yugoslavia and the National Front of Afghanistan, though the purpose was the same: to promote the communist party line to generally non-communist audiences and to mobilize them to carry out tasks within the country under the aegis of the Front.",
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"plaintext": "Recent scholarship has developed the comparative political study of global communist parties by examining similarities and differences across historical geographies. In particular, the rise of revolutionary parties, their spread internationally, the appearance of charismatic revolutionary leaders and their ultimate demise during the decline and fall of communist parties worldwide have all been the subject of investigation.",
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"plaintext": "A uniform naming scheme for communist parties was adopted by the Communist International. All parties were required to use the name 'Communist Party of (name of the country)', resulting in separate communist parties in some countries operating using (largely) homonymous party names (e.g. in India). Today, there are a few cases where the original sections of the Communist International have retained those names. But throughout the twentieth century, many parties changed their names. Common causes for these shifts in naming were either moves to avoid state repression or as measures to generate greater acceptance by local populations.",
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"plaintext": "An important example of the latter was the renaming of many East European communist parties after the Second World War, sometimes as a result of mergers with the local social democratic and democratic socialist parties. New names in the post-war era included \"Socialist Party\", \"Socialist Unity Party\", \"People's (or Popular) Party\", \"Workers' Party\" and \"Party of Labour\".",
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"plaintext": "The naming conventions of communist parties became more diverse as the international communist movement was fragmented due to the Sino-Soviet split in the 1960s. Those who sided with China and Albania in their criticism of the Soviet leadership, often added words like 'Revolutionary' or 'Marxist-Leninist' to distinguish themselves from the pro-Soviet parties.",
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"plaintext": "In 1985, approximately 38 percent of the world's population lived under \"communist\" governments (1.67billion out of 4.4billion). The CPSU's International Department officially recognized 95 ruling and nonruling communist parties. Overall, if one includes the 107 parties with significant memberships, there were approximately 82 million communist party members worldwide. Given its worldwide representation, the communist party may be counted as the principal challenger to the influence of liberal-democratic, catch-all parties in the twentieth century.",
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"plaintext": "In the capitalist counter-revolutions of 1989–1991 in eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, most of these parties either disappeared or were renamed and adopted different goals than their predecessors. In the 21st century, only four ruling parties on the national level still described themselves as Marxist-Leninist parties: the Chinese Communist Party, the Cuban Communist Party, the Communist Party of Vietnam, and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (North Korea has abandoned Marxism-Leninism from its 2009 constitution but its ideology (Juche) is still considered a variant of Marxism-Leninism). As of 2017, the Communist Party of China was the world's second largest political party (until now), holding nearly 89.45million (2017).",
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"plaintext": "Although the historical importance of communist parties is widely accepted, their activities and functions have been interpreted in different ways. One approach, sometimes known as the totalitarian school of communist studies, has implicitly treated all communist parties as the same types of organizations. Scholars such as Zbigniew Brzezinski and Francois Furet have relied upon conceptions of the party emphasizing centralized control, a top-down hierarchical structure, ideological rigidity, and strict party discipline. In contrast, other studies have emphasized the differences among communist parties. Multi-party studies, such as those by Robert C. Tucker and A. James McAdams, have emphasized the differences in both these parties' organizational structure and their use of Marxist and Leninist ideas to justify their policies.",
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"plaintext": "Another important question is why communist parties were able to rule for as long as they did. Some scholars have depicted these parties as fatally flawed from their inception and argue they only remained in power because their leaders were willing to use their monopoly of power to crush all forms of opposition. In contrast, other studies have emphasized these parties’ ability to adapt their policies to changing times and circumstances.",
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37,009 | 994,584,382 | Biblica | [
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"plaintext": "Biblica experienced its first merger in 1819 when it merged with the New York Auxiliary Bible Society. It was renamed New York International Bible Society in 1974, International Bible Society (IBS) in 1988. The organization moved to Colorado Springs from New York in 1988 and moved into its current facility in 1989. It merged with Living Bibles International in 1992 and International Bible Society and Send the Light (STL) in 2007, forming a new organization called IBS-STL. In 2009, it adopted the name Biblica.",
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"plaintext": "Philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. The central questions of this study concern what qualifies as science, the reliability of scientific theories, and the ultimate purpose of science. This discipline overlaps with metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology, for example, when it explores the relationship between science and truth. Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are often considered ethics or science studies rather than the philosophy of science.",
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"plaintext": "Early attempts by the logical positivists grounded science in observation while non-science was non-observational and hence meaningless. Popper argued that the central property of science is falsifiability. That is, every genuinely scientific claim is capable of being proven false, at least in principle.",
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"plaintext": "An area of study or speculation that masquerades as science in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would not otherwise be able to achieve is referred to as pseudoscience, fringe science (though often times a fringe science becomes mainstream, even developing into a Paradigm Shift), or junk science. Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term \"cargo cult science\" for cases in which researchers believe they are doing science because their activities have the outward appearance of it but actually lack the \"kind of utter honesty\" that allows their results to be rigorously evaluated.",
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"plaintext": "A closely related question is what counts as a good scientific explanation. In addition to providing predictions about future events, society often takes scientific theories to provide explanations for events that occur regularly or have already occurred. Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what it means to say a scientific theory has explanatory power.",
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"plaintext": "One early and influential account of scientific explanation is the deductive-nomological model. It says that a successful scientific explanation must deduce the occurrence of the phenomena in question from a scientific law. This view has been subjected to substantial criticism, resulting in several widely acknowledged counterexamples to the theory. It is especially challenging to characterize what is meant by an explanation when the thing to be explained cannot be deduced from any law because it is a matter of chance, or otherwise cannot be perfectly predicted from what is known. Wesley Salmon developed a model in which a good scientific explanation must be statistically relevant to the outcome to be explained. Others have argued that the key to a good explanation is unifying disparate phenomena or providing a causal mechanism.",
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"plaintext": "Although it is often taken for granted, it is not at all clear how one can infer the validity of a general statement from a number of specific instances or infer the truth of a theory from a series of successful tests. For example, a chicken observes that each morning the farmer comes and gives it food, for hundreds of days in a row. The chicken may therefore use inductive reasoning to infer that the farmer will bring food every morning. However, one morning, the farmer comes and kills the chicken. How is scientific reasoning more trustworthy than the chicken's reasoning?",
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"plaintext": "One approach is to acknowledge that induction cannot achieve certainty, but observing more instances of a general statement can at least make the general statement more probable. So the chicken would be right to conclude from all those mornings that it is likely the farmer will come with food again the next morning, even if it cannot be certain. However, there remain difficult questions about the process of interpreting any given evidence into a probability that the general statement is true. One way out of these particular difficulties is to declare that all beliefs about scientific theories are subjective, or personal, and correct reasoning is merely about how evidence should change one's subjective beliefs over time.",
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"plaintext": "Some argue that what scientists do is not inductive reasoning at all but rather abductive reasoning, or inference to the best explanation. In this account, science is not about generalizing specific instances but rather about hypothesizing explanations for what is observed. As discussed in the previous section, it is not always clear what is meant by the \"best explanation\". Ockham's razor, which counsels choosing the simplest available explanation, thus plays an important role in some versions of this approach. To return to the example of the chicken, would it be simpler to suppose that the farmer cares about it and will continue taking care of it indefinitely or that the farmer is fattening it up for slaughter? Philosophers have tried to make this heuristic principle more precise in terms of theoretical parsimony or other measures. Yet, although various measures of simplicity have been brought forward as potential candidates, it is generally accepted that there is no such thing as a theory-independent measure of simplicity. In other words, there appear to be as many different measures of simplicity as there are theories themselves, and the task of choosing between measures of simplicity appears to be every bit as problematic as the job of choosing between theories. Nicholas Maxwell has argued for some decades that unity rather than simplicity is the key non-empirical factor in influencing choice of theory in science, persistent preference for unified theories in effect committing science to the acceptance of a metaphysical thesis concerning unity in nature. In order to improve this problematic thesis, it needs to be represented in the form of a hierarchy of theses, each thesis becoming more insubstantial as one goes up the hierarchy.",
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"plaintext": "When making observations, scientists look through telescopes, study images on electronic screens, record meter readings, and so on. Generally, on a basic level, they can agree on what they see, e.g., the thermometer shows 37.9 degrees C. But, if these scientists have different ideas about the theories that have been developed to explain these basic observations, they may disagree about what they are observing. For example, before Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, observers would have likely interpreted an image of the Einstein cross as five different objects in space. In light of that theory, however, astronomers will tell you that there are actually only two objects, one in the center and four different images of a second object around the sides. Alternatively, if other scientists suspect that something is wrong with the telescope and only one object is actually being observed, they are operating under yet another theory. Observations that cannot be separated from theoretical interpretation are said to be theory-laden.",
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"plaintext": "All observation involves both perception and cognition. That is, one does not make an observation passively, but rather is actively engaged in distinguishing the phenomenon being observed from surrounding sensory data. Therefore, observations are affected by one's underlying understanding of the way in which the world functions, and that understanding may influence what is perceived, noticed, or deemed worthy of consideration. In this sense, it can be argued that all observation is theory-laden.",
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"plaintext": "Should science aim to determine ultimate truth, or are there questions that science cannot answer? Scientific realists claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely, scientific anti-realists argue that science does not aim (or at least does not succeed) at truth, especially truth about unobservables like electrons or other universes. Instrumentalists argue that scientific theories should only be evaluated on whether they are useful. In their view, whether theories are true or not is beside the point, because the purpose of science is to make predictions and enable effective technology.",
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"plaintext": "Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of current theories. Antirealists point to either the many false theories in the history of science, epistemic morals, the success of false modeling assumptions, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Antirealists attempt to explain the success of scientific theories without reference to truth. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being accurate only about observable objects and argue that their success is primarily judged by that criterion.",
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"plaintext": "Values intersect with science in different ways. There are epistemic values that mainly guide the scientific research. The scientific enterprise is embedded in particular culture and values through individual practitioners. Values emerge from science, both as product and process and can be distributed among several cultures in the society. When it comes to the justification of science in the sense of general public participation by single practitioners, science plays the role of a mediator between evaluating the standards and policies of society and its participating individuals, wherefore science indeed falls victim to vandalism and sabotage adapting the means to the end.",
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"plaintext": "If it is unclear what counts as science, how the process of confirming theories works, and what the purpose of science is, there is considerable scope for values and other social influences to shape science. Indeed, values can play a role ranging from determining which research gets funded to influencing which theories achieve scientific consensus. For example, in the 19th century, cultural values held by scientists about race shaped research on evolution, and values concerning social class influenced debates on phrenology (considered scientific at the time). Feminist philosophers of science, sociologists of science, and others explore how social values affect science.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of philosophy of science trace back to Plato and Aristotle who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of abductive, deductive, and inductive inference, and also analyzed reasoning by analogy. The eleventh century Arab polymath Ibn al-Haytham (known in Latin as Alhazen) conducted his research in optics by way of controlled experimental testing and applied geometry, especially in his investigations into the images resulting from the reflection and refraction of light. Roger Bacon (1214–1294), an English thinker and experimenter heavily influenced by al-Haytham, is recognized by many to be the father of modern scientific method. His view that mathematics was essential to a correct understanding of natural philosophy was considered to be 400 years ahead of its time.",
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"plaintext": "Francis Bacon (no direct relation to Roger, who lived 300 years earlier) was a seminal figure in philosophy of science at the time of the Scientific Revolution. In his work Novum Organum (1620)an allusion to Aristotle's OrganonBacon outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism. Bacon's method relied on experimental histories to eliminate alternative theories. In 1637, René Descartes established a new framework for grounding scientific knowledge in his treatise, Discourse on Method, advocating the central role of reason as opposed to sensory experience. By contrast, in 1713, the 2nd edition of Isaac Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica argued that \"...hypotheses... have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy[,] propositions are deduced from the phenomena and rendered general by induction.\" This passage influenced a \"later generation of philosophically-inclined readers to pronounce a ban on causal hypotheses in natural philosophy\". In particular, later in the 18th century, David Hume would famously articulate skepticism about the ability of science to determine causality and gave a definitive formulation of the problem of induction. The 19th century writings of John Stuart Mill are also considered important in the formation of current conceptions of the scientific method, as well as anticipating later accounts of scientific explanation.",
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"plaintext": "Instrumentalism became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century, after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades. Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful, rejects metaphysical interpretations, and embraces verificationism (a set of theories of knowledge that combines logicism, empiricism, and linguistics to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the empirical sciences). Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new scientific philosophy, the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism in the late 1920s.",
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"plaintext": "Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell's logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic. They also embraced Russell's logical atomism, Ernst Mach's phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman's operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless \"pseudostatements\"—metaphysical, emotive, or such—not worthy of further review by philosophers, who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge.",
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"plaintext": "Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific language should never refer to anything unobservable—even the seemingly core notions of causality, mechanism, and principles—but that is an exaggeration. Talk of such unobservables could be allowed as metaphorical—direct observations viewed in the abstract—or at worst metaphysical or emotional. Theoretical laws would be reduced to empirical laws, while theoretical terms would garner meaning from observational terms via correspondence rules. Mathematics in physics would reduce to symbolic logic via logicism, while rational reconstruction would convert ordinary language into standardized equivalents, all networked and united by a logical syntax. A scientific theory would be stated with its method of verification, whereby a logical calculus or empirical operation could verify its falsity or truth.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1930s, logical positivists fled Germany and Austria for Britain and America. By then, many had replaced Mach's phenomenalism with Otto Neurath's physicalism, and Rudolf Carnap had sought to replace verification with simply confirmation. With World War II's close in 1945, logical positivism became milder, logical empiricism, led largely by Carl Hempel, in America, who expounded the covering law model of scientific explanation as a way of identifying the logical form of explanations without any reference to the suspect notion of \"causation\". The logical positivist movement became a major underpinning of analytic philosophy, and dominated Anglosphere philosophy, including philosophy of science, while influencing sciences, into the 1960s. Yet the movement failed to resolve its central problems, and its doctrines were increasingly assaulted. Nevertheless, it brought about the establishment of philosophy of science as a distinct subdiscipline of philosophy, with Carl Hempel playing a key role.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn argued that the process of observation and evaluation takes place within a paradigm, a logically consistent \"portrait\" of the world that is consistent with observations made from its framing. A paradigm also encompasses the set of questions and practices that define a scientific discipline. He characterized normal science as the process of observation and \"puzzle solving\" which takes place within a paradigm, whereas revolutionary science occurs when one paradigm overtakes another in a paradigm shift.",
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"plaintext": "Kuhn denied that it is ever possible to isolate the hypothesis being tested from the influence of the theory in which the observations are grounded, and he argued that it is not possible to evaluate competing paradigms independently. More than one logically consistent construct can paint a usable likeness of the world, but there is no common ground from which to pit two against each other, theory against theory. Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations. Neither provides a standard by which the other can be judged, so there is no clear way to measure scientific progress across paradigms.",
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"plaintext": "For Kuhn, the choice of paradigm was sustained by rational processes, but not ultimately determined by them. The choice between paradigms involves setting two or more \"portraits\" against the world and deciding which likeness is most promising. For Kuhn, acceptance or rejection of a paradigm is a social process as much as a logical process. Kuhn's position, however, is not one of relativism. According to Kuhn, a paradigm shift occurs when a significant number of observational anomalies arise in the old paradigm and a new paradigm makes sense of them. That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.",
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"plaintext": "All scientific study inescapably builds on at least some essential assumptions that are untested by scientific processes. Kuhn concurs that all science is based on an approved agenda of unprovable assumptions about the character of the universe, rather than merely on empirical facts. These assumptions—a paradigm—comprise a collection of beliefs, values and techniques that are held by a given scientific community, which legitimize their systems and set the limitations to their investigation. For naturalists, nature is the only reality, the only paradigm. There is no such thing as 'supernatural'. The scientific method is to be used to investigate all reality, and Naturalism is the implicit philosophy of working scientists.",
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"plaintext": "The following basic assumptions are needed to justify the scientific method.",
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"plaintext": " that there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers. \"The basis for rationality is acceptance of an external objective reality.\". \"As an individual we cannot know that the sensory information we perceive is generated artificially or originates from a real world. Any belief that it arises from a real world outside us is actually an assumption. It seems more beneficial to assume that an objective reality exists than to live with solipsism, and so people are quite happy to make this assumption. In fact we made this assumption unconsciously when we began to learn about the world as infants. The world outside ourselves appears to respond in ways which are consistent with it being real. ... The assumption of objectivism is essential if we are to attach the contemporary meanings to our sensations and feelings and make more sense of them.\" \"Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else.\"",
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"plaintext": " that this objective reality is governed by natural laws. \"Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys to knoweable principles that don't depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or how we behave.\" Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that \"the physical world is orderly and comprehensible.\"",
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"plaintext": " that reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation. Stanley Sobottka said, \"The assumption of external reality is necessary for science to function and to flourish. For the most part, science is the discovering and explaining of the external world.\" \"Science attempts to produce knowledge that is as universal and objective as possible within the realm of human understanding.\"",
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"plaintext": " that Nature has uniformity of laws and most if not all things in nature must have at least a natural cause. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould referred to these two closely related propositions as the constancy of nature's laws and the operation of known processes. Simpson agrees that the axiom of uniformity of law, an unprovable postulate, is necessary in order for scientists to extrapolate inductive inference into the unobservable past in order to meaningfully study it.",
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"plaintext": " that experimental procedures will be done satisfactorily without any deliberate or unintentional mistakes that will influence the results.",
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"plaintext": " that experimenters won't be significantly biased by their presumptions.",
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"plaintext": " that random sampling is representative of the entire population. A simple random sample (SRS) is the most basic probabilistic option used for creating a sample from a population. The benefit of SRS is that the investigator is guaranteed to choose a sample that represents the population that ensures statistically valid conclusions.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to the view that science rests on foundational assumptions, coherentism asserts that statements are justified by being a part of a coherent system. Or, rather, individual statements cannot be validated on their own: only coherent systems can be justified. A prediction of a transit of Venus is justified by its being coherent with broader beliefs about celestial mechanics and earlier observations. As explained above, observation is a cognitive act. That is, it relies on a pre-existing understanding, a systematic set of beliefs. An observation of a transit of Venus requires a huge range of auxiliary beliefs, such as those that describe the optics of telescopes, the mechanics of the telescope mount, and an understanding of celestial mechanics. If the prediction fails and a transit is not observed, that is likely to occasion an adjustment in the system, a change in some auxiliary assumption, rather than a rejection of the theoretical system.",
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"plaintext": "In fact, according to the Duhem–Quine thesis, after Pierre Duhem and W.V. Quine, it is impossible to test a theory in isolation. One must always add auxiliary hypotheses in order to make testable predictions. For example, to test Newton's Law of Gravitation in the solar system, one needs information about the masses and positions of the Sun and all the planets. Famously, the failure to predict the orbit of Uranus in the 19th century led not to the rejection of Newton's Law but rather to the rejection of the hypothesis that the solar system comprises only seven planets. The investigations that followed led to the discovery of an eighth planet, Neptune. If a test fails, something is wrong. But there is a problem in figuring out what that something is: a missing planet, badly calibrated test equipment, an unsuspected curvature of space, or something else.",
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"plaintext": "One consequence of the Duhem–Quine thesis is that one can make any theory compatible with any empirical observation by the addition of a sufficient number of suitable ad hoc hypotheses. Karl Popper accepted this thesis, leading him to reject naïve falsification. Instead, he favored a \"survival of the fittest\" view in which the most falsifiable scientific theories are to be preferred.",
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"plaintext": "Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994) argued that no description of scientific method could possibly be broad enough to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science. He argued that \"the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: anything goes\".",
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"plaintext": "Feyerabend said that science started as a liberating movement, but that over time it had become increasingly dogmatic and rigid and had some oppressive features, and thus had become increasingly an ideology. Because of this, he said it was impossible to come up with an unambiguous way to distinguish science from religion, magic, or mythology. He saw the exclusive dominance of science as a means of directing society as authoritarian and ungrounded. Promulgation of this epistemological anarchism earned Feyerabend the title of \"the worst enemy of science\" from his detractors.",
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"plaintext": "According to Kuhn, science is an inherently communal activity which can only be done as part of a community. For him, the fundamental difference between science and other disciplines is the way in which the communities function. Others, especially Feyerabend and some post-modernist thinkers, have argued that there is insufficient difference between social practices in science and other disciplines to maintain this distinction. For them, social factors play an important and direct role in scientific method, but they do not serve to differentiate science from other disciplines. On this account, science is socially constructed, though this does not necessarily imply the more radical notion that reality itself is a social construct.",
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"plaintext": "Michel Foucault sought to analyze and uncover how disciplines within the social sciences developed and adopted the methodologies utilized by their practitioners. In works like The Archaeology of Knowledge, he utilized the term human sciences. The human sciences do not comprise mainstream academic disciplines; they are rather an interdisciplinary space for the reflection on man who is the subject of more mainstream scientific knowledge, taken now as an object, sitting between these more conventional areas, and of course associating with disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, sociology, and even history. Rejecting the realist view of scientific inquiry, Foucault argued throughout his work that scientific discourse is not simply an objective study of phenomena, as both natural and social scientists like to believe, but is rather the product of systems of power relations struggling to construct scientific disciplines and knowledge within given societies. With the advances of scientific disciplines, such as psychology and anthropology, the need to separate, categorize, normalize and institutionalize populations into constructed social identities became a staple of the sciences. Constructions of what were considered \"normal\" and \"abnormal\" stigmatized and ostracized groups of people, like the mentally ill and sexual and gender minorities.",
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"plaintext": "However, some (such as Quine) do maintain that scientific reality is a social construct:",
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"plaintext": "Physical objects are conceptually imported into the situation as convenient intermediaries not by definition in terms of experience, but simply as irreducible posits comparable, epistemologically, to the gods of Homer... For my part I do, qua lay physicist, believe in physical objects and not in Homer's gods; and I consider it a scientific error to believe otherwise. But in point of epistemological footing, the physical objects and the gods differ only in degree and not in kind. Both sorts of entities enter our conceptions only as cultural posits.",
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"plaintext": "The public backlash of scientists against such views, particularly in the 1990s, became known as the science wars.",
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"plaintext": "A major development in recent decades has been the study of the formation, structure, and evolution of scientific communities by sociologists and anthropologists – including David Bloor, Harry Collins, Bruno Latour, Ian Hacking and Anselm Strauss. Concepts and methods (such as rational choice, social choice or game theory) from economics have also been applied for understanding the efficiency of scientific communities in the production of knowledge. This interdisciplinary field has come to be known as science and technology studies.",
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"plaintext": "Here the approach to the philosophy of science is to study how scientific communities actually operate.",
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"plaintext": "Philosophers in the continental philosophical tradition are not traditionally categorized as philosophers of science. However, they have much to say about science, some of which has anticipated themes in the analytical tradition. For example, Friedrich Nietzsche advanced the thesis in his The Genealogy of Morals (1887) that the motive for the search for truth in sciences is a kind of ascetic ideal.",
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"plaintext": "In general, continental philosophy views science from a world-historical perspective. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) became one of the first philosophers to support this view. Philosophers such as Pierre Duhem (1861-1916) and Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962) also wrote their works with this world-historical approach to science, predating Kuhn's 1962 work by a generation or more. All of these approaches involve a historical and sociological turn to science, with a priority on lived experience (a kind of Husserlian \"life-world\"), rather than a progress-based or anti-historical approach as emphasised in the analytic tradition. One can trace this continental strand of thought through the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), the late works of Merleau-Ponty (Nature: Course Notes from the Collège de France, 1956–1960), and the hermeneutics of Martin Heidegger (1889-1976).",
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"plaintext": "The largest effect on the continental tradition with respect to science came from Martin Heidegger's critique of the theoretical attitude in general, which of course includes the scientific attitude. For this reason, the continental tradition has remained much more skeptical of the importance of science in human life and in philosophical inquiry. Nonetheless, there have been a number of important works: especially those of a Kuhnian precursor, Alexandre Koyré (1892-1964). Another important development was that of Michel Foucault's analysis of historical and scientific thought in The Order of Things (1966) and his study of power and corruption within the \"science\" of madness. Post-Heideggerian authors contributing to continental philosophy of science in the second half of the 20th century include Jürgen Habermas (e.g., Truth and Justification, 1998), Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker (The Unity of Nature, 1980; (1971)), and Wolfgang Stegmüller (Probleme und Resultate der Wissenschaftstheorie und Analytischen Philosophie, 1973–1986).",
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"plaintext": "Analysis involves breaking an observation or theory down into simpler concepts in order to understand it. Reductionism can refer to one of several philosophical positions related to this approach. One type of reductionism suggests that phenomena are amenable to scientific explanation at lower levels of analysis and inquiry. Perhaps a historical event might be explained in sociological and psychological terms, which in turn might be described in terms of human physiology, which in turn might be described in terms of chemistry and physics. Daniel Dennett distinguishes legitimate reductionism from what he calls greedy reductionism, which denies real complexities and leaps too quickly to sweeping generalizations.",
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"plaintext": "A broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas which science chooses to explore, that is, what part of the world and of humankind are studied by science. Philip Kitcher in his Science, Truth, and Democracy",
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"plaintext": "argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent, successful or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science. Thus such studies undermine the broad consensus required for good science by excluding certain people, and so proving themselves in the end to be unscientific.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to addressing the general questions regarding science and induction, many philosophers of science are occupied by investigating foundational problems in particular sciences. They also examine the implications of particular sciences for broader philosophical questions. The late 20th and early 21st century has seen a rise in the number of practitioners of philosophy of a particular science.",
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"plaintext": "The problem of induction discussed above is seen in another form in debates over the foundations of statistics. The standard approach to statistical hypothesis testing avoids claims about whether evidence supports a hypothesis or makes it more probable. Instead, the typical test yields a p-value, which is the probability of the evidence being such as it is, under the assumption that the hypothesis being tested is true. If the p-value is too low, the hypothesis is rejected, in a way analogous to falsification. In contrast, Bayesian inference seeks to assign probabilities to hypotheses. Related topics in philosophy of statistics include probability interpretations, overfitting, and the difference between correlation and causation.",
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"plaintext": "Philosophy of mathematics is concerned with the philosophical foundations and implications of mathematics. The central questions are whether numbers, triangles, and other mathematical entities exist independently of the human mind and what is the nature of mathematical propositions. Is asking whether \"1+1=2\" is true fundamentally different from asking whether a ball is red? Was calculus invented or discovered? A related question is whether learning mathematics requires experience or reason alone. What does it mean to prove a mathematical theorem and how does one know whether a mathematical proof is correct? Philosophers of mathematics also aim to clarify the relationships between mathematics and logic, human capabilities such as intuition, and the material universe.",
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"plaintext": "Philosophy of psychology refers to issues at the theoretical foundations of modern psychology. Some of these issues are epistemological concerns about the methodology of psychological investigation. For example, is the best method for studying psychology to focus only on the response of behavior to external stimuli or should psychologists focus on mental perception and thought processes? If the latter, an important question is how the internal experiences of others can be measured. Self-reports of feelings and beliefs may not be reliable because, even in cases in which there is no apparent incentive for subjects to intentionally deceive in their answers, self-deception or selective memory may affect their responses. Then even in the case of accurate self-reports, how can responses be compared across individuals? Even if two individuals respond with the same answer on a Likert scale, they may be experiencing very different things.",
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"plaintext": "Other issues in philosophy of psychology are philosophical questions about the nature of mind, brain, and cognition, and are perhaps more commonly thought of as part of cognitive science, or philosophy of mind. For example, are humans rational creatures? Is there any sense in which they have free will, and how does that relate to the experience of making choices? Philosophy of psychology also closely monitors contemporary work conducted in cognitive neuroscience, psycholinguistics, and artificial intelligence, questioning what they can and cannot explain in psychology.",
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"plaintext": "The French philosopher, Auguste Comte (1798–1857), established the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positivist Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the natural sciences already in existence (geoscience, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science: \"sociologie\". For Comte, the natural sciences had to necessarily arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex \"Queen science\" of human society itself. Comte offers an evolutionary system proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'. These are (1) the theological, (2) the metaphysical, and (3) the positive.",
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"plaintext": "The positivist perspective has been associated with 'scientism'; the view that the methods of the natural sciences may be applied to all areas of investigation, be it philosophical, social scientific, or otherwise. Among most social scientists and historians, orthodox positivism has long since lost popular support. Today, practitioners of both social and physical sciences instead take into account the distorting effect of observer bias and structural limitations. This scepticism has been facilitated by a general weakening of deductivist accounts of science by philosophers such as Thomas Kuhn, and new philosophical movements such as critical realism and neopragmatism. The philosopher-sociologist Jürgen Habermas has critiqued pure instrumental rationality as meaning that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself.",
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"plaintext": "The philosophy of technology is a sub-field of philosophy that studies the nature of technology. Specific research topics include study of the role of tacit and explicit knowledge in creating and using technology, the nature of functions in technological artifacts, the role of values in design, and ethics related to technology. Technology and engineering can both involve the application of scientific knowledge. The philosophy of engineering is an emerging sub-field of the broader philosophy of technology.",
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"plaintext": " Bovens, L. and Hartmann, S. (2003), Bayesian Epistemology, Oxford University Press, Oxford.",
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"plaintext": " Gutting, Gary (2004), Continental Philosophy of Science, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA.",
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"plaintext": " Peter, Godfrey-Smith (2003), Theory and Reality: An Introduction the Philosophy of Science, University of Chicago Press",
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"plaintext": " Losee, J. (1998), A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford.",
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"plaintext": " Papineau, David (2005) Science, problems of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.",
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"plaintext": " Popper, Karl, (1963) Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge, ",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory VII (; 1015 – 25 May 1085), born Hildebrand of Sovana (), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 April 1073 to his death in 1085. He is venerated as a saint in the Catholic Church.",
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"plaintext": "One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Emperor Henry IV that affirmed the primacy of papal authority and the new canon law governing the election of the pope by the College of Cardinals. He was also at the forefront of developments in the relationship between the emperor and the papacy during the years before he became pope. He was the first pope in several centuries to rigorously enforce the Western Church's ancient policy of celibacy for the clergy and also attacked the practice of simony.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV three times. Consequently, Henry IV would appoint Antipope Clement III to oppose him in the political power struggles between the Catholic Church and his empire. Hailed as one of the greatest of the Roman pontiffs after his reforms proved successful, Gregory VII was, during his own reign, despised by some for his expansive use of papal powers.",
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"plaintext": "Because this pope was such a prominent champion of papal supremacy, his memory was evoked on many occasions in later generations, both positively and negatively, often reflecting later writers' attitude to the Catholic Church and the papacy. Beno of Santi Martino e Silvestro, who opposed Gregory VII in the Investiture Controversy, leveled against him charges such as necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the Real Presence of the Eucharist, and even burning the Eucharist. This was eagerly repeated by later opponents of the Catholic Church, such as the English Protestant John Foxe. Twentieth century British writer Joseph McCabe describes Gregory as a \"rough and violent peasant, enlisting his brute strength in the service of the monastic ideal which he embraced.\" In contrast, the modern historian of the 11th century H. E. J. Cowdrey writes, \"[Gregory VII] was surprisingly flexible, feeling his way and therefore perplexing both rigorous collaborators ... and cautious and steady-minded ones ... His zeal, moral force, and religious conviction, however, ensured that he should retain to a remarkable degree the loyalty and service of a wide variety of men and women.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was born as Ildebrando di Sovana in Sovana, in the county of Grosseto, now southern Tuscany, central Italy. The historian Johann Georg Estor made the claim that he was the son of a blacksmith. As a youth he was sent to study in Rome at the monastery of St. Mary on the Aventine, where, according to some unconfirmed sources, his uncle was abbot of a monastery on the Aventine Hill. Among his masters were the erudite Lawrence, archbishop of Amalfi, and Johannes Gratianus, the future Pope Gregory VI. When the latter was deposed by Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and exiled to Germany, Hildebrand followed him to Cologne.",
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"plaintext": "According to some chroniclers, Hildebrand moved to Cluny after Gregory VI's death, which occurred in 1048; though his declaration to have become a monk at Cluny must not be taken literally. He then accompanied Abbot Bruno of Toul to Rome; there, Bruno was elected pope, choosing the name Leo IX, and named Hildebrand as deacon and papal administrator. Leo sent Hildebrand as his legate to Tours in France in the wake of the controversy created by Berengar of Tours. At Leo's death, the new pope, Victor II, confirmed him as legate, while Victor's successor Stephen IX sent him and Anselm of Lucca to Germany to obtain recognition from Empress Agnes. Stephen died before being able to return to Rome, but Hildebrand was successful; he was then instrumental in overcoming the crisis caused by the Roman aristocracy's election of an antipope, Benedict X, who, thanks also to Agnes's support, was replaced by the Bishop of Florence, Nicholas II. With the help of 300 Norman knights sent by Richard of Aversa, Hildebrand personally led the conquest of the castle of Galeria Antica where Benedict had taken refuge. Between 1058 and 1059, he was made archdeacon of the Roman church, becoming the most important figure in the papal administration.",
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"plaintext": "He was again the most powerful figure behind the election of Anselm of Lucca the Elder as Pope Alexander II in the papal election of October 1061. The new pope put forward the reform program devised by Hildebrand and his followers. In his years as papal advisor, Hildebrand had an important role in the reconciliation with the Norman kingdom of southern Italy, in the anti-German alliance with the Pataria movement in northern Italy and, above all, in the introduction of a law which gave the cardinals exclusive rights concerning the election of a new pope.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory VII was one of the few popes elected by acclamation. On the death of Alexander II on 21 April 1073, as the obsequies were being performed in the Lateran Basilica, there arose a loud outcry from the clergy and people: \"Let Hildebrand be pope!\", \"Blessed Peter has chosen Hildebrand the Archdeacon!\" Hildebrand immediately fled, and hid himself for some time, thereby making it clear that he had refused the uncanonical election in the Liberian Basilica. He was finally found at the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli, to which a famous monastery was attached, and elected pope by the assembled cardinals, with the due consent of the Roman clergy, amid the repeated acclamations of the people.",
