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37,278 | 1,103,672,804 | Galago | [
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"plaintext": "Galagos , also known as bush babies, or nagapies (meaning \"night monkeys\" in Afrikaans), are small nocturnal primates native to continental, sub-Sahara Africa, and make up the family Galagidae (also sometimes called Galagonidae). They are considered a sister group of the Lorisidae.",
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"plaintext": "According to some accounts, the name \"bush baby\" comes from either the animal's cries or its appearance. The Ghanaian name aposor is given to them because of their firm grip on branches.",
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"plaintext": "In both variety and abundance, the bush babies are the most successful strepsirrhine primates in Africa, according to the African Wildlife Foundation.",
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"plaintext": "Galagos are currently grouped into six genera. Euoticus is a basal sister taxon to all the other galagids. The 'dwarf' galagids recently grouped under the genus Galagoides have been found, based on genetic data, and supported by analysis of vocalisations and morphology, to actually consist of two clades, which are not sister taxa, in eastern and western/central Africa (separated by the rift valley). The latter are basal to all the other non-Euoticus galagids. The former group is sister to Galago and has been elevated to full genus status as Paragalago. The genera Otolemur and Sciurocheirus are also sisters.",
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"plaintext": "Family Galagidae - galagos, or bushbabies",
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"plaintext": " Genus Euoticus, needle-clawed bushbabies",
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"plaintext": "Southern needle-clawed bushbaby, E. elegantulus",
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"plaintext": "Northern needle-clawed bushbaby, E. pallidus",
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"plaintext": "Genus Galago, lesser galagos, or lesser bushbabies",
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"plaintext": "Galago senegalensis group",
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"plaintext": "Somali bushbaby, G. gallarum",
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"plaintext": "Mohol bushbaby, G. moholi",
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"plaintext": "Senegal bushbaby, G. senegalensis",
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"plaintext": "Galago matschiei group",
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"plaintext": "Dusky bushbaby, G. matschiei",
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"plaintext": "Genus Galagoides, western dwarf galagos",
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"plaintext": "Prince Demidoff's bushbaby, Gs. demidovii",
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"plaintext": "Angolan dwarf galago, Gs. kumbirensis",
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"plaintext": "Thomas's bushbaby, Gs. thomasi",
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"plaintext": "Genus †Laetolia",
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"plaintext": "†Laetolia sadimanensis",
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"plaintext": "Genus Otolemur, greater galagos, or thick-tailed bushbabies",
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"plaintext": "Brown greater galago, O. crassicaudatus",
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"plaintext": "Northern greater galago, O. garnettii",
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"plaintext": "Silvery greater galago, O. monteiri",
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"plaintext": "Genus Paragalago, eastern dwarf galagos",
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"plaintext": "Paragalago zanzibaricus group",
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"plaintext": "Kenya coast galago, P. cocos",
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"plaintext": "Grant's bushbaby, P. granti",
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"plaintext": "Malawi bushbaby, P. nyasae",
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"plaintext": "Zanzibar bushbaby, P. zanzibaricus",
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"plaintext": "Paragalago orinus group",
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"plaintext": "Uluguru bushbaby, P. orinus",
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"plaintext": "Rondo bushbaby, P. rondoensis",
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"plaintext": "Uncertain",
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"plaintext": "Rungwe dwarf galago, P. sp. nov.",
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"plaintext": "Genus Sciurocheirus, squirrel galagos",
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"plaintext": "Bioko Allen's bushbaby, S. alleni",
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"plaintext": "Cross River bushbaby, S. cameronensis",
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"plaintext": "Gabon bushbaby, S. gabonensis",
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"plaintext": "Makandé squirrel galago, S. makandensis",
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"plaintext": "The phylogeny of Galagidae according to Masters et al., 2017 is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Galagos have large eyes that give them good night vision in addition to other characteristics, like strong hind limbs, acute hearing, and long tails that help them balance. Their ears are bat-like and allow them to track insects in the dark. They catch insects on the ground or snatch them out of the air. They are fast, agile creatures. As they bound through the thick bushes, they fold their delicate ears back to protect them. They also fold them during rest. They have nails on most of their digits, except for the second toe of the hind foot, which bears a grooming claw. Their diet is a mixture of insects and other small animals, fruit, and tree gums. They have pectinate (comb-like) incisors called toothcombs, and the dental formula: They are active at night.",
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"plaintext": "After a gestation period of 110–133 days, young galagos are born with half-closed eyes and are initially unable to move about independently. After a few (6–8) days, the mother carries the infant in her mouth, and places it on branches while feeding. Females may have singles, twins, or triplets, and may become very aggressive. Each newborn weighs less than half an ounce. For the first three days, the infant is kept in constant contact with the mother. The young are fed by the mother for six weeks and can feed themselves at two months. The young grow rapidly, often causing the mother to walk awkwardly as she transports them.",
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"plaintext": "Females maintain a territory shared with their offspring, while males leave their mothers' territories after puberty. Thus social groups consist of closely related females and their young. Adult males maintain separate territories, which overlap with those of the female social groups; generally, one adult male mates with all the females in an area. Males that have not established such territories sometimes form small bachelor groups.",
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"plaintext": "Bush-babies are sometimes kept as pets, although this is not advised because, like many other nonhuman primates, they are a likely sources of diseases that can cross species barriers. Equally, they are very likely to attract attention from customs officials on importation into many countries. Reports from veterinary and zoological sources indicate captive lifetimes of 12.0 to 16.5 years, suggesting a natural lifetime over a decade.",
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"plaintext": "Galagos communicate by calling to each other and by marking their paths with urine. By following the scent of urine, they can land on exactly the same branch every time. Each species produces a unique set of loud calls that have different functions. One function is to identify individuals as members of a particular species across distances. Scientists can recognize all known galago species by their 'loud calls'. At the end of the night, group members use a special rallying call and gather to sleep in a nest of leaves, a group of branches, or a hole in a tree.",
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"plaintext": "Galagos have remarkable jumping abilities. The highest reliably reported jump for a galago is 2.25 m. According to a study published by the Royal Society, given the body mass of each animal and the fact that the leg muscles amount to about 25% of this, galago's jumping muscles should perform six to nine times better than those of a frog. This is thought to be due to elastic energy storage in tendons of the lower leg, allowing far greater jumps than would otherwise be possible for an animal of their size. In mid-flight, they tuck their arms and legs close to the body; they bring them out at the last second to grab a branch. In a series of leaps, a galago can cover ten yards in mere seconds. The tail, which is longer than the length of the head and body combined, assists the legs in powering the jumps. They may also hop like a kangaroo or simply run or walk on four legs. Such strong, complicated, and coordinated movements are due to the rostral half of the posterior parietal cortex that is linked to the motor, premotor, and visuomotor areas of the frontal cortex.",
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"plaintext": "Generally, the social structure of the galago has components of both social life and solitary life. This can be seen in their play. They swing off branches or climb high and throw things. Social play includes play fights, play grooming, and following-play. During following-play, two galagos jump sporadically and chase each other through the trees. The older galagos in a group prefer to rest alone, while younger ones are in constant contact with one another. This is observed in the Galago garnetti species. Mothers often leave infants alone for long periods and do not try to stop them from leaving. On the other hand, the offspring tries to stay close to, and initiate social interactions with the mother.",
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"plaintext": "Grooming is a very important part of galago daily life. They often groom themselves before, during, and after rest. Social grooming is done more often by males in the group. Females often reject attempts by males to groom them.",
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"plaintext": "The bush baby also refers to a myth that is used to scare children to stay indoors at night. Most likely arising from the baby-like cry, the unusual nature evolved into a myth about a powerful animal that can kidnap humans. It is also said that wild bush babies/galagos in Nigeria can never be found dead on plain ground. Rather, they make a nest of sticks, leaves or branches to die in. Endangerment of the species in sub-Saharan Africa has made this claim difficult to verify.",
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| [
"Galagos",
"Galagidae",
"Lorises_and_galagos",
"Primates_of_Africa",
"Taxa_named_by_John_Edward_Gray"
]
| 185,239 | 12,112 | 262 | 59 | 0 | 0 | Galagidae | family of mammals | [
"Galago"
]
|
37,281 | 1,086,708,568 | Peg_solitaire | [
{
"plaintext": "Peg solitaire, Solo Noble or simply Solitaire is a board game for one player involving movement of pegs on a board with holes. Some sets use marbles in a board with indentations. The game is known as solitaire in Britain and as peg solitaire in the US where 'solitaire' is now the common name for patience. It is also called Brainvita in India, where sets are sold commercially under this name.",
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"plaintext": "The first evidence of the game can be traced back to the court of Louis XIV, and the specific date of 1697, with an engraving made ten years later by Claude Auguste Berey of Anne de Rohan-Chabot, Princess of Soubise, with the puzzle by her side. The August 1697 edition of the French literary magazine Mercure galant contains a description of the board, rules and sample problems. This is the first known reference to the game in print.",
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"plaintext": "The standard game fills the entire board with pegs except for the central hole. The objective is, making valid moves, to empty the entire board except for a solitary peg in the central hole.",
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"plaintext": "There are two traditional boards ('.' as an initial peg, 'o' as an initial hole):",
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"plaintext": "A valid move is to jump a peg orthogonally over an adjacent peg into a hole two positions away and then to remove the jumped peg.",
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"plaintext": "In the diagrams which follow, indicates a peg in a hole, emboldened indicates the peg to be moved, and indicates an empty hole. A blue is the hole the current peg moved from; a red is the final position of that peg, a red is the hole of the peg that was jumped and removed.",
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"plaintext": "Thus valid moves in each of the four orthogonal directions are:",