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"plaintext": "It was debated at the time—and remains debated by historians—whether this extraordinary outburst in favour of Hildebrand by clergy and people was wholly spontaneous or could have been the result of some pre-concerted arrangements. According to Benizo, Bishop of Sutri, a supporter of Hildebrand, the outcry was begun by the actions of Cardinal Ugo Candidus, Cardinal Priest of S. Clemente, who rushed into a pulpit and began to declaim to the people. Certainly, the mode of his election was highly criticized by his opponents. Many of the charges brought may have been expressions of personal dislike, liable to suspicion from the very fact that they were not raised to attack his promotion until several years later. But it is clear from Gregory's own account of the circumstances of his election, in his Epistle 1 and Epistle 2, that it was conducted in a very irregular fashion. First of all, it was contrary to the Constitution of the Pope promulgated and approved in the Roman Synod of 607, which forbade a papal election to begin until the third day after a pope's burial. Cardinal Ugo's intervention was contrary to the Constitution of Nicholas II, which affirmed the exclusive right to name candidates to the Cardinal Bishops; finally, the requirement of Pope Nicholas II that the Holy Roman Emperor be consulted in the matter was ignored. However, what ultimately turned the tide in favor of validity of Gregory VII's election was the second election at S. Pietro in Vincoli and the acceptance by the Roman people.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII's earliest pontifical letters clearly acknowledge this fact, and thus helped defuse any doubt about his election as immensely popular. On 22 May 1073, the Feast of Pentecost, he received ordination as a priest, and he was consecrated a bishop and enthroned as pope on 29 June (the Feast of St. Peter's Chair).",
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"plaintext": "In the decree of election, those who had chosen him as Bishop of Rome proclaimed Gregory VII \"a devout man, a man mighty in human and divine knowledge, a distinguished lover of equity and justice, a man firm in adversity and temperate in prosperity, a man, according to the saying of the Apostle, of good behavior, blameless, modest, sober, chaste, given to hospitality, and one that ruleth well his own house; a man from his childhood generously brought up in the bosom of this Mother Church, and for the merit of his life already raised to the archidiaconal dignity\". \"We choose then\", they said to the people, \"our Archdeacon Hildebrand to be pope and successor to the Apostle, and to bear henceforward and forever the name of Gregory\" (22 April 1073).",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII's first attempts in foreign policy were towards a reconciliation with the Normans of Robert Guiscard; in the end the two parties did not meet. After a failed call for a crusade to the princes of northern Europe, and after obtaining the support of other Norman princes such as Landulf VI of Benevento and Richard I of Capua, Gregory VII was able to excommunicate Robert in 1074. In the same year Gregory VII summoned a council in the Lateran palace, which condemned simony and confirmed celibacy for the Church's clergy. These decrees were further stressed, under menace of excommunication, the next year (24–28 February). In particular, Gregory decreed in this second council that only the Pope could appoint or depose bishops or move them from see to see, an act which was later to cause the Investiture Controversy.",
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"plaintext": "The main focus of the ecclesiastico-political projects of Gregory VII is to be found in his relationship with the Holy Roman Empire. Since the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry III, the strength of the German monarchy had been seriously weakened, and his son Henry IV had to contend with great internal difficulties. This state of affairs was of material assistance to Gregory VII. His advantage was further enhanced by the fact that in 1073 Henry IV was only twenty-three years of age.",
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"plaintext": "In the two years following the election of Gregory VII, Henry was forced by the Saxon Rebellion to come to amicable terms with him at any cost. Consequently, in May 1074 he did penance at Nuremberg—in the presence of the papal legates—to atone for his continued friendship with the members of his council who had been banned by Gregory, took an oath of obedience, and promised his support in the work of reforming the Church. This attitude, however, which at first won him the confidence of the pope, was abandoned as soon as he defeated the Saxons at the First Battle of Langensalza on 9 June 1075 (also called the Battle of Homburg or Battle of Hohenburg). Henry then tried to reassert his rights as the sovereign of northern Italy without delay. He sent Count Eberhard to Lombardy to combat the Patarenes; nominated the cleric Tedald to the archbishopric of Milan, thus settling a prolonged and contentious question; and finally tried to establish relations with the Norman duke Robert Guiscard.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII replied with a rough letter, dated 8 December 1075, in which, among other charges, he accused Henry of breaching his word and with his continued support of excommunicated councillors. At the same time, he sent a verbal message suggesting that the enormous crimes which would be laid to his account rendered him liable, not only to the ban of the Church, but to the deprivation of his crown. Gregory did this at a time when he himself was confronted by a reckless opponent in the person of Cencio I Frangipane, who on Christmas night surprised him in church and carried him off as a prisoner, though on the following day Gregory was released.",
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"plaintext": "The reprimands of the Pope, couched as they were in such an unprecedented form, infuriated Henry and his court, and their answer was the hastily convened national council in Worms, Germany (the synod of Worms), which met on 24 January 1076. In the higher ranks of the German clergy Gregory had many enemies, and a Roman cardinal, Hugo Candidus, once on intimate terms with him but now his opponent, had hurried to Germany for the occasion. All the accusations with regard to Gregory that Candidus could come up with were well received by the assembly, which committed itself to the resolution that Gregory had forfeited the papacy. In one document full of accusations, the bishops renounced their allegiance to Gregory. In another, Henry pronounced him deposed, and the Romans were required to choose a new pope.",
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"plaintext": "The council sent two bishops to Italy, and they procured a similar act of deposition from the Lombard bishops at the synod of Piacenza. Roland of Parma informed the pope of these decisions, and he was fortunate enough to gain an opportunity for speech in the synod, which had just assembled in the Lateran Basilica, to deliver his message there announcing the dethronement. For the moment the members were frightened, but soon such a storm of indignation was aroused that it was only due to the moderation of Gregory himself that the envoy was not murdered.",
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"plaintext": "On the following day, 22 February 1076, Pope Gregory VII pronounced a sentence of excommunication against Henry IV with all due solemnity, divested him of his royal dignity and absolved his subjects from the oaths they had sworn to him. This sentence purported to eject a ruler from the Church and to strip him of his crown. Whether it would produce this effect, or would be an idle threat, depended not so much on Gregory VII as on Henry's subjects, and, above all, on the German princes. Contemporary evidence suggests that the excommunication of Henry made a profound impression both in Germany and Italy.",
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"plaintext": "Thirty years before, Henry III had deposed three claimants to the papacy, and thereby rendered an acknowledged service to the Church. When Henry IV tried to copy this procedure he was less successful, as he lacked the support of the people. In Germany there was a rapid and general feeling in favor of Gregory, and the princes took the opportunity to carry out their anti-regal policy under the cloak of respect for the papal decision. When at Whitsun the king proposed to discuss the measures to be taken against Gregory VII in a council of his nobles, only a few made their appearance; the Saxons snatched at the golden opportunity for renewing their rebellion, and the anti-royalist party grew in strength from month to month.",
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"plaintext": "The situation now became extremely critical for Henry. As a result of the agitation, which was zealously fostered by the papal legate Bishop Altmann of Passau, the princes met in October at Trebur to elect a new German ruler. Henry, who was stationed at Oppenheim on the left bank of the Rhine, was only saved from the loss of his throne by the failure of the assembled princes to agree on the question of his successor.",
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"plaintext": "Their dissension, however, merely induced them to postpone the verdict. Henry, they declared, must make reparation to Gregory VII and pledge himself to obedience; and they decided that, if, on the anniversary of his excommunication, he still lay under the ban, the throne should be considered vacant. At the same time they decided to invite Gregory VII to Augsburg to decide the conflict.",
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"plaintext": "These arrangements showed Henry the course to be pursued. It was imperative under any circumstances and at any price to secure his absolution from Gregory before the period named, otherwise he could scarcely foil his opponents in their intention to pursue their attack against him and justify their measures by an appeal to his excommunication. At first he attempted to attain his ends by an embassy, but when Gregory rejected his overtures he took the celebrated step of going to Italy in person.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII had already left Rome and had intimated to the German princes that he would expect their escort for his journey on 8 January 1077 to Mantua. But this escort had not appeared when he received the news of Henry's arrival. Henry, who had travelled through Burgundy, had been greeted with enthusiasm by the Lombards, but resisted the temptation to employ force against Gregory. He chose the unexpected course of forcing Gregory to grant him absolution by doing penance before him at Canossa, where Gregory had taken refuge under the protection of his close ally, Matilda of Tuscany. The Walk to Canossa soon became legendary.",
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"plaintext": "The reconciliation was only effected after prolonged negotiations and definite pledges on the part of Henry, and it was with reluctance that Gregory VII at length gave way, considering the political implications. If Gregory VII granted absolution, the diet of princes in Augsburg in which he might reasonably hope to act as arbitrator would either become useless, or, if it met at all, would change completely in character. It was impossible, however, to deny the penitent re-entrance into the Church, and Gregory VII's religious obligations overrode his political interests.",
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"plaintext": "The removal of the ban did not imply a genuine reconciliation, and no basis was gained for a settlement of the main question that divided Henry and Gregory: that of investiture. A new conflict was inevitable from the very fact that Henry considered the sentence of deposition repealed along with that of excommunication. Gregory, on the other hand, was intent on reserving his freedom of action and gave no hint on the subject at Canossa.",
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"plaintext": "That the excommunication of Henry IV was simply a pretext for the opposition of the rebellious German nobles is transparent. Not only did they persist in their policy after his absolution, but they took the more decided step of setting up a rival ruler in the person of Duke Rudolf of Swabia at Forchheim in March 1077. At the election, the papal legates present observed the appearance of neutrality, and Gregory VII himself sought to maintain this attitude during the following years. His task was made easier in that the two parties were of fairly equal strength, each trying to gain the upper hand by getting the pope on their side. But the result of his non-committal policy was that he largely lost the confidence of both parties. Finally he decided for Rudolf of Swabia after his victory at the Battle of Flarchheim on 27 January 1080. Under pressure from the Saxons, and misinformed as to the significance of this battle, Gregory abandoned his waiting policy and again pronounced the excommunication and deposition of King Henry on 7 March 1080.",
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"plaintext": "But the papal censure now proved a very different thing from the one four years before. It was widely felt to be an injustice, and people began to ask whether an excommunication pronounced on frivolous grounds was entitled to respect. The king, now more experienced, took up the struggle with great vigour. He refused to acknowledge the ban on the ground of its illegality. He then summoned a council that met at Brixen, and on 25 June pronounced Gregory deposed. It nominated the archbishop Guibert (Wibert) of Ravenna as his successor. On 25 June 1080, Guibert was elected Pope by the thirty bishops who were present at the King's command. On 15 October 1080, Pope Gregory advised the clergy and laity to elect a new archbishop in place of the \"mad\" and \"tyrannical\" schismatic Wibert. In 1081, Henry opened the conflict against Gregory in Italy. Gregory's support had by that time weakened, and thirteen cardinals had deserted him. To make matters worse, Rudolf of Swabia died on 16 October of the same year. Henry was now in a stronger position and Gregory a weaker one. A new claimant, Hermann of Luxembourg, was put forward in August 1081, but his personality was not suitable for a leader of the Gregorian party in Germany, and the power of Henry IV was at its peak.",
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"plaintext": "The pope's chief military supporter, Matilda of Tuscany, blocked Henry's armies from the western passages over the Apennines, so he had to approach Rome from Ravenna. Rome surrendered to the German king in 1084, and Gregory thereupon retired into the exile of the Castel Sant'Angelo. Gregory refused to entertain Henry's overtures, although the latter promised to hand over Guibert as a prisoner, if the sovereign pontiff would only consent to crown him emperor. Gregory, however, insisted as a necessary preliminary that Henry should appear before a Council and do penance. The emperor, while pretending to submit to these terms, tried hard to prevent the meeting of the bishops. A small number assembled nonetheless, and, in accordance with their wishes, Gregory again excommunicated Henry.",
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"plaintext": "Henry, upon receipt of this news, again entered Rome on 21 March to see that his supporter, Archbishop Guibert of Ravenna, was enthroned as Pope Clement III on 24 March 1084. Henry was crowned emperor by his creature, but Robert Guiscard, with whom in the meantime Gregory had formed an alliance, was already marching on the city. Henry was compelled to flee towards Civita Castellana.",
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"plaintext": "The pope was liberated, but after the Roman people became incensed by the excesses of his Norman allies, he was compelled to withdraw to Monte Cassino, and later to the castle of Salerno by the sea, where he died on 25 May 1085. Three days before his death, he withdrew all the censures of excommunication that he had pronounced, except those against the two chief offenders—Henry and Guibert.",
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"plaintext": "In 1076, Gregory appointed Dol Euen, a monk of Saint-Melaine of Rennes, as bishop of Dol, rejecting both the incumbent, Iuthael, who had the support of William the Conqueror, who had recently been conducting military operations in north-eastern Brittany, and Gilduin, the candidate of the nobles in Dol opposing William. Gregory rejected Iuthael because he was notorious for simony and Guilden as too young. Gregory also bestowed on Dol Euen the pallium of a metropolitan archbishop, on the condition that he would submit to the judgment of the Holy See when the long-standing case of the right of Dol to be a metropolitan and use the pallium was finally decided.",
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"plaintext": "King William felt himself so safe that he interfered autocratically with the management of the church, forbade the bishops to visit Rome, made appointments to bishoprics and abbeys, and showed little anxiety when the pope lectured him on the different principles which he had as to the relationship of spiritual and temporal powers, or when he prohibited him from commerce or commanded him to acknowledge himself a vassal of the apostolic chair. William was particularly annoyed at Gregory's insistence on dividing ecclesiastical England into two provinces, in opposition to William's need to emphasize the unity of his newly acquired kingdom. Gregory's increasing insistence on church independence from secular authority in the matter of clerical appointments became a more and more contentious issue. He sought as well to compel the episcopacy to look to Rome for validation and direction, demanding the regular attendance of prelates in Rome. Gregory had no power to compel the English king to an alteration in his ecclesiastical policy, so he was compelled to ignore what he could not approve, and even considered it advisable to assure King William of his particular affection. On the whole, William's policy was of great benefit to the Church.",
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"plaintext": "The relationship of Gregory VII to other European states was strongly influenced by his German policy, since the Holy Roman Empire, by taking up most of his energies, often forced him to show to other rulers the very moderation which he withheld from the German king. The attitude of the Normans brought him a rude awakening. The great concessions made to them under Nicholas II were not only powerless to stem their advance into central Italy, but failed to secure even the expected protection for the papacy. When Gregory VII was hard pressed by Henry IV, Robert Guiscard left him to his fate, and only intervened when he himself was threatened with German arms. Then, on the capture of Rome, he abandoned the city to his troops, and the popular indignation evoked by his act brought about Gregory's exile.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of several countries, Gregory VII tried to establish a claim of sovereignty on the part of the Papacy, and to secure the recognition of its self-asserted rights of possession. On the ground of \"immemorial usage\", Corsica and Sardinia were assumed to belong to the Roman Church. Spain, Hungary and Croatia were also claimed as her property, and an attempt was made to induce the king of Denmark to hold his realm as a fief from the pope.",
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"plaintext": "In his treatment of ecclesiastical policy and ecclesiastical reform, Gregory did not stand alone, but found powerful support: in England Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury stood closest to him; in France his champion was Bishop Hugh de Dié, who afterwards became Archbishop of Lyon.",
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"plaintext": "Philip I of France, by his practice of simony and the violence of his proceedings against the Church, provoked a threat of summary measures. Excommunication, deposition and the interdict appeared to be imminent in 1074. Gregory, however, refrained from translating his threats into actions, although the attitude of the king showed no change, for he wished to avoid a dispersion of his strength in the conflict soon to break out in Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory attempted to organize a crusade into Al-Andalus, led by Count Ebles II of Roucy.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory, in fact, established some sort of relations with every country in Christendom; though these relations did not invariably realize the ecclesiastico-political hopes connected with them. His correspondence extended to Poland, Kievan Rus' and Bohemia. He unsuccessfully tried to bring Armenia into closer contact with Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory was particularly concerned with the East. The schism between Rome and the Byzantine Empire was a severe blow to him, and he worked hard to restore the former amicable relationship. Gregory successfully tried to get in touch with the emperor Michael VII. When the news of the Muslim attacks on the Christians in the East filtered through to Rome, and the political embarrassments of the Byzantine emperor increased, he conceived the project of a great military expedition and exhorted the faithful to participate in recovering the Church of the Holy Sepulchre—foreshadowing the First Crusade. In his efforts to recruit for the expedition, he emphasized the suffering of eastern Christians, arguing western Christians had a moral obligation to go to their aid.",
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"plaintext": "His lifework was based on his conviction that the Church was founded by God and entrusted with the task of embracing all mankind in a single society in which divine will is the only law; that, in its capacity as a divine institution, it is supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state; and that the pope, in his role as head of the Church, is the vice-regent of God on earth, so that disobedience to him implies disobedience to God: or, in other words, a defection from Christianity. But any attempt to interpret this in terms of action would have bound the Church to annihilate not merely a single state, but all states.",
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"plaintext": "Thus Gregory VII, as a politician wanting to achieve some result, was driven in practice to adopt a different standpoint. He acknowledged the existence of the state as a dispensation of providence, described the coexistence of church and state as a divine ordinance, and emphasized the necessity of union between the sacerdotium and the imperium. But at no period would he have dreamed of putting the two powers on an equal footing; the superiority of church to state was to him a fact which admitted of no discussion and which he had never doubted.",
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"plaintext": "He wished to see all important matters of dispute referred to Rome; appeals were to be addressed to himself; the centralization of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved a curtailment of the powers of bishops. Since these refused to submit voluntarily and tried to assert their traditional independence, his papacy is full of struggles against the higher ranks of the clergy. Pope Gregory VII was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities.",
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"plaintext": "This battle for the foundation of papal supremacy is connected with his championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy and his attack on simony. Gregory VII did not introduce the celibacy of the priesthood into the Church, but he took up the struggle with greater energy than his predecessors. In 1074, he published an encyclical, absolving the people from their obedience to bishops who allowed married priests. The next year he enjoined them to take action against married priests, and deprived these clerics of their revenues. Both the campaign against priestly marriage and that against simony provoked widespread resistance.",
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"plaintext": "His writings treat mainly of the principles and practice of Church government. They may be found in Mansi's collection under the title \"Gregorii VII registri sive epistolarum libri\". Most of his surviving letters are preserved in his Register, which is now stored in the Vatican Archives.",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII was seen by Pope Paul VI as instrumental in affirming the tenet that Christ is present in the Blessed Sacrament. Gregory's demand that Berengarius perform a confession of this belief was quoted in Pope Paul VI's historic 1965 encyclical Mysterium fidei:",
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"plaintext": "This profession of faith began a \"Eucharistic Renaissance\" in the churches of Europe as of the 12th century.",
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"plaintext": "Pope Gregory VII died in exile in Salerno; the epitaph on his sarcophagus in the city's Cathedral says: \"I have loved justice and hated iniquity; therefore, I die in exile.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gregory VII was beatified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1584 and canonized on 24 May 1728 by Pope Benedict XIII.",
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"plaintext": " Concordat of Worms",
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"plaintext": " Dictatus papae (1075–87)",
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"plaintext": " First Council of the Lateran",
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"plaintext": " Libertas ecclesiae",
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"plaintext": " List of Catholic saints",
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"plaintext": " List of popes",
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"plaintext": " Paul von Bernried, Canon of Regensburg, \"S. Gregorii VII Vita,\" J. P. Migne (ed.), Patrologiae Cursus Completus Series Latina Tomus CXLVIII: Sancti Gregorii VII Epistolae et Diplomata Pontificia (Paris 1878), 39–104.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Bonizo of Sutri, \"Liber ad amicum\", in Philippus Jaffé (editor) Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum Tomus II: Monumenta Gregoriana (Berolini 1865), pp.577–689. ",
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"plaintext": " Kuttner, S. (1947). 'Liber Canonicus: a note on the Dictatus Papae', Studi Gregoriani 2 (1947), 387–401.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Capitani, O. \"Esiste un' «età gregoriana» ? Considerazioni sulle tendenze di una storiografia medievistica,\" Rivista di storia e letteratura religiosa 1 (1965), pp. 454–481.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Capitani, O. (1966). Immunità vescovili ed ecclesiologia in età \"pregregoriana\" e \"gregoriana\". L'avvio alla \"Restaurazione, Spoleto. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gatto, L. (1968). Bonizo di Sutri ed il suo Liber ad Amicum Pescara. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Knox, Ronald (1972). \"Finding the Law: Developments in Canon Law during the Gregorian Reform,\" Studi Gregoriani 9 (1972) 419–466.",
"section_idx": 11,
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},
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"plaintext": " Gilchrist, J. T. (1972). \"The Reception of Pope Gregory VII into the Canon Law (1073–1141).\" Zeitschrift für Rechtsgeschichte: Kanonistische Abteilung, 59 (1973), 35–82.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Capitani, O. (1984). L'Italia medievale nei secoli di trapasso: la riforma della Chiesa (1012–1122). Bologna.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fuhrmann, H. (1989). \"Papst Gregor VII. und das Kirchenrecht. Zum Problem des Dictatus papae,\" Studi Gregoriani XIII, pp.123–149, 281–320.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Golinelli, Paolo (1991). Matilde e i Canossa nel cuore del Medioevo. Milano: Mursia.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Capitani, Ovidio (2000), \"Gregorio VII, santo,\" in Enciclopedia dei Papi. Roma: Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " . Monumenta Germaniae Historica. Studien und Texte, 53. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Capitani, Ovidio; (ed. Pio Berardo) (2015). Gregorio VII : il papa epitome della chiesa di Roma. Spoleto : Centro Italiano di Studi sull'Alto Medioevo.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Villegas-Aristizábal, Lucas, \"Pope Gregory VII and Count Eblous II of Roucy's Proto-Crusade in Iberia c. 1073\", Medieval History Journal 21.1 (2018), 1–24. ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Women's Biography: Matilda of Tuscany, countess of Tuscany, duchess of Lorraine, contains several of his letters to his supporter, Matilda of Tuscany.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Database of the Letters of Pope Gregory VII: Which letter is in which collection?",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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37,021 | 1,107,717,013 | Dirac_delta_function | [
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"plaintext": "In mathematics, the Dirac delta distribution ( distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function or distribution over the real numbers, whose value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over the entire real line is equal to one.",
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"plaintext": "The current understanding of the impulse is as a linear functional that maps every continuous function to its value at zero, or as the weak limit of a sequence of bump functions, which are zero over most of the real line, with a tall spike at the origin. Bump functions are thus sometimes called \"approximate\" or \"nascent\" delta distributions.",
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"plaintext": "The delta function was introduced by physicist Paul Dirac as a tool for the normalization of state vectors. It also has uses in probability theory and signal processing. Its validity was disputed until Laurent Schwartz developed the theory of distributions where it is defined as a linear form acting on functions.",
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"plaintext": "The Kronecker delta function, which is usually defined on a discrete domain and takes values 0 and 1, is the discrete analog of the Dirac delta function.",
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"plaintext": "The graph of the Dirac delta is usually thought of as following the whole x-axis and the positive y-axis. The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function (an impulse), and other similar abstractions such as a point charge, point mass or electron point. For example, to calculate the dynamics of a billiard ball being struck, one can approximate the force of the impact by a Dirac delta. In doing so, one not only simplifies the equations, but one also is able to calculate the motion of the ball by only considering the total impulse of the collision without a detailed model of all of the elastic energy transfer at subatomic levels (for instance).",
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"plaintext": "To be specific, suppose that a billiard ball is at rest. At time it is struck by another ball, imparting it with a momentum , in . The exchange of momentum is not actually instantaneous, being mediated by elastic processes at the molecular and subatomic level, but for practical purposes it is convenient to consider that energy transfer as effectively instantaneous. The force therefore is . (The units of are .)",
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"plaintext": "To model this situation more rigorously, suppose that the force instead is uniformly distributed over a small time interval . That is,",
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"plaintext": "Then the momentum at any time t is found by integration:",
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"plaintext": "Now, the model situation of an instantaneous transfer of momentum requires taking the limit as , giving a result everywhere except at 0:",
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"plaintext": "Here the functions are thought of as useful approximations to the idea of instantaneous transfer of momentum.",
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"plaintext": "The delta function allows us to construct an idealized limit of these approximations. Unfortunately, the actual limit of the functions (in the sense of pointwise convergence) is zero everywhere but a single point, where it is infinite. To make proper sense of the Dirac delta, we should instead insist that the property",
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"plaintext": "which holds for all , should continue to hold in the limit. So, in the equation , it is understood that the limit is always taken outside the integral.",
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"plaintext": "In applied mathematics, as we have done here, the delta function is often manipulated as a kind of limit (a weak limit) of a sequence of functions, each member of which has a tall spike at the origin: for example, a sequence of Gaussian distributions centered at the origin with variance tending to zero.",
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"plaintext": "The Dirac delta is not truly a function, at least not a usual one with domain and range in real numbers. For example, the objects and are equal everywhere except at yet have integrals that are different. According to Lebesgue integration theory, if and are functions such that almost everywhere, then is integrable if and only if is integrable and the integrals of and are identical. A rigorous approach to regarding the Dirac delta function as a mathematical object in its own right requires measure theory or the theory of distributions.",
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"plaintext": "Joseph Fourier presented what is now called the Fourier integral theorem in his treatise Théorie analytique de la chaleur in the form:",
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"plaintext": "which is tantamount to the introduction of the δ-function in the form:",
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"plaintext": "Later, Augustin Cauchy expressed the theorem using exponentials:",
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"plaintext": "Cauchy pointed out that in some circumstances the order of integration in this result is significant (contrast Fubini's theorem).",
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"plaintext": "As justified using the theory of distributions, the Cauchy equation can be rearranged to resemble Fourier's original formulation and expose the δ-function as",
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"plaintext": "where the δ-function is expressed as",
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"plaintext": "A rigorous interpretation of the exponential form and the various limitations upon the function f necessary for its application extended over several centuries. The problems with a classical interpretation are explained as follows:",
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"plaintext": " The greatest drawback of the classical Fourier transformation is a rather narrow class of functions (originals) for which it can be effectively computed. Namely, it is necessary that these functions decrease sufficiently rapidly to zero (in the neighborhood of infinity) to ensure the existence of the Fourier integral. For example, the Fourier transform of such simple functions as polynomials does not exist in the classical sense. The extension of the classical Fourier transformation to distributions considerably enlarged the class of functions that could be transformed and this removed many obstacles.",
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"plaintext": "Further developments included generalization of the Fourier integral, \"beginning with Plancherel's pathbreaking L2-theory (1910), continuing with Wiener's and Bochner's works (around 1930) and culminating with the amalgamation into L. Schwartz's theory of distributions (1945)...\", and leading to the formal development of the Dirac delta function.",
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"plaintext": "An infinitesimal formula for an infinitely tall, unit impulse delta function (infinitesimal version of Cauchy distribution) explicitly appears in an 1827 text of Augustin Louis Cauchy. Siméon Denis Poisson considered the issue in connection with the study of wave propagation as did Gustav Kirchhoff somewhat later. Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz also introduced the unit impulse as a limit of Gaussians, which also corresponded to Lord Kelvin's notion of a point heat source. At the end of the 19th century, Oliver Heaviside used formal Fourier series to manipulate the unit impulse. The Dirac delta function as such was introduced by Paul Dirac in his 1927 paper The Physical Interpretation of the Quantum Dynamics and used in his textbook The Principles of Quantum Mechanics. He called it the \"delta function\" since he used it as a continuous analogue of the discrete Kronecker delta.",
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"plaintext": "The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is zero everywhere except at the origin, where it is infinite,",
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"plaintext": "and which is also constrained to satisfy the identity",
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"plaintext": "This is merely a heuristic characterization. The Dirac delta is not a function in the traditional sense as no function defined on the real numbers has these properties. The Dirac delta function can be rigorously defined either as a distribution or as a measure.",
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"plaintext": "One way to rigorously capture the notion of the Dirac delta function is to define a measure, called Dirac measure, which accepts a subset of the real line as an argument, and returns if , and otherwise. If the delta function is conceptualized as modeling an idealized point mass at 0, then represents the mass contained in the set . One may then define the integral against as the integral of a function against this mass distribution. Formally, the Lebesgue integral provides the necessary analytic device. The Lebesgue integral with respect to the measure satisfies",
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"plaintext": "for all continuous compactly supported functions . The measure is not absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure — in fact, it is a singular measure. Consequently, the delta measure has no Radon–Nikodym derivative (with respect to Lebesgue measure)— no true function for which the property",
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"plaintext": "holds. As a result, the latter notation is a convenient abuse of notation, and not a standard (Riemann or Lebesgue) integral.",
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"plaintext": "As a probability measure on , the delta measure is characterized by its cumulative distribution function, which is the unit step function.",
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"plaintext": "This means that is the integral of the cumulative indicator function with respect to the measure ; to wit,",
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"plaintext": "the latter being the measure of this interval; more formally, .",
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"plaintext": "Thus in particular the integration of the delta function against a continuous function can be properly understood as a Riemann–Stieltjes integral:",
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"plaintext": "All higher moments of are zero. In particular, characteristic function and moment generating function are both equal to one.",
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"plaintext": "In the theory of distributions, a generalized function is considered not a function in itself but only about how it affects other functions when \"integrated\" against them. In keeping with this philosophy, to define the delta function properly, it is enough to say what the \"integral\" of the delta function is against a sufficiently \"good\" test functionφ. Test functions are also known as bump functions. If the delta function is already understood as a measure, then the Lebesgue integral of a test function against that measure supplies the necessary integral.",
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"plaintext": "A typical space of test functions consists of all smooth functions on R with compact support that have as many derivatives as required. As a distribution, the Dirac delta is a linear functional on the space of test functions and is defined by",
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"plaintext": "for every test function .",
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"plaintext": "For δ to be properly a distribution, it must be continuous in a suitable topology on the space of test functions. In general, for a linear functional S on the space of test functions to define a distribution, it is necessary and sufficient that, for every positive integer N there is an integer MN and a constant CN such that for every test function φ, one has the inequality",
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"plaintext": "With the δ distribution, one has such an inequality (with with for all N. Thus δ is a distribution of order zero. It is, furthermore, a distribution with compact support (the support being {0}).",
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"plaintext": "The delta distribution can also be defined in several equivalent ways. For instance, it is the distributional derivative of the Heaviside step function. This means that for every test function φ, one has",
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"plaintext": "Intuitively, if integration by parts were permitted, then the latter integral should simplify to",
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"plaintext": "and indeed, a form of integration by parts is permitted for the Stieltjes integral, and in that case, one does have",
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"plaintext": "In the context of measure theory, the Dirac measure gives rise to distribution by integration. Conversely, equation () defines a Daniell integral on the space of all compactly supported continuous functions φ which, by the Riesz representation theorem, can be represented as the Lebesgue integral of φ concerning some Radon measure.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, when the term \"Dirac delta function\" is used, it is in the sense of distributions rather than measures, the Dirac measure being among several terms for the corresponding notion in measure theory. Some sources may also use the term Dirac delta distribution.",
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"plaintext": "The delta function can be defined in n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn as the measure such that",
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"plaintext": "for every compactly supported continuous function f. As a measure, the n-dimensional delta function is the product measure of the 1-dimensional delta functions in each variable separately. Thus, formally, with , one has",
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"plaintext": "The delta function can also be defined in the sense of distributions exactly as above in the one-dimensional case. However, despite widespread use in engineering contexts, () should be manipulated with care, since the product of distributions can only be defined under quite narrow circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "The notion of a Dirac measure makes sense on any set. Thus if X is a set, is a marked point, and Σ is any sigma algebra of subsets of X, then the measure defined on sets by",
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"plaintext": "is the delta measure or unit mass concentrated at x0.",
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"plaintext": "Another common generalization of the delta function is to a differentiable manifold where most of its properties as a distribution can also be exploited because of the differentiable structure. The delta function on a manifold M centered at the point is defined as the following distribution:",
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"plaintext": "for all compactly supported smooth real-valued functions φ on M. A common special case of this construction is that in which M is an open set in the Euclidean space Rn.",
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"plaintext": "On a locally compact Hausdorff space X, the Dirac delta measure concentrated at a point x is the Radon measure associated with the Daniell integral () on compactly supported continuous functions φ. At this level of generality, calculus as such is no longer possible, however a variety of techniques from abstract analysis are available. For instance, the mapping is a continuous embedding of X into the space of finite Radon measures on X, equipped with its vague topology. Moreover, the convex hull of the image of X under this embedding is dense in the space of probability measures on X.",
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"plaintext": "The delta function satisfies the following scaling property for a non-zero scalar α:",
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"plaintext": "and so",
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"plaintext": "Proof:",
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"plaintext": "In particular, the delta function is an even distribution, in the sense that",
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"plaintext": "which is homogeneous of degree −1.",
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"plaintext": "The distributional product of δ with x is equal to zero:",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, if , where f and g are distributions, then",
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"plaintext": "for some constant c.",
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"plaintext": "The integral of the time-delayed Dirac delta is",
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"plaintext": "This is sometimes referred to as the sifting property or the sampling property. The delta function is said to \"sift out\" the value at t = T.",
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"plaintext": "It follows that the effect of convolving a function f(t) with the time-delayed Dirac delta is to time-delay f(t) by the same amount:",
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"plaintext": "This holds under the precise condition that f be a tempered distribution (see the discussion of the Fourier transform Fourier transform). As a special case, for instance, we have the identity (understood in the distribution sense)",
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"plaintext": "More generally, the delta distribution may be composed with a smooth function g(x) in such a way that the familiar change of variables formula holds, that",
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"plaintext": "provided that g is a continuously differentiable function with g′ nowhere zero. That is, there is a unique way to assign meaning to the distribution so that this identity holds for all compactly supported test functions f. Therefore, the domain must be broken up to exclude the g′ = 0 point. This distribution satisfies if g is nowhere zero, and otherwise if g has a real root at x0, then",
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"plaintext": "It is natural therefore to define the composition δ(g(x)) for continuously differentiable functions g by",
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"plaintext": "where the sum extends over all roots (i.e., all the different ones) of g(x), which are assumed to be simple. Thus, for example",
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"plaintext": "In the integral form, the generalized scaling property may be written as",
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"plaintext": "The delta distribution in an n-dimensional space satisfies the following scaling property instead,",
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"plaintext": "so that δ is a homogeneous distribution of degree −n.",
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"plaintext": "Under any reflection or rotation ρ, the delta function is invariant,",
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"plaintext": "As in the one-variable case, it is possible to define the composition of δ with a bi-Lipschitz function uniquely so that the identity",
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"plaintext": "for all compactly supported functions f.",
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"plaintext": "Using the coarea formula from geometric measure theory, one can also define the composition of the delta function with a submersion from one Euclidean space to another one of different dimension; the result is a type of current. In the special case of a continuously differentiable function such that the gradient of g is nowhere zero, the following identity holds",
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"plaintext": "where the integral on the right is over g−1(0), the -dimensional surface defined by with respect to the Minkowski content measure. This is known as a simple layer integral.",
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"plaintext": "More generally, if S is a smooth hypersurface of Rn, then we can associate to S the distribution that integrates any compactly supported smooth function g over S:",
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"plaintext": "where σ is the hypersurface measure associated to S. This generalization is associated with the potential theory of simple layer potentials on S. If D is a domain in Rn with smooth boundary S, then δS is equal to the normal derivative of the indicator function of D in the distribution sense,",
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"plaintext": "where n is the outward normal. For a proof, see e.g. the article on the surface delta function.",
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"plaintext": "The delta function is a tempered distribution, and therefore it has a well-defined Fourier transform. Formally, one finds",
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"plaintext": "Properly speaking, the Fourier transform of a distribution is defined by imposing self-adjointness of the Fourier transform under the duality pairing of tempered distributions with Schwartz functions. Thus is defined as the unique tempered distribution satisfying",
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"plaintext": "As a result of this identity, the convolution of the delta function with any other tempered distribution S is simply S:",
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"plaintext": "That is to say that δ is an identity element for the convolution on tempered distributions, and in fact, the space of compactly supported distributions under convolution is an associative algebra with identity the delta function. This property is fundamental in signal processing, as convolution with a tempered distribution is a linear time-invariant system, and applying the linear time-invariant system measures its impulse response. The impulse response can be computed to any desired degree of accuracy by choosing a suitable approximation for δ, and once it is known, it characterizes the system completely. See .",
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"plaintext": "The inverse Fourier transform of the tempered distribution f(ξ) = 1 is the delta function. Formally, this is expressed",
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"plaintext": "and more rigorously, it follows since",
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"plaintext": "In these terms, the delta function provides a suggestive statement of the orthogonality property of the Fourier kernel on R. Formally, one has",
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"plaintext": "This is, of course, shorthand for the assertion that the Fourier transform of the tempered distribution",
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"plaintext": "which again follows by imposing self-adjointness of the Fourier transform.",
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"plaintext": "By analytic continuation of the Fourier transform, the Laplace transform of the delta function is found to be",
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"plaintext": "The derivative of the Dirac delta distribution, denoted and also called the Dirac delta prime or Dirac delta derivative as described in Laplacian of the indicator, is defined on compactly supported smooth test functions by",
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"plaintext": "The first equality here is a kind of integration by parts, for if were a true function then",
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"plaintext": "The -th derivative of is defined similarly as the distribution given on test functions by",
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"plaintext": "In particular, is an infinitely differentiable distribution.",
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"plaintext": "The first derivative of the delta function is the distributional limit of the difference quotients:",
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"plaintext": "More properly, one has",
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"plaintext": "where is the translation operator, defined on functions by , and on a distribution by",
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"plaintext": "In the theory of electromagnetism, the first derivative of the delta function represents a point magnetic dipole situated at the origin. Accordingly, it is referred to as a dipole or the doublet function.",
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"plaintext": "The derivative of the delta function satisfies a number of basic properties, including:",
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"plaintext": "which can be shown by applying a test function and integrating by parts.",
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"plaintext": "The latter of these properties can also be demonstrated by applying distributional derivative definition, Liebnitz's theorem and linearity of inner product:",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, the convolution of with a compactly-supported, smooth function is",
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"plaintext": "which follows from the properties of the distributional derivative of a convolution.",
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"plaintext": "More generally, on an open set in the -dimensional Euclidean space , the Dirac delta distribution centered at a point is defined by",
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"plaintext": "for all , the space of all smooth functions with compact support on . If is any multi-index with and denotes the associated mixed partial derivative operator, then the -th derivative of is given by",
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"plaintext": "That is, the -th derivative of is the distribution whose value on any test function is the -th derivative of at (with the appropriate positive or negative sign).",
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"plaintext": "The first partial derivatives of the delta function are thought of as double layers along the coordinate planes. More generally, the normal derivative of a simple layer supported on a surface is a double layer supported on that surface and represents a laminar magnetic monopole. Higher derivatives of the delta function are known in physics as multipoles.",
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"plaintext": "Higher derivatives enter into mathematics naturally as the building blocks for the complete structure of distributions with point support. If is any distribution on supported on the set consisting of a single point, then there is an integer and coefficients such that",
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"plaintext": "The delta function can be viewed as the limit of a sequence of functions",
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"plaintext": "where ηε(x) is sometimes called a nascent delta function. This limit is meant in a weak sense: either that",
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"plaintext": "for all continuous functions f having compact support, or that this limit holds for all smooth functions f with compact support. The difference between these two slightly different modes of weak convergence is often subtle: the former is convergence in the vague topology of measures, and the latter is convergence in the sense of distributions.",
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"plaintext": "Typically a nascent delta function ηε can be constructed in the following manner. Let η be an absolutely integrable function on R of total integral 1, and define",
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"plaintext": "In n dimensions, one uses instead the scaling",
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"plaintext": "Then a simple change of variables shows that ηε also has integral 1. One may show that () holds for all continuous compactly supported functions f, and so ηε converges weakly to δ in the sense of measures.",
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"plaintext": "The ηε constructed in this way are known as an approximation to the identity. This terminology is because the space L1(R) of absolutely integrable functions is closed under the operation of convolution of functions: whenever f and g are in L1(R). However, there is no identity in L1(R) for the convolution product: no element h such that for all f. Nevertheless, the sequence ηε does approximate such an identity in the sense that",
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"plaintext": "This limit holds in the sense of mean convergence (convergence in L1). Further conditions on the ηε, for instance that it be a mollifier associated to a compactly supported function, are needed to ensure pointwise convergence almost everywhere.",
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"plaintext": "If the initial is itself smooth and compactly supported then the sequence is called a mollifier. The standard mollifier is obtained by choosing η to be a suitably normalized bump function, for instance",
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"plaintext": "In some situations such as numerical analysis, a piecewise linear approximation to the identity is desirable. This can be obtained by taking η1 to be a hat function. With this choice of η1, one has",
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"plaintext": "which are all continuous and compactly supported, although not smooth and so not a mollifier.",
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"plaintext": "In the context of probability theory, it is natural to impose the additional condition that the initial η1 in an approximation to the identity should be positive, as such a function then represents a probability distribution. Convolution with a probability distribution is sometimes favorable because it does not result in overshoot or undershoot, as the output is a convex combination of the input values, and thus falls between the maximum and minimum of the input function. Taking η1 to be any probability distribution at all, and letting as above will give rise to an approximation to the identity. In general this converges more rapidly to a delta function if, in addition, η has mean 0 and has small higher moments. For instance, if η1 is the uniform distribution on , also known as the rectangular function, then:",
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"plaintext": "Another example is with the Wigner semicircle distribution",
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"plaintext": "Nascent delta functions often arise as convolution semigroups. This amounts to the further constraint that the convolution of ηε with ηδ must satisfy",
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"plaintext": "for all ε, . Convolution semigroups in L1 that form a nascent delta function are always an approximation to the identity in the above sense, however the semigroup condition is quite a strong restriction.",
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"plaintext": "In practice, semigroups approximating the delta function arise as fundamental solutions or Green's functions to physically motivated elliptic or parabolic partial differential equations. In the context of applied mathematics, semigroups arise as the output of a linear time-invariant system. Abstractly, if A is a linear operator acting on functions of x, then a convolution semigroup arises by solving the initial value problem",
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"plaintext": "in which the limit is as usual understood in the weak sense. Setting gives the associated nascent delta function.",
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"plaintext": "Some examples of physically important convolution semigroups arising from such a fundamental solution include the following.",
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"plaintext": " The heat kernel",
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"plaintext": "The heat kernel, defined by",
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"plaintext": "represents the temperature in an infinite wire at time t > 0, if a unit of heat energy is stored at the origin of the wire at time t = 0. This semigroup evolves according to the one-dimensional heat equation:",
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"plaintext": "In probability theory, ηε(x) is a normal distribution of variance ε and mean 0. It represents the probability density at time of the position of a particle starting at the origin following a standard Brownian motion. In this context, the semigroup condition is then an expression of the Markov property of Brownian motion.",
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"plaintext": "In higher-dimensional Euclidean space Rn, the heat kernel is",
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"plaintext": "and has the same physical interpretation, mutatis mutandis. It also represents a nascent delta function in the sense that in the distribution sense as .",
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"plaintext": "The Poisson kernel",
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"plaintext": "The Poisson kernel",
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"plaintext": "is the fundamental solution of the Laplace equation in the upper half-plane. It represents the electrostatic potential in a semi-infinite plate whose potential along the edge is held at fixed at the delta function. The Poisson kernel is also closely related to the Cauchy distribution and Epanechnikov and Gaussian kernel functions. This semigroup evolves according to the equation",
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"plaintext": "where the operator is rigorously defined as the Fourier multiplier",
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"plaintext": "In areas of physics such as wave propagation and wave mechanics, the equations involved are hyperbolic and so may have more singular solutions. As a result, the nascent delta functions that arise as fundamental solutions of the associated Cauchy problems are generally oscillatory integrals. An example, which comes from a solution of the Euler–Tricomi equation of transonic gas dynamics, is the rescaled Airy function",
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"plaintext": "Although using the Fourier transform, it is easy to see that this generates a semigroup in some sense—it is not absolutely integrable and so cannot define a semigroup in the above strong sense. Many nascent delta functions constructed as oscillatory integrals only converge in the sense of distributions (an example is the Dirichlet kernel below), rather than in the sense of measures.",
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"plaintext": "Another example is the Cauchy problem for the wave equation in R1+1:",
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"plaintext": "The solution u represents the displacement from equilibrium of an infinite elastic string, with an initial disturbance at the origin.",
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"plaintext": "Other approximations to the identity of this kind include the sinc function (used widely in electronics and telecommunications)",
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"plaintext": "and the Bessel function",
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"plaintext": "One approach to the study of a linear partial differential equation",
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"plaintext": "where L is a differential operator on Rn, is to seek first a fundamental solution, which is a solution of the equation",
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"plaintext": "When L is particularly simple, this problem can often be resolved using the Fourier transform directly (as in the case of the Poisson kernel and heat kernel already mentioned). For more complicated operators, it is sometimes easier first to consider an equation of the form",
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"plaintext": "where h is a plane wave function, meaning that it has the form",
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"plaintext": "for some vector ξ. Such an equation can be resolved (if the coefficients of L are analytic functions) by the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem or (if the coefficients of L are constant) by quadrature. So, if the delta function can be decomposed into plane waves, then one can in principle solve linear partial differential equations.",
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"plaintext": "Such a decomposition of the delta function into plane waves was part of a general technique first introduced essentially by Johann Radon, and then developed in this form by Fritz John (CITEREFJohn1955). Choose k so that is an even integer, and for a real number s, put",
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"plaintext": "Then δ is obtained by applying a power of the Laplacian to the integral with respect to the unit sphere measure dω of for ξ in the unit sphere Sn−1:",
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"plaintext": "The Laplacian here is interpreted as a weak derivative, so that this equation is taken to mean that, for any test functionφ,",
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"plaintext": "The result follows from the formula for the Newtonian potential (the fundamental solution of Poisson's equation). This is essentially a form of the inversion formula for the Radon transform because it recovers the value of φ(x) from its integrals over hyperplanes. For instance, if n is odd and , then the integral on the right hand side is",
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"plaintext": "where is the Radon transform of φ:",
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"plaintext": "An alternative equivalent expression of the plane wave decomposition, from , is",
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"plaintext": "for n even, and",
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"plaintext": "for n odd.",
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"plaintext": "In the study of Fourier series, a major question consists of determining whether and in what sense the Fourier series associated with a periodic function converges to the function. The nth partial sum of the Fourier series of a function f of period 2 is defined by convolution (on the interval ) with the Dirichlet kernel:",
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"plaintext": "Thus,",
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"plaintext": "where",
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"plaintext": "A fundamental result of elementary Fourier series states that the Dirichlet kernel tends to the a multiple of the delta function as . This is interpreted in the distribution sense, that",
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"plaintext": "for every compactly supported smooth function f. Thus, formally one has",
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"plaintext": "on the interval.",
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"plaintext": "Despite this, the result does not hold for all compactly supported continuous functions: that is DN does not converge weakly in the sense of measures. The lack of convergence of the Fourier series has led to the introduction of a variety of summability methods to produce convergence. The method of Cesàro summation leads to the Fejér kernel",
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"plaintext": "The Fejér kernels tend to the delta function in a stronger sense that",
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"plaintext": "for every compactly supported continuous function f. The implication is that the Fourier series of any continuous function is Cesàro summable to the value of the function at every point.",
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"plaintext": "The Dirac delta distribution is a densely defined unbounded linear functional on the Hilbert space L2 of square-integrable functions. Indeed, smooth compactly supported functions are dense in L2, and the action of the delta distribution on such functions is well-defined. In many applications, it is possible to identify subspaces of L2 and to give a stronger topology on which the delta function defines a bounded linear functional.",
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"plaintext": " Sobolev spaces",
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"plaintext": "The Sobolev embedding theorem for Sobolev spaces on the real line R implies that any square-integrable function f such that",
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"plaintext": "is automatically continuous, and satisfies in particular",
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"plaintext": "Thus δ is a bounded linear functional on the Sobolev space H1. Equivalently δ is an element of the continuous dual space H−1 of H1. More generally, in n dimensions, one has provided.",
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"plaintext": "In complex analysis, the delta function enters via Cauchy's integral formula, which asserts that if D is a domain in the complex plane with smooth boundary, then",
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"plaintext": "for all holomorphic functions f in D that are continuous on the closure of D. As a result, the delta function δz is represented in this class of holomorphic functions by the Cauchy integral:",
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"plaintext": "Moreover, let H2(∂D) be the Hardy space consisting of the closure in L2(∂D) of all holomorphic functions in D continuous up to the boundary of D. Then functions in H2(∂D) uniquely extend to holomorphic functions in D, and the Cauchy integral formula continues to hold. In particular for , the delta function δz is a continuous linear functional on H2(∂D). This is a special case of the situation in several complex variables in which, for smooth domains D, the Szegő kernel plays the role of the Cauchy integral.",
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"plaintext": "Given a complete orthonormal basis set of functions {φn} in a separable Hilbert space, for example, the normalized eigenvectors of a compact self-adjoint operator, any vector f can be expressed as",
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"plaintext": "The coefficients {αn} are found as",
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"plaintext": "which may be represented by the notation:",
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"plaintext": "a form of the bra–ket notation of Dirac. Adopting this notation, the expansion of f takes the dyadic form:",
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"plaintext": "Letting I denote the identity operator on the Hilbert space, the expression",
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"plaintext": "is called a resolution of the identity. When the Hilbert space is the space L2(D) of square-integrable functions on a domain D, the quantity:",
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"plaintext": "is an integral operator, and the expression for f can be rewritten",
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"plaintext": "The right-hand side converges to f in the L2 sense. It need not hold in a pointwise sense, even when f is a continuous function. Nevertheless, it is common to abuse notation and write",
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"plaintext": "resulting in the representation of the delta function:",
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"plaintext": "With a suitable rigged Hilbert space where contains all compactly supported smooth functions, this summation may converge in Φ*, depending on the properties of the basis φn. In most cases of practical interest, the orthonormal basis comes from an integral or differential operator, in which case the series converges in the distribution sense.",
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"plaintext": "Cauchy used an infinitesimal α to write down a unit impulse, infinitely tall and narrow Dirac-type delta function δα satisfying in a number of articles in 1827. Cauchy defined an infinitesimal in Cours d'Analyse (1827) in terms of a sequence tending to zero. Namely, such a null sequence becomes an infinitesimal in Cauchy's and Lazare Carnot's terminology.",
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"plaintext": "Non-standard analysis allows one to rigorously treat infinitesimals. The article by contains a bibliography on modern Dirac delta functions in the context of an infinitesimal-enriched continuum provided by the hyperreals. Here the Dirac delta can be given by an actual function, having the property that for every real function F one has as anticipated by Fourier and Cauchy.",
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"plaintext": "A so-called uniform \"pulse train\" of Dirac delta measures, which is known as a Dirac comb, or as the Shah distribution, creates a sampling function, often used in digital signal processing (DSP) and discrete time signal analysis. The Dirac comb is given as the infinite sum, whose limit is understood in the distribution sense,",
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"plaintext": "which is a sequence of point masses at each of the integers.",
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"plaintext": "Up to an overall normalizing constant, the Dirac comb is equal to its own Fourier transform. This is significant because if is any Schwartz function, then the periodization of is given by the convolution",
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"plaintext": "In particular,",
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"plaintext": "is precisely the Poisson summation formula.",
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"plaintext": "More generally, this formula remains to be true if is a tempered distribution of rapid descent or, equivalently, if is a slowly growing, ordinary function within the space of tempered distributions.",
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"plaintext": "The Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem, important in quantum mechanics, relates the delta function to the distribution p.v.1/x, the Cauchy principal value of the function 1/x, defined by",
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"plaintext": "Sokhotsky's formula states that",
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"plaintext": "and represents the amount of time that the process spends at the point x in the range of the process. More precisely, in one dimension this integral can be written",
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"plaintext": "with . Complete orthonormal systems of wave functions appear naturally as the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian (of a bound system) in quantum mechanics that measures the energy levels, which are called the eigenvalues. The set of eigenvalues, in this case, is known as the spectrum of the Hamiltonian. In bra–ket notation, as Resolutions of the identity, this equality implies the resolution of the identity:",
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"plaintext": "Here the eigenvalues are assumed to be discrete, but the set of eigenvalues of an observable may be continuous rather than discrete. An example is the position observable, . The spectrum of the position (in one dimension) is the entire real line and is called a continuous spectrum. However, unlike the Hamiltonian, the position operator lacks proper eigenfunctions. The conventional way to overcome this shortcoming is to widen the class of available functions by allowing distributions as well: that is, to replace the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics with an appropriate rigged Hilbert space. In this context, the position operator has a complete set of eigen-distributions, labeled by the points y of the real line, given by",
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"plaintext": "The eigenfunctions of position are denoted by in Dirac notation, and are known as position eigenstates.",
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"plaintext": "Similar considerations apply to the eigenstates of the momentum operator, or indeed any other self-adjoint unbounded operator P on the Hilbert space, provided the spectrum of P is continuous and there are no degenerate eigenvalues. In that case, there is a set Ω of real numbers (the spectrum), and a collection φy of distributions indexed by the elements of Ω, such that",
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"plaintext": "in the distribution sense, then for any test function ψ,",
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"plaintext": "where the operator-valued integral is again understood in the weak sense. If the spectrum of P has both continuous and discrete parts, then the resolution of the identity involves a summation over the discrete spectrum and an integral over the continuous spectrum.",
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| 209,675 | 33,361 | 459 | 318 | 1 | 0 | Dirac delta function | pseudo-function δ such that an integral of δ(x-c)f(x) always takes the value of f(c) | [
"unit impulse symbol",
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|
37,022 | 1,103,057,296 | Courtesan | [
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"plaintext": "Courtesan, in modern usage, is a euphemism for a \"kept\" mistress or prostitute, particularly one with wealthy, powerful, or influential clients. The term historically referred to a courtier, a person who attended the court of a monarch or other powerful person.",
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"plaintext": "In European feudal society, the court was the centre of government as well as the residence of the monarch, and social and political life were often completely mixed together. Prior to the Renaissance, courtesans served to convey information to visiting dignitaries, when servants could not be trusted. In Renaissance Europe, courtiers played an extremely important role in upper-class society. As it was customary during this time for royal couples to lead separate lives—commonly marrying simply to preserve bloodlines and to secure political alliances—men and women would often seek gratification and companionship from people living at court. In fact, the verb 'to court' originally meant \"to be or reside at court\", and later came to mean \"to behave as a courtier\" and then 'courtship', or \"to pay amorous attention to somebody\". The most intimate companion of a ruler was called the \"favourite\".",
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"plaintext": "In Renaissance usage, the Italian word cortigiana, feminine of cortigiano (\"courtier\") came to refer to a person who attends the court, and then to a well-educated and independent woman, eventually a trained artist or artisan of dance and singing, especially one associated with wealthy, powerful, or upper-class society who was given luxuries and status in exchange for entertainment and companionship. The word was borrowed by English from Italian through the French form courtisane during the 16th century, especially associated to the meaning of donna di palazzo.",
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"plaintext": "The courtesans of East Asia, particularly those of the Japanese empire, held a different social role than that of their European counterparts. Examples of Japanese courtesans included the oiran class, who were more focused on the aspect of entertainment than European courtesans.",
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"plaintext": "Courtesans of ancient India known as ganikas were the center of city life. According to historian Sanjay K. Gautam, the courtesan in India was \"a symbol of both sexual-erotic and aesthetic pleasure\".",
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"plaintext": "One type of courtesan was known (in Italy) as the cortigiana onesta, or the honest courtesan, who was cast as an intellectual. Another was the cortigiana di lume, a lower class of courtesan. The former was the sort most often romanticized and treated more-or-less equal to women of the nobility. It is with this type of courtesan that the art of \"courtisanerie\" is best associated.",
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"plaintext": "The cortigiane oneste were usually well-educated and worldly (sometimes even more so than the average upper-class woman), and often held simultaneous careers as performers or artists. They were typically chosen on the basis of their \"breeding\"—social and conversational skills, intelligence, common sense, and companionship—as well as their physical attributes. It was usually their wit and personality that set them apart from regular women. Sex constituted only a facet of the courtesan's array of services. For example, they were well-dressed and ready to engage and participate in a variety of topics ranging from art to music to politics.",
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"plaintext": "In some cases, courtesans were from well-to-do backgrounds, and were even married—but to husbands lower on the social ladder than their clients. In these cases, their relationships with those of high social status had the potential to improve their spouses' status—and so, more often than not, the husband was aware of his wife's profession and dealings.",
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"plaintext": "Courtesans from non-wealthy backgrounds provided charming companionship for extended periods, no matter what their own feelings or commitments might have been at the time, and sometimes had to be prepared to do so on short notice. They were also subject to lower social status, and often religious disapproval, because of the perceived immoral aspects of their profession and their reliance upon courtisanerie as a primary source of income. In cases like this, a courtesan was solely dependent on her benefactor or benefactors financially, making her vulnerable; Cora Pearl is a good example.",
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"plaintext": "Often, courtesans serving in this capacity began their career as a prostitute, although many came to the profession by other means. It was not uncommon for a courtesan to enter into an arranged long-term liaison by contract with a wealthy benefactor. These contracts were written up by and witnessed by lawyers, and were binding. Most included some provision for the financial welfare of the courtesan beyond the end of the relationship in the form of an annuity. Many such women became so powerful socially and financially that they could be particular about the men they associated with; in other words they chose their paramour as would any other mistress, not the other way around. Wealthy benefactors would go to great lengths to court a courtesan as a prize, the ultimate goal being a long-term contract as a mistress.",
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"plaintext": "Should not be confused with a royal mistress",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Differences in status",
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"plaintext": "Those from wealthy backgrounds, either by birth or marriage, and who were acting as courtesans only for the social or political advancement of themselves and/or their spouses were generally treated as equals. They were more respected by their extramarital companions, both placing one another's family obligations ahead of the relationship and planning their own liaisons or social engagements around the lovers' marital obligations.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Differences in status",
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},
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"plaintext": "Affairs of this sort would often be short-lived, ending when either the courtesan or the courtesan's spouse received the status or political position desired, or when the benefactor chose the company of another courtesan, and compensated the former companion financially. In instances like this, it was often viewed simply as a business agreement by both parties involved. The benefactor was aware of the political or social favors expected by the courtesan, the courtesan was aware of the price expected from them for those favors being carried out, and the two met one another's demands.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Differences in status",
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},
{
"plaintext": "This was generally a safe affair, as both the benefactor's spouse and the courtesan's spouse usually were fully aware of the arrangement, and the courtesan was not solely dependent on the benefactor. It, rather, was simply an affair of benefits gained for both those involved. Publicly and socially, affairs of this sort were common during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, as well as the early 20th century, and were generally accepted in wealthy circles.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Differences in status",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In later centuries, from the mid-18th century on, courtesans would often find themselves cast aside by their benefactors, but the days of public execution or imprisonment based on their promiscuous lifestyle were over. There are many examples of courtesans who, by remaining discreet and respectful to their benefactors, were able to extend their careers into or past middle age and retire financially secure; Catherine Walters is a good example. By the late 19th century, and for a brief period in the early 20th century, courtesans had reached a level of social acceptance in many circles and settings, often even to the extent of becoming a friend and confidant to the wife of their benefactor.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Career length",
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{
"plaintext": "More often than not, a woman serving as a courtesan would last in that field only as long as she could prove herself useful to her companion, or companions. This, of course, excludes those who served as courtesans but who were already married into high society. When referring to those who made their service as a courtesan as their main source of income, success was based solely on financial management and longevity. Many climbed through the ranks of royalty, serving as mistress to lesser nobles first, eventually reaching the role of (unofficial) mistress to a king or prince.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Career length",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Pietro Aretino, an Italian Renaissance writer, wrote a series of dialogues (Capricciosi ragionamenti) in which a mother teaches her daughter what options are available to women and how to be an effective courtesan. The French novelist Balzac wrote about a courtesan in his Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes (1838–47). Émile Zola likewise wrote a novel, Nana (1880), about a courtesan in nineteenth-century France.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "This is a list of some professional courtesans. They are not royal mistresses, unless a professional courtesan was also a royal mistress.",
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"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
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"plaintext": "Separately from this list, the term \"courtesan\" has been used in a political context in an attempt to damage the reputation of a powerful woman, or disparage her importance. Because of this, there is still much historical debate over whether certain women in history were courtesans. For example, the title was applied to the Byzantine empress Theodora, who had started life as an erotic actress but later became the wife of the Emperor Justinian and, after her death, an Orthodox saint. The term has also been applied to influential women including Anne Boleyn, Umrao Jaan, Diane de Poitiers, Mathilde Kschessinska, Pamela Harriman, Eva Perón and Gabrielle \"Coco\" Chanel. The attempt to define such women as courtesans has been intended to draw attention to certain perceived qualities, ambitions or conduct which are held to be courtesan-like. Because of this, only professional courtesans should be listed. ",
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],
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],
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575,
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],
[
594,
615
],
[
617,
632
],
[
634,
643
],
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648,
671
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Amrapali (5th century BC), nagarvadhu-courtesan of Vaishali, following the Buddha's teachings she became an arahant.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Anarkali (17th-century) courtesan of Salim (later Mughal emperor Jahangir)",
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432324,
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1,
9
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51,
65
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66,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arib al-Ma'muniyya (, CE 797-890), qiyan-courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
45422859,
57691805
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
19
],
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36,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chen Yuanyuan (1624–1681), Chinese Yiji-courtesan, one of the famous Eight Beauties of Qinhuai.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
364177,
10676397,
59698007
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[
1,
14
],
[
36,
40
],
[
70,
95
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Diaochan (born 169 AD), the lover of warlord Dong Zhuo and warrior Lü Bu during the Chinese Three Kingdoms",
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"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
391025,
378188,
319114,
43459
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1,
9
],
[
46,
55
],
[
68,
73
],
[
93,
107
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Faḍl al-Shāʻirah (, d. 871 CE), qiyan-courtesan",
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"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
45421147,
57691805
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
33,
38
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hwang Jini (fl. 1550): legendary gisaeng- courtesan of the Joseon Dynasty",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
3746941,
3271409,
324222
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1,
11
],
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34,
41
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60,
74
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " ʽInān (, d. 841), qiyan-courtesan",
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"target_page_ids": [
52269566,
57691805
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
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19,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Imperia Cognati (1486-1512), courtesan of Renaissance Rome, referred to as the \"first courtesan\" in Europe",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
40552040
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kanhopatra (15th-century) Indian Marathi saint-poet and courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
21014963
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lais of Corinth (5th century BC), hetaira-courtesan ",
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"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
513339,
371714
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
35,
42
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lais of Hyccara (killed 340 BC), hetaira-courtesan ",
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"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
5594736,
371714
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
34,
41
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Shishi (1062-1127), Chinese courtesan, regularly employed by Emperor Huizong of Song",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
8217415,
613559
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
],
[
65,
88
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Li Ye (d. 784), Chinese Yiji-courtesan and poet",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
50136122,
10676397
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
25,
29
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marion Delorme (circa 1613–1650): lover of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, the Prince of Condé, and Cardinal Richelieu",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
1638428,
193424,
200803,
85254
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
44,
79
],
[
81,
100
],
[
106,
124
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ninon de l'Enclos (1615–1705): lover of the Prince of Condé and Gaspard de Coligny",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
21886,
200803
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
41,
60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phryne (4th century BC), hetaira-courtesan ",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
848698,
371714
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
],
[
26,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Praecia (fl. 73 BC), Roman courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
62951061
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Shāriyah (, -870 CE), qiyan-courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
48683986,
57691805
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
23,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Su Xiaoxiao (late 5th century), Yiji-courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
30861378,
10676397
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
33,
37
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Takao II (高尾, 1640 – 1659), Japanese oiran-courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
8535877,
2591613
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
38,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Thaïs (4th century BC), hetaira-courtesan ",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
569405,
371714
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
6
],
[
25,
32
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Theodora (6th century) (–June 28, 548), Byzantine actress-courtesan, later wife of Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
7639348,
16209,
16972981
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
84,
95
],
[
103,
119
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tullia d'Aragona (–1556): top courtesan in several Italian cities, and published poet",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
5457582
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Veronica Franco (1546–1591): a Venetian cortigiana onesta courtesan who was once lover to King Henry III of France and was depicted in the movie Dangerous Beauty",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
37037,
75985,
2952395
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
96,
115
],
[
146,
162
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Volumnia Cytheris (1st century BC), Roman mimae actress and courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
59929838
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Yu Gam-dong (15th-century), Korean Gisaeng-courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
35489568,
3271409
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
36,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Binodini Dasi (1862–1941), Indian courtesan-actress",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
4642259
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Blanche d'Antigny (1840–1874), French courtesan; Émile Zola used her as the principal model for his novel Nana",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
11716274,
44980,
814647
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
50,
60
],
[
107,
111
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Catherine Walters (1839–1920), British courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
3773734
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charlotte Slottsberg (1760–1800), Swedish courtesan-ballerina, lover but not official royal mistress of Charles XIII of Sweden",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
11271290,
104784
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
105,
117
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Claudine Guérin de Tencin (1681–1749), French courtesan and later a famous salonnière",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
385814
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cora Pearl (1836–1886), demimonde-courtesan ('Grande Horizontale') of the Second Empire",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
4209891,
1726344,
216066
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
25,
34
],
[
75,
88
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dorothy Jordan (1761–1816), British courtesan-actress",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
145934
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eliza Lynch (1835–1886), Irish courtesan, de facto wife of Francisco Solano López, president of Paraguay",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
202530,
451975
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
60,
82
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emma Hamilton (1765–1815), English model-actress, wife of William Hamilton and mistress of Lord Nelson",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
242203,
403249,
24874360
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
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59,
75
],
[
92,
103
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grace Elliott (1754?–1823), British courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
1267344
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harriette Wilson (1786–1846), British courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
301107
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Josefa Ordóñez (1728 – d. after 1792), Mexican courtesan-actress",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
45031203
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kitty Fisher (died 1767), British courtesan and model",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
1613664
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " La Belle Otero (1868–1965), Spanish courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
2836657
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " La Païva (1819–1884), French demimonde-courtesan ('Grande Horizontale') of the Second Empire",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
11275565,
1726344,
216066
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
],
[
30,
39
],
[
80,
93
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liane de Pougy (1869–1950), French courtesan and Folies Bergère-dancer",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
2978097,
489339
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
50,
64
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lola Montez (1821–1861), Irish dancer, mistress of king Ludwig I of Bavaria",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
59999
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Madame du Barry (1743–1793), French courtesan, last Maîtresse-en-titre of Louis XV of France",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
194176,
15251663,
54247
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
53,
71
],
[
75,
93
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mah Laqa Bai (7 April 1768 – August 1824), Indian tawaif-courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
31075120,
519107
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
51,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marie Duplessis (1824–1847), French courtesan, one of the best known from the era of Louis Philippe",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
1211614
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Marie-Louise O'Murphy (1737–1814), French courtesan, lover but not official royal mistress of Louis XV of France",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
3271841,
54247
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
],
[
95,
113
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mary Nesbitt (1742-1825), British courtesan and spy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
22301343
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mata Hari (1876–1917), courtesan and spy",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
45610
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
10
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rosalie Duthé (1748–1830), French courtesan, has been called \"the first officially recorded dumb blonde\".",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
28418296,
1017477
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
93,
104
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sai Jinhua (1872–1936), Chinese courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
40930174
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sophia Baddeley (1745–1786), British courtesan",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Famous courtesans",
"target_page_ids": [
59213
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Støvlet-Cathrine (1745–1805), Danish courtesan, lover but not official royal mistress of King Christian VII of Denmark",
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"plaintext": " Zofia Potocka (1760–1822), Greek courtesan, mistress of Grigory Potemkin and wife of Szczęsny Potocki",
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"plaintext": " Marguerite Alibert (1890-1971), French courtesan, lover but not official royal mistress of Prince Edward VIII",
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"plaintext": " Angellica Bianca in Aphra Behn's 1677 play The Rover.",
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"plaintext": " Bianca in William Shakespeare's Othello is considered a courtesan to Cassio.",
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"plaintext": " Bianca, who appears in Anne Rice's The Vampire Armand, is a courtesan.",