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"plaintext": " * · o → Jump to right",
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"plaintext": " o · * → Jump to left",
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"plaintext": " * ",
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"plaintext": " · → Jump down",
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"plaintext": " o ",
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"plaintext": " o ",
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"plaintext": " · → Jump up",
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"plaintext": " * ",
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"plaintext": "On an English board, the first three moves might be:",
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{
"plaintext": " · · · · · · · · · · · · ",
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"plaintext": " · * · · · · o · · · ",
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"plaintext": " · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · o o · · ·",
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"plaintext": " · · · o · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·",
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"plaintext": " · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·",
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{
"plaintext": " · · · · · · · · · · · ·",
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{
"plaintext": " · · · · · · · · · · · ·",
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"plaintext": "There are many different solutions to the standard problem, and one notation used to describe them assigns letters to the holes:",
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"plaintext": " English European",
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"plaintext": " a b c a b c",
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{
"plaintext": " d e f y d e f z",
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{
"plaintext": " g h i j k l m g h i j k l m",
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"plaintext": " n o p x P O N n o p x P O N",
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{
"plaintext": " M L K J I H G M L K J I H G",
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{
"plaintext": " F E D Z F E D Y",
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{
"plaintext": " C B A C B A",
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"plaintext": "This mirror image notation is used, amongst other reasons, since on the European board, one set of alternative games is to start with a hole at some position and to end with a single peg in its mirrored position. On the English board the equivalent alternative games are to start with a hole and end with a peg at the same position.",
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"plaintext": "There is no solution to the European board with the initial hole centrally located, if only orthogonal moves are permitted. This is easily seen as follows, by an argument from Hans Zantema. Divide the positions of the board into A, B and C positions as follows:",
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"plaintext": " A B C",
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"plaintext": " A B C A B",
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{
"plaintext": " A B C A B C A",
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"plaintext": " B C A B C A B",
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"plaintext": " C A B C A B C",
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{
"plaintext": " B C A B C",
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{
"plaintext": " A B C",
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"plaintext": "Initially with only the central position free, the number of covered A positions is 12, the number of covered B positions is 12, and also the number of covered C positions is 12. After every move the number of covered A positions increases or decreases by one, and the same for the number of covered B positions and the number of covered C positions. Hence after an even number of moves all these three numbers are even, and after an odd number of moves all these three numbers are odd. Hence a final position with only one peg cannot be reached, since that would require that one of these numbers is one (the position of the peg, one is odd), while the other two numbers are zero, hence even.",
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"plaintext": "There are, however, several other configurations where a single initial hole can be reduced to a single peg.",
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"plaintext": "A tactic that can be used is to divide the board into packages of three and to purge (remove) them entirely using one extra peg, the catalyst, that jumps out and then jumps back again. In the example below, the * is the catalyst.:",
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"plaintext": " * · o o · ",
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"plaintext": " · → · → → o",
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"plaintext": " · · o",
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"plaintext": "This technique can be used with a line of 3, a block of 2·3 and a 6-peg L shape with a base of length 3 and upright of length 4.",
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"plaintext": "Other alternate games include starting with two empty holes and finishing with two pegs in those holes. Also starting with one hole here and ending with one peg there. On an English board, the hole can be anywhere and the final peg can only end up where multiples of three permit. Thus a hole at a can only leave a single peg at a, p, O or C.",
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"plaintext": "A thorough analysis of the game is known. This analysis introduced a notion called pagoda function which is a strong tool to show the infeasibility of a given, generalized, peg solitaire, problem.",
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"plaintext": "A solution for finding a pagoda function, which demonstrates the infeasibility of a given problem, is formulated as a linear programming problem and solvable in polynomial time.",
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"plaintext": "A paper in 1990 dealt with the generalized Hi-Q problems which are equivalent to the peg solitaire problems and showed their NP-completeness.",
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"plaintext": "A 1996 paper formulated a peg solitaire problem as a combinatorial optimization problem and discussed the properties of the feasible region called 'a solitaire cone'.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999 peg solitaire was completely solved on a computer using an exhaustive search through all possible variants. It was achieved making use of the symmetries, efficient storage of board constellations and hashing.",
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"plaintext": "In 2001 an efficient method for solving peg solitaire problems was developed.",
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"plaintext": "An unpublished study from 1989 on a generalized version of the game on the English board showed that each possible problem in the generalized game has 29 possible distinct solutions, excluding symmetries, as the English board contains 9 distinct 3×3 sub-squares. One consequence of this analysis is to put a lower bound on the size of possible \"inverted position\" problems, in which the cells initially occupied are left empty and vice versa. Any solution to such a problem must contain a minimum of 11 moves, irrespective of the exact details of the problem.",
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"plaintext": "It can be proved using abstract algebra that there are only 5 fixed board positions where the game can successfully end with one peg.",
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"plaintext": "The shortest solution to the standard English game involves 18 moves, counting multiple jumps as single moves:",
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"plaintext": "This solution was found in 1912 by Ernest Bergholt and proven to be the shortest possible by John Beasley in 1964.",
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"plaintext": "This solution can also be seen on a page that also introduces the Wolstenholme notation, which is designed to make memorizing the solution easier.",
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"plaintext": "Other solutions include the following list. In these, the notation used is",
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"plaintext": "List of starting holes",
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"plaintext": "Colon",
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"plaintext": "List of end target pegs",
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"plaintext": "Equals sign",
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"plaintext": "Source peg and destination hole (the pegs jumped over are left as an exercise to the reader)",
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"plaintext": ", or / (a slash is used to separate 'chunks' such as a six-purge out)",
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"plaintext": "The only place it is possible to end up with a solitary peg is the centre, or the middle of one of the edges; on the last jump, there will always be an option of choosing whether to end in the centre or the edge.",
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"plaintext": "Following is a table over the number (Possible Board Positions) of possible board positions after n jumps, and the possibility of the same pawn moved to make a further jump (No Further Jumps).",
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"plaintext": "NOTE: If one board position can be rotated and/or flipped into another board position, the board positions are counted as identical.",
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"plaintext": "Since there can only be 31 jumps, modern computers can easily examine all game positions in a reasonable time.",
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"plaintext": "The above sequence \"PBP\" has been entered as A112737 in OEIS. Note that the total number of reachable board positions (sum of the sequence) is 23,475,688, while the total number of possible board positions is 8,589,934,590 (33bit-1) (2^33) , So only about 2.2% of all possible board positions can be reached starting with the center vacant.",
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"plaintext": "It is also possible to generate all board positions. The results below have been obtained using",
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"plaintext": "the mcrl2 toolset (see the peg_solitaire example in the distribution).",
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"plaintext": "In the results below, it has generated all the board positions it really reached starting with the center vacant and finishing in the central hole.",
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"plaintext": "There are 3 initial non-congruent positions that have solutions. These are:",
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"plaintext": "1)",
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{
"plaintext": " 0 1 2 3 4 5 6",
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{
"plaintext": " 0 o · ·",
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{
"plaintext": " 1 · · · · ·",
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{
"plaintext": " 2 · · · · · · ·",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 3 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 4 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
{
"plaintext": " 5 · · · · ·",
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{
"plaintext": " 6 · · ·",
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"plaintext": "Possible solution: [2:2-0:2, 2:0-2:2, 1:4-1:2, 3:4-1:4, 3:2-3:4, 2:3-2:1, 5:3-3:3, 3:0-3:2, 5:1-3:1, 4:5-4:3, 5:5-5:3, 0:4-2:4, 2:1-4:1, 2:4-4:4, 5:2-5:4, 3:6-3:4, 1:1-1:3, 2:6-2:4, 0:3-2:3, 3:2-5:2, 3:4-3:2, 6:2-4:2, 3:2-5:2, 4:0-4:2, 4:3-4:1, 6:4-6:2, 6:2-4:2, 4:1-4:3, 4:3-4:5, 4:6-4:4, 5:4-3:4, 3:4-1:4, 1:5-1:3, 2:3-0:3, 0:2-0:4]",
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{
"plaintext": "2)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 0 1 2 3 4 5 6",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 0 · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 1 · · o · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 2 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 3 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 4 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 5 · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
{
"plaintext": " 6 · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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},
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"plaintext": "Possible solution: [1:1-1:3, 3:2-1:2, 3:4-3:2, 1:4-3:4, 5:3-3:3, 4:1-4:3, 2:1-4:1, 2:6-2:4, 4:4-4:2, 3:4-1:4, 3:2-3:4, 5:1-3:1, 4:6-2:6, 3:0-3:2, 4:5-2:5, 0:2-2:2, 2:6-2:4, 6:4-4:4, 3:4-5:4, 2:3-2:1, 2:0-2:2, 1:4-3:4, 5:5-5:3, 6:3-4:3, 4:3-4:1, 6:2-4:2, 3:2-5:2, 4:0-4:2, 5:2-3:2, 3:2-1:2, 1:2-1:4, 0:4-2:4, 3:4-1:4, 1:5-1:3, 0:3-2:3]",
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{
"plaintext": "and ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "3)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 0 1 2 3 4 5 6",