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"plaintext": " In John Cleland's Fanny Hill: or, the Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure, Fanny goes from poor orphaned country girl to wealthy skilled courtesan eventually finding her one true love and retiring to marriage. Her history is told in the first person through several letters to friends detailing her life as a courtesan.",
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"plaintext": " In Sarah Dunant's In the Company of the Courtesan, Fiammetta Bianchini, a renowned courtesan of Rome, and her sharp-witted dwarf rise to success among the intrigue and secrets of Renaissance Venice.",
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"plaintext": " In the book A Great and Terrible Beauty, Pippa accuses Felicity of having a mother who is a courtesan and a consort, and who ran away to France not only to run a salon but to be with her lover, a Frenchman.",
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"plaintext": " Inara Serra is a 26th-century Alliance companion, a position inspired by courtesans, in Joss Whedon's TV series Firefly.",
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"plaintext": " Kamala, in Herman Hesse's Siddhartha.",
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"plaintext": " Komagata Yumi in the manga Rurouni Kenshin: Meiji Kenkaku Roumantan.",
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"plaintext": " La Dame aux Camélias is a novel about a courtesan by French author Alexandre Dumas, fils that was turned into the opera La Traviata by Italian composer Giuseppe Verdi. In the novel, the courtesan's name is Marguerite Gautier; in the opera, it is Violetta Valéry. \"La Traviata\" in Italian translates \"The Wayward One\".",
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"plaintext": " Lysandra in the book series Throne of Glass by Sarah J. Maas, a shape-shifting courtesan working to pay off her debts and care for her rescued acolyte, Evangeline.",
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"plaintext": " Madame Gabrielle from Dora Levy Mossanen. Courtesan: A Novel. Touchstone, 2005. ",
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"plaintext": " Magda in Puccini's La rondine.",
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"plaintext": " Many examples in Indian literature and Bollywood films: Sahibjaan in Pakeezah, Umrao Jaan in the Urdu novel Umrao Jaan Ada and its adaptations, Chandramukhi in Devdas.",
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"plaintext": " Mira Nair's 1996 film A Tale of Love highlights the profession of courtesans in 16th-century India, featuring Rasa Devi (Rekha) and Maya (Indira Varma).",
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"plaintext": " Nana, in Emile Zola's eponymous novel of 1880 is a courtesan.",
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"plaintext": " Odette de Crecy from Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time is a courtesan of the French Belle Epoque, she gains a notorious reputation from cavorting with aristocrats, artists and bourgeois, of both sexes.",
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"plaintext": " Paola and Sister Teodora were the leaders of the courtesans of Florence and Venice (respectively) in the video game Assassin's Creed II. In its sequel, Brotherhood, Madame Solari is shown to be the leader of the courtesans in Rome. Courtesans also provide a gameplay mechanic in the two games, main character Ezio Auditore can hire small groups of courtesans that can be used to escort the assassin without being noticed, and to distract hostile guards.",
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"plaintext": " Phèdre nó Delaunay, the premier courtesan of Terre D'Ange in Jacqueline Carey's Kushiel's Legacy novels.",
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"plaintext": " Satine, played by Nicole Kidman, an actress/courtesan who falls in love with a penniless poet/writer played by Ewan McGregor, in Baz Luhrmann's 2001 film, Moulin Rouge!.",
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"plaintext": " Sha'ira, an asari \"Consort\" from the Mass Effect computer game series.",
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"plaintext": " The Broadway plays, musicals, and movies based upon the book Gigi are about a young Parisian girl who is being trained to be a courtesan by her great-aunt, a retired career courtesan herself.",
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"plaintext": " Ulla Winblad, in the famous 18th-century poems of Carl Michael Bellman.",
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"plaintext": " Vasantasena, a nagarvadhu in the ancient Indian Sanskrit play Mṛcchakatika by Śūdraka.",
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"plaintext": " Vittoria Corombona in John Webster's play The White Devil. She is described in the alternative title of the play as 'the famous Venetian Curtizan'.",
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"plaintext": " Related topics",
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"plaintext": " Grisette, in France",
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"plaintext": "Pilegesh, concubine in Hebrew",
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2025612
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"plaintext": " Prostitute",
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"plaintext": " Religious prostitution",
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62062
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"plaintext": " Sugar baby, contemporary counterpart",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Sycophant, obedient flatterer",
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25998383
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1,
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"plaintext": " Similar professions ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Almeh, in the Middle East",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " Ca trù, in Vietnam",
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"plaintext": "Gē-tòaⁿ, in Taiwan",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hetaera, in ancient Greece",
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"plaintext": " Kisaeng, in Korea",
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"plaintext": " Nagarvadhu, in ancient India",
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"plaintext": " Oiran, in historic Japan",
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"target_page_ids": [
2591613
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"plaintext": " Qiyān, in the Middle East",
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"plaintext": " Shamakhi dancers, in Azerbaijan",
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"plaintext": " Yiji, in China",
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"plaintext": " Dalby, Liza. \"Geisha, 25th Anniversary Edition, Updated Edition\". Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008. Print.",
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"plaintext": " Gaite, Carmen Martín. Love Customs in Eighteenth-Century Spain. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.",
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"plaintext": " Griffin, Susan (2001). The Book of the Courtesans: a Catalogue of Their Virtues. New York: Broadway Books",
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683977
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"plaintext": " Hickman, Katie (2003). Courtesans: Money, Sex, and Fame in the Nineteenth Century. New York: HarperCollins",
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253375
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"plaintext": " Lawner, Lynne (1987). Lives of the Courtesans: Portraits of the Renaissance. New York: Rizzoli",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Peletz, Michael G. \"Gender, Sexuality, and Body Politics in Modern Asia\". Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Asian Studies, 2007. Print.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Rounding, Virginia (2003). Grandes Horizontales: The Lives and Legends of Four Nineteenth-Century Courtesans. London: Bloomsbury",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Sources",
"target_page_ids": [
53806060
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"plaintext": " Martha Feldman, Bonnie Gordon. The courtesan's arts: cross-cultural perspectives. pp.312–352.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Sanjay K. Gautam. Foucault and the Kamasutra: The Courtesan, the Dandy, and the Birth of Ars Erotica as Theater in India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016. ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " \"Part VI: Introductory Remarks\" Section about courtesans in Kamasutra by Vatsayayana",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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]
| [
"Courtesans",
"Interpersonal_relationships"
]
| 376,924 | 26,739 | 549 | 222 | 0 | 0 | courtesan | prostitute or mistress | []
|
37,023 | 1,102,562,093 | Conservatorship | [
{
"plaintext": "Under U.S. law, conservatorship is the appointment of a guardian or a protector by a judge to manage the financial affairs and/or daily life of another person due to old age or physical or mental limitations. A person under conservatorship is a \"conservatee\", a term that can refer to an adult. A person under guardianship is a \"ward\", a term that can also refer to a minor child. Conservatorship may also apply to corporations and organizations.",
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"plaintext": "The conservator may be only of the \"estate\" (financial affairs), but may be also of the \"person\", wherein the conservator takes charge of overseeing the daily activities, such as health care or living arrangements of the conservatee. A conservator of the person is more typically called a legal guardian.",
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"plaintext": "Conservatorship is established either by court order (with regard to individuals) or via a statutory or regulatory authority (with regard to organizations such as business entities). In other legal terms, a conservatorship may refer to the legal responsibilities over a person who is mentally disordered, including individuals who are psychotic, suicidal, demented, incapacitated, or in some other way unable to make legal, medical or financial decisions on behalf of themselves.",
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"plaintext": "When referring to government control of private corporations such as Freddie Mac or Fannie Mae, conservatorship implies a more temporary control than does nationalisation.",
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"plaintext": "Conservatorship is a legal term referring to the legal responsibilities of a conservator over the affairs of a person who has been deemed gravely disabled by the court and unable to meet their basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter. They are governed by the state's individual laws. Terminology varies, and some states or jurisdictions may refer to a conservator as a guardian of the estate or as a trustee.",
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"plaintext": "Conservatorships are generally put in place for people who are significantly disabled by mental illness, elderly individuals who lack mental capacity due to medical conditions such as dementia, or individuals with developmental disabilities who lack the capacity to manage their own affairs. In typical conservatorship proceedings, an allegedly mentally incapacitated person must be evaluated by a qualified physician or psychiatrist who prepares a report documenting the person's mental capacity that is provided to the court and may be used as evidence.",
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"plaintext": "A \"limited conservatorship\" usually refers to the limited legal responsibilities of a conservator over the affairs of an individual who is developmentally disabled, but still capable of making important decisions for themselves. In these cases, the conservatee to whom the limited conservatorship applies can retain more control over their personal affairs than other conservatees can; for example, they may retain their right to decide where they may live.",
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"plaintext": "An example of a conservator's duties includes: locating and marshalling assets, such as property and money, which belong to the conservatee; using the assets to buy food for the conservatee, secure and pay for placement in a facility which would take care of the conservatee or treat a mental illness, pay bills for the conservatee, manage property by paying for property insurance, mortgage payments or rent, property clean-up, or pay for a property management company to rent the property. An example of a conservator or guardian's medical responsibilities would be the court granting medical authority to the conservator or guardian, and the conservator or guardian authorising a physician to place a feeding tube to provide nourishment into the protected person's stomach if they are in medical need of it. It is not uncommon for one person to hold both offices and be referred to as the \"guardian and conservator\" of the conservatee, even though a conservator or guardian can be appointed over the person only, the estate only, or both. Generally, a conservator or guardian over the estate is only appointed if the conservatee has assets that need to be protected, marshalled, and managed. These terms may be found in use in Uniform Probate Code (UPC) jurisdictions, even though the UPC uses the term \"protected person\" in either case.",
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"plaintext": "In most states, an outside party or agency must review the facts of the case and submit a report, usually required to be in writing, to the court before the court makes a decision on the request to establish a conservatorship or guardianship. Usually the outside party is a local county mental health representative called an investigator. They are often required to be experts in some appropriate field, such as social work, mental health, a medical field, or law. Procedures for conservatorship of an adult are often different from those for minors. ",
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"plaintext": "The court may appoint an attorney to represent the proposed conservatee or ward. If the proposed conservatee or ward is unable to have an attorney-client relationship because of some impairment, the court may appoint a guardian-ad-litem (who is often also an attorney). A guardian-ad-litem does not take instruction from the client, but rather acts on their behalf and tells the court what they think is in the best interests of the proposed conservatee or ward, whether or not that is what the proposed conservatee or ward wants. The conservatee has the right to be represented by an attorney, and if they cannot afford a private attorney, they are appointed a public defender that will represent them free of cost.",
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"plaintext": "In the state of California there are two types of conservatorships: Lanterman–Petris–Short (Lanterman–Petris–Short Act of 1967, referred to as LPS) and Probate conservatorships. These forms of conservatorship are governed by the California Probate Code, and Welfare and Institutions Codes.",
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"plaintext": "LPS conservatorships begin with a temporary 30-day conservatorship, and if the conservatee remains gravely disabled, the conservator is reappointed for a year; the LPS conservatorship can be renewed annually, or terminated if no longer needed. Probate conservatorships are referred to as \"general conservatorships\", and typically do not have a temporary period unless an urgent emergency exists that is creating risk to the person or their estate. Probate conservatorship do not automatically expire as LPS conservatorships do if they are not renewed by the conservator.",
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"plaintext": "In an LPS conservatorship, a court-appointed conservator over the person is responsible for managing the conservatee's placement, medical decisions, and mental health treatment. A conservator over the estate is responsible for marshalling, protecting, and managing the conservatee's assets that remain in their estate. A conservator reports to the court that appointed them, and is monitored by the supervising judicial court in the county in which the conservatee permanently resides.",
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"plaintext": "LPS conservatorships usually begin in the county mental health system and are referred from acute psychiatric hospitals, where Probate conservatorships can result from any referral source if validated with proper medical documentation. Mental Health consumers have the right to a Patient's Rights advocate, and are taken through a series of hearings while they are in the acute hospital before they reach the point of needing a conservator.",
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"plaintext": "Conservatorship for individuals is called \"deputyship\" in the UK, \"guardianship\" in India and \"guardianship and administration\" in Australia.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, in some states, corporations can be placed under conservatorship, as a less extreme alternative to receivership. Whereas a receiver is expected to terminate the rights of shareholders and managers, a conservator is expected merely to assume those rights, with the prospect that they will be relinquished. Robert Ramsey and John Head, law professors who both specialise in financial issues, suggest that an insolvent bank should go into receivership rather than conservatorship to guard against false hope and moral hazard.",
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"plaintext": "At the federal government level in the United States, in July 2008, the failing IndyMac Bank was taken into administrative receivership by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) and its assets and secured liabilities transferred to a specially established bridge bank called IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB which was placed into conservatorship, also by the FDIC.",
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"plaintext": "Again, in the U.S. at the federal level, in September 2008, the chief executive officers and board of directors of Fannie Mae and of Freddie Mac were dismissed. Then, the companies were placed into the conservatorship of the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) via the determination of its director James B. Lockhart III, with the support and financial backing of U.S. Treasury via Treasury secretary Hank Paulson's commitment to keep the corporations solvent. The intervention leading to the conservatorship of these two entities has become the largest in government history, and was justified as necessary step to prevent the damage to the financial system that would have been caused by their failure. Entities like this are considered \"too big to fail\".",
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"plaintext": "An even more ambitious use of the conservatorship model has been proposed by Duke professors Lawrence Baxter, Bill Brown, and Jim Cox. They suggest that the troubled U.S. banks be placed in conservatorship, that some of their \"good assets\" be dropped into newly created \"good bank\" subsidiaries (presumably under new management), and the remaining \"bad assets\" be left to be managed under the supervision of a conservatorship structure.",
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"plaintext": " Legal guardian",
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"plaintext": " Power of attorney",
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"plaintext": " Receivership",
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"plaintext": " Custodial account",
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"plaintext": " Britney Spears conservatorship dispute",
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"plaintext": " Montana Code Annotated 72-1-103(8) (2005) Example state law",
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| 682,718 | 21,358 | 117 | 39 | 0 | 0 | conservatorship | legal concept | []
|
37,024 | 1,062,316,474 | Falsificationism | [
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"plaintext": " Critical rationalism, an epistemological philosophy founded by Karl Popper",
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"plaintext": " Three models of scientific progress in \"Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes\" by Imre Lakatos",
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| 110,280,607 | 176 | 2 | 8 | 0 | 0 | Falsificationism | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
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"plaintext": "The Price Is Right is an American television game show created by Bob Stewart, Mark Goodson and Bill Todman where contestants compete by guessing the prices of merchandise to win cash and prizes. Contestants are selected from the studio audience as the announcer calls their names and invokes the show's famous catchphrase, \"Come on down!\"",
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"plaintext": "The program premiered on September 4, 1972, on CBS. Bob Barker was the series' longest-running host from its 1972 debut until his retirement in June 2007, when Drew Carey took over. Barker was accompanied by a series of announcers, beginning with Johnny Olson, followed by Rod Roddy and Rich Fields. In April 2011, George Gray became the announcer. The show has used several models, most notably Anitra Ford, Janice Pennington, Dian Parkinson, Holly Hallstrom, and Kathleen Bradley. While retaining some elements of the original 1956 version of the show, the 1972 version has added many new distinctive gameplay elements.",
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"plaintext": "The Price Is Right has aired over 9,000 episodes since its debut. It is the longest-running game show in the United States, and is one of the longest-running network series in United States television history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named it the \"greatest game show of all time.\"",
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"plaintext": "On March 2, 2022, it was announced that The Price is Right would be inducted into the NAB Broadcasting Hall of Fame. Host Drew Carey and executive producer Evelyn Warfel accepted the award at The Achievement in Broadcasting Awards on the NAB Show main stage in Las Vegas on April 24, 2022.",
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"plaintext": "The 50th season premiered September 13, 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The gameplay of the show consists of four distinct competition elements, in which nine preliminary contestants (or six, depending on the episode's running time) are eventually narrowed to two finalists who compete in the game's final element, the \"Showcase.\"",
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"plaintext": "At the beginning of the show, four contestants are called from the audience by the announcer to take a spot in the front row behind bidding podiums, which are embedded into the front edge of the stage. This area is known as \"Contestants' Row\" or \"Bidders Row.\" After calling each selected contestant's name, the announcer shouts \"Come on down!\" a phrase which has become a trademark of the show.",
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"plaintext": "The four contestants in Contestants' Row compete in a bidding round to determine which contestant will play the next pricing game (the round is known as \"One Bid,\" which gets its name and format from one of two types of bidding rounds that existed on the 1950s version of the show). A prize is shown and each contestant gives a single bid for the item. In the first One-Bid game of each episode, bidding begins with the contestant on the viewer's left-to-right, usually the first contestant who came down to the Contestants' Row. In subsequent One-Bid rounds, the order of bidding still moves from the viewer's left-to-right, but it begins with the contestant most recently called down. Contestants are instructed to bid in whole dollars since the retail price of the item is rounded to the nearest dollar, and another contestant's bid cannot be duplicated. The contestant whose bid is closest to the actual retail price of the prize without going over wins that prize and gets to play the subsequent pricing game.",
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"plaintext": "If all four contestants overbid, several short buzzer tones sound, the lowest bid is announced and the bids are erased. The host then instructs the contestants to re-bid below the lowest previous bid.",
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"plaintext": "If a contestant bids the actual retail price, a bell rings and the contestant wins a cash bonus in addition to the prize. From the introduction of the bonus in 1977 until 1998, the \"perfect bid\" bonus was $100, it was permanently increased to the current $500 in 1998. On The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular, the bonus was $1,000.",
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"plaintext": "After each pricing game except the final one, another contestant is called to \"come on down\" to fill the spot of the contestant who played the previous pricing game. The newest contestant bids first in each One Bid round. Contestants who fail to win a One Bid round and do not make it onstage to play a pricing game receive consolation prizes, currently $300, often sponsored by companies revealed by the announcer near the end of the show, before the Showcase.",
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"plaintext": "A 1996 study from Stanford University analyzed the bidding behavior of contestants, noting that they rarely attempted to optimize their bidding strategies but that accuracy tended to improve the longer they stayed in Contestants Row. A 2019 study from Harvard University noted that the accuracy of the average bid fell substantially over the course of the show's run—from 8% lower than the actual retail price at the series start in 1972 to over 20% by 2010—before stabilizing as Carey's hosting tenure progressed; the study concluded that accuracy correlated with inflation and hypothesized that periods of high inflation make people more attentive to prices, while also surmising that increasing e-commerce has made people less attentive to prices overall.",
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"plaintext": "After winning the One Bid, the contestant joins the host onstage for the opportunity to win additional prizes or cash by playing a pricing game. After the pricing game ends, a new contestant is selected for Contestants' Row and the process is repeated.",
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"plaintext": "Six pricing games are played on each hour-long episode; three games per episode were played in the original half-hour format. Pricing game formats vary widely, ranging from simple dilemma games in which a contestant chooses one of two options to win to complex games of chance or skill in which guessing prices increases the odds of winning. On a typical hour-long episode, two games are played for a car, one game is played for a cash prize and the other three games offer expensive household merchandise or trips. Usually, at least one of the six games involves the pricing of grocery items, while another usually involves smaller prizes that can be used to win a larger prize package.",
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"plaintext": "Originally, five pricing games were in the rotation. Since then, more games have been created and added to the rotation and, starting with the 60-minute expansion in 1975, the rate at which games premiered increased. Some pricing games were eventually discontinued, while others have been a mainstay since the show's debut in 1972. As of 2017, the rotation is among 77 games. On the 1994 syndicated version hosted by Doug Davidson, the rules of several games were modified and other aesthetic changes were made. Notably, the grocery products used in some games on the daytime version were replaced by small merchandise prizes, generally valued at less than $100. Beginning in 2008, episodes of The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular featured rule changes to some pricing games which rewarded a $1 million bonus to the contestant if specific goals were achieved while playing the pricing game.",
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"plaintext": "Since the show's expansion to 60 minutes in 1975, each episode features two playings of the Showcase Showdown, occurring after the third and sixth pricing games. Each playing features the three contestants who played the preceding pricing games spinning \"The Big Wheel\" to determine who advances to the Showcase, the show's finale. The contestants play in the order of the value of their winnings thus far (including the One Bid), with the contestant who has won the most spinning last.",
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"plaintext": "The wheel contains 20 sections showing values from 5¢ to $1.00, in increments of five cents. Contestants are allowed a maximum of two spins. The first contestant spins the wheel and may choose to stop with his or her score or spin again, adding the value of the second spin to their first. The second contestant then spins the wheel and tries to match or beat the leader's score; if he or she fails to do so, the contestant must spin again. If the second contestant's first spin matches or beats the score of the first contestant, he or she has the option of stopping or spinning again. The third contestant then spins; if his or her score is less than the leader then he or she will be required to spin again. In the event the second or third contestant's first spin ties the score of the leader, he or she will be given the option of spinning again as an alternative to entering a \"spin-off\" as described below.",
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"plaintext": "If the total score of any contestant is less than that of the current leader, is beaten by the score of any subsequent contestant, or over $1.00, the contestant is eliminated from the game. The contestant whose score is nearest to $1.00 without going over advances to the Showcase at the end of the episode. Any spin that fails to make at least one complete revolution does not count; the contestant is given the opportunity to spin again, and if the contestant has visible difficulty in physically performing the task, the host is allowed to assist them.",
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"plaintext": "If the first two contestants both spin twice and go over $1.00, the last contestant automatically advances to the Showcase and is given only one spin to determine their score to ensure that a contestant advances to the showcase. Any contestant whose score equals $1.00 (from either the first spin or the sum of two spins) receives a $1,000 bonus and, since December 1978, is allowed a bonus spin. The contestant wins an additional $10,000 for landing on either 5¢ or 15¢ (which are adjacent to the $1.00 space and painted green), or an additional $25,000 for landing on $1.00. From December 1978 to July 17, 2008, the bonuses were $5,000 and $10,000 for landing on a green section and the $1.00, respectively. If the wheel stops on any other amount or fails to make at least one revolution, the contestant wins no more money. The wheel is positioned on 5¢ prior to the bonus spin so that it cannot land on a winning prize without making a complete revolution.",
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"plaintext": "Two or more contestants who are tied with the leading score compete in a \"spin-off.\" Each contestant is allowed one additional spin and the contestant with the higher score advances to the Showcase. Multiple spin-offs are played until the tie is broken. Those who hit $1.00 in their spin-off spin still get $1,000 and a bonus spin. If two or more contestants tie with a score of $1.00, their bonus spins also determine their spin-off score. Only the spin-off score, not any bonus money won, determines which contestant moves on to the Showcase. For example, a person who wins the $10,000 bonus for landing on 15¢ loses the spin-off if their opponent lands on 20¢ or more. A tie in a bonus spin spin-off means the ensuing second spin-off will be spun with no bonuses available. Each spin must make one complete revolution in order to qualify. If a player's bonus spin spin-off does not make a complete revolution, the contestant must spin again, and the spin will be scored as in a second round of a spin-off (no bonuses).",
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"plaintext": "At the end of the episode, the two Showcase Showdown winners (or the two highest winners on half-hour-long episodes) advance to the Showcase. A \"showcase\" of prizes (currently two or three prizes) is presented and the top winner has the option of placing a bid on the total value of the showcase or passing the showcase to the runner-up, who is then required to bid. A second showcase is then presented and the contestant who had not bid on the first showcase makes their bid. Unlike the One Bid, the contestant bidding on the second showcase may bid the same amount as their opponent on the first showcase, since the two contestants are bidding on different prize packages. The contestant who has bid nearer to the price of their own showcase without going over wins the prizes in their showcase.",
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"plaintext": "Any contestant who overbids automatically loses regardless of their opponent's result. If both contestants overbid, neither wins their showcase. Since 1974, the winning contestant wins both showcases if the bid is within a specified amount from the actual retail price of their own showcase without going over. Until 1998, the amount was less than $100. In 1998, it became the current $250 or less. The 2017 documentary The Contestant Who Knew Too Much tells the story of the only time a contestant bid the exact price of a showcase.",
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"plaintext": "Bob Barker began hosting The Price Is Right on September 4, 1972, and completed a 35-year tenure on June 15, 2007. Barker was hired as host while still hosting the stunt comedy show Truth or Consequences. His retirement coincided with his 50th year as a television host. His final show aired on June 15, 2007, and was repeated in primetime, leading into the network's coverage of the 34th Daytime Emmy Awards. In addition to hosting, Barker became Executive Producer of the show in March 1988 when Frank Wayne died and continued as such until his retirement, gaining significant creative control over the series between 2000 and his 2007 retirement. He was also responsible for creating several of the show's pricing games, as well as launching The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime spin-off. Reruns of Barker's final season were aired throughout the summer from the Monday after his final show (June 18, 2007) until the Friday before Drew Carey's debut as host (October 12, 2007), when the season 35 finale was re-aired. During his time as host, Barker missed only one taping of four episodes; Dennis James, then hosting the syndicated nighttime version of the show, filled in for him on these shows in December 1974. In 1981, shortly after the death of his wife Dorothy Jo, Barker became an animal rights advocate and began signing off each episode with \"Help control the pet population: have your pets spayed or neutered.\" After Barker's retirement, Carey continued the tradition with the same sign-off.",
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"plaintext": "On October 31, 2006, Barker announced that he would retire from the show at the end of season 35. In March 2007, CBS and FremantleMedia began a search for the next host of the show. Carey, who was hosting Power of 10 at the time, was chosen and, in a July 23, 2007, interview on Late Show with David Letterman, made the announcement. Carey's first show aired October 15, 2007. Barker has made several guest appearances since Carey took over as host: on the April 16, 2009 episode to promote his autobiography, Priceless Memories, on December 12, 2013, as part of \"Pet Adoption Week\" that coincided with his 90th birthday, and on the episode which aired on April Fools' Day in 2015, hosting the first One Bid and pricing game as part of April Fool's Day.",
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"plaintext": "The 2013 April Fools' show featured Carey and announcer George Gray modeling the prizes while the show's models performed hosting and announcing duties for the day. On the April Fools' Day episode in 2014, Craig Ferguson, Carey's former castmate from The Drew Carey Show, and Shadoe Stevens hosted and announced, swapping places with Carey and Gray respectively, who performed the same roles on the previous night's episode of The Late Late Show.",
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"plaintext": "Johnny Olson, the announcer for many Goodson-Todman shows of the era, was the program's original announcer until his death in October 1985. Olson was replaced by Rod Roddy in February 1986, who remained with the program until shortly before his death in October 2003. Los Angeles meteorologist Rich Fields took over as the announcer in April 2004 and stayed on until the end of season 38 in August 2010. Following a change of direction and a search for an announcer with more experience in improvisational comedy, veteran TV host George Gray joined the show as the announcer on the April 18, 2011 episode. During periods in which a permanent announcer was not filling the role, a number of announcers auditioned for the position. In addition to Roddy, Gene Wood, Rich Jeffries, and Bob Hilton auditioned to replace Olson. Former Family Feud announcer Burton Richardson, Paul Boland, and former Supermarket Sweep announcer Randy West substituted for Roddy during his illnesses. In addition to West and Richardson, Daniel Rosen, Art Sanders, Roger Rose, Don Bishop and current Wheel of Fortune announcer Jim Thornton also auditioned for the role eventually filled by Fields. Richardson substituted for Fields while he recovered from laryngitis in December 2006. In addition to Gray, TV host JD Roberto, comedians Jeff B. Davis, Brad Sherwood, and David H. Lawrence XVII, and actor/comedian Steve White also auditioned for the role.",
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"plaintext": "To help display its many prizes, the show has featured several models who were known, during Barker's time on the show, as \"Barker's Beauties\". Some longer-tenured Barker's Beauties included Kathleen Bradley (1990–2000), Holly Hallstrom (1977–1995), Dian Parkinson (1975–1993), and Janice Pennington (1972–2000). Pennington and Bradley were both dismissed from the program in 2000, allegedly because they had given testimony on Hallstrom's behalf in the wrongful termination litigation she pursued against Barker and the show. Following the departures of Nikki Ziering, Heather Kozar and Claudia Jordan in the 2000s, producers decided to use a rotating cast of models (up to ten) until the middle of season 37, after which the show reverted to five regular models. Since 2021, the models include Rachel Reynolds, Amber Lancaster, Manuela Arbeláez, James O'Halloran, Devin Goda, and Alexis Gaube (most recently of Card Sharks). Carey does not use a collective name for the models, but refers to them by name, hoping that the models will be able to use the show as a \"springboard\" to further their careers. In a change from previous policy, the models appearing on a given episode are named individually in the show's credits and are formally referred as \"The Price Is Right models\" when collectively grouped at events. Since season 37, the show often uses a guest model for certain prizes, often crossing over from another CBS property or come courtesy of the company providing the prize. Some such models have been male, especially for musical instruments, tools, trucks and motorcycles, and used in guest appearances during the Showcase. Owing to the traditionally female demographic of daytime television shows, along with the pregnancies of Reynolds and Osborne, CBS announced that the game show would add a male model for a week during season 41, fitting with other countries with the franchise that have used an occasional male model. The show held an internet search for the man in an online competition that featured Mike Richards, the show's executive producer, Reynolds, Lancaster, Osborne and Arbeláez serving as judges and mentors during the web series, narrated by Gray. Viewers selected the winner in October 2012. On October 5, 2012, CBS announced that the winner of the male model online competition was Rob Wilson of Boston, Massachusetts. Wilson appeared as a model on episodes through April 15, 2014. A second male model search was conducted in 2014, with auditions taking place during the FIFA World Cup break between May and July 2014. On December 8, 2014, CBS announced that the winner of the second male model online competition was James O'Halloran.",
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"plaintext": "The game show production team of Mark Goodson and Bill Todman was responsible for producing the original as well as the revival versions of the game show. Goodson-Todman staffer Bob Stewart is credited with creating the original version of The Price Is Right. Roger Dobkowitz was the producer from 1984 to 2008, having worked with the program as a production staffer since the show's debut after graduating from San Francisco State University. Occasionally, Dobkowitz appeared on-camera when answering a question posed by the host, usually relating to the show's history or records. When he left the show at the end of season 36, Variety reported that it was unclear whether he was retiring or was fired, although Carey indicated in a later interview with Esquire that Dobkowitz was fired. As of 2011, the show uses multiple producers, all long-time staffers. Adam Sandler (not to be confused with the actor) is the producer and director of the show. Stan Blits, who joined the show in 1980 and Sue MacIntyre are the co-producers. Stan Blits is also the contestant coordinator for the show. In 2007, he wrote the book Come on Down (), that goes behind the scenes of the show. In the book he dispels the myth that contestants are chosen at random, and gives readers an inside look at how shows are planned and produced. Kathy Greco joined the show in 1975 and became producer in 2008; she announced her retirement on October 8, 2010, on the show's website, effective at the end of the December 2010 tapings. Her last episode as producer, which aired January 27, 2011, featured a theme in tribute to her. The show's official website featured a series of videos including an interview with Greco as a tribute to her 35 years in the days leading up to her final episode. Frank Wayne, a Goodson-Todman staffer since the 1950s, was the original executive producer of the CBS version of the show. Barker assumed that role after Wayne's death in March 1988, as previously stated. Previous producers have included Jay Wolpert, Barbara Hunter and Phil Wayne Rossi (Wayne's son). Michael Dimich assumed the director's chair in June 2011. Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, Bart Eskander, and Rich DiPirro each served long stints previously as director. Former associate directors Andrew Felsher and Fred Witten, as well as technical director Glenn Koch, have directed episodes strictly on a fill-in basis. Sandler began directing episodes in 2012, and became the official director in 2013. Aside from Barker, the show's production staff remained intact after Carey became host. FremantleMedia executive Syd Vinnedge was named the program's new executive producer, with Richards becoming co-executive producer after Dobkowitz's firing. Richards was a candidate to replace Barker as host in 2007, before Carey was ultimately chosen. Richards succeeded Vinnedge as executive producer when the 2009–10 season started, with Tracy Verna Soiseth joining Richards as co-executive producer in 2010. Vinnedge remains credited as an executive consultant to the show. Richards oversaw a major overhaul of the show, dismissing most of the personnel who had served under Barker and Dobkowitz in an effort to improve the show's performance in key demographics. Richards left the show at the conclusion of the 2018–19 season to join Sony Pictures Television for as an executive producer for their game shows. Evelyn Warfel was named executive producer for the 2019–20 season.",
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"plaintext": "Many audience members arrive early on the day of a taping, and often camp out the night before to attend. Most have already received tickets for that day's show, although some hope to get same-day tickets. Audience members are then given the iconic name tags with a temporary identification number, which is also written on the person's ticket. A Social Security Number (or some national I.D. number for non-U.S. audience members) is also required to be submitted. Audience members are eventually brought through in groups of twelve for brief interviews with the production staff. Contrary to popular belief, contestant names are not chosen at random; rather, the interviews determine possible selections for the nine contestants per taping from among the pool of approximately 325 audience members. Since 1988, the minimum age for audience members has been 18, prior to 1988, teenagers and children were present in the audience. With few exceptions, anyone at least 18 years old who attends a taping of the show has the potential to become a contestant. Those ineligible include current candidates for political office, employees of Paramount Global or its affiliates, RTL Group or any firm involved in offering prizes for the show. Contestants who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year or either two other game shows or any version of The Price Is Right itself within the past ten years are also ineligible. The show's staff alerts potential contestantsin person, on the show's website and on the tickets themselvesto dress in \"street clothes\" and not to wear costumes, such as those used to attract attention on Let's Make a Deal, another show that featured contestants selected from the audience. In June 2008 producers disallowed audience members from wearing fake eyeglasses designed to look similar to those worn by Carey, a restriction that has since been relaxed. Instead, contestants will often wear shirts with hand-decorated slogans. Members of the Armed Forces are often in uniform. Cell phones, tape recorders, backpacks, price lists and portable electronic devices are not allowed in the studio. Prospective contestants obtain tickets by contacting a third-party ticketing operator via the show's website, which is promoted on-air during the broadcast. Prior to 2011, ticketing was directly through CBS, originally via mail, with online ticket access added in 2005. The mail practice ended after CBS began outsourcing ticketing to the third-party operator.",
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"plaintext": "Occasionally, episodes are taped with special audience restrictions, including active duty and retired military personnel. Similar primetime episodes were taped in 2002 in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and in light of the subsequent war in Afghanistan: one honoring each branch of the United States military and a sixth episode honoring police officers and firefighters. An annual military episode has been taped since season 38 in 2008; such episodes were originally broadcast on Veterans Day, but the airdate was moved to Independence Day during season 41 (2013). These episodes feature an all-military audience, a Marine band playing the winner's service anthem, and contestants being called by rank. The 2008 episode contained a unique rule in which each One Bid featured one contestant from the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines, and One Bid winners also won a $1,000 gift card. As each contestant won his/her way onstage, he/she was replaced by a member of the same branch of service. Most civilian attendees were retired or disabled veterans or family members of military personnel. The 2009 version eliminated this unique rule. Additionally, members from the United States Coast Guard were invited to the show.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 2009, some episodes have featured special themes with two contestants competing as teams, such as married or engaged couples for Valentine's Day and the \"Ultimate Wedding Shower\" episode. There have also been episodes with children who are minors (normally not allowed to compete) teamed with a parent (for Mother's Day and Father's Day) or grandparent (for Grandparents Day), as well as teen drivers and students for \"Ultimate Spring Break\" and \"Back to School\". In these cases the adult player (not the minor) must make all final decisions in the game play, such as when calling numbers or prices.",
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"plaintext": "Except for the 30th Anniversary Special, which was taped at Harrah's Rio in Las Vegas, Nevada, The Price Is Right has been taped in Studio 33 in Television City Studios in Los Angeles, California, for its entire run. The studio, which is also used for other television productions, was renamed the Bob Barker Studio in the host's honor on the ceremonial 5,000th episode taped in March 1998. When Carey became host, there was talk of the show traveling in the future. The program is usually produced in about an hour, although if there is a guest involved, some tapings will last longer because of question and answer sessions by the audience and the guest, which the host usually moderates. Typically, the show tapes two episodes per day (mid-day and late afternoon tapings) with Monday through Wednesday tapings. The program is taped in advance of its airdate. For example, the show broadcast on February 28, 2008, was taped on January 16. After resuming tapings in October 2020 following a pandemic-related delay, starting in season 49 (taped behind closed doors with pandemic restrictions with a late start and accelerated taping), three episodes were taped each day, normally with three taping days per week (Sunday through Tuesday, with a morning, midday, and afternoon session). As with many other shows that start production in the summer, the lead time varies during the season, as many as fifteen weeks to as little as one day. The audience is entertained by the announcer before taping begins and in case of guests, the guest will answer questions from the audience. After the taping session, there is a drawing for a door prize. On some episodes, all members of the audience receive a prize from a sponsor or celebrity guest; those prizes are usually mentioned in the Showcase (such as a complimentary slice of Papa John's Pizza, an NHL Winter Classic game puck, a couples' gift box from Hershey's or a book authored by a guest). Television and Internet viewers have also been directed to the show's official website to enter a drawing for a similar prize offered to all viewers or another prize related to the special offer (such as the Rock of Ages signed CD). Some episodes are taped \"out-of-order\" so that a specific episode will air after other episodes have aired. Notably, the Christmas Week episodes are usually taped in early December outside of the regular rotation. An episode may be taped out-of-order if a prize package reflects a trip to an event that is taking place close to the date that episode will air (primarily with CBS properties such as the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, and various NFL on CBS games, most notably Super Bowl games airing on CBS since Carey took over, but other games are offered as the Super Bowl becomes quadrennial as of the NFL contract; CBS' next Super Bowl is during the 2024 NFL season). Other episodes may be aired out-of-order because of game-related incidents or situations beyond the network's control. Most instances of episodes airing out of order occur when the show is taped far in advance or when a natural disaster recently occurred at a trip venue featured in an episode.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2020, production of The Price is Right was suspended as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. On the September 16, 2020 episode of The Athletics Starkville podcast, Drew Carey informed the podcast that Fremantle intended to resume taping in October 2020 with only essential personnel, including 27 contestants for a given day (nine contestants per show, three shows a day) of taping in the studio. On October 5, 2020, Deadline Hollywood interviewed executive producer Evelyn Warfel about protocol changes for the show. Social media posts from announcer George Gray and model James O'Halloran confirmed that taping had resumed.",