"section_idx": 3,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 0 · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 1 · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 2 · · · o · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 3 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 4 · · · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 5 · · · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 6 · · ·",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Strategy",
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},
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"plaintext": "Possible solution: [2:1-2:3, 0:2-2:2, 4:1-2:1, 4:3-4:1, 2:3-4:3, 1:4-1:2, 2:1-2:3, 0:4-0:2, 4:4-4:2, 3:4-1:4, 6:3-4:3, 1:1-1:3, 4:6-4:4, 5:1-3:1, 2:6-2:4, 1:4-1:2, 0:2-2:2, 3:6-3:4, 4:3-4:1, 6:2-4:2, 2:3-2:1, 4:1-4:3, 5:5-5:3, 2:0-2:2, 2:2-4:2, 3:4-5:4, 4:3-4:1, 3:0-3:2, 6:4-4:4, 4:0-4:2, 3:2-5:2, 5:2-5:4, 5:4-3:4, 3:4-1:4, 1:5-1:3]",
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"plaintext": "Peg solitaire has been played on other size boards, although the two given above are the most popular. It has also been played on a triangular board, with jumps allowed in all 3 directions. As long as the variant has the proper \"parity\" and is large enough, it will probably be solvable.",
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"plaintext": "A common triangular variant has five pegs on a side. A solution where the final peg arrives at the initial empty hole is not possible for a hole in one of the three central positions. An empty corner-hole setup can be solved in ten moves, and an empty midside-hole setup in nine (Bell 2008):",
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"plaintext": "On June 26, 1992, a video game based on peg solitaire was released for the Game Boy. Titled simply \"Solitaire\", the game was developed by Hect. In North America, DTMC released the game as \"Lazlos' Leap\".",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Video game",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cracker Barrel features the game at every table at their locations. The board featured is triangular with 15 total holes.",
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{
"plaintext": ".",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " 206 (6): 156–166, June 1962; 214 (2): 112–113, Feb. 1966; 214 (5): 127, May 1966.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
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"plaintext": "Play Multiple Versions of Peg Solitaire including English, European, Triangular, Hexagonal, Propeller, Minimum, 4Holes, 5Holes, Easy Pinwheel, Banzai7, Megaphone, Owl, Star and Arrow at pegsolitaire.org",
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}
]
| [
"Mechanical_puzzles",
"Single-player_games",
"Solitaire_tabletop_games"
]
| 1,411,087 | 4,164 | 32 | 13 | 0 | 0 | Peg solitaire | Board game for one player | [
"Sailor’s Solitaire",
"Hi-Q",
"Solo Noble",
"Solitaire",
"Brainvita"
]
|
37,282 | 1,107,347,549 | Klondike_(solitaire) | [
{
"plaintext": "Klondike, also known as Canfield, is a card game for one player and the best known and most popular version of the patience or solitaire family, something which \"defies explanation\" as it has one of the lowest rates of success of any such game. Partly because of that, it has spawned numerous variants including Batsford, Easthaven, King Albert, Thumb and Pouch, Somerset or Usk and Whitehead, as well as the American variants of the games, Agnes and Westcliff. The distinguishing feature of all variants is a triangular layout of the tableau, building in ascending sequence and packing in descending order.",
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"plaintext": "In the U.S. and Canada, it is so well known that the term \"Solitaire\", in the absence of qualifiers, typically refers to Klondike and is considered its other name. Equally in the UK, it is often just known as \"Patience\". Elsewhere the game is known as American Patience.",
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"plaintext": "Historically Klondike was also called Canfield in America, perhaps because it was a casino game at the Canfield Casino in Saratoga Springs, New York, and this is the name by which it became known in England. Today, however, Canfield is more usually the American name for the patience game called \"Demon\" in England, which is a different game altogether. Likewise the rumour prevails that this other game was devised by Richard Canfield even though Canfield himself called his game \"Klondike\".",
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"plaintext": "According to Tung (2015), the game became popular in the late 19th century, and may well have been named \"Klondike\" after the Canadian region where the Klondike Gold Rush happened in 1896–1899. The earliest rules for the game known as Klondike today appear in the 1907 edition of Hoyle's Games under the name \"Seven-Card Klondike\". Hoyles calls it a simpler version of \"Klondike\", also described in the same book, but which turns out to be a gambling version of the game nowadays known as Canfield in the US and Demon elsewhere in the world.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1913 edition of the so-called Official Rules of Card Games, Seven-Card Klondike has become Klondike, with the modification that the pack is run through one card at a time instead of three, and the original Klondike is now being called Canfield.",
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"plaintext": "Klondike's inclusion in Microsoft Windows in the 1990s contributed significantly to its current popularity. It is considered the most popular version of solitaire, which \"defies explanation\" as the chances of success in getting it out (i.e. winning) are one of the lowest of any patience or solitaire.",
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"plaintext": "Klondike is played with a standard 52-card deck, without Jokers. ",
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"plaintext": "After shuffling, a tableau of seven fanned piles of cards is laid from left to right. From left to right, each pile contains one more card than the last. The first and left-most pile contains a single upturned card, the second pile contains two cards, the third pile contains three cards, the fourth pile contains four cards, the fifth pile contains five cards, the sixth pile contains six cards, and the seventh pile contains seven cards. The topmost card of each pile is turned face up. ",
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"plaintext": "The remaining cards form the stock and are placed facedown at the upper left of the layout.",
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"plaintext": "The four foundations (light rectangles in the upper right of the figure) are built up by suit from Ace (low in this game) to King, and the tableau piles can be built down by alternate colors. Every face-up card in a partial pile, or a complete pile, can be moved, as a unit, to another tableau pile on the basis of its highest card. Any empty piles can be filled with a King, or a pile of cards with a King. The aim of the game is to build up four stacks of cards starting with Ace and ending with King, all of the same suit, on one of the four foundations, at which time the player would have won.",
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"plaintext": "There are different ways of dealing the remainder of the deck from the stock to the waste, including the following:",
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"plaintext": " Turning three cards at once to the waste, with no limit on passes through the deck.",
"section_idx": 3,
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"plaintext": " Turning three cards at once to the waste, with three passes through the deck.",
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"plaintext": " Turning one card at a time to the waste, with three passes through the deck.",
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"plaintext": " Turning one card at a time to the waste with only a single pass through the deck, and playing it if possible.",
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"plaintext": " Turning one card at a time to the waste, with no limit on passes through the deck.",
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"plaintext": "If the player can no longer make any meaningful moves, the game is considered lost. At this point, winning is impossible.",
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"plaintext": "The probability of being able to win a game of Klondike with best-possible play is not known, although Hoyle's Rules of Games suggests the chances of winning as being 1 in 30 games. The inability of theoreticians to precisely calculate these odds has been referred to by mathematician Persi Diaconis as \"one of the embarrassments of applied probability\".",
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"plaintext": "The best information about the winnability of Klondike concerns a modified version of the game called \"Thoughtful Solitaire\" or \"Thoughtful Klondike\", in which the location of all 52 cards is known.",
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"plaintext": "The probability of winning Thoughtful Klondike (with draw three rules) has been calculated as being approximately 82%, more precisely as having a confidence interval of 81.956% ± 0.096%. Thoughtful Klondike is not quite the same as simply playing with all cards face up, as this would allow an impossible movement of a pile if the top downturned card happened to be in sequence with the upturned card underneath it. Using physical cards, Thoughtful Klondike can be played by peeking at the face-down cards or by dealing the downturned cards face-up but sideways to differentiate them from the tableau piles. With electronic programs Thoughtful Klondike can be played by allowing unlimited use of undos to return to the start if a choice turns out to be unfavorable. ",
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"plaintext": "Because the only difference between the two games (regular and thoughtful) is the knowledge of card location, all thoughtful games with solutions will also have solutions in Klondike. Since any winnable Klondike game must necessarily be winnable when played thoughtfully, the results on Thoughtful Klondike tells us that 82% is an upper bound on the winnability of regular Klondike when we don't know the location of all cards. The true probability with best play might be much smaller, because the difference between a right and wrong move cannot be known in advance whenever more than one move is possible and some cards are still hidden. Ultimately, very little is known about the winnability of regular Klondike. A Klondike-playing AI using Monte Carlo tree search was able to solve up to 35% of randomly generated regular Klondike games, placing a lower bound on the winnability percentage. One experiment found a skilled player could win 189 out of 442 games (43%), but this gives a massive gap of almost 40% between that number and 82%.",
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"plaintext": "Below are some single-pack variants of Klondike:",
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"plaintext": " Agnes (US variant): the stock is dealt in batches of seven on reserve piles and every one is available. Furthermore, the bases of the foundations depends on the twenty-ninth card, which is dealt on the foundations.",
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"plaintext": " Easthaven (less commonly Aces Up,) twenty-one cards are dealt into seven piles of three, two face-down and one face-up. A space in this game may only be filled by a king or sequence starting with a king (several rule sets simplify this and allow any card or sequence to be moved to a vacancy), and when a play goes to a standstill, seven new cards are dealt to the tableau, one top of each pile. Easthaven may be played with 2 or 3 decks. The two-deck version is either called Double Easthaven or Gypsy.",
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"plaintext": " Nine Across: nine columns of cards are dealt, as opposed to seven in classic Klondike. The player can choose which cards to form the foundations; if one or more eights are exposed, for example, the player may decide to build on eights, and the piles are built up 8-9-10-J-Q-K-Ace-2-3-4-5-6-7. If eights are built on, sevens fill up spaces and so forth. The stock is dealt through one by one as many times as required.",
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"plaintext": " Somerset or Usk: as Klondike but all the cards are dealt out: 10 in the first row, 9 in the second, and so on until there are 3 in the last.",
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"plaintext": " Thumb and Pouch: a card in the tableau can be built upon another that is any suit other than its own (e.g. spades cannot be placed over spades) and spaces can be filled by any card or sequence.",
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"plaintext": " Whitehead: all cards are dealt face up, building is by color (red on red, black on black), a sequence made up of cards that are of the same suit can be moved as a unit, and a space can be filled by any card or sequence.",
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"plaintext": " Westcliff (US variant): thirty cards are dealt into ten piles of three cards, two face down and one face up. A space in this game can be filled with any card or sequence.",
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"plaintext": " Kuipers: as Klondike but with eight columns instead of seven, turning one card at a time to the waste, with no limit on passes through the deck. This lowers the probability of winning to approximately 5%.",
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"plaintext": "The game can be played with a Tarot-style 78-card deck (such as a Tarot Nouveau). There are two ways of doing this. Each has nine increasing tableau stacks.",
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"plaintext": " Klondike Nouveau Run: use five foundations, and either use the Fool as the first card in the trumps foundation, or remove it before playing. The Knight or Cavalier (Chevalier) ranks between the Jack and the Queen.",
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"plaintext": " Klondike Tarot Evens: use six foundations; the usual four, and then use the red knights (cavaliers) as the royals for trumps 1–10, and the black knights as the royals for trumps 11–21.",
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"plaintext": "In some casinos, Klondike is turned into a gambling game, by playing with the rule of dealing cards one at a time and going through the stock once. For example, a player would pay $50 to play, and the house would pay $5 for each card played to the foundations. This form of Klondike is sometimes called Las Vegas Solitaire.",
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"plaintext": "Joker Solitaire is a variant of Klondike created by Joli Quentin Kansil which adds two jokers that serve as limited wild cards. This adds more skill because players are required to make many calculated decisions.",
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"plaintext": "Klondike has been turned into a two player game under the name Double Solitaire. Players have their own packs and may not play to each other's tableaus, but share their foundations. Players take turns until they are unable to play a card from their talons. The first player to play all 52 cards is the winner. Informally, \"Double\" Solitaire can be played as a party game with more than 2 players.",
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"plaintext": "Digital versions of Klondike have helped popularize the game and offer advantages over playing with a physical deck. Notable examples of computerized versions include:",
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"plaintext": " A software version of Klondike named simply \"Solitaire\" has been a regular inclusion in the Microsoft Windows operating system, beginning from Windows 3.0 in 1990. Initially Microsoft included the game as both a diversion and a teaching tool: for many users, Solitaire was their first introduction to using a computer mouse. Microsoft officials stated in 1994 that \"for years, Solitaire was the most-used application for Windows\".",
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"plaintext": " The Atari Program Exchange published Mark Reid's implementation of Klondike for the Atari 8-bit family, simply titled Solitaire, in 1981.",
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"plaintext": " Michael A. Casteel's shareware version of Klondike for the Macintosh was first released in 1984, and has been continually updated since.",
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"plaintext": " Klondike was added to 51 Worldwide Classics for Nintendo Switch, a compilation of tabletop games.",
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"plaintext": "Scoring in the Microsoft Windows Solitaire version of Klondike is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Moving cards directly from the Waste stack to a Foundation scores 10 points. However, if the card is first moved to a Tableau, and then to a Foundation, an extra 5 points are scored making a total of 15. Thus to score the most points, no cards should be moved directly from the Waste to Foundation.",
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"plaintext": "Time also plays a role, if the 'Timed game' option is selected. In this case, 2 points are deducted every 10 seconds. Bonus points are scored using the formula 700,000 ÷ (seconds to finish), if the game takes at least 30 seconds. If the game takes under 30 seconds, no bonus points are awarded.",
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"plaintext": " FreeCell",
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"plaintext": " List of solitaires",
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"plaintext": " Glossary of solitaire",
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"plaintext": " Solitaire",
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"plaintext": " Arnold, Peter (2011). Card Games for One. Chambers.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Literature",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Coops, Helen Leslie (1939). 100 Games of Solitaire. Whitman. 128 pp.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Morehead, Albert and Geoffrey Mott-Smith (2001). The Complete Book of Solitaire and Patience. Foulsham, Slough.",
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| 1,191,033 | 18,213 | 69 | 46 | 0 | 0 | Klondike | solitaire card game | [
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"plaintext": "Edna Ferber (August 15, 1885 – April 16, 1968) was an American novelist, short story writer and playwright. Her novels include the Pulitzer Prize-winning So Big (1924), Show Boat (1926; made into the celebrated 1927 musical), Cimarron (1930; adapted into the 1931 film which won the Academy Award for Best Picture), Giant (1952; made into the 1956 film of the same name) and Ice Palace (1958), which also received a film adaptation in 1960.",
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"plaintext": "Ferber was born August 15, 1885, in Kalamazoo, Michigan, to a Hungarian-born Jewish storekeeper, Jacob Charles Ferber, and his Milwaukee, Wisconsin-born wife, Julia (Neumann) Ferber, who was of German Jewish descent. She moved often due to her father's business failures, likely caused by his early blindness. After living in Chicago, Illinois, she moved to Ottumwa, Iowa with her parents and older sister, Fannie, where they resided for 7 years (age 5 to 12 for Ferber). In Ottumwa, Ferber and her family faced brutal anti-Semitism, including adult males verbally abusing, mocking and spitting on her every day when she brought lunch to her father, often mocking her in a Yiddish accent. At the age of 12, Ferber and her family moved to Appleton, Wisconsin, where she graduated from high school and briefly attended Lawrence University.",
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"plaintext": "Initially going to study acting, Ferber abandoned these plans to help support her family at age 17. Forbidden to study elocution and on the spur of the moment, Ferber ended her higher education and dropped out of Lawrence, subsequently being hired at the Appleton Daily Crescent and eventually the Milwaukee Journal. She covered the 1920 Republican National Convention and 1920 Democratic National Convention for the United Press Association during her period as a reporter.",
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"plaintext": "When Ferber was recovering from anemia, her first short stories were compiled and published along with her first novel, Dawn O'Hara, The Girl Who Laughed, in 1911.",
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"plaintext": "In 1925, she won the Pulitzer Prize for her book So Big. Ferber initially believed her draft of what would become So Big lacked a plot, glorified failure, and had a subtle theme that could easily be overlooked. When she sent the book to her usual publisher, Doubleday, she was surprised to learn that he greatly enjoyed the novel. This was reflected by the several hundreds of thousands of copies of the novel sold to the public. Following the award, the novel was made into a silent film starring Colleen Moore that same year. A remake followed in 1932, starring Barbara Stanwyck and George Brent, with Bette Davis in a supporting role. A 1953 version of So Big starring Jane Wyman is the most popular version to modern audiences.",
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"plaintext": "Riding the popularity of So Big, Ferber's next novel, Show Boat, was just as successful. Shortly after its release, composer Jerome Kern proposed turning it into a musical. Ferber was shocked, thinking it would be transformed into a typical light entertainment of the 1920s. It was not until Kern explained that he and Oscar Hammerstein II wanted to create a different type of musical that Ferber granted him the rights and it premiered on Broadway in 1927, and has been revived 8 times.",
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"plaintext": "On July 29, 2002, in her hometown of Appleton, Wisconsin, the U.S. Postal Service issued an 83¢ Distinguished Americans series postage stamp honoring her. Artist Mark Summers, well known for his scratchboard technique, created this portrait for the stamp referencing a black-and-white photograph of Ferber taken in 1927.",
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"plaintext": "An additional fictionalized version of Edna Ferber, with her as the protagonist, appears in a series of mystery novels by Ed Ifkovic and published by Poisoned Pen Press, including Downtown Strut: An Edna Ferber Mystery, written in 2013.",
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"plaintext": " Dawn O'Hara, The Girl Who Laughed (1911)",
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"plaintext": " Buttered Side Down (1912)",
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"plaintext": " Roast Beef, Medium (1913) Emma McChesney stories",
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"plaintext": " Personality Plus (1914) Emma McChesney stories",
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"plaintext": " Cheerful – By Request (1918)",
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"plaintext": " They Brought Their Women (1933)",
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"plaintext": " One Basket: Thirty-One Short Stories (1947) Includes \"No Room at the Inn: A Story of Christmas in the World Today\"",
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"plaintext": "Headaches as a result of raised intracranial pressure can be an early symptom of brain cancer. However, isolated headache without other symptoms is rare, and other symptoms including visual abnormalities may occur before headaches become common. Certain warning signs for headache exist which make the headache more likely to be associated with brain cancer. These are, as defined by the American Academy of Neurology: \"abnormal neurological examination, headache worsened by Valsalva maneuver, headache causing awakening from sleep, new headache in the older population, progressively worsening headache, atypical headache features, or patients who do not fulfill the strict definition of migraine\". Other associated signs are headaches that are worse in the morning or that subside after vomiting.",
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"plaintext": "The brain is divided into lobes and each lobe or area has its own function. A tumor in any of these lobes may affect the area's performance. The symptoms experienced are often linked to the location of the tumor, but each person may experience something different.",
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"plaintext": " Frontal lobe: Tumors may contribute to poor reasoning, inappropriate social behavior, personality changes, poor planning, lower inhibition, and decreased production of speech (Broca's area).",
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"plaintext": " Temporal lobe: Tumors in this lobe may contribute to poor memory, loss of hearing, and difficulty in language comprehension (Wernicke's area is located in this lobe).",
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"plaintext": " Parietal lobe: Tumors here may result in poor interpretation of languages, difficulty with speaking, writing, drawing, naming, and recognizing, and poor spatial and visual perception.",
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"plaintext": " Occipital lobe: Damage to this lobe may result in poor vision or loss of vision.",
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"plaintext": " Cerebellum: Tumors in this area may cause poor balance, muscle movement, and posture.",
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"plaintext": " Brain stem: Tumors on the brainstem can cause seizures, endocrine problems, respiratory changes, visual changes, headaches and partial paralysis.",
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"plaintext": "A person's personality may be altered due to the tumor damaging lobes of the brain. Since the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes control inhibition, emotions, mood, judgement, reasoning, and behavior, a tumor in those regions can cause inappropriate social behavior, temper tantrums, laughing at things which merit no laughter, and even psychological symptoms such as depression and anxiety. More research is needed into the effectiveness and safety of medication for depression in people with brain tumors.",
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"plaintext": "Personality changes can have damaging effects such as unemployment, unstable relationships, and a lack of control.",