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"plaintext": "Season 49 episodes had a redesigned set with no audience, and four socially-distanced podiums in place of Contestants' Row. For season 50, the show brought back a limited audience of approximately 50 people seated in pods, similar to those used on episodes of Let's Make a Deal since the pandemic began. Contestants' Row returned, but with added space between contestants.",
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"plaintext": "Companies donate prizes in exchange for advertising. According to the CBC Radio One series Under the Influence, each episode has a script about 30 pages long, consisting primarily of what is essentially advertising copy. The book Come On Down!: Behind the Big Doors at \"The Price Is Right\" by staffer Stan Blits says the prizes require acres of warehouse space to store. Since Season 37 (2008), the program purchased certain prizes at outlet stores in an effort to diversify and upscale the prizes being offered on the show, in an effort to aim at younger demographics (such as college-age students, which has been noted as a popular demographic for the program).",
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"plaintext": "The version of the series that began in 1972 was originally \"A Mark Goodson–Bill Todman Production\" in association with CBS. After Todman died in July 1979, the unit became known as simply Mark Goodson Productions and referred to as such on The Price Is Right from 1984 to June 2007. Today, the series is produced by Fremantle and copyrighted by The Price Is Right Productions, Inc., a joint venture of RTL Group and CBS. For the sake of tradition and through special permission from RTL's subsidiary Fremantle, the show continued to use the Mark Goodson Productions name, logo and announcement at the end of each episode until Barker's retirement, even after Fremantle purchased and absorbed the Goodson-Todman holdings. The show was credited as a FremantleMedia production from 2007 to 2018, after the company's name change in 2018, it is now credited simply as a Fremantle production.",
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"plaintext": "The Price Is Right premiered on September 4, 1972, at 10:30a.m. ET (9:30a.m. CT) on CBS, one of three game shows to debut that day, the other two being The Joker's Wild at 10:00a.m. ET and Gambit at 11:00a.m. ET. The show was first billed as The New Price Is Right to distinguish itself from the earlier/original version (1956–65) hosted by Bill Cullen, but it proved so popular in its own right that, in June 1973, Goodson-Todman decided to drop the word \"New\" from its title. On March 26, 1973, CBS moved The Price Is Right to 3:00p.m. ET, pairing it with Match Game as part of what became the highest-rated pairing in daytime, it ran a close second to the NBC soap opera Another World. The show remained in that time slot until August 11, 1975, when it permanently returned to the morning lineup at 10:30a.m. ET. Over the next several years, Price would face a variety of game shows on NBC; then, as now, ABC did not program that timeslot, leaving its affiliates to do it themselves.",
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"plaintext": "During the week of September 8–12, 1975, The Price is Right experimented with a sixty-minute episode format, during what it called \"Anniversary Week\" (the third anniversary of its premiere). The Anniversary Week included a prototypical circular Showcase Showdown spinner wheel used only for that week of shows. The Anniversary Week experiment was a ratings success, and quickly led to the announcement on September 30, 1975, of the permanent expansion of The Price is Right to sixty minutes, effective November 3, 1975; its start time moved to 10:00a.m. ET. From March 7, 1977, to November 4, 1977, The Price Is Right aired at 10:30a.m. It then returned to 10:00a.m. for just five weeks. On December 12, 1977, the show moved back to 10:30a.m. and remained there until April 20, 1979, when it assumed the 11:00a.m. ET slot where it has remained ever since.",
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"plaintext": "The format of the show has since remained virtually unchanged. New pricing games are generally added each year, while others are retired. In addition, prizes and pricing games have kept pace with inflation, with games originally designed for four-digit prices of prizes (most often cars) adjusted to allow for five-digit prices. While the set has seen numerous redesigns and upgrades over the years, the show has maintained a similar aesthetic element from its premiere in 1972.",
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"plaintext": "In season 36, CBS began offering full episodes of the show available for free viewing on the network's website. The show also began broadcasting in high definition with The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime specials (the normal daytime version continued to air in 3 standard definition). The show made the full transition to HD broadcasts beginning with season 37. During the weeks of September 28, 2009, September 20, 2010, and October 4, 2010, two new episodes aired each weekday on CBS. In 2009, the additional episodes filled a gap between the cancellation of the daytime drama Guiding Light and the debut of Let's Make a Deal. In 2010, the extra episodes aired between the cancellation of As the World Turns and the debut of The Talk. The intervening week offered a second episode of Let's Make a Deal. The 2009 second episode aired in the timeslot vacated by Guiding Light at 10:00a.m. or 3:00p.m. ET/PT, depending on the affiliate's choice. In 2010, the second episode aired in the former As the World Turns time slot, at 2:00p.m. ET/PT.",
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"plaintext": "Three syndicated versions of The Price Is Right have aired. The first two followed the same format as the half-hour daytime version but were intended to air on most stations in the early evening in the pre-prime time slot, and as such, they were referred to by the announcer as \"the nighttime Price Is Right.\"",
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"plaintext": "A weekly syndicated version debuted the week after the daytime premiere and continued to air until September 1980. It was distributed by Viacom Enterprises, which had started as the syndication arm of CBS. When Mark Goodson devised the revival of Price for the 1972–73 season, it was intended for a nighttime broadcast only under new rules for early-prime syndication, and Goodson named Dennis James to host the show. When CBS commissioned a new weekday daytime version, Goodson also wanted James to host that show, but CBS wanted Barker, who was still hosting the syndicated Truth or Consequences at the time, to take it. Barker preferred to host The Joker's Wild, but CBS, again, insisted that he host Price instead.",
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"plaintext": "James eventually hosted a taping day (four half-hour episodes) of the daytime show in December 1974 when Barker fell ill; those episodes were broadcast on and around Christmas Day. James did so concurrently with another daytime hosting gig, on the NBC version of Name That Tune, another revived format from the 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "The two versions were largely similar at the beginning, as both were called The New Price Is Right. Some games had rule differences because of the larger budget and less commercial time on the nighttime show; for example, Double Prices was played for two prizes instead of one.",
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"plaintext": "This version retained the 1972 half-hour format for its entire run and never adopted the daytime show's Double Showcase rule or the Showcase Showdown added to the daytime format when it expanded to an hour in 1975. The word \"New\" was dropped from the program's name starting in the second season, being titled simply The Price Is Right (as the daytime show was by this time as well) from that point onward, and was often referred to on the air by James and Olson as \"the nighttime Price Is Right.\" In most of the U.S., stations carried the syndicated Price as one of other programs airing in the timeslot (7:30p.m. ET) immediately before primetime which was created by the 1971 FCC Prime Time Access Rule.",
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"plaintext": "Though the nighttime version originally had higher ratings than the CBS daytime version, by 1975, the syndicated ratings started to drop. After the fifth nighttime season in 1977, when the contract with NBC's owned-and-operated stations ended, James's contract was not renewed. CBS's owned-and-operated stations picked the show up and the decision was made to hire Barker, to bring it in line with the daytime version. The series taped its 300th and final episode on March 12, 1980, and was cancelled after weekly syndicated game shows had fallen out of popularity in favor of daily offerings (such as Family Feud, which had expanded to daily syndication the same year The Nighttime Price Is Right ended). With a run of eight seasons, it was one of the longest-running weekly syndicated game shows of the era and the longest-running regularly-scheduled primetime version of Price (the 1957–1964 version aired seven seasons).",
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"plaintext": "Five years later, veteran host Tom Kennedy starred in a new daily syndicated version, which also used the traditional half-hour format and was syndicated by The Television Program Source. Like the previous syndicated series, this version had a slightly larger budget than its daytime counterpart. A perfect bid during the One-Bids originally won that contestant a $100 bonus (like the daytime show did then), but was later increased to $500. This increased bonus permanently carried over to the daytime show in 1998.",
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"plaintext": "Janice Pennington, Holly Hallstrom, and Dian Parkinson all reprised their roles for this series, as did Johnny Olson until his death. Unlike the daytime series, the syndicated series did not employ guest announcers after Olson died and instead named Gene Wood as his replacement. Wood, in turn, was replaced by Rod Roddy shortly after he was named as Olson's successor on the daytime series.",
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"plaintext": "Like its predecessor, this syndicated edition of Price was intended to be aired in the Prime Time Access slots on local stations. However, unlike the 1970s, local stations found themselves bombarded with game shows and other series looking for spots on stations in an increasingly crowded market. It often resulted in shows like Price airing anywhere that they could be fit into a station's programming lineup, such as in the early-morning period or in late-night slots. As a consequence, the show was not able to find its intended audience and the ratings reports reflected that trouble.",
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"plaintext": "Price was no exception, as many of the stations who bought the series placed it in those less desirable slots and the show could not find a foothold against the popular shows of the day, such as the runaway success of the syndicated Wheel of Fortune. Compared to some of the other shows on the market during this period, Price was a modest success, but it did not meet the very high expectations stations and Mark Goodson had for the series. As a result, the show was not renewed beyond its first season. A total of 170 episodes were produced, and they aired in first run from September 9, 1985, to May 30, 1986. During the six years it held the rights to Price, the Kennedy version is the only one of the three syndicated versions that was rerun by GSN.",
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"plaintext": "Eight years after the cancellation of Kennedy's Price Is Right, a new syndicated version premiered on September 12, 1994, hosted by Doug Davidson (of The Young and the Restless fame) and distributed by Paramount Domestic Television. This series featured several significant changes: eliminating Contestants' Row, a different format for the Showcase Showdown, a Showcase featuring only one contestant, a completely different set and a much larger budget (even when compared to the two previous syndicated runs) that gave contestants the potential to win up to five times what they could win on the daytime show. However, this version found even more trouble finding an audience than the 1985–86 series did and ended its run on January 27, 1995, after only 16 weeks of first-run shows. Several stylistic elements of this series, as well as many of its music cues, were later integrated into both the daytime version and nighttime specials.",
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"plaintext": "CBS attempted to break NBC's dominance of Thursday night prime time by The Cosby Show and Family Ties with a six-episode summer series, The Price Is Right Special, beginning in August 1986, but with no success. On August 23, 1996, CBS aired an hour-long 25th Anniversary Special, using the half-hour gameplay format and featuring a number of retrospective clips. The 30th Anniversary Special was recorded at Harrah's Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas and aired on January 31, 2002. This one-time road trip enticed 5,000 potential contestants to line up for 900 available tickets, causing an incident that left one person injured. A second six-episode primetime series saluting various branches of the United States armed forces, police officers, and firefighters aired during the summer of 2002, as a tribute to the heroes of the September 11, 2001 attacks. During the series The Price Is Right Salutes, spinning $1.00 in a bonus spin during the Showcase Showdown was worth $100,000 instead of the usual $10,000.",
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"plaintext": "The success of the primetime series, which aired mostly in the summer, along with the vogue of big-money game shows, led to CBS launching another primetime series in 2003, titled The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular. The 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike and original success in the Nielsen ratings led CBS to commission ten more episodes of the primetime series. This series introduced set changes as the show was broadcast in high definition television for the first time and the set used for these episodes (except for the black floor) was moved to the daytime show in 2008. On the primetime series, larger and more expensive prizes were generally offered than on the daytime show. The Showcase frequently offered multiple or very expensive cars. In the first sixteen $1,000,000 Spectaculars, all hosted by Barker, the payoff for landing on the $1.00 during a bonus spin in the Showcase Showdown was increased to $1 million.",
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"plaintext": "The rules for the $1 million bonus spin were later revised to offer the winner of the Showcase a spin if no other contestant had received a bonus spin in either Showcase Showdown. If both contestants overbid, an audience member was chosen at random to spin the wheel. This rule was again changed so that in the event of a double overbid, the contestant who overbid by the lower amount received the bonus spin for a chance at $1 million.",
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"plaintext": "The million-dollar spin was eliminated in 2008, and instead, contestants were given two ways to win the top prize. One pricing game per episode was selected as a \"million-dollar game\", with a secondary objective needing to be met in order for the contestant to win the money. Contestants were also awarded the million-dollar bonus if they managed to win both Showcases, and the range the players had to come within was initially increased to $1,000, then reduced to $500. This format lasted one season (2008), which was made as replacement programming.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, The Price Is Right aired several primetime specials featuring cast members of CBS programs and hosts of CBS reality show franchises, including The Amazing Race, Big Brother, and Survivor. The episodes featured fans of the three programs playing alongside past participants from them. In 2019, a retitled version called The Price Is Right at Night featured episodes with cast members from SEAL Team and others with Seth Rogen. Celebrities are paired with civilian contestants competing to win prizes. If there is a celebrity involved, episodes feature charitable donations toward a cause championed by the celebrity guest, with the celebrity joining the civilian contestants during the program. These shows feature a cash equivalent to all prizes won that episode in pricing games donated to the celebrity's charity, and during the second Showcase Showdown, making one spin of the Showcase Showdown wheel, with the value multiplied by 10,000 to be donated to the celebrity's charity. Other specials included the season 49 premiere (which was delayed from September to October because of a six and a half month suspension of production), a salute to essential workers in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the cast of The Neighborhood playing as themselves for charity.",
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"plaintext": "An August 2021 announcement detailed a two-hour primetime special The Price Is Right to air on September 30 in honor of its 50th season. The special featured a retrospective of memorable moments and outtakes from the show's history.",
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"plaintext": "On May 31, 2006, The Price Is Right was featured on the series Gameshow Marathon, one of seven classic game shows hosted by talk show host and actress Ricki Lake. This version combined aspects of the Barker and Davidson versions with the celebrity contestants playing three pricing games, followed by a Showcase Showdown where the two contestants with the highest scores moved on to the Showcase. The winner of the Showcase also earned a spot in Finalists' Row. Fields was the announcer for this version which was taped in Studio 46. It also marked the first Price Is Right episode directed by DiPirro, who replaced Eskander as the director on the daytime show in January 2009.",
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"plaintext": "Pluto TV and Fremantle-owned Buzzr announced on November 30, 2020, that a new 24-hour channel named The Price Is Right: The Barker Era would be added to the Pluto TV lineup starting on December 1, 2020. The channel includes episodes of The Price is Right from the 1980s hosted by Barker, with some episodes airing for the first time since their original air dates. As part of the launch, a selection of holiday-themed episodes from the era aired on Christmas Eve 2020. The channel was added to The Roku Channel on February 8, 2022.",
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"plaintext": "Fremantle has an exclusivity agreement with Paramount Global with the show, which also Pluto TV, giving the company exclusive rights to all episodes of The Price Is Right from 1972 onward; for this reason, Fremantle cannot air Price reruns on Buzzr's over-the-air affiliates, nor can they license out the show to other networks.",
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"plaintext": "The show has attracted attention from economists, who analyze different elements as a natural experiment on strategic decision making.",
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"plaintext": "Several papers focus on the One Bid game. Jonathan Berk and others show that a rational bidder should cut off an existing bid by bidding $1 above it.",
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"plaintext": "Studies of the Showcase Showdown test the game-theoretic notion of subgame perfect equilibrium. In game-theoretic terms, The Showcase Showdown is a sequential game of perfect information for which the equilibrium can be found through backward induction. Several papers have solved the optimal strategy for particular spin outcomes. Rafael Tenorio and Timothy N. Cason studied a set of episodes from 1994 and 1995 and found evidence that players under-spin compared to the equilibrium prediction. Recently, a team of economists analyzed 40 years of data and found the same pattern of under-spinning, but only for the contestant who spins first. They found these mistakes are well explained by limited foresight; a sizeable fraction of contestants appear to myopically consider the next stage of the game. In line with learning, the researchers found the quality of contestants' choices improves over time.",
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"plaintext": "Road to Price is a six episode reality documentary show aired on the now-defunct CBS Innertube from September 20, 2006, to September 27, 2006. The program featured nine teenage boys driving to Los Angeles in a refurbished mini-school bus as they leave their hometown of Merrimack, New Hampshire in order to be on The Price is Right. The episode of The Price is Right featuring the cast aired September 27, 2006.",
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"plaintext": "Five episodes aired on their official website priceisright.com along with its YouTube page from October 27, 2014, to November 11, 2014. The series was created in order to replace the first male Price model Rob Wilson as he pursued an acting career in the online version of the ABC daytime soap opera All My Children. During the webisode series, hopeful contestants attempt to be selected as the next male model. Judges included Wilson, Mike Richards, Manuela Arbeláez, Amber Lancaster, Gwendolyn Osborne-Smith, Rachel Reynolds, and former Miss America Shanna Moakler. The three finalists appeared on the CBS daytime talk show The Talk. Online voting determined the winner, and James O'Halloran became the newest cast member. He first appeared on the episode which aired on December 15, 2014. He has since been joined by a third male model, former NFL player Devin Goda, who joined the show during season 47.",
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"plaintext": " Come On Down, a 1984 BBC produced documentary about American game shows.",
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"plaintext": " Come On Down! The Game Show Story, a 2014 ITV British documentary mini-series presented by Bradley Walsh.",
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"plaintext": " Come on Down!, a 2016 documentary about two friends who venture from Boston to Cali to crack the greatest game show in television history.",
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"plaintext": " The Contestant Who Knew Too Much was released on October 13, 2017, and was directed by CJ Wallis and was produced by FortyFPS Productions and MK Ultra Productions. It explores how contestant Ted Slauson became adept at memorizing the prices of the prizes and products on the show since its inception in 1972, culminating in Slauson's helping contestant Terry Kniess bid perfectly on a showcase in 2008. It became one of the biggest controversies in game-show history, and was covered by Time, Esquire, TMZ and other publications. The film features guest appearances by Bob Barker, Roger Dobkowitz, Kevin Pollak and Drew Carey.",
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"plaintext": "As of November 2009, the show had given away approximately $250 million in cash and prizes. Furs have not been offered as prizes since Barker's tenure as host (although wool and leather are now permitted). Several Barker-imposed prohibitions have been lifted since his departure, such as offering products made of leather or leather seats in vehicles and showing simulated meat props on barbecues and in ovens. The show has also offered couture clothing and accessories, featuring designers such as Coach Inc., Louis Vuitton, and Limited Brands in an attempt to attract a younger demographic, as well as backyard play equipment such as JumpSport Trampolines and electronics such as smartphones, personal computer systems, video game systems and entertainment centers. Other prizes which have frequently appeared on the show since its beginnings include automobiles, furniture, trips and cash. The most expensive prize offered on this version of the show was a Ferrari 458 Italia Spider sports car, priced at $285,716, that appeared on the April 25, 2013, episode during \"Big Money Week.\" The prize was offered during the 3 Strikes pricing game. Prior to this, the most expensive prize was a Tesla Roadster (2008) (valued at $112,845), featured on the April 22, 2010, episode in the pricing game Golden Road.",
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"plaintext": "Since Carey took over as host, prizes from Ohio-based companies or companies with major Ohio operations have appeared, as Ohio is the home state of Carey and former announcer Fields. This has included Honda (see below), as well as Jeni's Splendid Ice Creams, which is based in Columbus, Ohio and got its start in Columbus's historic North Market.",
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"plaintext": "Since the show's debut, automobiles have been a signature prize on The Price Is Right. Most hour-long episodes have two pricing games that are each played for an automobile and in most episodes (although not all), at least one showcase will include an automobile. For special episodes, such as the 5,000th episode, there will often be more cars offered.",
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"plaintext": "From 1991 to 2008, almost all automobiles offered on the show were made by companies based in the United States, specifically Detroit's Big Three (although cars made by these companies' foreign subsidiaries or in a joint-venture with a foreign company were also offered during this era, in all cases badged under an American nameplate). The move was made by Barker, in his capacity as executive producer, as a sign of patriotism during the first Iraq war in 1991 and as a show of support to the American car industry, which was particularly struggling at that time. When Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler-Benz in 1998 to form Daimler Chrysler AG (now simply Daimler AG after Chrysler split from the automaker; Chrysler later merged with Italian automaker Fiat to form Fiat Chrysler Automobiles and following another merger with French automaker PSA Group to form the Dutch-based Stellantis), the foreign ownership of Chrysler did not affect carrying any Chrysler-related models.",
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"plaintext": "Since Barker's retirement, cars made by foreign companies have been offered, most notably Honda, which has several factories throughout Ohio. Through product placement, certain episodes in 2008 and 2009 featured Honda as the exclusive automobile manufacturer for vehicles offered on that episode. The major European (Volkswagen, BMW, Daimler, Fiat and Volvo) and Asian (Hyundai-Kia, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Nissan, and Honda) manufacturers have all provided cars on the show since the ban was lifted, with premium foreign cars almost exclusively used for games that generally offer higher-priced cars, such as Golden Road and 3 Strikes. Starting around 2010, vintage and classic cars have occasionally been offered as prizes for games that do not involve pricing them. Among them have been a 1955 Chevrolet Bel Air and a 1964 Bentley S3. These cars are usually offered in games where their prices are irrelevant to gameplay, such as Hole in One and Bonus Game.",
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"plaintext": "The record for the largest individual total in cash and prizes on a daytime episode is held by Michael Strouber. On the October 14, 2019 episode, which aired during Big Money Week, Strouber won $202,000 (one $200,000 chip, one zero, and two $1,000 chips) in cash during a playing of Plinko. During the episode, game rules were modified to offer a top prize of $1,000,000, with each chip worth up to $200,000. Strouber walked away with $262,743 in cash and prizes, including a new car, a diamond tennis bracelet and a trip to Fiji.",
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"plaintext": "The record for winnings on the primetime show is currently held by Adam Rose. On February 22, 2008, the first The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular episode since Carey became host, Rose won $20,000 playing Grand Game. By being within $1,000 of the actual retail price of his own showcases, he won both showcases—which included a Cadillac XLR convertible in his showcase and a Ford Escape Hybrid in his opponent's—plus a $1 million bonus. Rose's total is also the record for winnings on any version of the Price franchise worldwide, shattering the previous mark set by Joanne Segeviano on the Australian version in 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Terry Kniess holds the record for the closest bid on a showcase without going over, guessing the exact price of the showcase he was given. Kniess, an avid viewer of the show, recorded and watched every episode for four months prior to when he and his wife had tickets to attend in September 2008. Kniess learned that many prizes were repeatedly used (always at the same price) and began taking notes. Kniess was selected as a contestant on September 22, 2008, lost his pricing game (the only contestant to do so that episode), made it to the final showcase and guessed the exact amount of $23,743 for his showcase. Many show staffers, including Carey, were worried that the show was rigged and that Kniess was cheating. Kniess later explained that he had seen all three items of the showcase before and knew the general prices in the thousands. The 743 he used because it was his PIN, based on his wedding date and his wife's birth month.",
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"plaintext": "Carey attributed his subdued reaction to the perfect bid by saying, \"Everybody thought someone had cheated. We'd just fired Roger Dobkowitz, and all the fan groups were upset about it. I remember asking, 'Are we ever going to air this?' And nobody could see how we could. So I thought the show was never going to air. I thought somebody had cheated us, and I thought the whole show was over. I thought they were going to shut us down, and I thought I was going to be out of a job.\" Kniess later defended his actions, claiming that he never cheated, and in the end, was awarded his prizes. (His feat can be comparable to the actions of Michael Larson, who appeared on the 1980s CBS game show Press Your Luck, and won $110,237 by memorizing the board sequence.)",
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"plaintext": "The Price Is Right has generally been praised and remained a stalwart in television ratings over its long history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named the program the \"greatest game show of all time.\" The introduction of the program ushered in a new era of game shows—moving away from the knowledge-based quiz show format, creating \"a noisy, carnival atmosphere that challenged cultural norms and assumptions represented in previous generations of quiz shows.\"",
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"plaintext": "The show's early reception was not as universally positive, as critics lamented the show's stark departure from the highbrow norms of the Golden Age of Television; original nighttime host Dennis James admitted that even his own housekeeper did not watch the show for that reason, but also defended the series, saying \"CBS, who never wanted game shows, just put three game shows on the air, so they know they had better join the fight or lose out, because game shows have a tremendous appeal. The critics will always look down their noses, but you can't have The Bell Telephone Hour on and still stay in competition. If you want to read books, read books.\"",
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"plaintext": "Since the mid-1990s, the program production company and in some cases the executive producer (both Barker and Richards, the executive producer from 2009 to 2019) have been sued by numerous women. Most of the lawsuits involved models and other staff members in cases of sexual harassment, wrongful termination and racial discrimination. Allegations of sexual harassment brought by Dian Parkinson led to Barker calling a press conference to admit a past consensual sexual relationship with her, while denying any harassment, explaining that she was only angry with him for calling off the relationship. Barker was widowed in 1981 following the death of his wife, Dorothy Jo. It has also been alleged that Barker and senior staff created a hostile work environment, particularly to those who testified for the plaintiffs suing Barker. Responding to the controversy just before his retirement, Barker told William Keck of USA Today, \"They have been such a problem. I don't want to say anything about them. They [were] disgusting, I don't want to mention them.\" The Barker-era lawsuits, except for one, were settled out of court. After Barker dropped his slander suit against Hallstrom, she eventually countersued and received millions in settlement. Former model Lanisha Cole filed a sexual harassment lawsuit against the show's producers in 2011; it was settled in 2013.",
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"plaintext": "The lawsuits for Price affected the popular syndicated game show Jeopardy!, as Mike Richards (who had been named host of the show before resigning in the span of nine days) was executive producer for Price from 2008 to 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The Price Is Right has expanded beyond television to home, live stage shows and casino-based games.",
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"plaintext": "A four-disc DVD box set, titled The Best of \"The Price Is Right\", was released on March 25, 2008. The set features four episodes of the 1956–1965 Bill Cullen series, 17 episodes of the Barker 1972–1975 daytime series and the final five daytime episodes hosted by Barker. In accordance with Barker's animal-rights wishes, which remain in effect beyond his retirement, any episodes with fur coats as prizes cannot be aired or released onto home media formats. This includes the first three daytime shows recorded in 1972, plus most of the 1970s syndicated run.",
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"plaintext": "Seven board games have been produced. One of them was a variation of a card game, using prizes and price tags from the 1956 version. The second was based more closely on the original version of the show.",
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"plaintext": "Three games were produced during the 1970s by Milton Bradley, with Contestants' Row, some pricing games and, in the case of the third version, a spinner for the Big Wheel. In the first two versions, decks of cards had various grocery items, small prizes and larger prizes. The third version simply had cards for each game that included ten sets of \"right\" answers, all using the same price choices. The instruction book specified what color cards were necessary for each round.",
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"plaintext": "The 1986 version, again by Milton Bradley, was similar in scope to the earlier version, with new prizes and more games, but lacking the Big Wheel. The instruction book refers to Contestants' Row as the \"Qualifying Round\" and the pricing games as \"Solo Games.\" The book also instructs players to use items priced under $100 as One Bids. The 1998 version of the game, by Endless Games, was virtually identical to the 1986 release, with the same games, prizes, and even the same prices. The only changes were that the number tiles were made of cardboard bits instead of plastic and the cars from the deck of prizes with four-digit prices were removed.",
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"plaintext": "The 2004 version, again by Endless Games, was a complete departure from previous home versions. Instead of different prize cards and games, the game consisted of everything needed to play 45 games and enough materials to create all the games not technically included if the \"host\" wished to and knew their rules. The Big Wheel spinner was also restored, this time with the numbers in the correct order. Additionally, the prices, instead of being random numbers that could change each time the game was played, were actual prices taken from episodes of the TV show. To fit everything in the box, grocery items and prizes were listed in the instruction book and games were played on dry erase boards. A spinner determined the game to be played next, although its use was not necessarily required if the \"host\" wished to build his own game lineup, or even use a pricing game not included in the lineup.",
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"plaintext": "In 1990, GameTek created a Price Is Right computer game for the DOS and Commodore 64 platforms and other systems to fit in their line of other game show games. A handheld Tiger game was made in 1998 with four pricing games. A DVD game with 12 pricing games, live casino show host Todd Newton and video of prizes taken directly from the show was produced by Endless Games in 2005. A 2008 DVD edition, also from Endless Games, featured many changes based on season 36 and included seven new games: Half Off, More or Less, Swap Meet, Secret X, That's Too Much, Coming or Going, and Hole in One. It also featured both host Drew Carey and announcer Rich Fields. CBS.com featured an online Price Is Right-based game in the late 1990s, which was plugged in the closing credits of each episode. The game consisted of choosing which of the four bidders in Contestant's Row was closest to the price of a prize without going over. Additionally, Mobliss provides a suite of pricing games for cellular phones.",
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"plaintext": "On March 26, 2008, Ludia (in connection with Ubisoft) launched The Price Is Right video game for PC. A version for the Wii and Nintendo DS platforms was released in September 2008, while a version for the iOS was released in November 2008. The show's then-current announcer, Rich Fields, was the host of the computer version. The virtual set in the game resembled the set used in Seasons 31 to 34. Ludia announced that all three platforms will receive a new version of the video game that was previewed at the Target Bullseye Lounge during the Electronic Entertainment Expo trade show on June 2–4, 2009. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition was released on September 22, 2009. In the fall of 2010, Ludia developed a multi-player version for Facebook. A third Ludia adaptation, The Price Is Right Decades, featuring set designs, pricing games and prizes taken from the 1970s through 2000s, was initially released for the Wii in October 2011, with an Xbox 360 and iOS release following in November and December. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition and The Price Is Right Decades have also been released as downloads within the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 in May 2010 and April 2012, respectively. Irwin Toys released an electronic tabletop version in 2008 featuring Contestant's Row, the Big Wheel, a physical Plinko board with chips, Showcases and seven pricing games. Jakks Pacific released a Plug It in and Play version of The Price Is Right in 2009, featuring Carey and Fields.",
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"plaintext": "A series of video slot machines were manufactured for North American casinos by International Game Technology. Although gameplay varies by machine, each feature themes and motifs found on the show, including the Showcase Showdown, with themes used following Carey's start as host. Others feature pricing games as gameplay elements, including Plinko, Cliff Hangers, Punch a Bunch, Dice Game, and Money Game.",
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"plaintext": "A scratchcard version of the game is being offered by several U.S. and Canadian state/provincial lotteries, featuring adaptations of Plinko, Cliff Hangers, the Showcase Showdown and the Showcase. The top prize varies with each version.",
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"plaintext": "After the 30th anniversary episode taped in Las Vegas in 2002, Harrah's and RTL Group began producing live licensed shows (dubbed The Price Is Right Live!) at their venues, with several performers, including Roger Lodge, Newton, and Gray hosting, with West, Rosen, and Dave Walls announcing.",
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"plaintext": "In 2022, the show launched a coast-to-coast tour of live events celebrating the show's 50th anniversary. Contestants had \"a chance to play Plinko, spin the wheel, and compete in a Showcase\" to win prizes, and had chance to win an additional $50,000. The tour visited 50 locations and stopped in Los Angeles, Denver, Dallas, New Orleans, Nashville, St. Louis, Cleveland (the hometown of the show's current host Drew Carey) and New York.",
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"plaintext": "Born in San Francisco on July 4, 1911, Seitz graduated from Lick-Wilmerding High School in the middle of his senior year, and went on to study physics at Stanford University obtaining his bachelor's degree in three years, graduating in 1932. He married Elizabeth K. Marshall on May 18, 1935.",
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"plaintext": "Seitz moved to Princeton University to study metals under Eugene Wigner, gaining his PhD in 1934. He and Wigner pioneered one of the first quantum theories of crystals, and developed concepts in solid-state physics such as the Wigner–Seitz unit cell used in the study of crystalline material in solid-state physics.",
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"plaintext": "After Seitz published a paper on the darkening of crystals, DuPont asked him in 1939 for help with a problem they were having with the stability of chrome yellow. He became \"deeply involved\" in their research efforts. Among other things, he investigated the possible use of non-toxic silicon carbide as a white pigment. Seitz was a director of Texas Instruments (1971–1982) and of Akzona Corporation (1973–1982).",
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"plaintext": "Seitz was a central figure amongst skeptics of global warming. He was the highest-ranking scientist among a band of doubters who, beginning in the early 1990s, resolutely disputed suggestions that global warming was serious threat. Seitz argued that the science behind global warming was inconclusive and \"certainly didn't warrant imposing mandatory limits on greenhouse-gas emissions\". In 2001 Seitz and Jastrow questioned whether global warming is anthropogenic.",
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"plaintext": "Seitz signed the 1995 Leipzig Declaration and, in an open letter inviting scientists to sign the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine's global warming petition, called for the United States to reject the Kyoto Protocol. The letter was accompanied by a 12-page article on climate change which followed a style and format nearly identical to that of a contribution to Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), a scientific journal, even including a date of publication (\"October 26\") and volume number (\"Vol. 13: 149–164 1999\"), but was not actually a publication of the National Academy of Science (NAS). In response the United States National Academy of Sciences took what the New York Times called \"the extraordinary step of refuting the position of one [of] its former presidents.\" The NAS also made it clear that \"The petition does not reflect the conclusions of expert reports of the Academy.\"",
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"plaintext": "Seitz was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1952, serving as its President from 1962 to 1969. He received the Franklin Medal (1965). In 1973 he was awarded the National Medal of Science \"for his contributions to the modern quantum theory of the solid state of matter.\" He also received the United States Department of Defense Distinguished Service Award; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Distinguished Public Service Award; and the Compton Award, the highest honor of the American Institute of Physics. In addition to Rockefeller University, 31 universities in the US and abroad awarded Seitz honorary degrees. He was also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.",
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"plaintext": " Frederick Seitz, A matrix-algebraic development of the crystallographic groups, Princeton University, 1934",
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"plaintext": " Robert Jastrow, William Aaron Nierenberg, Frederick Seitz, Global warming: what does the science tell us?, George C. Marshall Institute, 1990",
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"plaintext": " Frederick Seitz, Francis Wheeler Loomis: August 4, 1889 – February 9, 1976, National Academy Press, 1991",
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"plaintext": "Nikolaus Riehl and Frederick Seitz, Stalin's Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb (American Chemical Society and the Chemical Heritage Foundations, 1996) .",
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"plaintext": " This book is a translation of Nikolaus Riehl's book Zehn Jahre im goldenen Käfig (Ten Years in a Golden Cage) (Riederer-Verlag, 1988); but Seitz wrote a lengthy introduction. It contains 58 photographs.",
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"plaintext": " Frederick Seitz and Norman G. Einspruch, Electronic genie: the tangled history of silicon, University of Illinois Press, 1998.",
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"plaintext": " Frederick Seitz, The cosmic inventor Reginald Aubrey Fessenden (1866–1932), American Philosophical Society, 1999",
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"plaintext": " Henry Ehrenreich, Frederick Seitz, David Turnbull, Frans Spaepen, Solid state physics, Academic Press, 2006",
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| 983,364 | 693 | 81 | 129 | 0 | 0 | Frederick Seitz | American physicist | []
|
37,035 | 1,107,779,451 | Conway's_Game_of_Life | [
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"plaintext": "The Game of Life, also known simply as Life, is a cellular automaton devised by the British mathematician John Horton Conway in 1970. It is a zero-player game, meaning that its evolution is determined by its initial state, requiring no further input. One interacts with the Game of Life by creating an initial configuration and observing how it evolves. It is Turing complete and can simulate a universal constructor or any other Turing machine.",
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"plaintext": "The universe of the Game of Life is an infinite, two-dimensional orthogonal grid of square cells, each of which is in one of two possible states, live or dead (or populated and unpopulated, respectively). Every cell interacts with its eight neighbours, which are the cells that are horizontally, vertically, or diagonally adjacent. At each step in time, the following transitions occur:",
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"plaintext": " Any dead cell with exactly three live neighbours becomes a live cell, as if by reproduction.",
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"plaintext": "These rules, which compare the behavior of the automaton to real life, can be condensed into the following:",
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"plaintext": " All other live cells die in the next generation. Similarly, all other dead cells stay dead.",
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"plaintext": "The initial pattern constitutes the seed of the system. The first generation is created by applying the above rules simultaneously to every cell in the seed, live or dead; births and deaths occur simultaneously, and the discrete moment at which this happens is sometimes called a tick. Each generation is a pure function of the preceding one. The rules continue to be applied repeatedly to create further generations.",
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"plaintext": "Stanislaw Ulam, while working at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in the 1940s, studied the growth of crystals, using a simple lattice network as his model. At the same time, John von Neumann, Ulam's colleague at Los Alamos, was working on the problem of self-replicating systems. Von Neumann's initial design was founded upon the notion of one robot building another robot. This design is known as the kinematic model. As he developed this design, von Neumann came to realize the great difficulty of building a self-replicating robot, and of the great cost in providing the robot with a \"sea of parts\" from which to build its replicant. Neumann wrote a paper entitled \"The general and logical theory of automata\" for the Hixon Symposium in 1948. Ulam was the one who suggested using a discrete system for creating a reductionist model of self-replication. Ulam and von Neumann created a method for calculating liquid motion in the late 1950s. The driving concept of the method was to consider a liquid as a group of discrete units and calculate the motion of each based on its neighbors' behaviors. Thus was born the first system of cellular automata. Like Ulam's lattice network, von Neumann's cellular automata are two-dimensional, with his self-replicator implemented algorithmically. The result was a universal copier and constructor working within a cellular automaton with a small neighborhood (only those cells that touch are neighbors; for von Neumann's cellular automata, only orthogonal cells), and with 29 states per cell. Von Neumann gave an existence proof that a particular pattern would make endless copies of itself within the given cellular universe by designing a 200,000 cell configuration that could do so. This design is known as the tessellation model, and is called a von Neumann universal constructor.",
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"plaintext": "Motivated by questions in mathematical logic and in part by work on simulation games by Ulam, among others, John Conway began doing experiments in 1968 with a variety of different two-dimensional cellular automaton rules. Conway's initial goal was to define an interesting and unpredictable cellular automaton. According to Martin Gardner, Conway experimented with different rules, aiming for rules that would allow for patterns to \"apparently\" grow without limit, while keeping it difficult to prove that any given pattern would do so. Moreover, some \"simple initial patterns\" should \"grow and change for a considerable period of time\" before settling into a static configuration or a repeating loop. Conway later wrote that the basic motivation for Life was to create a \"universal\" cellular automaton.",