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"plaintext": "Epidemiological studies are required to determine risk factors. Aside from exposure to vinyl chloride or ionizing radiation, there are no known environmental factors associated with brain tumors. Mutations and deletions of tumor suppressor genes, such as P53, are thought to be the cause of some forms of brain tumor. Inherited conditions, such as Von Hippel–Lindau disease, tuberous sclerosis, multiple endocrine neoplasia, and neurofibromatosis type 2 carry a high risk for the development of brain tumors. People with celiac disease have a slightly increased risk of developing brain tumors. Smoking has been suggested to increase the risk but evidence remains unclear.",
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"plaintext": "Although studies have not shown any link between cell phone or mobile phone radiation and the occurrence of brain tumors, the World Health Organization has classified mobile phone radiation on the IARC scale into Group 2B – possibly carcinogenic. The claim that cell phone usage may cause brain cancer is likely based on epidemiological studies which observed a slight increase in glioma risk among heavy users of wireless and cordless phones. When those studies were conducted, GSM (2G) phones were in use. Modern, third-generation (3G) phones emit, on average, about 1% of the energy emitted by those GSM (2G) phones, and therefore the finding of an association between cell phone usage and increased risk of brain cancer is not based upon current phone usage.",
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"plaintext": "Human brains are surrounded by a system of connective tissue membranes called meninges that separate the brain from the skull. This three-layered covering is composed of (from the outside in) the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the leptomeninges. Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This fluid circulates in the narrow spaces between cells and through the cavities in the brain called ventricles, to support and protect the brain tissue. Blood vessels enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the blood–brain barrier which protects the brain from toxins that might enter through the blood.",
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"plaintext": "Tumors of the meninges are meningiomas and are often benign. Though not technically a tumor of brain tissue, they are often considered brain tumors since they protrude into the space where the brain is, causing symptoms. Since they are usually slow-growing tumors, meningiomas can be quite large by the time symptoms appear.",
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"plaintext": "The brains of humans and other vertebrates are composed of very soft tissue and have a gelatin-like texture. Living brain tissue has a pink tint in color on the outside (gray matter), and nearly complete white on the inside (white matter), with subtle variations in color. The three largest divisions of the brain are:",
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"plaintext": " Cerebral cortex",
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"plaintext": " Brainstem",
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"plaintext": " Cerebellum",
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"plaintext": "These areas are composed of two broad classes of cells: neurons and glia. These two types are equally numerous in the brain as a whole, although glial cells outnumber neurons roughly 4 to 1 in the cerebral cortex. Glia come in several types, which perform a number of critical functions, including structural support, metabolic support, insulation, and guidance of development. Primary tumors of the glial cells are called gliomas and often are malignant by the time they are diagnosed.",
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"plaintext": "The thalamus and hypothalamus are major divisions of the diencephalon, with the pituitary gland and pineal gland attached at the bottom; tumors of the pituitary and pineal gland are often benign.",
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"plaintext": "The brainstem lies between the large cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. It is divided into the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.",
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"plaintext": "The spinal cord is considered a part of the central nervous system. It is made up of the same cells as the brain: neurons and glial cells.",
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"plaintext": "Although there is no specific or singular symptom or sign, the presence of a combination of symptoms and the lack of corresponding indications of other causes can be an indicator for investigation towards the possibility of a brain tumor. Brain tumors have similar characteristics and obstacles when it comes to diagnosis and therapy with tumors located elsewhere in the body. However, they create specific issues that follow closely to the properties of the organ they are in.",
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"plaintext": "The diagnosis will often start by taking a medical history noting medical antecedents, and current symptoms. Clinical and laboratory investigations will serve to exclude infections as the cause of the symptoms. Examinations in this stage may include the eyes, otolaryngological (or ENT) and electrophysiological exams. The use of electroencephalography (EEG) often plays a role in the diagnosis of brain tumors.",
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"plaintext": "Brain tumors, when compared to tumors in other areas of the body, pose a challenge for diagnosis. Commonly, radioactive tracers are uptaken in large volumes in tumors due to the high activity of tumor cells, allowing for radioactive imaging of the tumor. However, most of the brain is separated from the blood by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a membrane that exerts a strict control over what substances are allowed to pass into the brain. Therefore, many tracers that may reach tumors in other areas of the body easily would be unable to reach brain tumors until there was a disruption of the BBB by the tumor. Disruption of the BBB is well imaged via MRI or CT scan, and is therefore regarded as the main diagnostic indicator for malignant gliomas, meningiomas, and brain metastases.",
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"plaintext": "Swelling or obstruction of the passage of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the brain may cause (early) signs of increased intracranial pressure which translates clinically into headaches, vomiting, or an altered state of consciousness, and in children changes to the diameter of the skull and bulging of the fontanelles. More complex symptoms such as endocrine dysfunctions should alarm doctors not to exclude brain tumors.",
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"plaintext": "A bilateral temporal visual field defect (due to compression of the optic chiasm) or dilation of the pupil, and the occurrence of either slowly evolving or the sudden onset of focal neurologic symptoms, such as cognitive and behavioral impairment (including impaired judgment, memory loss, lack of recognition, spatial orientation disorders), personality or emotional changes, hemiparesis, hypoesthesia, aphasia, ataxia, visual field impairment, impaired sense of smell, impaired hearing, facial paralysis, double vision, or more severe symptoms such as tremors, paralysis on one side of the body hemiplegia, or (epileptic) seizures in a patient with a negative history for epilepsy, should raise the possibility of a brain tumor.",
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"plaintext": "Medical imaging plays a central role in the diagnosis of brain tumors. Early imaging methods– invasive and sometimes dangerous– such as pneumoencephalography and cerebral angiography have been abandoned in favor of non-invasive, high-resolution techniques, especially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans, though MRI is typically the reference standard used. Neoplasms will often show as differently colored masses (also referred to as processes) in CT or MRI results.",
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"plaintext": " Benign brain tumors often show up as hypodense (darker than brain tissue) mass lesions on CT scans. On MRI, they appear either hypodense or isointense (same intensity as brain tissue) on T1-weighted scans, or hyperintense (brighter than brain tissue) on T2-weighted MRI, although the appearance is variable.",
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"plaintext": " Contrast agent uptake, sometimes in characteristic patterns, can be demonstrated on either CT or MRI scans in most malignant primary and metastatic brain tumors.",
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"plaintext": " Pressure areas where the brain tissue has been compressed by a tumor also appear hyperintense on T2-weighted scans and might indicate the presence a diffuse neoplasm due to an unclear outline. Swelling around the tumor known as peritumoral edema can also show a similar result.",
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"plaintext": "This is because these tumors disrupt the normal functioning of the BBB and lead to an increase in its permeability. More recently, advancements have been made to increase the utility of MRI in providing physiological data that can help to inform diagnosis and prognosis. Perfusion Weighted Imaging (PWI) and Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI) are two MRI techniques that reviews have been shown to be useful in classifying tumors by grade, which was not previously viable using only structural imaging. However, these techniques cannot alone diagnose high- versus low-grade gliomas, and thus the definitive diagnosis of brain tumor should only be confirmed by histological examination of tumor tissue samples obtained either by means of brain biopsy or open surgery. The histological examination is essential for determining the appropriate treatment and the correct prognosis. This examination, performed by a pathologist, typically has three stages: interoperative examination of fresh tissue, preliminary microscopic examination of prepared tissues, and follow-up examination of prepared tissues after immunohistochemical staining or genetic analysis.",
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"plaintext": "Tumors have characteristics that allow the determination of malignancy and how they will evolve, and determining these characteristics will allow the medical team to determine the management plan.",
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"plaintext": "Anaplasia or dedifferentiation: loss of differentiation of cells and of their orientation to one another and blood vessels, a characteristic of anaplastic tumor tissue. Anaplastic cells have lost total control of their normal functions and many have deteriorated cell structures. Anaplastic cells often have abnormally high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratios, and many are multinucleated. Additionally, the nucleus of anaplastic cells is usually unnaturally shaped or oversized. Cells can become anaplastic in two ways: neoplastic tumor cells can dedifferentiate to become anaplasias (the dedifferentiation causes the cells to lose all of their normal structure/function), or cancer stem cells can increase their capacity to multiply (i.e., uncontrollable growth due to failure of differentiation).",
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"plaintext": "Atypia: an indication of abnormality of a cell (which may be indicative of malignancy). Significance of the abnormality is highly dependent on context.",
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"plaintext": "Neoplasia: the (uncontrolled) division of cells. As such, neoplasia is not problematic but its consequences are: the uncontrolled division of cells means that the mass of a neoplasm increases in size, and in a confined space such as the intracranial cavity this quickly becomes problematic because the mass invades the space of the brain pushing it aside, leading to compression of the brain tissue and increased intracranial pressure and destruction of brain parenchyma. Increased intracranial pressure (ICP) may be attributable to the direct mass effect of the tumor, increased blood volume, or increased cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volume, which may, in turn, have secondary symptoms.",
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"plaintext": "Necrosis: the (premature) death of cells, caused by external factors such as infection, toxin or trauma. Necrotic cells send the wrong chemical signals which prevent phagocytes from disposing of the dead cells, leading to a buildup of dead tissue, cell debris and toxins at or near the site of the necrotic cells",
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"plaintext": "Arterial and venous hypoxia, or the deprivation of adequate oxygen supply to certain areas of the brain, occurs when a tumor makes use of nearby blood vessels for its supply of blood and the neoplasm enters into competition for nutrients with the surrounding brain tissue. More generally a neoplasm may cause release of metabolic end products (e.g., free radicals, altered electrolytes, neurotransmitters), and release and recruitment of cellular mediators (e.g., cytokines) that disrupt normal parenchymal function.",
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"plaintext": "Tumors can be benign or malignant, can occur in different parts of the brain, and may be classified as primary or secondary. A primary tumor is one that has started in the brain, as opposed to a metastatic tumor, which is one that has spread to the brain from another area of the body. The incidence of metastatic tumors is approximately four times greater than primary tumors. Tumors may or may not be symptomatic: some tumors are discovered because the patient has symptoms, others show up incidentally on an imaging scan, or at an autopsy.",
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"plaintext": "Grading of the tumors of the central nervous system commonly occurs on a 4-point scale (I-IV) created by the World Health Organization in 1993. Grade I tumors are the least severe and commonly associated with long-term survival, with severity and prognosis worsening as the grade increases. Low-grade tumors are often benign, while higher grades are aggressively malignant and/or metastatic. Other grading scales do exist, many based upon the same criteria as the WHO scale and graded from I-IV.",
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"plaintext": "The most common primary brain tumors are:",
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"plaintext": " Gliomas (50.4%)",
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"plaintext": " Meningiomas (20.8%)",
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"plaintext": " Pituitary adenomas (15%)",
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"plaintext": " Nerve sheath tumors (10%)",
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"plaintext": "These common tumors can also be organized according to tissue of origin as shown below:",
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"plaintext": "Secondary tumors of the brain are metastatic and have invaded the brain from cancers originating in other organs. This means that a cancerous neoplasm has developed in another organ elsewhere in the body and that cancer cells have leaked from that primary tumor and then entered the lymphatic system and blood vessels. They then circulate through the bloodstream, and are deposited in the brain. There, these cells continue growing and dividing, becoming another invasive neoplasm of primary cancer's tissue. Secondary tumors of the brain are very common in the terminal phases of patients with an incurable metastasized cancer; the most common types of cancers that bring about secondary tumors of the brain are lung cancer, breast cancer, malignant melanoma, kidney cancer, and colon cancer (in decreasing order of frequency).",
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"plaintext": "Secondary brain tumors are more common than primary ones; in the United States, there are about 170,000 new cases every year. Secondary brain tumors are the most common cause of tumors in the intracranial cavity. The skull bone structure can also be subject to a neoplasm that by its very nature reduces the volume of the intracranial cavity, and can damage the brain.",
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"plaintext": "Brain tumors or intracranial neoplasms can be cancerous (malignant) or non-cancerous (benign). However, the definitions of malignant or benign neoplasms differ from those commonly used in other types of cancerous or non-cancerous neoplasms in the body.",
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"plaintext": "In cancers elsewhere in the body, three malignant properties differentiate benign tumors from malignant forms of cancer: benign tumors are self-limited and do not invade or metastasize. Characteristics of malignant tumors include:",
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"plaintext": " uncontrolled mitosis (growth by division beyond the normal limits)",
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"plaintext": " anaplasia: the cells in the neoplasm have an obviously different form (in size and shape). Anaplastic cells display marked pleomorphism. The cell nuclei are characteristically extremely hyperchromatic (darkly stained) and enlarged; the nucleus might have the same size as the cytoplasm of the cell (nuclear-cytoplasmic ratio may approach 1:1, instead of the normal 1:4 or 1:6 ratio). Giant cells – considerably larger than their neighbors – may form and possess either one enormous nucleus or several nuclei (syncytia). Anaplastic nuclei are variable and bizarre in size and shape.",
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"plaintext": " invasion or infiltration (medical literature uses these terms as synonymous equivalents. However, for clarity, the articles that follow adhere to a convention that they mean slightly different things; this convention is not followed outside these articles):",
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"plaintext": " Invasion or invasiveness is the spatial expansion of the tumor through uncontrolled mitosis, in the sense that the neoplasm invades the space occupied by adjacent tissue, thereby pushing the other tissue aside and eventually compressing the tissue. Often these tumors are associated with clearly outlined tumors in imaging.",
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"plaintext": " Infiltration is the behavior of the tumor either to grow (microscopic) tentacles that push into the surrounding tissue (often making the outline of the tumor undefined or diffuse) or to have tumor cells \"seeded\" into the tissue beyond the circumference of the tumorous mass; this does not mean that an infiltrative tumor does not take up space or does not compress the surrounding tissue as it grows, but an infiltrating neoplasm makes it difficult to say where the tumor ends and the healthy tissue starts.",
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"plaintext": " metastasis (spread to other locations in the body via lymph or blood).",
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"plaintext": "Of the above malignant characteristics, some elements do not apply to primary neoplasms of the brain:",
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"plaintext": " Primary brain tumors rarely metastasize to other organs; some forms of primary brain tumors can metastasize but will not spread outside the intracranial cavity or the central spinal canal. Due to the BBB, cancerous cells of a primary neoplasm cannot enter the bloodstream and get carried to another location in the body. (Occasional isolated case reports suggest spread of certain brain tumors outside the central nervous system, e.g. bone metastasis of glioblastoma multiforme.)",
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"plaintext": " Primary brain tumors generally are invasive (i.e. they will expand spatially and intrude into the space occupied by other brain tissue and compress those brain tissues); however, some of the more malignant primary brain tumors will infiltrate the surrounding tissue.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, the WHO restructured their classifications of some categories of gliomas to include distinct genetic mutations that have been useful in differentiating tumor types, prognoses, and treatment responses. Genetic mutations are typically detected via immunohistochemistry, a technique that visualizes the presence or absence of a targeted protein via staining.",
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"plaintext": " Mutations in IDH1 and IDH2 genes are commonly found in low-grade gliomas",
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"plaintext": " Loss of both IDH genes combined with loss of chromosome arms 1p and 19q indicates the tumor is an oligodendroglioma",
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"plaintext": " Loss of TP53 and ATRX characterizes astrocytomas",
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"plaintext": " Genes EGFR, TERT, and PTEN, are commonly altered in gliomas and are useful in differentiating tumor grade and biology",
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"plaintext": "Anaplastic astrocytoma, Anaplastic oligodendroglioma, Astrocytoma, Central neurocytoma, Choroid plexus carcinoma, Choroid plexus papilloma, Choroid plexus tumor, Colloid cyst, Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumour, Ependymal tumor, Fibrillary astrocytoma, Giant-cell glioblastoma, Glioblastoma multiforme, Gliomatosis cerebri, Gliosarcoma, Hemangiopericytoma, Medulloblastoma, Medulloepithelioma, Meningeal carcinomatosis, Neuroblastoma, Neurocytoma, Oligoastrocytoma, Oligodendroglioma, Optic nerve sheath meningioma, Pediatric ependymoma, Pilocytic astrocytoma, Pinealoblastoma, Pineocytoma, Pleomorphic anaplastic neuroblastoma, Pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, Primary central nervous system lymphoma, Sphenoid wing meningioma, Subependymal giant cell astrocytoma, Subependymoma, Trilateral retinoblastoma.",
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"plaintext": "A medical team generally assesses the treatment options and presents them to the person affected and their family. Various types of treatment are available depending on tumor type and location, and may be combined to produce the best chances of survival:",
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"plaintext": " Surgery: complete or partial resection of the tumor with the objective of removing as many tumor cells as possible.",
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"plaintext": " Radiotherapy: the most commonly used treatment for brain tumors; the tumor is irradiated with beta, x rays or gamma rays.",
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"plaintext": " Chemotherapy: a treatment option for cancer, however, it is not always used to treat brain tumors as the blood-brain barrier can prevent some drugs from reaching the cancerous cells.",
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"plaintext": " A variety of experimental therapies are available through clinical trials.",
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"plaintext": "Survival rates in primary brain tumors depend on the type of tumor, age, functional status of the patient, the extent of surgical removal and other factors specific to each case.",
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"plaintext": "Standard care for anaplastic oligodendrogliomas and anaplastic oligoastrocytomas is surgery followed by radiotherapy. One study found a survival benefit for the addition of chemotherapy to radiotherapy after surgery, compared with radiotherapy alone.",
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"plaintext": "The primary and most desired course of action described in medical literature is surgical removal (resection) via craniotomy. Minimally invasive techniques are becoming the dominant trend in neurosurgical oncology. The main objective of surgery is to remove as many tumor cells as possible, with complete removal being the best outcome and cytoreduction (\"debulking\") of the tumor otherwise. A Gross Total Resection (GTR) occurs when all visible signs of the tumor are removed, and subsequent scans show no apparent tumor. In some cases access to the tumor is impossible and impedes or prohibits surgery.",
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"plaintext": "Many meningiomas, with the exception of some tumors located at the skull base, can be successfully removed surgically.",
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"plaintext": "Most pituitary adenomas can be removed surgically, often using a minimally invasive approach through the nasal cavity and skull base (trans-nasal, trans-sphenoidal approach). Large pituitary adenomas require a craniotomy (opening of the skull) for their removal. Radiotherapy, including stereotactic approaches, is reserved for inoperable cases.",
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"plaintext": "Several current research studies aim to improve the surgical removal of brain tumors by labeling tumor cells with 5-aminolevulinic acid that causes them to fluoresce. Postoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy are integral parts of the therapeutic standard for malignant tumors.",
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"plaintext": "Multiple metastatic tumors are generally treated with radiotherapy and chemotherapy rather than surgery and the prognosis in such cases is determined by the primary tumor, and is generally poor.",
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"plaintext": "The goal of radiation therapy is to kill tumor cells while leaving normal brain tissue unharmed. In standard external beam radiation therapy, multiple treatments of standard-dose \"fractions\" of radiation are applied to the brain. This process is repeated for a total of 10 to 30 treatments, depending on the type of tumor. This additional treatment provides some patients with improved outcomes and longer survival rates.",
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"plaintext": "Radiosurgery is a treatment method that uses computerized calculations to focus radiation at the site of the tumor while minimizing the radiation dose to the surrounding brain. Radiosurgery may be an adjunct to other treatments, or it may represent the primary treatment technique for some tumors. Forms used include stereotactic radiosurgery, such as Gamma knife, Cyberknife or Novalis Tx radiosurgery.",
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"plaintext": "Radiotherapy is the most common treatment for secondary brain tumors. The amount of radiotherapy depends on the size of the area of the brain affected by cancer. Conventional external beam \"whole-brain radiotherapy treatment\" (WBRT) or \"whole-brain irradiation\" may be suggested if there is a risk that other secondary tumors will develop in the future. Stereotactic radiotherapy is usually recommended in cases involving fewer than three small secondary brain tumors. Radiotherapy may be used following, or in some cases in place of, resection of the tumor. Forms of radiotherapy used for brain cancer include external beam radiation therapy, the most common, and brachytherapy and proton therapy, the last especially used for children.",