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"plaintext": "Since its publication, the Game of Life has attracted much interest because of the surprising ways in which the patterns can evolve. It provides an example of emergence and self-organization. A version of Life that incorporates random fluctuations has been used in physics to study phase transitions and nonequilibrium dynamics. The game can also serve as a didactic analogy, used to convey the somewhat counter-intuitive notion that design and organization can spontaneously emerge in the absence of a designer. For example, philosopher Daniel Dennett has used the analogy of the Game of Life \"universe\" extensively to illustrate the possible evolution of complex philosophical constructs, such as consciousness and free will, from the relatively simple set of deterministic physical laws which might govern our universe.",
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"plaintext": "The popularity of the Game of Life was helped by its coming into being at the same time as increasingly inexpensive computer access. The game could be run for hours on these machines, which would otherwise have remained unused at night. In this respect, it foreshadowed the later popularity of computer-generated fractals. For many, the Game of Life was simply a programming challenge: a fun way to use otherwise wasted CPU cycles. For some, however, the Game of Life had more philosophical connotations. It developed a cult following through the 1970s and beyond; current developments have gone so far as to create theoretic emulations of computer systems within the confines of a Game of Life board.",
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"plaintext": "Many different types of patterns occur in the Game of Life, which are classified according to their behaviour. Common pattern types include: still lifes, which do not change from one generation to the next; oscillators, which return to their initial state after a finite number of generations; and spaceships, which translate themselves across the grid.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest interesting patterns in the Game of Life were discovered without the use of computers. The simplest still lifes and oscillators were discovered while tracking the fates of various small starting configurations using graph paper, blackboards, and physical game boards, such as those used in Go. During this early research, Conway discovered that the R-pentomino failed to stabilize in a small number of generations. In fact, it takes 1103 generations to stabilize, by which time it has a population of 116 and has generated six escaping gliders; these were the first spaceships ever discovered.",
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"plaintext": "Frequently occurring examples (in that they emerge frequently from a random starting configuration of cells) of the three aforementioned pattern types are shown below, with live cells shown in black and dead cells in white. Period refers to the number of ticks a pattern must iterate through before returning to its initial configuration.",
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"plaintext": "The pulsar is the most common period-3 oscillator. The great majority of naturally occurring oscillators have a period of 2, like the blinker and the toad, but oscillators of many periods are known to exist, and oscillators of periods 4, 8, 14, 15, 30, and a few others have been seen to arise from random initial conditions. Patterns which evolve for long periods before stabilizing are called Methuselahs, the first-discovered of which was the R-pentomino. Diehard is a pattern that eventually disappears, rather than stabilizing, after 130 generations, which is conjectured to be maximal for patterns with seven or fewer cells. Acorn takes 5206 generations to generate 633 cells, including 13 escaped gliders.",
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"plaintext": "Conway originally conjectured that no pattern can grow indefinitely—i.e. that for any initial configuration with a finite number of living cells, the population cannot grow beyond some finite upper limit. In the game's original appearance in \"Mathematical Games\", Conway offered a prize of fifty dollars () to the first person who could prove or disprove the conjecture before the end of 1970. The prize was won in November by a team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, led by Bill Gosper; the \"Gosper glider gun\" produces its first glider on the 15th generation, and another glider every 30th generation from then on. For many years, this glider gun was the smallest one known. In 2015, a gun called the \"Simkin glider gun\", which releases a glider every 120th generation, was discovered that has fewer live cells but which is spread out across a larger bounding box at its extremities.",
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"plaintext": "Smaller patterns were later found that also exhibit infinite growth. All three of the patterns shown below grow indefinitely. The first two create a single block-laying switch engine: a configuration that leaves behind two-by-two still life blocks as it translates itself across the game's universe. The third configuration creates two such patterns. The first has only ten live cells, which has been proven to be minimal. The second fits in a five-by-five square, and the third is only one cell high.",
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"plaintext": "Later discoveries included other guns, which are stationary, and which produce gliders or other spaceships; puffer trains, which move along leaving behind a trail of debris; and rakes, which move and emit spaceships. Gosper also constructed the first pattern with an asymptotically optimal quadratic growth rate, called a breeder or lobster, which worked by leaving behind a trail of guns.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible for gliders to interact with other objects in interesting ways. For example, if two gliders are shot at a block in a specific position, the block will move closer to the source of the gliders. If three gliders are shot in just the right way, the block will move farther away. This sliding block memory can be used to simulate a counter. It is possible to construct logic gates such as AND, OR, and NOT using gliders. It is possible to build a pattern that acts like a finite-state machine connected to two counters. This has the same computational power as a universal Turing machine, so the Game of Life is theoretically as powerful as any computer with unlimited memory and no time constraints; it is Turing complete. In fact, several different programmable computer architectures have been implemented in the Game of Life, including a pattern that simulates Tetris.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, a pattern can contain a collection of guns that fire gliders in such a way as to construct new objects, including copies of the original pattern. A universal constructor can be built which contains a Turing complete computer, and which can build many types of complex objects, including more copies of itself.",
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"plaintext": "In 2018, the first truly elementary knightship, Sir Robin, was discovered by Adam P. Goucher. A knightship is a spaceship that moves two squares left for every one square it moves down (like a knight in chess), as opposed to moving orthogonally or along a 45° diagonal. This is the first new spaceship movement pattern for an elementary spaceship found in forty-eight years. \"Elementary\" means that it cannot be decomposed into smaller interacting patterns such as gliders and still lifes.",
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"plaintext": "Many patterns in the Game of Life eventually become a combination of still lifes, oscillators, and spaceships; other patterns may be called chaotic. A pattern may stay chaotic for a very long time until it eventually settles to such a combination.",
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"plaintext": "The Game of Life is undecidable, which means that given an initial pattern and a later pattern, no algorithm exists that can tell whether the later pattern is ever going to appear. This is a corollary of the halting problem: the problem of determining whether a given program will finish running or continue to run forever from an initial input.",
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"plaintext": "Indeed, since the Game of Life includes a pattern that is equivalent to a universal Turing machine (UTM), this deciding algorithm, if it existed, could be used to solve the halting problem by taking the initial pattern as the one corresponding to a UTM plus an input, and the later pattern as the one corresponding to a halting state of the UTM. It also follows that some patterns exist that remain chaotic forever. If this were not the case, one could progress the game sequentially until a non-chaotic pattern emerged, then compute whether a later pattern was going to appear.",
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"plaintext": "On May 18, 2010, Andrew J. Wade announced a self-constructing pattern, dubbed \"Gemini\", that creates a copy of itself while destroying its parent. This pattern replicates in 34 million generations, and uses an instruction tape made of gliders oscillating between two stable configurations made of Chapman–Greene construction arms. These, in turn, create new copies of the pattern, and destroy the previous copy. Gemini is also a spaceship, and is the first spaceship constructed in the Game of Life that is an oblique spaceship, which is a spaceship that is neither orthogonal nor purely diagonal. In December 2015, diagonal versions of the Gemini were built.",
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"plaintext": "On November 23, 2013, Dave Greene built the first replicator in the Game of Life that creates a complete copy of itself, including the instruction tape.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2018, Adam P. Goucher finished his construction of the 0E0P metacell, a metacell capable of self-replication. This differed from previous metacells, such as the OTCA metapixel by Brice Due, which only worked with already constructed copies near them. The 0E0P metacell works by using construction arms to create copies that simulate the programmed rule. The actual simulation of the Game of Life or other Moore neighbourhood rules is done by simulating an equivalent rule using the von Neumann neighbourhood with more states. The name 0E0P is short for \"Zero Encoded by Zero Population\", which indicates that instead of a metacell being in an \"off\" state simulating empty space, the 0E0P metacell removes itself when the cell enters that state, leaving a blank space.",
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"plaintext": "From most random initial patterns of living cells on the grid, observers will find the population constantly changing as the generations tick by. The patterns that emerge from the simple rules may be considered a form of mathematical beauty. Small isolated subpatterns with no initial symmetry tend to become symmetrical. Once this happens, the symmetry may increase in richness, but it cannot be lost unless a nearby subpattern comes close enough to disturb it. In a very few cases, the society eventually dies out, with all living cells vanishing, though this may not happen for a great many generations. Most initial patterns eventually burn out, producing either stable figures or patterns that oscillate forever between two or more states; many also produce one or more gliders or spaceships that travel indefinitely away from the initial location. Because of the nearest-neighbour based rules, no information can travel through the grid at a greater rate than one cell per unit time, so this velocity is said to be the cellular automaton speed of light and denoted c.",
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"plaintext": "Early patterns with unknown futures, such as the R-pentomino, led computer programmers to write programs to track the evolution of patterns in the Game of Life. Most of the early algorithms were similar: they represented the patterns as two-dimensional arrays in computer memory. Typically, two arrays are used: one to hold the current generation, and one to calculate its successor. Often 0 and 1 represent dead and live cells, respectively. A nested for loop considers each element of the current array in turn, counting the live neighbours of each cell to decide whether the corresponding element of the successor array should be 0 or 1. The successor array is displayed. For the next iteration, the arrays may swap roles so that the successor array in the last iteration becomes the current array in the next iteration, or one may copy the values of the second array into the first array then update the second array from the first array again.",
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"plaintext": "A variety of minor enhancements to this basic scheme are possible, and there are many ways to save unnecessary computation. A cell that did not change at the last time step, and none of whose neighbours changed, is guaranteed not to change at the current time step as well, so a program that keeps track of which areas are active can save time by not updating inactive zones.",
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"plaintext": "To avoid decisions and branches in the counting loop, the rules can be rearranged from an egocentric approach of the inner field regarding its neighbours to a scientific observer's viewpoint: if the sum of all nine fields in a given neighbourhood is three, the inner field state for the next generation will be life; if the all-field sum is four, the inner field retains its current state; and every other sum sets the inner field to death.",
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"plaintext": "To save memory, the storage can be reduced to one array plus two line buffers. One line buffer is used to calculate the successor state for a line, then the second line buffer is used to calculate the successor state for the next line. The first buffer is then written to its line and freed to hold the successor state for the third line. If a toroidal array is used, a third buffer is needed so that the original state of the first line in the array can be saved until the last line is computed.",
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"plaintext": "In principle, the Game of Life field is infinite, but computers have finite memory. This leads to problems when the active area encroaches on the border of the array. Programmers have used several strategies to address these problems. The simplest strategy is to assume that every cell outside the array is dead. This is easy to program but leads to inaccurate results when the active area crosses the boundary. A more sophisticated trick is to consider the left and right edges of the field to be stitched together, and the top and bottom edges also, yielding a toroidal array. The result is that active areas that move across a field edge reappear at the opposite edge. Inaccuracy can still result if the pattern grows too large, but there are no pathological edge effects. Techniques of dynamic storage allocation may also be used, creating ever-larger arrays to hold growing patterns. The Game of Life on a finite field is sometimes explicitly studied; some implementations, such as Golly, support a choice of the standard infinite field, a field infinite only in one dimension, or a finite field, with a choice of topologies such as a cylinder, a torus, or a Möbius strip.",
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"plaintext": "Alternatively, programmers may abandon the notion of representing the Game of Life field with a two-dimensional array, and use a different data structure, such as a vector of coordinate pairs representing live cells. This allows the pattern to move about the field unhindered, as long as the population does not exceed the size of the live-coordinate array. The drawback is that counting live neighbours becomes a hash-table lookup or search operation, slowing down simulation speed. With more sophisticated data structures this problem can also be largely solved.",
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"plaintext": "For exploring large patterns at great time depths, sophisticated algorithms such as Hashlife may be useful. There is also a method for implementation of the Game of Life and other cellular automata using arbitrary asynchronous updates whilst still exactly emulating the behaviour of the synchronous game. Source code examples that implement the basic Game of Life scenario in various programming languages, including C, C++, Java and Python can be found at Rosetta Code.",
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"plaintext": "Since the Game of Life's inception, new, similar cellular automata have been developed. The standard Game of Life is symbolized as B3/S23. A cell is born if it has exactly three neighbours, survives if it has two or three living neighbours, and dies otherwise. The first number, or list of numbers, is what is required for a dead cell to be born. The second set is the requirement for a live cell to survive to the next generation. Hence B6/S16 means \"a cell is born if there are six neighbours, and lives on if there are either one or six neighbours\". Cellular automata on a two-dimensional grid that can be described in this way are known as cellular automata. Another common automaton, Highlife, is described by the rule B36/S23, because having six neighbours, in addition to the original game's B3/S23 rule, causes a birth. HighLife is best known for its frequently occurring replicators.",
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"plaintext": "Additional Life-like cellular automata exist. The vast majority of these 218 different rules produce universes that are either too chaotic or too desolate to be of interest, but a large subset do display interesting behavior. A further generalization produces the isotropic rulespace, with 2102 possible cellular automaton rules (the Game of Life again being one of them). These are rules that use the same square grid as the Life-like rules and the same eight-cell neighbourhood, and are likewise invariant under rotation and reflection. However, in isotropic rules, the positions of neighbour cells relative to each other may be taken into account in determining a cell's future state—not just the total number of those neighbours.",
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"plaintext": "Some variations on the Game of Life modify the geometry of the universe as well as the rule. The above variations can be thought of as a two-dimensional square, because the world is two-dimensional and laid out in a square grid. One-dimensional square variations, known as elementary cellular automata, and three-dimensional square variations have been developed, as have two-dimensional hexagonal and triangular variations. A variant using aperiodic tiling grids has also been made.",
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"plaintext": "Conway's rules may also be generalized such that instead of two states, live and dead, there are three or more. State transitions are then determined either by a weighting system or by a table specifying separate transition rules for each state; for example, Mirek's Cellebration's multi-coloured Rules Table and Weighted Life rule families each include sample rules equivalent to the Game of Life.",
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"plaintext": "Patterns relating to fractals and fractal systems may also be observed in certain variations. For example, the automaton B1/S12 generates four very close approximations to the Sierpinski triangle when applied to a single live cell. The Sierpinski triangle can also be observed in the Game of Life by examining the long-term growth of an infinitely long single-cell-thick line of live cells, as well as in Highlife, Seeds (B2/S), and Wolfram's Rule 90.",
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"plaintext": "Immigration is a variation that is very similar to the Game of Life, except that there are two on states, often expressed as two different colours. Whenever a new cell is born, it takes on the on state that is the majority in the three cells that gave it birth. This feature can be used to examine interactions between spaceships and other objects within the game. Another similar variation, called QuadLife, involves four different on states. When a new cell is born from three different on neighbours, it takes the fourth value, and otherwise, like Immigration, it takes the majority value. Except for the variation among on cells, both of these variations act identically to the Game of Life.",
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"plaintext": "Various musical composition techniques use the Game of Life, especially in MIDI sequencing. A variety of programs exist for creating sound from patterns generated in the Game of Life.",
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"plaintext": "Computers have been used to follow Game of Life configurations since it was first publicized. When John Conway was first investigating how various starting configurations developed, he tracked them by hand using a go board with its black and white stones. This was tedious and prone to errors. The first interactive Game of Life program was written in an early version of ALGOL 68C for the PDP-7 by M. J. T. Guy and S. R. Bourne. The results were published in the October 1970 issue of Scientific American, along with the statement: \"Without its help, some discoveries about the game would have been difficult to make.\"",
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"plaintext": "A color version of the Game of Life was written by Ed Hall in 1976 for Cromemco microcomputers, and a display from that program filled the cover of the June 1976 issue of Byte. The advent of microcomputer-based color graphics from Cromemco has been credited with a revival of interest in the game.",
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"plaintext": "Two early implementations of the Game of Life on home computers were by Malcolm Banthorpe written in BBC BASIC. The first was in the January 1984 issue of Acorn User magazine, and Banthorpe followed this with a three-dimensional version in the May 1984 issue. Susan Stepney, Professor of Computer Science at the University of York, followed this up in 1988 with Life on the Line, a program that generated one-dimensional cellular automata.",
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"plaintext": "There are now thousands of Game of Life programs online, so a full list will not be provided here. The following is a small selection of programs with some special claim to notability, such as popularity or unusual features. Most of these programs incorporate a graphical user interface for pattern editing and simulation, the capability for simulating multiple rules including the Game of Life, and a large library of interesting patterns in the Game of Life and other cellular automaton rules.",
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"plaintext": " Golly is a cross-platform (Windows, Macintosh, Linux, iOS, and Android) open-source simulation system for the Game of Life and other cellular automata (including all Life-like cellular automata, the Generations family of cellular automata from Mirek's Cellebration, and John von Neumann's 29-state cellular automaton) by Andrew Trevorrow and Tomas Rokicki. It includes the Hashlife algorithm for extremely fast generation, and Lua or Python scriptability for both editing and simulation.",
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"plaintext": " Mirek's Cellebration is a freeware one- and two-dimensional cellular automata viewer, explorer, and editor for Windows. It includes powerful facilities for simulating and viewing a wide variety of cellular automaton rules, including the Game of Life, and a scriptable editor.",
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"plaintext": " Xlife is a cellular-automaton laboratory by Jon Bennett. The standard UNIX X11 Game of Life simulation application for a long time, it has also been ported to Windows. It can handle cellular automaton rules with the same neighbourhood as the Game of Life, and up to eight possible states per cell.",
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"plaintext": " Dr. Blob's Organism is a Shoot 'em up based on Conway's Life. In the game, Life continually generates on a group of cells within a \"petri dish\". The patterns formed are smoothed and rounded to look like a growing amoeba spewing smaller ones (actually gliders). Special \"probes\" zap the \"blob\" to keep it from overflowing the dish while destroying its nucleus.",
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"plaintext": "Google implemented an easter egg of the Game of Life in 2012. Users who search for the term are shown an implementation of the game in the search results page.",
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"plaintext": " , a \"human\" Game of Life.",
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"plaintext": " Life Lexicon, extensive lexicon with many patterns",
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"plaintext": " Conway Life forums",
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"plaintext": " Catagolue, an online database of objects in Conway's Game of Life and similar cellular automata",
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"plaintext": " Algebraic formula, recurrence relation for iterating Conway's Game of Life.",
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| 244,615 | 50,366 | 192 | 115 | 0 | 0 | Conway's Game of Life | 2D cellular automaton devised by J. H. Conway in 1970: cells, arranged in a square grid, are either alive or dead; a live cell with 2 or 3 live neighbors survives; a dead cell with 3 live neighbors becomes alive; otherwise the cell dies/stays dead | [
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37,037 | 1,105,674,513 | Veronica_Franco | [
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"plaintext": "Veronica Franco (1546–1591) was an Italian poet and courtesan in 16th-century Venice. She is known for her notable clientele, feminist advocacy, literary contributions, and philanthropy. Her humanist education and cultural contributions influenced the roles of Courtesans in the late Venetian Renaissance.",
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"plaintext": "In her notable works, Capitoli in Terze rime and Lettere familiari a diversi (\"Familiar Letters to Various People\"), Franco uses perceived virtue, reason, and fairness to advise male patricians and other associates. She exercised greater autonomy in her authorship than any other traditional Venetian woman due to her established reputation and influence.",
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"plaintext": "Veronica Franco was born to a family in the Cittadino class. She developed her position in Renaissance Venetian society as a cortigiana onesta (Honest Courtesan), who were intellectual sex workers that derived their position in society from refinement and cultural prowess. They served in contrast to other sex workers such as cortigiana di lume or meretrice ('harlots'), who were lower-class prostitutes.",
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"plaintext": "Franco received a respectable humanistic education at a young age from her brother's tutor, an unusual opportunity for Venetian women. She continued her education by mixing with learned men, writers, and painters. This granted her access to a Domenico Venier, a patron and advisor to women writers. She was able to use her education to contribute considerably to literary and artistic outlets.",
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"plaintext": "Franco learned additional skills from her mother, Paola Fracassa, who had an interest in finding suitable clients for her, as well as marrying her off. While still in her teens, Franco was briefly married to a mature, wealthy physician named Paolo Panizza. She supported her children along with a household of tutors and servants for most of her life.",
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"plaintext": "Franco wrote two volumes of poetry: Terze rime in 1575 and Lettere familiari a diversi in 1580.",
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"plaintext": "In 1565, when she was about 20 years old, Veronica Franco was listed in the Catalogo de tutte le principal et più honorate cortigiane di Venetia (Catalog of all the Principal and most Honored Courtesans of Venice), which gave the names, addresses, and fees of Venice's most prominent prostitutes; her mother was listed as the person to whom the fee should be paid (her \"go-between\"). From extant records, we know that, by the time she was 18, Franco had been briefly married and had given birth to her first child; she would eventually have six children, three of whom died in infancy.",
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"plaintext": "She became involved in the 1570s with Domenico Venier's renowned literary salon in Venice, who served as a literary adviser not only to male writers but also to many women poets of the Veneto region.",
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"plaintext": "As one of the più honorate cortigiane in a wealthy and cosmopolitan city, Franco lived well for much of her working life, but without the automatic protection accorded to \"respectable\" women, she had to make her own way. She studied and sought patrons among the learned.",
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"plaintext": "In 1575, during the epidemic of plague that ravaged the city, Franco was forced to leave Venice and lost much of her wealth when her house and possessions were looted. Upon her return in 1577, she defended herself against charges of witchcraft before the Inquisition, a crime commonly lodged against courtesans in those days. The charges were dropped. There is evidence that her connections among the Venetian nobility helped in her acquittal.",
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"plaintext": "Her later life is largely obscure, though surviving records suggest that although she won her freedom, she lost all of her material goods and wealth. Eventually, her last major benefactor died and left her with no financial support. There is little information for her life after 1580. Records suggest that she was less prosperous in her later years and is believed to have died in relative poverty.",
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"plaintext": "In 1575, Franco's first volume of poetry was published, her Terze rime, containing 18 capitoli (verse epistles) by her and 7 by men writing in her praise. That same year saw an outbreak of plague in Venice, one that lasted two years and caused Franco to leave the city and to lose many of her possessions. In 1577, she unsuccessfully proposed to the city council that it should establish a home for poor women, of which she would become the administrator.",
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"plaintext": "In 1580, Franco published her Lettere familiari a diversi (\"Familiar Letters to Various People\") which included 50 letters, as well as two sonnets addressed to King Henry III of France.",
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"plaintext": "Franco's success was not limited to being a coveted courtesan, it was her wittiness and often criticized voice that was immortalized by way of being published that has brought forth much recognition. Records indicate that the number of actual publications was limited as they were thought to have been at her own expense, or private publications. Her work is known to have been included in an anthology of women poets in the eighteenth century (1726) edited by Luisa Bergalli. ",
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"plaintext": "The embodiment of her role in the public realm was made evermore tangible, amongst the literary circles and the Venetian public during her polemic literary battle with Maffio Venier. The poem referenced above Capitolo 16, A Challenge To A Poet Who Has Defamed Her – is believed to have been one of the many directed to Maffio Venier. These poems are Capitolo XIII, XVI, and XXIII of her literary publication, Terze Rime.",
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"plaintext": "Franco's life was recorded in the 1992 book The Honest Courtesan, by US author Margaret F. Rosenthal.",
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"plaintext": "Catherine McCormack portrayed Veronica Franco in the 1998 movie Dangerous Beauty, released as A Destiny of Her Own in some countries, based on Rosenthal's book.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2000s Franco prompted scholarly inquiries on \"what it meant to be a public woman in Cinquecento Venice\". This directly pertained to her duality of both a courtesan and a published poet. Franco is referenced to have been a \"living performance of public art—a renowned courtesan whose body was available to a certain exclusive clientele, a published author, and a public presence.\"",
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"plaintext": "Franco's literary work demonstrates her ability to defend women, as a whole, in a format that can be studied and understood as ahead of her time. Franco's work fearlessly embarked on juxtaposed realms such as sexuality and women's agency as a whole. In doing so, she challenged and disrupted the patriarchal norms that surrounded her.",
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"plaintext": "Franco is also portrayed in the 2012 Serbian novel named after her () authored by Serbian writer Katarina Brajović.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, her work was interpreted as adopting \"a position of public authority that calls attention to her education, her rhetorical skill, and the solidarity she feels with women.\" She embodied in writing a duality, toggling between and addressing both private and public life matters. Her publications have allowed her work and proto-feminist efforts to transcend time.",
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"plaintext": " sample of poems and letters by Veronica Franco 2013 Veronica Franco Project, USC Dornsife.",
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"plaintext": "portraits, attributed to Tintoretto 2013 Veronica Franco Project, USC Dornsife..",
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"plaintext": "Michael Asimow, Dangerous Beauty: The Trial of a Courtesan UCLA Law School, (May 1998).",
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"plaintext": " Rosenthal, Margaret F., \"Veronica Franco's Terze Rime (1575): The Venetian Courtesan's Defense\" Renaissance Society of America Renaissance Quarterly 42:2 (Summer 1989) 227-257 ",
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"plaintext": "Adler, Sara Maria. \"Veronica Franco's Petrarchan Terze rime: Subverting the Master's Plan,\" Italica 65: 3 (1988): 213–33. ",
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"plaintext": "Diberti-Leigh, Marcella. Veronica Franco: Donna, poetessa e cortigiana del Rinascimento. Ivrea, Italy, 1988. ",
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"plaintext": "Jones, Ann R. The Currency of Eros: Women's Love Lyric in Europe, 1540–1620. Bloomington and Indianapolis, Ind., 1990. ",
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"plaintext": "Phillipy, Patricia. \"'Altera Dido': The Model of Ovid's Heroides in the Poems of Gaspara Stampa and Veronica Franco,\" Italica 69 (1992): 1-18. ",
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"plaintext": "Stefano Bianchi, La scrittura poetica femminile nel Cinquecento veneto: Gaspara Stampa e Veronica Franco, Manziana: Vecchiarelli, 2013. ",
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"plaintext": "\"Wilhelmus van Nassouwe\", usually known just as \"Wilhelmus\" (; ; English translation: \"The William\"), is the national anthem of both the Netherlands and the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It dates back to at least 1572, making it the oldest national anthem in use today, provided that the latter is defined as consisting of both a melody and lyrics. Although \"Wilhelmus\" was not recognized as the official national anthem until 1932, it has always been popular with parts of the Dutch population and resurfaced on several occasions in the course of Dutch history before gaining its present status. It was also the anthem of the Netherlands Antilles from 1954 to 1964.",
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"plaintext": "The melody of \"Wilhelmus\" was borrowed from a well-known Roman Catholic French song titled \"Autre chanson de la ville de Chartres assiégée par le prince de Condé\", or in short: \"Chartres\". This song ridiculed the failed Siege of Chartres in 1568 by the Huguenot (Protestant) Prince de Condé during the French Wars of Religion. However, the triumphant contents of \"Wilhelmus\" differ greatly from the content of the original song, making it subversive at several levels. Thus, the Dutch Protestants had taken over an anti-Protestant song, and adapted it into propaganda for their own agenda. In that way, \"Wilhelmus\" was typical for its time: it was common practice in the 16th century for warring groups to steal each other's songs in order to rewrite them.",
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"plaintext": "Even though the melody stems from 1568, the first known written down version of it comes from 1574; at the time the anthem was sung at a much quicker pace. Dutch composer Adriaen Valerius recorded the current melody of \"Wilhelmus\" in his Nederlantsche Gedenck-clanck in 1626, slowing down the melody's pace, probably to allow it to be sung in churches.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of the lyrics are uncertain. \"Wilhelmus\" was first written some time between the start of the Eighty Years' War in April 1568 and the Capture of Brielle on 1 April 1572, making it at least years old. Soon after the anthem was finished it was said that either Philips of Marnix, a writer, statesman and former mayor of Antwerp, or Dirck Coornhert, a politician and theologian, wrote the lyrics. However, this is disputed as neither Marnix nor Coornhert ever mentioned that they had written the lyrics, even though the song was immensely popular in their time. \"Wilhelmus\" also has some odd rhymes in it. In some cases the vowels of certain words were altered to allow them to rhyme with other words. Some see this as evidence that neither Marnix or Coornhert wrote the anthem, as they were both experienced poets when \"Wilhelmus\" was written, and it is said they would not have taken these small liberties. Hence some believe that the lyrics of the Dutch national anthem were the creation of someone who just wrote one poem for the occasion and then disappeared from history. A French translation of \"Wilhelmus\" appeared around 1582.",
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"plaintext": "Recent stylometric research has mentioned Pieter Datheen as a possible author of the text of the Dutch national anthem. Dutch and Flemish researchers (Meertens Institute, Utrecht University and University of Antwerp) discovered by chance a striking number of similarities between his style and the style of the national anthem.",
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"plaintext": "The complete text comprises fifteen stanzas. The anthem is an acrostic: the first letters of the fifteen stanzas formed the name \"Willem van Nassov\" (Nassov was a contemporary orthographic variant of Nassau). In the current Dutch spelling the first words of the 12th and 13th stanzas begin with Z instead of S.",
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"plaintext": "Like many of the songs of the period, it has a complex structure, composed around a thematic chiasmus: the text is symmetrical, in that verses one and 15 resemble one another in meaning, as do verses two and 14, three and 13, etc., until they converge in the 8th verse, the heart of the song: \"Oh David, thou soughtest shelter from King Saul's tyranny. Even so I fled this welter\", where the comparison is made not only between the biblical David and William of Orange as a merciful and just leader of the Dutch Revolt, but also between the tyrant King Saul and the Spanish crown, and between the promised land of Israel granted by God to David, and a kingdom granted by God to William.",
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"plaintext": "In the first person, as if quoting himself, William speaks about how his disagreement with his king troubles him; he tries to be faithful to his king, but he is above all faithful to his conscience: to serve God and the Dutch people. Therefore, the last two lines of the first stanza indicate that the leader of the Dutch civil war against the Spanish Empire, of which they were part, had no specific quarrel with king Philip II of Spain, but rather with his emissaries in the Low Countries, such as Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba. This may have been because at the time (late 16th century) it was uncommon to doubt publicly the divine right of kings, who were accountable to God alone. In 1581 the Netherlands nevertheless rejected the legitimacy of the king of Spain's rule over it in the Act of Abjuration.",
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"plaintext": "\"Duytschen\" (in English generally translated as \"Dutch\", \"native\" or Germanic) in the first stanza is a reference to William's roots; its modern Dutch equivalent, \"Duits\", exclusively means \"German\", and it may refer to William's ancestral house (Nassau, Germany) or to the lands of the Holy Roman Empire, including the Netherlands. But most probably it is simply a reference to the broader meaning of the word, which points out William as a \"native\" of the fatherland, as opposed to the king of Spain, who seldom or never visited the Netherlands. The prince thus states that his roots are Germanic rather than Romance – in spite of his being Prince of Orange as well.",
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"plaintext": "Though only proclaimed the national anthem in 1932, the \"Wilhelmus\" already had a centuries-old history. It had been sung on many official occasions and at many important events since the outbreak of the Dutch Revolt in 1568, such as the siege of Haarlem in 1573 and the ceremonial entry of the Prince of Orange into Brussels on 18 September 1578.",
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"plaintext": "It has been claimed that during the gruesome torture of Balthasar Gérard (the assassin of William of Orange) in 1584, the song was sung by the guards who sought to overpower Gérard's screams when boiling pigs' fat was poured over him. Gérard allegedly responded \"Sing! Dutch sinners! Sing! But know that soon I shall be sung of!\".",
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"plaintext": "Another legend claims that following the Navigation Act 1651 (an ordinance by Oliver Cromwell requiring all foreign fleets in the North Sea or the Channel to dip their flag in salute) the \"Wilhelmus\" was sung (or rather, shouted) by the sailors on the Dutch flagship Brederode in response to the first warning shot fired by an English fleet under Robert Blake, when their captain Maarten Tromp refused to lower his flag. At the end of the song, which coincided with the third and last English warning shot, Tromp fired a full broadside, thereby beginning the Battle of Goodwin Sands and the First Anglo-Dutch War.",
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"plaintext": "During the Dutch Golden Age, it was conceived essentially as the anthem of the House of Orange-Nassau and its supporters – which meant, in the politics of the time, the anthem of a specific political faction which was involved in a prolonged struggle with opposing factions (which sometimes became violent, verging on civil war). Therefore, the fortunes of the song paralleled those of the Orangist faction. Trumpets played the \"Wilhelmus\" when Prince Maurits visited Breda, and again when he was received in state in Amsterdam in May 1618. When William V arrived in Schoonhoven in 1787, after the authority of the stadholders had been restored, the church bells are said to have played the \"Wilhelmus\" continuously. After the Batavian Revolution, inspired by the French Revolution, it had come to be called the \"Princes' March\" as it was banned during the rule of the Patriots, who did not support the House of Orange-Nassau.",
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"plaintext": "However, at the foundation of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1813, the \"Wilhelmus\" had fallen out of favour. Having become monarchs with a claim to represent the entire nation and stand above factions, the House of Orange decided to break with the song which served them as heads of a faction, and the \"Wilhelmus\" was replaced by Hendrik Tollens' song Wien Neêrlands bloed door d'aderen vloeit, which was the official Dutch anthem from 1815 until 1932. However, the \"Wilhelmus\" remained popular and lost its identification as a factional song, and on 10 May 1932, it was decreed that on all official occasions requiring the performance of the national anthem, the \"Wilhelmus\" was to be played – thereby replacing Tollens' song.",
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"plaintext": "Wilhelmus had a Malay translation of which was sung back when Indonesia was under Dutch colonial rule.",
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"plaintext": "During the German occupation of the Netherlands, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, the Nazi Reichskommissar, banned all the emblems of the Dutch royal family, including the \"Wilhelmus\". It was then taken up by all factions of the Dutch resistance, even those socialists who had previously taken an anti-monarchist stance. The pro-German Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging (NSB), who had sung the \"Wilhelmus\" at their meetings before the occupation, replaced it with Alle Man van Neerlands Stam (\"All Men of Dutch Origin\"). The anthem was drawn to the attention of the English-speaking world by the 1942 British war film, One of Our Aircraft Is Missing. The film concerns a Royal Air Force bomber crew who are shot down over the occupied Netherlands and are helped to escape by the local inhabitants. The melody is heard during the film as part of the campaign of passive resistance by the population, and it finishes with the coat of arms of the Netherlands on screen while the \"Wilhelmus\" is played.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Wilhelmus\" is to be played only once at a ceremony or other event and, if possible, it is to be the last piece of music to be played when receiving a foreign head of state or emissary.",
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"plaintext": "During international sport events, such as the World Cup, UEFA European Football Championship, the Olympic Games and the Dutch Grand Prix, the \"Wilhelmus\" is also played. In nearly every case the 1st and 6th stanzas (or repeating the last lines), or the 1st stanza alone, are sung/played rather than the entire song, which would result in about 15 minutes of music.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Wilhelmus\" is also widely used in Flemish nationalist gatherings as a symbol of cultural unity with the Netherlands. Yearly rallies like the \"IJzerbedevaart\" and the \"Vlaams Nationaal Zangfeest\" close with singing the 6th stanza, after which the Flemish national anthem \"De Vlaamse Leeuw\" is sung.",
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"plaintext": "An important set of variations on the melody of \"Wilhelmus van Nassouwe\" is that by the blind carillon-player Jacob van Eyck in his mid-17th century collection of variations Der Fluyten Lust-hof.",
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"plaintext": "The 10-year old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed in 1766, while visiting Holland, a set of 7 variations for keyboard in D major on the song, now listed as K. 25.",
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"plaintext": "Richard Strauss wrote his \"Variationen über 'Wilhelm von Oraniên'\" for military band in 1892. The manuscript which, it seems, was mislaid, is in the Koninklijke Collecties in the Hague. There is a recording available on YouTube by the Band of the Netherlands Royal Marines.",
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"plaintext": "There are two major variations on the Wilhelmus, namely the royal anthem of Luxembourg (called \"De Wilhelmus\") and the song \"Das Treuelied\", German for \"the song of loyalty\".",
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"plaintext": "The melody was first used in Luxembourg (at the time in personal union with the Kingdom of the United Netherlands) on the occasion of the visit of the Dutch King and Grand Duke of Luxembourg William III in 1883. Later, the anthem was played for Grand Duke Adolph of Luxembourg along with the national anthem. The melody is very similar, but not identical to that of the \"Wilhelmus\". It is in official use since 1919.",
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"plaintext": "The second major variation is the song \"Wenn alle untreu werden\" (German: \"If everyone becomes unfaithful\") better known as \"Das Treuelied\", which was written by the poet Max von Schenkendorf (1783–1817) and used exactly the same melody as the \"Wilhelmus\". After the First World War this became extremely popular among German nationalist groups. It became one of the most popular songs of the SS, together with the Horst Wessel song.",
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"plaintext": "The melody is used in the Swedish folksong \"\" (\"Alas, Gothic kingdom\"), written down in 1626. The song deals with the liberation struggle of Sweden under Gustav Vasa in the 16th century.",
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"plaintext": "The \"Wilhelmus\" was first printed in a , literally \"Beggars' songbook\" in 1581. It used the following text as an introduction to the \"Wilhelmus\":",
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"plaintext": "|",
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"plaintext": "|A new Christian song made in the honour of the most noble lord, lord William Prince of Orange, count of Nassau, Pater Patriae (Father of the Nation), my merciful prince and lord. [A song] of which the first capital letter of each stanza form the name of his merciful prince. To the melody of Chartres.",
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"plaintext": " Sheet music of \"Wilhelmus\"",
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"plaintext": " \"Wilhelmus\", vocal version of the first and sixth verse at the Himnuszok website ",
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"plaintext": " A song for Prince William authentic version on youtube",
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"plaintext": " Strauss: \"Variationen über 'Wilhelm von Oraniên'\" for military band",
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| [
"National_anthems",
"Eighty_Years'_War_(1566–1609)",
"Dutch_anthems",
"Cultural_depictions_of_William_the_Silent",
"Songs_about_politicians",
"Songs_about_military_officers",
"National_anthem_compositions_in_A_major",
"National_anthem_compositions_in_G_major",
"Royal_anthems"
]
| 131,713 | 7,685 | 64 | 127 | 0 | 0 | Wilhelmus | anthem of the Netherlands | [
"het Wilhelmus"
]
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"plaintext": "The term \"Indonesian\" is primarily associated with the national standard dialect (). However, in a more loose sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Standard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a diglossic relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages.",
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"plaintext": "The Indonesian name for the language () is also occasionally found in English and other languages. One problem with using Bahasa Indonesia is that it is frequently reduced to Bahasa, on the assumption that this is the name of the language. This is no different from referring to English as ‘Language’ and Indonesians normally would not recognise the name Bahasa alone as referring to their national language.",
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"plaintext": "Standard Indonesian is a standard language of \"Riau Malay\", which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the Riau Islands, but rather represents a form of Classical Malay as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate. Classical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the Strait of Malacca, including the Johor Sultanate and Malacca Sultanate. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium. It might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language (which can be traced back to the 7th century). The Kedukan Bukit Inscription and Prasasti Hujung Langit Pallawa script in Old Malay, Kawi script, Old Sumatra variant It is known that the name of the reigning King written on the 7th line is Your Majesty Parameswara Haji Yuwa Rajya Punku Syri Haridewa in Sumatra is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by Srivijayan empire. Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in Nusantara (archipelago) (Indonesian archipelago), evidenced by Srivijaya inscriptions and by other inscriptions from coastal areas of the archipelago, such as Sojomerto inscription.",
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"plaintext": "Trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian (in its standard form) has essentially the same material basis as the Malaysian standard of Malay and is therefore considered to be a variety of the pluricentric Malay language. However, it does differ from Malaysian Malay in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. These differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the (), which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands.",
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"plaintext": "Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English. The question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. High Malay was the official language used in the court of the Johor Sultanate and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of Riau-Lingga, while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports of the archipelago. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language.",
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"plaintext": "When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) first arrived in the archipelago at the start of the 1600s, the Malay language was a significant trading and political language due to the influence of Malaccan Sultanate and later the Portuguese. However, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the administrative language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC, the Batavian Republic took control of the colony in 1799, and it was only then that education in and promotion of Dutch began in the colony. Even then, Dutch administrators were remarkably reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a small elite: in 1940, only 2% of the total population could speak Dutch. Nevertheless, it did have a significant influence on the development of Malay in the colony: during the colonial era, the language that would be standardized as Indonesian absorbed a large amount of Dutch vocabulary in the form of loanwords.",
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"plaintext": "The nationalist movement that ultimately brought Indonesian to its national language status rejected Dutch from the outset. However, the rapid disappearance of Dutch was a very unusual case compared with other colonized countries, where the colonial language generally has continued to function as the language of politics, bureaucracy, education, technology, and other fields of importance for a significant time after independence. The Indonesian scholar even goes so far as to say that when compared to the situation in other Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, \"Indonesian is perhaps the only language that has achieved the status of a national language in its true sense\" since it truly dominates in all spheres of Indonesian society. The ease with which Indonesia eliminated the language of its former colonial power can perhaps be explained as much by Dutch policy as by Indonesian nationalism. In marked contrast to the French, Spanish and Portuguese, who pursued an assimilation colonial policy, or even the British, the Dutch did not attempt to spread their language among the indigenous population. In fact, they consciously prevented the language from being spread by refusing to provide education, especially in Dutch, to the native Indonesians so they would not come to see themselves as equals. Moreover, the Dutch wished to prevent the Indonesians from elevating their perceived social status by taking on elements of Dutch culture. Thus, until the 1930s, they maintained a minimalist regime and allowed Malay to spread quickly throughout the archipelago.",
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"plaintext": "Dutch dominance at that time covered nearly all aspects, with official forums requiring the use of Dutch, although since the Second Youth Congress (1928) the use of Indonesian as the national language was agreed on as one of the tools in the independence struggle. As of it, Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin inveighed actions underestimating Indonesian. After some criticism and protests, the use of Indonesian was allowed since the Volksraad sessions held in July 1938. By the time they tried to counter the spread of Malay by teaching Dutch to the natives, it was too late, and in 1942, the Japanese conquered Indonesia. The Japanese mandated that all official business be conducted in Indonesian and quickly outlawed the use of the Dutch language. Three years later, the Indonesians themselves formally abolished the language and established bahasa Indonesia as the national language of the new nation. The term bahasa Indonesia itself had been proposed by Mohammad Tabrani in 1926, and Tabrani had further proposed the term over calling the language Malay language during the First Youth Congress in 1926.",
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"plaintext": "Several years prior to the congress, Swiss linguist, Renward Brandstetter wrote An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics in 4 essays from 1910 to 1915. The essays were translated into English in 1916. By \"Indonesia\", he meant the name of the geographical region, and by \"Indonesian languages\" he meant languages in the region, because by that time there was still no notion of Indonesian language.",
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"plaintext": "Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana was a great promoter of the use and development of Indonesian and he was greatly exaggerating the decline of Dutch. Higher education was still in Dutch and many educated Indonesians were writing and speaking in Dutch in many situations (and were still doing so well after independence was achieved). He believed passionately in the need to develop Indonesian so that it could take its place as a fully adequate national language, able to replace Dutch as a means of entry into modern international culture. In 1933, he began the magazine Pujangga Baru (New Writer — Poedjangga Baroe in the original spelling) with co-editors Amir Hamzah and Armijn Pane. The language of Pujangga Baru came in for criticism from those associated with the more classical School Malay and it was accused of publishing Dutch written with an Indonesian vocabulary. Alisjahbana would no doubt have taken the criticism as a demonstration of his success. To him the language of Pujangga Baru pointed the way to the future, to an elaborated, Westernised language able to express all the concepts of the modern world. As an example, among the many innovations they condemned was use of the word bisa instead of dapat for ‘can’. In Malay bisa meant only ‘poison from an animal's bite’ and the increasing use of Javanese bisa in the new meaning they regarded as one of the many threats to the language's purity. Unlike more traditional intellectuals, he did not look to Classical Malay and the past. For him, Indonesian was a new concept; a new beginning was needed and he looked to Western civilisation, with its dynamic society of individuals freed from traditional fetters, as his inspiration.",
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"plaintext": "The prohibition on use of Dutch led to an expansion of Indonesian language newspapers and pressure on them to increase the language's wordstock. The Japanese agreed to the establishment of the Komisi Bahasa (Language Commission) in October 1942, formally headed by three Japanese but with a number of prominent Indonesian intellectuals playing the major part in its activities. Soewandi, later to be Minister of Education and Culture, was appointed secretary, Alisjahbana was appointed an ‘expert secretary’ and other members included the future president and vice-president, Sukarno and Hatta. Journalists, beginning a practice that has continued to the present, did not wait for the Komisi Bahasa to provide new words, but actively participated themselves in coining terms. Many of the Komisi Bahasa's terms never found public acceptance and after the Japanese period were replaced by the original Dutch forms, including jantera (Sanskrit for ‘wheel’), which temporarily replaced mesin (machine), ketua negara (literally ‘chairman of state’), which had replaced presiden (president) and kilang (meaning ‘mill’), which had replaced pabrik (factory). In a few cases, however, coinings permanently replaced earlier Dutch terms, including pajak (earlier meaning ‘monopoly’) instead of belasting (tax) and senam (meaning ‘exercise’) instead of gimnastik (gymnastics). The Komisi Bahasa is said to have coined more than 7000 terms, although few of these gained common acceptance.",
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"plaintext": "The adoption of Indonesian as the country's national language was in contrast to most other post-colonial states. Neither the language with the most native speakers (Javanese) nor the language of the former European colonial power (Dutch) was to be adopted. Instead, a local language with far fewer native speakers than the most widely spoken local language was chosen (nevertheless, Malay was the second most widely spoken language in the colony after Javanese, and had many L2 speakers using it for trade, administration, and education).",
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"plaintext": "In 1945, when Indonesia declared its independence, Indonesian was formally declared the national language, despite being the native language of only about 5% of the population. In contrast, Javanese and Sundanese were the mother tongues of 42–48% and 15% respectively. The combination of nationalistic, political, and practical concerns ultimately led to the successful adoption of Indonesian as a national language.",
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"plaintext": "In 1945, Javanese was easily the most prominent language in Indonesia. It was the native language of nearly half the population, the primary language of politics and economics, and the language of courtly, religious, and literary tradition. What it lacked, however, was the ability to unite the diverse Indonesian population as a whole. With thousands of islands and hundreds of different languages, the newly independent country of Indonesia had to find a national language that could realistically be spoken by the majority of the population and that would not divide the nation by favouring one ethnic group, namely the Javanese, over the others. In 1945, Indonesian was already in widespread use; in fact, it had been for roughly a thousand years. Over that long period, Malay, which would later become standardized as Indonesian, was the primary language of commerce and travel. It was also the language used for the propagation of Islam in the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as the language of instruction used by Portuguese and Dutch missionaries attempting to convert the indigenous people to Christianity. The combination of these factors meant that the language was already known to some degree by most of the population, and it could be more easily adopted as the national language than perhaps any other. Moreover, it was the language of the sultanate of Brunei and of future Malaysia, on which some Indonesian nationalists had claims.",
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"plaintext": "Over the first 53 years of Indonesian independence, the country's first two presidents, Sukarno and Suharto constantly nurtured the sense of national unity embodied by Indonesian, and the language remains an essential component of Indonesian identity. Through a language planning program that made Indonesian the language of politics, education, and nation-building in general, Indonesian became one of the few success stories of an indigenous language effectively overtaking that of a country's colonisers to become the de jure and de facto official language. Today, Indonesian continues to function as the language of national identity as the Congress of Indonesian Youth envisioned, and also serves as the language of education, literacy, modernization, and social mobility. Despite still being a second language to most Indonesians, it is unquestionably the language of the Indonesian nation as a whole, as it has had unrivalled success as a factor in nation-building and the strengthening of Indonesian identity.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian is spoken as a mother tongue and national language. Over 200 million people regularly make use of the national language, with varying degrees of proficiency. In a nation that boasts more than 700 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country. Use of the national language is abundant in the media, government bodies, schools, universities, workplaces, among members of the upper-class or nobility and also in formal situations, despite the 2010 census showing only 19.94% of over-five-year-olds speak mainly Indonesian at home.",
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"plaintext": "Standard Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts. The standard dialect, however, is rarely used in daily conversations, being confined mostly to formal settings. While this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to its written standards), the proximity of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) to its normative form is noticeably low. This is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese) with Indonesian. This results in various vernacular varieties of Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town. This phenomenon is amplified by the use of Indonesian slang, particularly in the cities. Unlike the relatively uniform standard variety, Vernacular Indonesian exhibits a high degree of geographical variation, though Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian functions as the de facto norm of informal language and is a popular source of influence throughout the archipelago.",
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"plaintext": "The most common and widely used colloquial Indonesian is heavily influenced by the Betawi language, a Malay-based creole of Jakarta, amplified by its popularity in Indonesian popular culture in mass media and Jakarta's status as the national capital. In informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature. For example, (no) is often replaced with the Betawi form or the even simpler , while (like, similar to) is often replaced with . or (very), the term to express intensity, is often being replaced with the Javanese-influenced .",
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"plaintext": "As for pronunciation, the diphthongs ai and au on the end of base words are typically pronounced as and . In informal writing, the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort. For example, becomes or , becomes , becomes .",
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"plaintext": "In verbs, the prefix me- is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is often retained, as when becomes (the basic word is ). The suffixes -kan and -i are often replaced by -in. For example, becomes , becomes . The latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to the Indonesian spoken in Jakarta and its surrounding areas.",
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"plaintext": "Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western Borneo stretching to the Bruneian coast. A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent Malayan languages. Its ancestor, Proto-Malayo-Polynesian, a descendant of the Proto-Austronesian language, began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of Austronesian peoples into Maritime Southeast Asia from the island of Taiwan. Indonesian, which originated from Malay, is a member of the Austronesian family of languages, which includes languages from Southeast Asia, the Pacific Ocean and Madagascar, with a smaller number in continental Asia. It has a degree of mutual intelligibility with the Malaysian standard of Malay, which is officially known there as , despite the numerous lexical differences. However, vernacular varieties spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia share limited intelligibility, which is evidenced by the fact that Malaysians have difficulties understanding Indonesian sinetron (soap opera) aired on Malaysia TV stations, and vice versa.",
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"plaintext": "Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken in Madagascar in the Indian Ocean; the Philippines national language, Filipino; Formosan in Taiwan's aboriginal population; and the native Māori language of New Zealand are also members of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking. Many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, Proto-Austronesian language. There are many cognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.",
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"plaintext": "There are more than 250 local languages in Indonesian islands, such as Javanese, Sundanese, etc. While, Malay as the source of Indonesian is mother tongue of ethnic Malay who lives along east coast of Sumatra, in Riau Archipelago, south and west coast of Kalimantan (Borneo). There are several areas, such as Jakarta, Manado, Lesser Sunda islands, and Mollucas which has Malay-based trade languages. Thus, a large proportion of Indonesian, at least, use two language daily, those are Indonesian and local languages. When two languages are used by the same people in this way, they are likely to influence each other.",
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"plaintext": "Beside from local languages, Dutch made the highest contribution to the Indonesian vocabulary, due to the Dutch's colonization for over three centuries, from the 16th century until the mid-20th century. Asian languages also influenced the language, with Chinese influencing Indonesian during the 15th and 16th centuries due to the spice trade; Sanskrit, Tamil, Prakrit ",
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"plaintext": "and Hindi contributing during the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms from the 2nd to the 14th century; followed by Arabic after the spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 13th century. Loanwords from Portuguese were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian also receives many English words as a result of globalization and modernization, especially since the 1990s, as far as the Internet's emergence and development until the present day. Some Indonesian words correspond to Malay loanwords in English, among them the common words orangutan, gong, bamboo, rattan, sarong, and the less common words such as paddy, sago and kapok, all of which were inherited in Indonesian from Malay but borrowed from Malay in English. The phrase \"to run amok\" comes from the Malay verb (to run out of control, to rage).",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian is neither a pidgin nor a creole since its characteristics do not meet any of the criteria for either. It is believed that the Indonesian language was one of the means to achieve independence, but it is opened to receive vocabulary from other foreign languages aside from Malay that it has made contact with since the colonialism era, such as Dutch, English and Arabic among others, as the loan words keep increasing each year.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, Indonesian had 42.8million native speakers and 154.9million second-language speakers, who speak it alongside their local mother tongue, giving a total number of speakers in Indonesia of 197.7million. It is common as a first language in urban areas, and as a second language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia.",
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"plaintext": "The VOA and BBC use Indonesian as their standard for broadcasting in Malay. In Australia, Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with Japanese and Mandarin, taught in some schools as part of the Languages Other Than English programme. Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s.",
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"plaintext": "In East Timor, which was occupied by Indonesia between 1975 and 1999, Indonesian is recognized by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being English), alongside the official languages of Tetum and Portuguese. It is understood by the Malay people of Australia's Cocos Keeling Islands in the Indian Ocean, also in some parts of the Sulu area of the southern Philippines and traces of it are to be found among people of Malay descent in Sri Lanka, South Africa, Suriname, and other places.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia, and its usage is encouraged throughout the Indonesian archipelago. It is regulated in Chapter XV, 1945 Constitution of Indonesia about the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia. Also, in Chapter III, Section 25 to 45, Government regulation No. 24/ 2009 mentions explicitly the status of the Indonesian language.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian functions as a symbol of national identity and pride, and is a lingua franca among the diverse ethnic groups in Indonesia. The language serves as the national and official language, the language of education, communication, transaction and trade documentation, the development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media. It also serves as a vehicle of communication among the provinces and different regional cultures in the country.",
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"plaintext": "According to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language was proclaimed as the unifying language during the Youth Pledge on 28 October 1928 and developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization. As mentioned previously, the language was based on Riau Malay, though linguists note that this is not the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the Riau court. Since its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with a nationalist political agenda to unify Indonesia (former Dutch East Indies). This status has made it relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnic languages, most notably Javanese as the majority ethnic group, and Dutch as the previous coloniser. Compared to the indigenous dialects of Malay spoken in Sumatra and Malay peninsula or the normative Malaysian standard, the Indonesian language differs profoundly by a large amount of Javanese loanwords incorporated into its already-rich vocabulary. As a result, Indonesian has more extensive sources of loanwords, compared to Malaysian Malay. It is sometimes said that the Indonesian language is an artificial language, meaning that it was designed by academics rather than evolving naturally as most common languages have, in order to accommodate the political purpose of establishing an official and unifying language of Indonesia. By borrowing heavily from numerous other languages, it expresses a natural linguistic evolution; in fact, it is as natural as the next language, as demonstrated in its exceptional capacity for absorbing foreign vocabulary.",
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"plaintext": "The disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to a rift between the two standardized varieties. This has been based more upon political nuance and the history of their standardization than cultural reasons, and as a result, there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's variety among Malaysians and Indonesians. Malaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely different normative varieties of the same language, while Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit closely related, languages. Consequently, Indonesians feel little need to harmonise their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas Malaysians are keener to coordinate the evolution of the language with Indonesians, although the 1972 Indonesian alphabet reform was seen mainly as a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian.",
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"plaintext": "It is usually said that there are six vowels in Indonesian. These six vowels are shown in the table below. However, other analyses set up a system with other vowels, particularly the open-mid vowels and .",
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"plaintext": "In standard Indonesian orthography, the Latin alphabet is used, and five vowels are distinguished: a, i, u, e, o. In materials for learners, the mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian has distinguished ⟨é⟩ [] and ⟨è⟩ [] since 2015, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩. Poedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to Javanese influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [], ⟨é⟩ [] and è []. Another example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [] and []. These splits (and loanwords) increase instances of doublets in Indonesian, such as ⟨satai⟩ and ⟨saté⟩. Javanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased the frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩. High vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable in traditional Malay if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) happened in the previous syllable, and mid-vowels could not occur in the final syllable if a high vowel was present in the second-to-last syllable.",
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"plaintext": "Traditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables. The schwa vowel was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable. Although Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as koda (vs kodə 'code') and nasionalisma (vs nasionalismə 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian has four diphthong phonemes only in open syllables. They are:",
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"plaintext": " : kedai ('shop'), pandai ('clever')",
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"plaintext": " : kerbau ('buffalo'), limau ('lemon')",
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"plaintext": " (or in Indonesian): amboi ('wow'), toilet ('toilet')",
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{
"plaintext": " : survei ('survey'), geiser ('geyser')",
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"plaintext": "Some analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually a monophthong followed by an approximant, so represents , represents , and represents . On this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian.",
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"plaintext": "Diphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as:",
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"plaintext": " : e.g. lain ('other') , air ('water') ",
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"plaintext": " : bau ('smell') , laut ('sea') ",
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"plaintext": "The consonants of Indonesian are shown above. Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in parentheses. Some analyses list 19 \"primary consonants\" for Indonesian as the 18 symbols that are not in parentheses in the table as well as the glottal stop . The secondary consonants /f/, /v/, /z/, /ʃ/ and /x/ only appear in loanwords. Some speakers pronounce /v/ in loanwords as [v], otherwise it is [f]. Likewise /x/ may be replaced with [h] or [k] by some speakers. /ʃ/ is sometimes replaced with /s/, which was traditionally used as a substitute for /ʃ/ in older borrowings from Sanskrit, and /f/ is rarely replaced though /p/ was substituted for /f/ in older borrowings such as kopi \"coffee\" from Dutch koffie. /z/ may occasionally be replaced with /s/ or /d͡ʒ/. [z] can also be an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants.",
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"plaintext": "The consonants in Indonesian is influenced by other important language in Indonesian history. The influences included schwa in final closed syllable (e.g. Indonesian pəcəl vs Malay pəcal), initial homorganic nasal stop clusters of ⟨mb⟩, ⟨nd⟩, and ⟨nj⟩ (e.g. Indonesian mbolos 'to malinger'), the consonant-semivowel clusters (e.g. Indonesian pria vs Malay pəria 'male'), introduction of consonant clusters ⟨-ry-⟩ and ⟨-ly-⟩ (e.g. Indonesian gərilya vs Malay gərila 'guerrilla'), increase usage of initial ⟨w-⟩ (e.g. warta and bərita 'news') and intervocalic ⟨w-⟩, and increase of initial and post-consonant ⟨y⟩ [j]. These changes are influence of local languages in Indonesia, such as Balinese, Madurese, Sundanese and especially Javanese, and foreign languages such as Arabic and Dutch.",
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"plaintext": "Orthographic note:",
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"plaintext": "The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:",
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"plaintext": " is written before a vowel, before and .",
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},
{
"plaintext": " is written .",
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"plaintext": " The glottal stop is written as a final , an apostrophe (the use from its being an allophone of /k/ or /ɡ/ in the syllable coda), or it can be unwritten.",
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"plaintext": " is written .",
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},
{
"plaintext": " is written .",
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},
{
"plaintext": " is written .",
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},
{
"plaintext": " is written .",
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{
"plaintext": " is written .",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian has light stress that falls on either the final or penultimate syllable, depending on regional variations as well as the presence of the schwa () in a word. It is generally the penultimate syllable that is stressed, unless its vowel is a schwa . If the penult has a schwa, then stress moves to the ante-penultimate syllable if there is one, even if that syllable has a schwa as well; if the word is disyllabic, the stress is final. In disyllabic stress with a closed penultimate syllable, such as tinggal ('stay') and rantai ('chain'), stress falls on the penult.",
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"plaintext": "However, there is some disagreement among linguists over whether stress is phonemic (unpredictable), with some analyses suggesting that there is no underlying stress in Indonesian.",
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"plaintext": "The classification of languages based on rhythm can be problematic. Nevertheless, acoustic measurements suggest that Indonesian has more syllable-based rhythm than British English, even though doubts remain about whether the syllable is the appropriate unit for the study of Malay prosody.",
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"plaintext": "Word order in Indonesian is generally subject-verb-object (SVO), similar to that of most modern European languages, such as English. However considerable flexibility in word ordering exists, in contrast with languages such as Japanese or Korean, for instance, which always end clauses with verbs. Indonesian, while allowing for relatively flexible word orderings, does not mark for grammatical case, nor does it make use of grammatical gender.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are \"glued\" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words, for example, masak (to cook) may become memasak (cooking), memasakkan (cooks for), dimasak (is cooked), pemasak (a cook), masakan (a meal, cookery), termasak (accidentally cooked). There are four types of affixes: prefixes (awalan), suffixes (akhiran), circumfixes (apitan) and infixes (sisipan). Affixes are categorized into noun, verb, and adjective affixes. Many initial consonants alternate in the presence of prefixes: sapu (to sweep) becomes menyapu (sweeps/sweeping); panggil (to call) becomes memanggil (calls/calling), tapis (to sieve) becomes menapis (sieves).",
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"plaintext": "Other examples of the use of affixes to change the meaning of a word can be seen with the word ajar (to teach):",
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"plaintext": " ajar = to teach",
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"plaintext": "ajari = to teach (imperative, locative)",
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"plaintext": "ajarilah = to teach (jussive, locative)",
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"plaintext": "ajarkan = to teach (imperative, causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": "ajarkanlah = to teach (jussive, causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": "ajarlah = to teach (jussive, active)",
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"plaintext": " ajaran = teachings",
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"plaintext": " belajar = to learn (intransitive, active)",
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"plaintext": " diajar = to be taught (intransitive, active)",
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"plaintext": "diajari = to be taught (transitive, locative)",
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"plaintext": "diajarkan = to be taught (transitive, causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": "dipelajari = to be studied (locative)",
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"plaintext": " dipelajarkan = to be studied (causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": " mempelajari = to study (locative)",
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{
"plaintext": "mempelajarkan = to study (causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": "mengajar = to teach (intransitive, active)",
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"plaintext": " mengajarkan = to teach (transitive, casuative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": "mengajari = to teach (transitive, locative)",
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"plaintext": " pelajar = student",
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"plaintext": "pelajari = to study (imperative, locative)",
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"plaintext": "pelajarilah = to study (jussive, locative)",
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{
"plaintext": "pelajarkan = to study (imperative, causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": "pelajarkanlah = to study (jussive, causative/applicative)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " pengajar = teacher, someone who teaches",
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},
{
"plaintext": " pelajaran = subject, education",
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{
"plaintext": "pelajari = to study (jussive, locative)",
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"plaintext": "pelajarkan = to study (jussive, causative/applicative)",
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{
"plaintext": " pengajaran = lesson",
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},
{
"plaintext": " pembelajaran = learning",
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},
{
"plaintext": " terajar = to be taught (accidentally)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "terajari = to be taught (accidentally, locative)",
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"plaintext": "terajarkan = to be taught (accidentally, causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": " terpelajar = well-educated, literally \"been taught\" ",
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"plaintext": "terpelajari = been taught (locative)",
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"plaintext": "terpelajarkan = been taught (causative/applicative)",
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"plaintext": " berpelajaran = is educated, literally \"has education\"",
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"plaintext": "Noun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to root words. The following are examples of noun affixes:",
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"plaintext": "The prefix per- drops its r before r, l and frequently before p, t, k. In some words it is peng-; though formally distinct, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Indonesian grammar books.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, verb affixes in Indonesian are attached to root words to form verbs. In Indonesian, there are:",
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"plaintext": "Adjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:",
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"plaintext": "In addition to these affixes, Indonesian also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example, maha-, pasca-, eka-, bi-, anti-, pro- etc.",
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"plaintext": "Common derivational affixes for nouns are peng-/per-/juru- (actor, instrument, or someone characterized by the root), -an (collectivity, similarity, object, place, instrument), ke-...-an (abstractions and qualities, collectivities), per-/peng-...-an (abstraction, place, goal or result).",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian does not make use of grammatical gender, and there are only selected words that use natural gender. For instance, the same word is used for he/him and she/her ( or ) or for his and her (, or ). No real distinction is made between \"girlfriend\" and \"boyfriend\", both (although more colloquial terms as girl/girlfriend and boy/boyfriend can also be found). A majority of Indonesian words that refer to people generally have a form that does not distinguish between the sexes. However, unlike English, distinction is made between older or younger.",
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"plaintext": "There are some words that have gender: for instance, means \"daughter\" while means \"son\"; means \"male flight attendant\" while means \"female flight attendant\". Another example is , which means \"sportsman\", versus , meaning \"sportswoman\". Often, words like these (or certain suffixes such as \"-a\" and \"-i\" or \"-wan\" and \"wati\") are absorbed from other languages (in these cases, from Sanskrit through the Old Javanese language).",
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"plaintext": "In some regions of Indonesia such as Sumatra and Jakarta, (a gender-specific term meaning \"older brother\") is commonly used as a form of address for older siblings/males, while (a non-gender specific term meaning \"older sibling\") is often used to mean \"older sister\". Similarly, more direct influences from other languages, such as Javanese and Chinese, have also seen further use of other gendered words in Indonesian. For example: (\"older brother\"), (\"older sister\"), (\"older brother\") and (\"older sister\").",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian grammar does not regularly mark plurals. In Indonesian, to change a singular into a plural one either repeats the word or adds para before it (the latter for living things only); for example, \"students\" can be either or . Plurals are rarely used in Indonesian, especially in informal parlance. Reduplication is often mentioned as the formal way to express the plural form of nouns in Indonesian; however, in informal daily discourse, speakers of Indonesian usually use other methods to indicate the concept of something being \"more than one\". Reduplication may also indicate the conditions of variety and diversity as well, and not simply plurality.",
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"plaintext": "Reduplication is commonly used to emphasise plurality; however, reduplication has many other functions. For example, orang-orang means \"(all the) people\", but orang-orangan means \"scarecrow\". Similarly, while hati means \"heart\" or \"liver\", hati-hati is a verb meaning \"to be careful\". Also, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such as orang-orangan \"scarecrow/scarecrows\", biri-biri \"a/some sheep\" and kupu-kupu \"butterfly/butterflies\". Some reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as in sayur-mayur \"(all sorts of) vegetables\".",
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"plaintext": "Distributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural: pohon \"tree\", pepohonan \"flora, trees\"; rumah \"house\", perumahan \"housing, houses\"; gunung \"mountain\", pegunungan \"mountain range, mountains\".",
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"plaintext": "Quantity words come before the noun: seribu orang \"a thousand people\", beberapa pegunungan \"a series of mountain ranges\", beberapa kupu-kupu \"some butterflies\".",
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"plaintext": "Plural in Indonesian serves just to explicitly mention the number of objects in sentence. For example, Ani membeli satu kilo mangga (Ani buys one kilogram of mangoes). In this case, \"mangoes\", which is plural, is not said as mangga-mangga because the plurality is implicit: the amount a kilogram means more than one mango. So, as it is logically, one does not change the singular into the plural form, because it is not necessary and considered a pleonasm (in Indonesian often called pemborosan kata).",
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"plaintext": "Personal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns. They are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say \"you\". Commonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used (\"does Johnny want to go?\", \"would Madam like to go?\"); kin terms, including fictive kinship, are extremely common. However, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronouns ini \"this, the\" and itu \"that, the\".",
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"plaintext": "From the perspective of a European language, Indonesian boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee (the so-called second person pronouns). These are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker. Indonesian also exhibits pronoun avoidance, often preferring kinship terms and titles over pronouns, particularly for respectful forms of address.",
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"plaintext": "The table below provides an overview of the most commonly and widely used pronouns in the Indonesian language:",
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{
"plaintext": " First person pronouns",
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"plaintext": "Notable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction between two forms of \"we\": kita (you and me, you and us) and kami (us, but not you). The distinction is not always followed in colloquial Indonesian.",
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"plaintext": "Saya and aku are the two major forms of \"I\". Saya is the more formal form, whereas aku is used with family, friends, and between lovers. Sahaya is an old or literary form of saya. Sa(ha)ya may also be used for \"we\", but in such cases it is usually used with sekalian or semua \"all\"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with inclusive kami or exclusive kita. Less common are hamba \"slave\", hamba tuan, hamba datuk (all extremely humble), beta (a royal addressing oneselves), patik (a commoner addressing a royal), kami (royal or editorial \"we\"), kita, təman, and kawan.",
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{
"plaintext": " Second person pronouns",
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"plaintext": "There are three common forms of \"you\", Anda (polite), kamu (familiar), and kalian \"all\" (commonly used as a plural form of you, slightly informal). Anda is used with strangers, recent acquaintances, in advertisements, in business, and when you wish to show distance, while kamu is used in situations where the speaker would use aku for \"I\". Anda sekalian is polite plural. Particularly in conversation, respectful titles like Bapak/Pak \"father\" (used for any older male), Ibu/Bu \"mother\" (any older woman), and tuan \"sir\" are often used instead of pronouns.",
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"plaintext": "Engkau (əngkau), commonly shortened to kau.",
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{
"plaintext": " Third person pronouns",
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"plaintext": "The common word for \"s/he\" and \"they\" is ia, which has the object and emphatic/focused form dia. Bəliau \"his/her Honour\" is respectful. As with \"you\", names and kin terms are extremely common. Mereka \"someone\", mereka itu, or orang itu \"those people\" are used for \"they\".",
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"plaintext": " Regional varieties",
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"plaintext": "There are a large number of other words for \"I\" and \"you\", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages. Saudara \"you\" (male) and saudari (female) (plural saudara-saudara or saudari-saudari) show utmost respect. Daku \"I\" and dikau \"you\" are poetic or romantic. Indonesian gua \"I\" (from Hokkien ) and lu \"you\" () are slang and extremely informal.",
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"plaintext": "The pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Indonesian.",
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"plaintext": "Aku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive enclitic forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia \"my table, our table, your table, his/her table\".",
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"plaintext": "There are also proclitic forms of aku, ku- and kau-. These are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:",
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"plaintext": "Ku-dengar raja itu menderita penyakit kulit. Aku mengetahui ilmu kedokteran. Aku-lah yang akan mengobati dia.",
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"plaintext": "\"It has come to my attention that the King has a skin disease. I am skilled in medicine. I will cure him.\"",
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"plaintext": "Here ku-verb is used for a general report, aku verb is used for a factual statement, and emphatic aku-lah meng-verb (≈ \"I am the one who...\") for focus on the pronoun.",
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"plaintext": "There are two demonstrative pronouns in Indonesian. Ini \"this, these\" is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker. Itu \"that, those\" is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English \"the\". There is no difference between singular and plural. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a ini or itu. The word yang \"which\" is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/ someone, like English \"this one\" or \"that one\".",
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"plaintext": "Verbs are not inflected for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as \"yesterday\") or by other tense indicators, such as sudah \"already\" and belum \"not yet\". On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote voice or intentional and accidental moods. Some of these affixes are ignored in colloquial speech.",
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"plaintext": "Examples of these are the prefixes di- (patient focus, traditionally called ",
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"plaintext": "\"passive voice\", with OVA word order in the third person, and OAV in the first or second persons), meng- (agent focus, traditionally called ",
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"plaintext": "\"active voice\", with AVO word order), memper- and diper- (causative, agent and patient focus), ber- (stative or habitual; intransitive VS order), and ter- (agentless actions, such as those which are involuntary, sudden, stative or accidental, for VA = VO order); the suffixes -kan (causative or benefactive) and -i (locative, repetitive, or exhaustive); and the circumfixes ber-...-an (plural subject, diffuse action) and ke-...-an (unintentional or potential action or state).",
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"plaintext": " duduk to sit down",
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"plaintext": " mendudukkan to sit someone down, give someone a seat, to appoint",
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"plaintext": " menduduki to sit on, to occupy",
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"plaintext": " didudukkan to be given a seat, to be appointed",
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"plaintext": " diduduki to be sat on, to be occupied",
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"plaintext": " terduduk to sink down, to come to sit",
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{
"plaintext": " kedudukan to be situated",
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"plaintext": "Forms in ter- and ke-...-an are often equivalent to adjectives in English.",
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"plaintext": "Four words are used for negation in Indonesian, namely tidak, bukan, jangan, and belum.",
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"plaintext": " Tidak (not), often shortened to tak, is used for the negation of verbs and \"adjectives\".",
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"plaintext": " Bukan (be-not) is used in the negation of a noun.",
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"plaintext": "For example:",
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"plaintext": "For negating imperatives or advising against certain actions in Indonesian, the word jangan (do not) is used before the verb. For example,",
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"plaintext": " Jangan tinggalkan saya di sini!",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Don't leave me here!",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jangan lakukan itu!",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Don't do that!",
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"plaintext": " Jangan! Itu tidak bagus untukmu.",
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{
"plaintext": "Don't! That's not good for you.",
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"plaintext": "There are grammatical adjectives in Indonesian. Stative verbs are often used for this purpose as well. Adjectives are always placed after the noun that they modify. Hence, \"rumah saya\" means \"my house\", while \"saya rumah\" means \"I am a house\". ",