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"plaintext": "People who receive stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and whole-brain radiation therapy (WBRT) for the treatment of metastatic brain tumors have more than twice the risk of developing learning and memory problems than those treated with SRS alone. Results of a 2021 systematic review found that when using SRS as the initial treatment, survival or death related to brain metastasis was not greater than alone versus SRS with WBRT.",
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"plaintext": "Postoperative conventional daily radiotherapy improves survival for adults with good functional well-being and high grade glioma compared to no postoperative radiotherapy. Hypofractionated radiation therapy has similar efficacy for survival as compared to conventional radiotherapy, particularly for individuals aged 60 and older with glioblastoma.",
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"plaintext": "Patients undergoing chemotherapy are administered drugs designed to kill tumor cells. Although chemotherapy may improve overall survival in patients with the most malignant primary brain tumors, it does so in only about 20 percent of patients. Chemotherapy is often used in young children instead of radiation, as radiation may have negative effects on the developing brain. The decision to prescribe this treatment is based on a patient's overall health, type of tumor, and extent of cancer. The toxicity and many side effects of the drugs, and the uncertain outcome of chemotherapy in brain tumors puts this treatment further down the line of treatment options with surgery and radiation therapy preferred.",
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"plaintext": "UCLA Neuro-Oncology publishes real-time survival data for patients with a diagnosis of glioblastoma multiforme. They are the only institution in the United States that displays how brain tumor patients are performing on current therapies. They also show a listing of chemotherapy agents used to treat high-grade glioma tumors.",
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"plaintext": "Genetic mutations have significant effects on the effectiveness of chemotherapy. Gliomas with IDH1 or IDH2 mutations respond better to chemotherapy than those without the mutation. Loss of chromosome arms 1p and 19q also indicate better response to chemoradiation.",
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"plaintext": "A shunt may be used to relieve symptoms caused by intracranial pressure, by reducing the build-up of fluid (hydrocephalus) caused by the blockage of the free flow of cerebrospinal fluid.",
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"plaintext": "The prognosis of brain cancer depends on the type of cancer diagnosed. Medulloblastoma has a good prognosis with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgical resection while glioblastoma multiforme has a median survival of only 12 months even with aggressive chemoradiotherapy and surgery. Brainstem gliomas have the poorest prognosis of any form of brain cancer, with most patients dying within one year, even with therapy that typically consists of radiation to the tumor along with corticosteroids. However, one type, focal brainstem gliomas in children, seems open to exceptional prognosis and long-term survival has frequently been reported.",
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"plaintext": "Prognosis is also affected by presentation of genetic mutations. Certain mutations provide better prognosis than others. IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in gliomas, as well as deletion of chromosome arms 1p and 19q, generally indicate better prognosis. TP53, ATRX, EGFR, PTEN, and TERT mutations are also useful in determining prognosis.",
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"plaintext": "Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive (grade IV) and most common form of a malignant brain tumor. Even when aggressive multimodality therapy consisting of radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgical excision is used, median survival is only 12–17 months. Standard therapy for glioblastoma multiforme consists of maximal surgical resection of the tumor, followed by radiotherapy between two and four weeks after the surgical procedure to remove the cancer, then by chemotherapy, such as temozolomide. Most patients with glioblastoma take a corticosteroid, typically dexamethasone, during their illness to relieve symptoms. Experimental treatments include targeted therapy, gamma knife radiosurgery, boron neutron capture therapy, gene therapy also chemowafer implants.",
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"plaintext": "Oligodendrogliomas are incurable but slowly progressive malignant brain tumors. They can be treated with surgical resection, chemotherapy, radiotherapy or a combination. For some suspected low-grade (grade II) tumors, only a course of watchful waiting and symptomatic therapy is opted for. These tumors show a high frequency of co-deletions of the p and q arms of chromosome 1 and chromosome 19 respectively (1p19q co-deletion) and have been found to be especially chemosensitive with one report claiming them to be one of the most chemosensitive tumors. A median survival of up to 16.7 years has been reported for grade II oligodendrogliomas.",
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"plaintext": "Acoustic neuromas are non-cancerous tumors. They can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or observation. Early intervention with surgery or radiation is recommended to prevent progressive hearing loss.",
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"plaintext": "Figures for incidences of cancers of the brain show a significant difference between more- and less-developed countries (the less-developed countries have lower incidences of tumors of the brain). This could be explained by undiagnosed tumor-related deaths (patients in extremely poor situations do not get diagnosed, simply because they do not have access to the modern diagnostic facilities required to diagnose a brain tumor) and by deaths caused by other poverty-related causes that preempt a patient's life before tumors develop or tumors become life-threatening. Nevertheless, statistics suggest that certain forms of primary brain tumors are more common among certain populations.",
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"plaintext": "The incidence of low-grade astrocytoma has not been shown to vary significantly with nationality. However, studies examining the incidence of malignant central nervous system (CNS) tumors have shown some variation with national origin. Since some high-grade lesions arise from low-grade tumors, these trends are worth mentioning. Specifically, the incidence of CNS tumors in the United States, Israel, and the Nordic countries is relatively high, while Japan and Asian countries have a lower incidence. These differences probably reflect some biological differences as well as differences in pathologic diagnosis and reporting.",
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"plaintext": "Worldwide data on incidence of cancer can be found at the WHO (World Health Organisation) and is handled by the IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer) located in France.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States in 2015, approximately 166,039 people were living with brain or other central nervous system tumors. Over 2018, it was projected that there would be 23,880 new cases of brain tumors and 16,830 deaths in 2018 as a result, accounting for 1.4 percent of all cancers and 2.8 percent of all cancer deaths. Median age of diagnosis was 58 years old, while median age of death was 65. Diagnosis was slightly more common in males, at approximately 7.5 cases per 100 000 people, while females saw 2 fewer at 5.4. Deaths as a result of brain cancer were 5.3 per 100 000 for males, and 3.6 per 100 000 for females, making brain cancer the 10th leading cause of cancer death in the United States. Overall lifetime risk of developing brain cancer is approximated at 0.6 percent for men and women.",
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"plaintext": "Brain, other CNS or intracranial tumors are the ninth most common cancer in the UK (around 10,600 people were diagnosed in 2013), and it is the eighth most common cause of cancer death (around 5,200 people died in 2012). White British patients with brain tumour are 30% more likely to die within a year of diagnosis than patients from other ethnicities. The reason for this is unknown.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States more than 28,000 people under 20 are estimated to have a brain tumor. About 3,720 new cases of brain tumors are expected to be diagnosed in those under 15 in 2019. Higher rates were reported in 1985–1994 than in 1975–1983. There is some debate as to the reasons; one theory is that the trend is the result of improved diagnosis and reporting, since the jump occurred at the same time that MRIs became available widely, and there was no coincident jump in mortality. Central nervous system tumors make up 20–25 percent of cancers in children.",
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"plaintext": "The average survival rate for all primary brain cancers in children is 74%. Brain cancers are the most common cancer in children under 19, are result in more death in this group than leukemia. Younger people do less well.",
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"plaintext": "The most common brain tumor types in children (0-14) are: pilocytic astrocytoma, malignant glioma, medulloblastoma, neuronal and mixed neuronal-glial tumors, and ependymoma.",
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"plaintext": "In children under 2, about 70% of brain tumors are medulloblastomas, ependymomas, and low-grade gliomas. Less commonly, and seen usually in infants, are teratomas and atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumors. Germ cell tumors, including teratomas, make up just 3% of pediatric primary brain tumors, but the worldwide incidence varies significantly.",
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"plaintext": "In the UK, 429 children aged 14 and under are diagnosed with a brain tumour on average each year, and 563 children and young people under the age of 19 are diagnosed.",
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"plaintext": "Cancer immunotherapy is being actively studied. For malignant gliomas no therapy has been shown to improve life expectancy as of 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, researchers used the vesicular stomatitis virus, or VSV, to infect and kill cancer cells without affecting healthy cells.",
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"plaintext": "Led by Prof. Nori Kasahara, researchers from USC, who are now at UCLA, reported in 2001 the first successful example of applying the use of retroviral replicating vectors towards transducing cell lines derived from solid tumors. Building on this initial work, the researchers applied the technology to in vivo models of cancer and in 2005 reported a long-term survival benefit in an experimental brain tumor animal model. Subsequently, in preparation for human clinical trials, this technology was further developed by Tocagen (a pharmaceutical company primarily focused on brain cancer treatments) as a combination treatment (Toca 511 & Toca FC). This has been under investigation since 2010 in a Phase I/II clinical trial for the potential treatment of recurrent high-grade glioma including glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) and anaplastic astrocytoma. No results have yet been published.",
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"plaintext": "Efforts to detect and monitor development and treatment response of brain tumors by liquid biopsy from blood, cerebrospinal fluid or urine, are in the early stages of development.",
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"plaintext": " Tumor",
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"plaintext": " Nervous system neoplasm",
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"plaintext": " List of brain tumor cases",
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"plaintext": " Brain tumour information from Cancer Research UK",
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"plaintext": " Neuro-Oncology: Cancer Management Guidelines",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " MedPix Teaching File MR Scans of Primary Brain Lymphoma, etc.",
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| 233,309 | 22,390 | 2,001 | 323 | 0 | 0 | brain tumor | neoplasm in the brain | [
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37,285 | 1,090,439,991 | Batch_processing | [