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"plaintext": "To say that something \"is\" an adjective, the determiners \"itu\" and \"ini\" (\"that\" and \"this\") are often used. For example, in the sentence \"anjing itu galak\", the use of \"itu\" gives a meaning of \"the/that dog is ferocious\", while \"anjing ini galak\", gives a meaning of \"this dog is ferocious\". However, if \"itu\" or \"ini\" were not to be used, then \"anjing galak\" would meaning only \"ferocious dog\", a plain adjective without any stative implications. The all-purpose determiner, \"yang\", is also often used before adjectives, hence \"anjing yang galak\" also means \"ferocious dog\" or more literally \"dog which is ferocious\"; \"yang\" will often be used for clarity. Hence, in a sentence such as \"saya didekati oleh anjing galak\" which means \"I was approached by a ferocious dog\", the use of the adjective \"galak\" is not stative at all.",
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"plaintext": "Often the \"ber-\" intransitive verb prefix, or the \"ter-\" stative prefix is used to express the meaning of \"to be...\". For example, \"beda\" means \"different\", hence \"berbeda\" means \"to be different\"; \"awan\" means \"cloud\", hence \"berawan\" means \"cloudy\". Using the \"ter-\" prefix, implies a state of being. For example, \"buka\" means \"open\", hence \"terbuka\" means \"is opened\"; \"tutup\" means \"closed/shut\", hence \"tertutup\" means \"is closed/shut\".",
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"plaintext": "Adjectives, demonstrative determiners, and possessive determiners follow the noun they modify.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian does not have a grammatical subject in the sense that English does. In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both an agent and an object, these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called \"passive\", is the basic and most common word order.",
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"plaintext": "Either the agent or object or both may be omitted. This is commonly done to accomplish one of two things:",
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"plaintext": "1) Adding a sense of politeness and respect to a statement or question",
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"plaintext": "For example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:",
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"plaintext": "2) Agent or object is unknown, not important, or understood from context",
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"plaintext": "For example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:",
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"plaintext": "Ultimately, the choice of voice and therefore word order is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.",
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"plaintext": "Word order is frequently modified for focus or emphasis, with the focused word usually placed at the beginning of the clause and followed by a slight pause (a break in intonation):",
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"plaintext": " Saya pergi ke pasar kemarin \"I went to the market yesterday\" – neutral, or with focus on the subject.",
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"plaintext": " Kemarin saya pergi ke pasar \"Yesterday I went to the market\" – emphasis on yesterday.",
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"plaintext": " Ke pasar saya pergi, kemarin \"To the market I went yesterday\" – emphasis on where I went yesterday.",
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"plaintext": " Pergi ke pasar, saya, kemarin \"To the market went I yesterday\" – emphasis on the process of going to the market.",
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"plaintext": "The last two are more likely to be encountered in speech than in writing.",
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"plaintext": "Another distinguishing feature of Indonesian is its use of measure words, also called classifiers (kata penggolong). In this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, including Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, Thai, Burmese, and Bengali.",
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"plaintext": "Measure words are also found in English such as two head of cattle, a loaf of bread, or this sheet of paper, where *two cattle, a bread, and this paper (in the sense of this piece of paper) would be ungrammatical. The word satu reduces to se- , as it does in other compounds:",
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"plaintext": "Example:",
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"plaintext": "Measure words are not necessary just to say \"a\": burung \"a bird, birds\". Using se- plus a measure word is closer to English \"one\" or \"a certain\":",
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"plaintext": "Ada seekor burung yang bisa berbicara",
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"plaintext": "\"There was a (certain) bird that could talk\"",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian is written with the Latin script. It was originally based on the Dutch spelling and still bears some similarities to it. Consonants are represented in a way similar to Italian, although is always (like English ), is always (\"hard\") and represents as it does in English. In addition, represents the palatal nasal , is used for the velar nasal (which can occur word-initially), for (English ) and for the voiceless velar fricative . Both and are represented with .",
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"plaintext": "Spelling changes in the language that have occurred since Indonesian independence include:",
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"plaintext": "Introduced in 1901, the van Ophuijsen system, (named from the advisor of the system, Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen) was the first standardization of romanized spelling. It was most influenced by the then current Dutch spelling system. In 1947, the spelling was changed into Republican Spelling or Soewandi Spelling (named by at the time Minister of Education, Soewandi). This spelling changed formerly spelled oe into u (however, the spelling influenced other aspects in orthography, for example writing reduplicated words). All of the other changes were a part of the Perfected Spelling System, an officially mandated spelling reform in 1972. Some of the old spellings (which were derived from Dutch orthography) do survive in proper names; for example, the name of a former president of Indonesia is still sometimes written Soeharto, and the central Java city of Yogyakarta is sometimes written Jogjakarta. In time, the spelling system is further updated and the latest update of Indonesian spelling system issued on 26 November 2015 by Minister of Education and Culture decree No 50/2015.",
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"plaintext": "The Indonesian alphabet is exactly the same as in ISO basic Latin alphabet.",
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"plaintext": "Indonesian follows the letter names of the Dutch alphabet. Indonesian alphabet has a phonemic orthography; words are spelled the way they are pronounced, with few exceptions. The letters Q, V and X are rarely encountered, being chiefly used for writing loanwords.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, there are digraphs that are not considered separate letters of the alphabet:",
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"plaintext": "As a modern variety of Malay, Indonesian has been influenced by other languages, including Dutch, English, Greek (from where the name of the country, Indonesia, is coming), Arabic, Chinese, Portuguese, Sanskrit, Tamil, Hindi, and Persian. It is estimated that there are some 750 Sanskrit loanwords in modern Indonesian, 1,000 Arabic loans, some of Persian and Hebrew origin, some 125 words of Portuguese, some of Spanish and Italian origin, and 10,000 loanwords from Dutch. The vast majority of Indonesian words, however, come from the root lexical stock of Austronesian (including Old Malay).",
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"plaintext": "The study of Indonesian etymology and loan words reveals both its historical and social contexts. Examples are the early Sanskrit borrowings from the 7th century during the trading era, the borrowings from Arabic and Persian during the time of the establishment of Islam in particular, and those from Dutch during the colonial period. Linguistic history and cultural history are clearly linked.",
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"plaintext": "List of loan words of Indonesian language published by the Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan (The Language Center) under the Ministry of Education and Culture:",
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"plaintext": "Note: This list only lists foreign languages, and thus omitting numerous local languages of Indonesia that have also been major lexical donors, such as Javanese, Sundanese, Betawi, etc. For a more complete list of these, see List of loanwords in Indonesian.",
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"plaintext": "The Sanskrit influence came from contacts with India since ancient times. The words were either borrowed directly from India or with the intermediary of the Old Javanese language. Although Hinduism and Buddhism are no longer the major religions of Indonesia, Sanskrit, which was the language vehicle for these religions, is still held in high esteem and is comparable with the status of Latin in English and other Western European languages. Sanskrit is also the main source for neologisms, which are usually formed from Sanskrit roots. The loanwords from Sanskrit cover many aspects of religion, art and everyday life.",
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"plaintext": "From Sanskrit came such words as स्वर्ग surga (heaven), भाषा bahasa (language), काच kaca (glass, mirror), राज- raja (king), मनुष्य manusia (mankind), चिन्ता cinta (love), भूमि bumi (earth), भुवन buana (world), आगम agama (religion), स्त्री Istri (wife/woman), जय Jaya (victory/victorious), पुर Pura (city/temple/place) राक्षस Raksasa (giant/monster), धर्म Dharma (rule/regulations), मन्त्र Mantra (words/poet/spiritual prayers), क्षत्रिय Satria (warrior/brave/soldier), विजय Wijaya (greatly victorious/great victory), etc. Sanskrit words and sentences are also used in names, titles, and mottos of the Indonesian National Police and Indonesian Armed Forces such as: Bhayangkara, Laksamana, Jatayu, Garuda, Dharmakerta Marga Reksyaka, Jalesveva Jayamahe, Kartika Eka Paksi, Swa Bhuwana Paksa, Rastra Sewakottama, Yudha Siaga, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Because Sanskrit has long been known in the Indonesian archipelago, Sanskrit loanwords, unlike those from other languages, have entered the basic vocabulary of Indonesian to such an extent that, for many, they are no longer perceived to be foreign. Therefore, one could write a short story using mostly Sanskrit words. The short story below consists of approximately 80 words in Indonesian that are written using Sanskrit words alone, except for a few pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and affixes.",
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"plaintext": "Karena semua dibiayai dana negara jutaan rupiah, sang mahaguru sastra bahasa Kawi dan mahasiswa-mahasiswinya, duta-duta negeri mitra, Menteri Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata suami-istri, beserta karyawan-karyawati lembaga nirlaba segera berdharmawisata ke pedesaan di utara kota kabupaten Probolinggo antara candi-candi purba, berwahana keledai di kala senja dan bersama kepala desa menyaksikan para tani yang berjiwa bersahaja serta berbudi nirmala secara berbahagia berupacara, seraya merdu menyuarakan gita-gita mantra, yang merupakan sarana pujian mereka memuja nama suci Pertiwi, Dewi Bumi yang bersedia menganugerahi mereka karunia dan restu, meraksa dari bahaya, mala petaka dan bencana.",
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"plaintext": "The relationship with China has been going since the 7th century when Chinese merchants traded in some areas of the archipelago such as Riau, West Borneo, East Kalimantan, and North Maluku. As the kingdom of Srivijaya appeared and flourished, China opened diplomatic relations with the kingdom in order to secure trade and seafaring. In 922, Chinese travelers visited Kahuripan in East Java. Since the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Chinese migrants left Mainland China and settled in many parts of Nusantara (now called Indonesia).",
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"plaintext": "The Chinese loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just things exclusively Chinese. Words of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying Hokkien/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as traditional and simplified characters) include pisau (匕首 bǐshǒu – knife), loteng, (樓/層 = lóu/céng– [upper] floor/ level), mie (麵 > 面 Hokkien mī– noodles), lumpia (潤餅 (Hokkien = lūn-piáⁿ)– springroll), cawan (茶碗 cháwǎn– teacup), teko (茶壺 > 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [Hokkien] = teapot), 苦力 kuli = 苦 khu (hard) and 力 li (energy) and even the widely used slang terms gua and lu (from the Hokkien 'goa' 我 and 'lu/li' 汝– meaning 'I/ me' and 'you').",
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"plaintext": "Many Arabic words were brought and spread by merchants from Arab Peninsula like Arabian, Persian, and from the western part of India, Gujarat where many Muslims lived. As a result, many Indonesian words come from the Arabic language. Especially since the late 12th century, Old Malay was heavily influenced by the language and produced many great literary works such as Syair, Babad, Hikayat, and Suluk. This century is known as The Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.",
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"plaintext": "Many loanwords from Arabic are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with Islam, and by extension, with greetings such as the word, \"selamat\" (from = health, soundness) means \"safe\" or \"lucky\". Words of Arabic origin include dunia (from = the present world), names of days (except Minggu), such as Sabtu (from = Saturday), iklan ( = advertisement), kabar ( = news), Kursi ( = a chair), jumat ( = Friday), ijazah ( = 'permission', certificate of authority, e.g. a school diploma certificate), kitab ( = book), tertib ( = order/arrangement) and kamus ( = dictionary). Allah (), as is mostly the case for Arabic speakers, this is the word for God even in Christian Bible translations. Many early Bible translators, when they came across some unusual Hebrew words or proper names, used the Arabic cognates. In the newer translations this practice is discontinued. They now turn to Greek names or use the original Hebrew Word. For example, the name Jesus was initially translated as 'Isa (), but is now spelt as Yesus. Several ecclesiastical terms derived from Arabic still exist in Indonesian language. Indonesian word for bishop is uskup (from = bishop). This in turn makes the Indonesian term for archbishop uskup agung (), which is combining the Arabic word with an Old Javanese word. The term imam (from = leader, prayer leader) is used to translate a Catholic priest, beside its more common association with an Islamic prayer leader. Some Protestant denominations refer to their congregation jemaat (from = group, a community). Even the name of the Bible in Indonesian translation is Alkitab (from = the book), which literally means \"the Book\".",
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"plaintext": "Alongside Malay, Portuguese was the lingua franca for trade throughout the archipelago from the sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century. The Portuguese were among the first westerners to sail eastwards to the \"Spice Islands\". Loanwords from Portuguese were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian words derived from Portuguese include (from = table), (from = bench), (from = closet), (from = doll), (from = window), (from = church), (from = mass), (from = Christmas), (from = Easter), (from = party), (from = dance), (from = cruise), (from = flag), (from = shoes), (from = fork), (from = shirt), (from = chariot), (from = pump), (from = picture), (from = wheel), (from = young woman), (from = school), (from = lantern), (from = priest), (from = Saint), (from = poetry), (from = cheese), (from = butter), (from = soldier), (from = although), (from = room), (from = lagoon), (from = auction), (from = company), (from = passion fruit), (from = lemon), (from = card), (from = English), (from = Saturday), (from = Sunday), etc.",
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"plaintext": "The former colonial power, the Netherlands, left a sizeable amount of vocabulary that can be seen in words such as (from = police), (from = quality), (from = current), (from = smoking cigarettes), (from = corruption), (from = office), (from = zipper), (from = frontrunner), (from = transmission gear), (from = electricity current), (from = company), (from = pharmacy), (from = towel), (from = clothes iron), (from = movie theater), (from = banner), (from = short circuit), (from = uncle), (from = aunt), (from = treat) and (from = free). These Dutch loanwords, and many other non-Italo-Iberian, European language loanwords that came via Dutch, cover all aspects of life. Some Dutch loanwords, having clusters of several consonants, pose difficulties to speakers of Indonesian. This problem is usually solved by insertion of the schwa. For example, Dutch > (screw (n.)). One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words are inspired by the Dutch language.",
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"plaintext": "Before the standardization of the language, many Indonesian words follow standard Dutch alphabet and pronunciation such as \"oe\" for vowel \"u\" or \"dj\" for consonant \"j\" [dʒ]. As a result, Malay words are written with that orthography such as: for the word or for the word , older Indonesian generation tend to have their name written in such order as well.",
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"plaintext": "Many English words were incorporated into Indonesian through globalization. Many Indonesians, however, mistake words already adopted from Dutch as words borrowed from English. Indonesian adopts English words with standardization. For example: from , from , from , from , from , from , from , and so on. However, there are several words that directly borrowed without standardization that have same meanings in English such as: bus, data, domain, detail, internet, film, golf, lift, monitor, radio, radar, unit, safari, sonar, and video, riil as real.",
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"plaintext": "Modern Indonesian draws many of its words from foreign sources, there are many synonyms. For example, Indonesian has three words for \"book\", i.e. (from Sanskrit), (from Arabic) and (from Dutch ); however, each has a slightly different meaning. A is often connected with ancient wisdom or sometimes with esoteric knowledge. A derived form, means a library. A is usually a religious scripture or a book containing moral guidance. The Indonesian words for the Bible and Gospel are and , both directly derived from Arabic. The book containing the penal code is also called the . is the most common word for books.",
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"plaintext": "There are direct borrowings from various other languages of the world, such as (from ) from Japanese, and (from ) which means dried shrimp. Many words that originally are adopted through the Dutch language today however often are mistaken as English due to the similarity in the Germanic nature of both languages. In some cases the words are replaced by English language through globalization: although the word () still literally means strawberry in Indonesian, today the usage of the word is more common. Greek words such as (from ), , (both from ), (from ) came through Dutch, Arabic and Portuguese respectively.",
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"plaintext": "It is notable that some of the loanwords that exist in both Indonesian and Malaysian languages are different in spelling and pronunciation mainly due to how they derived their origins: Malaysian utilises words that reflect the English usage (as used by its former colonial power, the British), while Indonesian uses a Latinate form reflected in the Dutch usage (e.g. (Malaysian) vs. (Indonesian), (Malaysian) vs. (Indonesian)).",
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"plaintext": "Since the time of the independence of Indonesia, Indonesian has seen a surge of neologisms which are formed as acronyms (less commonly also initialisms) or blend words.",
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"plaintext": "Common acronyms are (, from 'Indonesian National Armed Forces'), (, from 'driving licence'), (, from 'ethnic group, religion, race, inter-group [matters]', used when referring to the background of intercommunal conflicts), (, from 'human rights').",
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"plaintext": "Blend words/portmanteau are very common in Indonesian, and have become a productive tool of word formation in both formal and colloquial Indonesian. Examples from official usage include departments and officeholders (e.g. < 'Foreign Minister', < 'Head of Regional Police') or names of provinces and districts ( < 'South Sulawesi', < 'West Java'. Other commonly used portmanteau include < 'community health center', < 'basic commodities' ().",
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"plaintext": "Indonesia hosts a variety of traditional verbal arts such as poetry, historical narratives, romances, and drama; which are expressed in local languages, but modern genres are expressed mainly through Indonesian. Some of classic Indonesian stories include Sitti Nurbaya by Marah Rusli, Azab dan Sengsara by Merari Siregar, and Sengsara Membawa Nikmat by Tulis Sutan Sati. Modern literature like novels, short stories, stage plays, and free-form poetry has developed since the late years of the 19th century and has produced such internationally recognized figures as novelist Pramoedya Ananta Toer, dramatist W.S. Rendra, poet Chairil Anwar, and cinematographer Garin Nugroho. Indonesia's classic novels itself, have their own charm, offering insight into local culture and traditions and the historical background before and immediately after the country gained independence. One notable example is Shackles which was written by Armijn Pane in 1940. Originally titled Belenggu and translated into many languages, including English and German.",
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"plaintext": "Over the past few years, interest in learning Indonesian has grown among non-Indonesians. Various universities have started to offer courses that emphasise the teaching of the language to non-Indonesians. In addition to national universities, private institutions have also started to offer courses, like the Indonesia Australia Language Foundation and the . As early as 1988, teachers of the language have expressed the importance of a standardized (also called BIPA, literally Indonesian Language for Foreign Speaker) materials (mostly books), and this need became more evident during the 4th International Congress on the Teaching of Indonesian to Speakers of Other Languages held in 2001.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2013, the Indonesian embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language courses to 16 batches of Filipino students, as well as training to members of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. In an interview, Department of Education Secretary Armin Luistro said that the country's government should promote Indonesian or Malay, which are related to Filipino. Thus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.",
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"plaintext": "The Indonesian embassy in Washington, D.C., United States also began offering free Indonesian language courses at the beginner and intermediate level.",
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"plaintext": "The following texts are excerpts from the official translations of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Indonesian and Malaysian Malay, along with the original declaration in English.",
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"plaintext": " Austronesian languages",
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"plaintext": " Bahasa, for other languages referred to as ",
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"plaintext": " Language families and languages",
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"plaintext": " Malay language",
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"plaintext": " Demographics of Indonesia",
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"plaintext": " Indonesian slang language",
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"plaintext": " Indonesian abbreviated words",
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"plaintext": " Comparison of Standard Malay and Indonesian",
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"plaintext": " List of English words of Indonesian origin",
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"plaintext": " List of loanwords in Indonesian",
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"plaintext": " How many people speak Indonesian?",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Indonesian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " KBBI Daring (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia dalam jaringan) (online version of the Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, by the Language and Book Development Agency, in Indonesian only)",
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"plaintext": " babla.co.id English-Indonesian dictionary from bab.la, a language learning portal",
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"plaintext": " Download Kamus 2.0.4",
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},
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"plaintext": " download Indonesian English dictionary - IndoDic Download Kamus Inggris Indonesia - IndoDic",
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37,045 | 1,107,425,323 | Odoacer | [
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"plaintext": "Odoacer ( ; – 15 March 493 AD), also spelled Odovacer or Odovacar (), was a soldier and statesman of barbarian background, who deposed the child emperor Romulus Augustulus and became King of Italy (476–493). Odoacer's overthrow of Romulus Augustulus is traditionally seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire as well as Ancient Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Though the real power in Italy was in his hands, he represented himself as the client of the emperor in Constantinople, Zeno. Odoacer often used the Roman honorific patrician, granted by Zeno, but was referred to as a king () in many documents. He himself used the title of king in the only surviving official document that emanated from his chancery, and it was also used by the consul Basilius. Odoacer introduced few important changes into the administrative system of Italy. He had the support of the Roman Senate and was able to distribute land to his followers without much opposition. Unrest among his warriors led to violence in 477–478, but no such disturbances occurred during the later period of his reign. Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, he rarely intervened in the affairs of the Trinitarian state church of the Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Likely of East Germanic descent, Odoacer was a military leader in Italy who led the revolt of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian soldiers that deposed Romulus Augustulus on 4 September AD 476. The young Augustulus had been declared Western Roman Emperor by his father Orestes, the rebellious general of the army in Italy, less than a year before, but had been unable to gain allegiance or recognition beyond central Italy. With the backing of the Roman Senate, Odoacer thenceforth ruled Italy autonomously, paying lip service to the authority of Julius Nepos, the previous Western emperor, and Zeno, the emperor of the East. Upon Nepos's murder in 480 Odoacer invaded Dalmatia, to punish the murderers. He did so, executing the conspirators, but within two years also conquered the region and incorporated it into his domain.",
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"plaintext": "When Illus, master of soldiers of the Eastern Empire, asked for Odoacer's help in 484 in his struggle to depose Zeno, Odoacer invaded Zeno's westernmost provinces. The emperor responded first by inciting the Rugii of present-day Austria to attack Italy. During the winter of 487–488 Odoacer crossed the Danube and defeated the Rugii in their own territory. Zeno also appointed the Ostrogoth Theodoric the Great who was menacing the borders of the Eastern Empire, to be king of Italy, turning one troublesome ally against another. Theodoric invaded Italy in 489 and by August 490 had captured almost the entire peninsula, forcing Odoacer to take refuge in Ravenna. The city surrendered on 5 March 493; Theodoric invited Odoacer to a banquet of reconciliation. Instead of forging an alliance, Theodoric killed the unsuspecting king.",
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"plaintext": "Except for the fact that he was not considered Roman, Odoacer's precise ethnic origins are not known. Some scholars believe his origins lie in the multi-ethnic empire of Attila. Most scholars consider him to be at least partly of Germanic descent, while others argue he was entirely Germanic. Early medieval sources such as Theophanes called him a Goth. Likewise, the sixth-century chronicler, Marcellinus Comes, called him \"king of the Goths\" (Odoacer rex Gothorum).",
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"plaintext": "Jordanes associated him with several of the East Germanic tribes of the Middle Danube who had arrived there during the time of Attila's empire, including the Sciri, Heruli, and Rugii. In several passages he named him king of the Turcilingi, which is a people, or perhaps a dynasty, that is mentioned by no other historical source. Modern historians also propose connections with Goths, Huns or the Thuringii. While in one passage in his Getica, Jordanes describes Odoacer as king of the Turcilingi (Torcilingorum rex) with Scirian and Heruli followers. In another passage (LVII.291), Jordanes mentions Italy during Odoacer's reign being under the tyranny of Turcilingi and Rogii. In his Romana, the same author defines Odoacer as a descendant of the Rugii (or of a person named Rogus, Odoacer genere Rogus) with Turcilingi, Scirian and Heruli followers. It has been pointed out that Attila had an uncle of the name Rogus and suggested that Odoacer may have been his descendant.",
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"plaintext": "In a fragment from a history of Priscus, reproduced by John of Antioch, Odoacer is described as a man of the Sciri, the son of Edeco, and brother of Hunuulf who killed Armatus in the eastern Roman empire. However, it is not universally accepted that this Edeko is the same person who lived at this time since this could be one of two persons: one was an ambassador of Attila to the court in Constantinople, who escorted Priscus and other Imperial dignitaries back to Attila's camp. He was described by Priscus as a Hun. The other is mentioned by Jordanes and identified as a leader of the Sciri, along with Hunuulf (perhaps his son), who were soundly defeated by the Ostrogoths at the Battle of Bolia in Pannonia about 469.",
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"plaintext": "Much later, a memorial plate from 1521 found in the catacombe Chapel of St Maximus in Petersfriedhof—the burial site of St Peter's Abbey in Salzburg (Austria)—mentions Odoacer as King of \"Rhutenes\" or \"Rhutenians\" (), who invaded Noricum in 477. Due to its very late date of 1521 and several anachronistic elements, the content of that plate is considered nothing more than a legend. In spite of that, the plate has become a popular \"source\" for several theorists that try to connect Odoacer with ancient Celtic Ruthenes, and also with later Slavic Ruthenians. As noted by professor Paul R. Magocsi, those theories should be regarded as \"inventive tales\" of \"creative\" writers and nothing more.",
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"plaintext": "Many historians, such as medieval scholar Michael Frasetto, accept that Odoacer was of Scirian heritage. Scholars are still to some extent divided about the evidence for Odoacer's father being a Hun, and also about the identity of the Turcilingi. There is some doubt about whether the name has been reported correctly by Jordanes, and whether they, and even the Sciri, were Germanic. Historian Erik Jensen avows that Odoacer was born to a Gothic mother and that his father Edeco was a Hun. Bruce Macbain, noting that the \"ancient sources exhibit considerable confusion over Odovacer's tribal affiliation, identifying him variously as a Skirian, a Rogian and/or Torcilingian, a Herul, and even a Goth\", subsequently concludes that \"not a single source calls him a Hun\". Historian Penny MacGeorge points out that the confusion about Odoacer's ethnicity is exaggerated. Believing that the Torcilingi were simply a mistake for Thuringii, she argues that the claims he was a Hun \"can almost certainly be dismissed\". She asserts instead that Odoacer was \"surely Germanic, probably half-Scirian, half-Thuringian, and he may have had connections with other tribes through intermarriage\".",
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"plaintext": "The origin of the name Odoacer, which may give indications as to his tribal affiliation, is debated. One suggestion is that Odoacer is derived from the Germanic *Audawakraz (Gothic *Audawakrs), from aud- \"wealth\" and wakr- \"vigilant\" or, combined, \"watcher of the wealth.\" This form finds a cognate in another Germanic language, the titular Eadwacer of the Old English poem Wulf and Eadwacer (where Old English renders the earlier Germanic sound au- as ea-). On the other hand, historians Robert L. Reynolds and Robert S. Lopez explored the possibility that the name Odoacer was not Germanic, making several arguments that his ethnic background might lie elsewhere. One of these is that his name, \"Odoacer\", for which they claimed an etymology in Germanic languages had not been convincingly found, could be a form of the Turkish \"Ot-toghar\" (\"grass-born\" or \"fire-born\"), or the shorter form \"Ot-ghar\" (\"herder\"). Reynolds and Lopez's thesis was criticized by Otto J. Maenschen-Helfen, who pointed out the speciousness of their etymological analysis, since names between Germans and Huns were being used reciprocally. Moreover, there is an often ignored fragment in the Suda that was almost certainly written by the well-informed contemporary, Malchus, who identified Odoacer as a Thuringian. Finally, a passage from Eugippius' Life of Saint Severinus indicated that Odoacer was so tall that he had to bend down to pass through the doorway, another strong argument that he was unlikely a Hun, since they were not known to be tall.",
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"plaintext": "Possibly the earliest recorded incident involving Odoacer is from a fragment of a chronicle preserved in the History of the Franks of Gregory of Tours. Two different chapters of his work mention military leaders with Odoacer's name, using two different spellings and involving two different regions. ",
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"plaintext": "In the first mention, a confused or confusing report is given of a number of battles fought by King Childeric I of the Franks, Aegidius, Count Paul, and one \"Adovacrius\" (with an \"a\") who was leading a group of Saxons based at the mouth of the Loire. Though there is no consensus, some historians, such as Reynolds and Lopez, have suggested that this Adovacrius may be the same person as the future king of Italy. ",
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"plaintext": "In a second mention by Gregory of Tours, an Odovacrius (with an \"o\") made an alliance with the same Childeric, and together they fought the Alamanni, who had been causing problems in Italy. This Odoacer, with his connection to the region north of Italy, and his \"o\" spelling, is probably the future king of Italy, before he was king.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest supposed recorded event which is more certainly about Odoacer the future king, was shortly before he arrived in Italy. Eugippius, in his Life of Saint Severinus, records how a group of barbarians on their way to Italy had stopped to pay their respects to the holy man. Odoacer, at the time \"a young man, of tall figure, clad in poor clothes\", learned from Severinus that he would one day become famous. Despite the fact that Odoacer was an Arian Christian and Severinus was Catholic, the latter left a deep impression on him. When Odoacer took his leave, Severinus made one final comment which proved prophetic: \"Go to Italy, go, now covered with mean hides; soon you will make rich gifts to many.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 470, Odoacer had become an officer in what remained of the Roman Army. Although Jordanes writes of Odoacer as invading Italy \"as leader of the Sciri, the Heruli and allies of various races\", modern writers describe him as being part of the Roman military establishment, based on John of Antioch's statement that Odoacer was on the side of Ricimer at the beginning of his battle with the emperor Anthemius in 472. In his capacity as a soldier suddenly pitted against Anthemius, since he had switched sides to join with Ricimer, Odoacer had \"hastened the emperor's downfall.\"",
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"plaintext": "When Orestes was in 475 appointed Magister militum and patrician by the Western Roman Emperor Julius Nepos, Odoacer became head of the Germanic foederati of Italy (the ScirianHerulic foederati). Under the command of Orestes were significant contingents of Germanic peoples made up mostly of Rugii and Heruli tribesmen. Before the end of that year Orestes had rebelled and driven Nepos from Italy. Orestes then proclaimed his young son Romulus the new emperor as Romulus Augustus, called \"Augustulus\" (31 October). At this time, Odoacer was a soldier rising through the ranks. However, Nepos reorganized his court in Salona, Dalmatia and received homage and affirmation from the remaining fragments of the Western Empire beyond Italy and, most importantly, from Constantinople, which refused to accept Augustulus, Zeno having branded him and his father as traitors and usurpers.",
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"plaintext": "About this time the foederati, who had been quartered in Italy all of these years, had grown weary of this arrangement. In the words of J. B. Bury, \"They desired to have roof-trees and lands of their own, and they petitioned Orestes to reward them for their services, by granting them lands and settling them permanently in Italy\". Orestes refused their petition, and they turned to Odoacer to lead their revolt against Orestes. Orestes was killed at Placentia along with his brother Paulus outside Ravenna. The Germanic foederati, the Scirians and the Heruli, as well as a large segment of the Italic Roman army, then proclaimed Odoacer rex (\"king\") on 23 August 476. Odoacer then advanced to Ravenna and captured the city, compelling the young emperor Romulus to abdicate on 4 September. According to the Anonymus Valesianus, Odoacer was moved by Romulus's youth and his beauty to not only spare his life but give him a pension of 6,000 solidi and sent him to Campania to live with his relatives.",
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"plaintext": "Following Romulus Augustus's deposition, according to the historian Malchus, upon hearing of the accession of Zeno to the throne, the Senate in Rome sent an embassy to the Eastern Emperor and bestowed upon him the Western imperial insignia. The message was clear: the West no longer required a separate Emperor, for \"one monarch sufficed [to rule] the world\". In response, Zeno accepted their gifts and this essentially brought to end any puppet emperors in the West, with Nepos banished and Anthemius dead. The Eastern Emperor then conferred upon Odoacer the title of Patrician and granted him legal authority to govern Italy in the name of Rome. Zeno also suggested that Odoacer should receive Nepos back as Emperor in the West, \"if he truly wished to act with justice.\" Although he accepted the title of Patrician from Zeno, Odoacer did not invite Julius Nepos to return to Rome, and the latter remained in Dalmatia until his death. Odoacer was careful to observe form, however, and made a pretence of acting on Nepos's authority, even issuing coins with both his image and that of Zeno. Following Nepos's murder in 480, who was killed while waiting in Dalmatia, Zeno became sole Emperor.",
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"plaintext": "Bury, however, disagrees that Odoacer's assumption of power marked the fall of the Western Roman Empire:",
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"plaintext": "In 476, Odoacer founded the Kingdom of Italy as its first king, initiating a new era over Roman lands. According to Jordanes, at the beginning of his reign he \"slew Count Bracila at Ravenna that he might inspire a fear of himself among the Romans.\" He took many military actions to strengthen his control over Italy and its neighboring areas. He achieved a solid diplomatic coup by inducing the Vandal king Gaiseric to cede Sicily to him. Noting that \"Odovacar seized power in August of 476, Gaiseric died in January 477, and the sea usually became closed to navigation around the beginning of November\", F.M. Clover dates this cession to September or October 476. When Julius Nepos was murdered by two of his retainers in his country house near Salona (9 May 480), Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins, and at the same time established his own rule in Dalmatia.",
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"plaintext": "As Bury points out, \"It is highly important to observe that Odovacar established his political power with the co-operation of the Roman Senate, and this body seems to have given him their loyal support throughout his reign, so far as our meagre sources permit us to draw inferences.\" He regularly nominated members of the Senate to the Consulate and other prestigious offices: \"Basilius, Decius, Venantius, and Manlius Boethius held the consulship and were either Prefects of Rome or Praetorian Prefects; Symmachus and Sividius were consuls and Prefects of Rome; another senator of old family, Cassiodorus, was appointed a minister of finance.\" A. H. M. Jones also notes that under Odoacer the Senate acquired \"enhanced prestige and influence\" in order to counter any desires for restoration of Imperial rule. As the most tangible example of this renewed prestige, for the first time since the mid-3rd century copper coins were issued with the legend S(enatus) C(onsulto). Jones describes these coins as \"fine big copper pieces\", which were \"a great improvement on the miserable little nummi hitherto current\", and not only were they copied by the Vandals in Africa, but they formed the basis of the currency reform by Anastasius in the Eastern Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Although Odoacer was an Arian Christian, his relations with the Chalcedonian church hierarchy were remarkably good. As G.M. Cook notes in her introduction to Magnus Felix Ennodius' Life of Saint Epiphanius, he showed great esteem for Bishop Epiphanius: in response to the bishop's petition, Odoacer granted the inhabitants of Liguria a five-year immunity from taxes, and again granted his requests for relief from abuses by the praetorian prefect. The biography of Pope Felix III in the Liber Pontificalis openly states that the pontiff's tenure occurred during Odoacer's reign without any complaints about the king being registered.",
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"plaintext": "In 487/488, Odoacer led his army to victory against the Rugians in Noricum, taking their king Feletheus into captivity; when word that Feletheus' son, Fredericus, had returned to his people, Odoacer sent his brother Onoulphus with an army back to Noricum against him. Onoulphus found it necessary to evacuate the remaining Romans and resettled them in Italy. The remaining Rugians fled and took refuge with the Ostrogoths; the abandoned province was settled by the Lombards by 493.",
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"plaintext": "As Odoacer's position improved, Zeno, the Eastern Emperor, increasingly saw him as a rival. Odoacer exchanged messages with Illus, who had been in open revolt against Zeno since 484. Switching allegiances, Zeno subsequently sought to destroy Odoacer and then promised Theodoric the Great and his Ostrogoths the Italian peninsula if they were to defeat and remove Odoacer. As both Herwig Wolfram and Peter Heather point out, Theodoric had his own reasons to agree to this offer: \"Theodoric had enough experience to know (or at least suspect) that Zeno would not, in the long term, tolerate his independent power. When Theodoric rebelled in 485, we are told, he had in mind Zeno's treatment of Armatus. Armatus defected from Basilicus to Zeno in 476, and was made senior imperial general for life. Within a year, Zeno had him assassinated.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 489, Theodoric led the Ostrogoths across the Julian Alps and into Italy. On 28 August, Odoacer met him at the Isonzo, only to be defeated. He withdrew to Verona, reaching its outskirts on 27 September, where he immediately set up a fortified camp. Theodoric followed him and three days later defeated him again. While Odoacer took refuge in Ravenna, Theodoric continued across Italy to Mediolanum, where the majority of Odoacer's army, including his chief general Tufa, surrendered to the Ostrogothic king. Theodoric had no reason to doubt Tufa's loyalty and dispatched his new general to Ravenna with a band of elite soldiers. Herwig Wolfram observes, \"[b]ut Tufa changed sides, the Gothic elite force entrusted to his command was destroyed, and Theodoric suffered his first serious defeat on Italian soil.\" Theodoric recoiled by seeking safety in Ticinum. Odoacer emerged from Ravenna and started to besiege his rival. While both were fully engaged, the Burgundians seized the opportunity to plunder and devastated Liguria. Many Romans were taken into captivity, and did not regain their freedom until Theodoric ransomed them three years later.",
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"plaintext": "The following summer, the Visigothic king Alaric II demonstrated what Wolfram calls \"one of the rare displays of Gothic solidarity\" and sent military aid to help his kinsman, forcing Odoacer to raise his siege. Theodoric emerged from Ticinum, and on 11 August 490, the armies of the two kings clashed on the Adda River. Odoacer again was defeated and forced back into Ravenna, where Theodoric besieged him. Ravenna proved to be invulnerable, surrounded by marshes and estuaries and easily supplied by small boats from its hinterlands, as Procopius later pointed out in his History. Further, Tufa remained at large in the strategic valley of the Adige near Trent, and received unexpected reinforcements when dissent amongst Theodoric's ranks led to sizable desertions. That same year, the Vandals took their turn to strike while both sides were fully engaged and invaded Sicily. While Theodoric was engaged with them, his ally Fredericus, king of the Rugians, began to oppress the inhabitants of Pavia, whom the latter's forces had been garrisoned to protect. Once Theodoric intervened in person in late August, 491, his punitive acts drove Fredericus to desert with his followers to Tufa.",
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"plaintext": "By this time, however, Odoacer appeared to have lost all hope of victory. A large-scale sortie he sent out of Ravenna on the night of 9/10 July 491 ended in failure, during which his commander-in-chief, Livilia, along with the best of his Herulian soldiers were killed. On 29 August 492, the Goths were about to assemble enough ships at Rimini to set up an effective blockade of Ravenna. Despite these decisive losses, the war dragged on until 25 February 493 when John, bishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty between Theodoric and Odoacer to occupy Ravenna together and share joint rule. After a three-year siege, Theodoric entered the city on 5 March. Odoacer died ten days later, slain by Theodoric while they shared a meal. Theodoric had plotted to have a group of his followers kill him while the two kings were feasting together in the imperial palace of Honorius \"Ad Laurentum\" (\"At the Laurel Grove\"); when this plan went astray, Theodoric drew his sword and struck him on the collarbone. In response to Odoacer's dying question, \"Where is God?\" Theodoric cried, \"This is what you did to my friends.\" Theodoric was said to have stood over the body of his dead rival and exclaimed, \"The man has no bones in his body.\"",
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"plaintext": "Not only did Theodoric slay Odoacer, he thereafter had the betrayed king's loyal followers hunted down and killed as well, an event which left him as the master of Italy.{{efn|According to one account, \"That same day, all of Odoacer's army who could be found anywhere were killed by order of Theodoric, as well as all of his family.\"{{efn|See:Anonymus Valesianus 11.56}}}} Odoacer's wife Sunigilda was stoned to death, and his brother Onoulphus was killed by archers while seeking refuge in a church. Theodoric exiled Odoacer's son Thela to Gaul, but when he attempted to return to Italy Theodoric had him killed. Despite the tragic ending of his domain, followers, and family, Odoacer left an important legacy, in that, he had laid the foundations for a great kingdom in Italy for Theodoric to exploit.",
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"plaintext": " Odoacer is depicted in Valerio Massimo Manfredi's 2002 novel The Last Legion, and portrayed by Peter Mullan in its 2007 film adaptation.",
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"plaintext": "The movie The Last Light of Aries'' about Romulus Augustus's deposition by Odoacer, the Chieftain of the Ostrogoths, and the End of the Roman Empire, was released in 2013, by Ivan Pavletić.",
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"plaintext": " Alaric I",
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"plaintext": " Gaiseric",
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"plaintext": " Germanic peoples",
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"plaintext": " Barbarian invasions",
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| [
"430s_births",
"493_deaths",
"5th-century_kings_of_Italy",
"5th-century_Arian_Christians",
"5th-century_monarchs_in_Europe",
"5th-century_murdered_monarchs",
"Germanic_rulers",
"Germanic_warriors",
"Thuringian_people",
"Sciri",
"Huns",
"Deaths_by_blade_weapons",
"Magistri_militum",
"Patricii",
"Kings_of_Italian_states",
"Founding_monarchs",
"States_and_territories_established_in_the_470s",
"States_and_territories_disestablished_in_the_5th_century"
]
| 103,333 | 24,052 | 333 | 168 | 0 | 0 | Odoacer | 5th-century Germanic soldier and monarch | [
"Fl. Odovac",
"Flavius Odovacar",
"Odovacer",
"Odowac"
]
|
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