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"plaintext": "Computerized batch processing is a method of running software programs called jobs in batches automatically. While users are required to submit the jobs, no other interaction by the user is required to process the batch. Batches may automatically be run at scheduled times as well as being run contingent on the availability of computer resources.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"batch processing\" originates in the traditional classification of methods of production as job production (one-off production), batch production (production of a \"batch\" of multiple items at once, one stage at a time), and flow production (mass production, all stages in process at once).",
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"plaintext": "Early computers were capable of running only one program at a time. Each user had sole control of the machine for a scheduled period of time. They would arrive at the computer with program and data, often on punched paper cards and magnetic or paper tape, and would load their program, run and debug it, and carry off their output when done.",
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"plaintext": "As computers became faster the setup and takedown time became a larger percentage of available computer time. Programs called monitors, the forerunners of operating systems, were developed which could process a series, or \"batch\", of programs, often from magnetic tape prepared offline. The monitor would be loaded into the computer and run the first job of the batch. At the end of the job it would regain control and load and run the next until the batch was complete. Often the output of the batch would be written to magnetic tape and printed or punched offline. Examples of monitors were IBM's Fortran Monitor System, SOS (Share Operating System),",
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"plaintext": "and finally IBSYS for IBM's 709x systems in 1960.",
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"plaintext": " capable of multiprogramming began to appear in the 1960s. Instead of running one batch job at a time, these systems can have multiple batch programs running at the same time in order to keep the system as busy as possible. One or more programs might be awaiting input, one actively running on the CPU, and others generating output. Instead of offline input and output, programs called spoolers read jobs from cards, disk, or remote terminals and place them in a job queue to be run. In order to prevent deadlocks the job scheduler needs to know each job's resource requirements—memory, magnetic tapes, mountable disks, etc., so various scripting languages were developed to supply this information in a structured way. Probably the most well-known is IBM's Job Control Language (JCL). Job schedulers select jobs to run according to a variety of criteria, including priority, memory size, etc. Remote batch is a procedure for submitting batch jobs from remote terminals, often equipped with a punch card reader and a line printer. Sometimes asymmetric multiprocessing is used to spool batch input and output for one or more large computers using an attached smaller and less-expensive system, as in the IBM System/360 Attached Support Processor.",
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"plaintext": "The first general purpose time sharing system, CTSS was compatible with batch processing. This facilitated transitioning from batch processing to interactive computing.",
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"plaintext": "From the late 1960s onwards, interactive computing such as via text-based computer terminal interfaces (as in Unix shells or read-eval-print loops), and later graphical user interfaces became common. Non-interactive computation, both one-off jobs such as compilation, and processing of multiple items in batches, became retrospectively referred to as batch processing, and the term batch job (in early use often \"batch of jobs\") became common. Early use is particularly found at the University of Michigan, around the Michigan Terminal System (MTS).",
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"plaintext": "Although timesharing did exist, its use was not robust enough for corporate data processing; none of this was related to the earlier unit record equipment, which was human-operated.",
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"plaintext": "Non-interactive computation remains pervasive in computing, both for general data processing and for system \"housekeeping\" tasks (using system software). A high-level program (executing multiple programs, with some additional \"glue\" logic) is today most often called a script, and written in scripting languages, particularly shell scripts for system tasks; in IBM PC DOS and MS-DOS this is instead known as a batch file. That includes UNIX-based computers, Microsoft Windows, macOS (whose foundation is the BSD Unix kernel), and even smartphones. A running script, particularly one executed from an interactive login session, is often known as a job, but that term is used very ambiguously.",
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"plaintext": "\"There is no direct counterpart to z/OS batch processing in PC or UNIX systems. Batch jobs are typically executed at a scheduled time or on an as-needed basis. Perhaps the closest comparison is with processes run by an AT or CRON command in UNIX, although the differences are significant.\"",
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"plaintext": "Batch applications are still critical in most organizations in large part because many common business processes are amenable to batch processing. While online systems can also function when manual intervention is not desired, they are not typically optimized to perform high-volume, repetitive tasks. Therefore, even new systems usually contain one or more batch applications for updating information at the end of the day, generating reports, printing documents, and other non-interactive tasks that must complete reliably within certain business deadlines.",
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"plaintext": "Some applications are amenable to flow processing, namely those that only need data from a single input at once (not totals, for instance): start the next step for each input as it completes the previous step. In this case flow processing lowers latency for individual inputs, allowing them to be completed without waiting for the entire batch to finish. However, many applications require data from all records, notably computations such as totals. In this case the entire batch must be completed before one has a usable result: partial results are not usable.",
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"plaintext": "A batch window is \"a period of less-intensive online activity\", when the computer system is able to run batch jobs without interference from, or with, interactive online systems.",
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"plaintext": "A bank's end-of-day (EOD) jobs require the concept of cutover, where transaction and data are cut off for a particular day's batch activity (\"deposits after 3 PM will be processed the next day\").",
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"plaintext": "As requirements for online systems uptime expanded to support globalization, the Internet, and other business needs, the batch window shrank and increasing emphasis was placed on techniques that would require online data to be available for a maximum amount of time.",
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"plaintext": "The batch size refers to the number of work units to be processed within one batch operation. Some examples are:",
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"plaintext": " The number of lines from a file to load into a database before committing the transaction.",
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"plaintext": " The number of messages to dequeue from a queue.",
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"plaintext": " The number of requests to send within one payload.",
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"plaintext": " Efficient bulk database updates and automated transaction processing, as contrasted to interactive online transaction processing (OLTP) applications. The extract, transform, load (ETL) step in populating data warehouses is inherently a batch process in most implementations.",
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"plaintext": " Performing bulk operations on digital images such as resizing, conversion, watermarking, or otherwise editing a group of image files.",
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"plaintext": " Converting computer files from one format to another. For example, a batch job may convert proprietary and legacy files to common standard formats for end-user queries and display.",
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"plaintext": "The IBM mainframe z/OS operating system or platform has arguably the most highly refined and evolved set of batch processing facilities owing to its origins, long history, and continuing evolution. Today such systems commonly support hundreds or even thousands of concurrent online and batch tasks within a single operating system image. Technologies that aid concurrent batch and online processing include Job Control Language (JCL), scripting languages such as REXX, Job Entry Subsystem (JES2 and JES3), Workload Manager (WLM), Automatic Restart Manager (ARM), Resource Recovery Services (RRS), IBM Db2 data sharing, Parallel Sysplex, unique performance optimizations such as HiperDispatch, I/O channel architecture, and several others.",
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"plaintext": "The Unix programs , , and (today is a variant of ) allow for complex scheduling of jobs. Windows has a job scheduler. Most high-performance computing clusters use batch processing to maximize cluster usage.",
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"plaintext": " Batch renaming - to rename lots of files automatically without human intervention, in order to save time and effort",
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"plaintext": " BatchPipes - for utility that increases batch performance",
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37,287 | 1,106,472,013 | Scooby-Doo | [
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"plaintext": "Scooby-Doo is an American animated media franchise comprising many animated television series produced from 1969 to the present, as well as their derivative media. Writers Joe Ruby and Ken Spears created the original series, Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!, for Hanna-Barbera Productions in 1969. This Saturday-morning cartoon series featured teenagers Fred Jones, Daphne Blake, Velma Dinkley, and Shaggy Rogers, and their talking Great Dane named Scooby-Doo, who solve mysteries involving supposedly supernatural creatures through a series of antics and missteps.",
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"plaintext": "Scooby-Doo was originally broadcast on CBS from 1969 to 1976, when it moved to ABC. ABC aired various versions of Scooby-Doo until canceling it in 1985, and presented a spin-off featuring the characters as children called A Pup Named Scooby-Doo from 1988 until 1991. Two Scooby-Doo reboots aired as part of Kids' WB on The WB and its successor The CW from 2002 until 2008. Further reboots were produced for Cartoon Network beginning in 2010 and continuing through 2018. Repeats of the various Scooby-Doo series are frequently broadcast on Cartoon Network's sister channel Boomerang in the United States and other countries. The current Scooby-Doo series, Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?, premiered on June 27, 2019, as an original series on Boomerang's streaming service and later HBO Max.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, TV Guide ranked Scooby-Doo the fifth-greatest TV cartoon of all time.",
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"plaintext": "In 1968, parent-run organizations, particularly Action for Children's Television (ACT), began protesting what they perceived as excessive violence in Saturday-morning cartoons. Most of these shows were Hanna-Barbera action cartoons such as Space Ghost, The Herculoids, and Birdman and the Galaxy Trio, and virtually all of them were canceled by 1969 because of pressure from the parent groups. Members of these watch groups served as advisers to Hanna-Barbera and other animation studios to ensure that new programs would be safe for children.",
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"plaintext": "Fred Silverman, executive for daytime programming at CBS, was then looking for a show that would both revitalize his Saturday-morning line and please the watch groups. The result was The Archie Show from Filmation, based on Bob Montana's teenage humor comic book Archie. Also successful were the musical numbers The Archies performed during each program (one of which, \"Sugar, Sugar\", was the most successful Billboard number-one hit of 1969). Eager to build upon this success, Silverman contacted producers William Hanna and Joseph Barbera about creating another show based on a teenage rock group, this time featuring teens who solved mysteries between gigs. Silverman envisioned the show as a cross between the popular I Love a Mystery radio serials of the 1940s and either the Archie characters or the popular early 1960s television series The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis.",
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"plaintext": "After attempting to develop his own version of the show, called House of Mystery, Barbera, who developed and sold Hanna-Barbera shows while Hanna produced them, passed the task along to storywriters Joe Ruby and Ken Spears, as well as artist/character designer Iwao Takamoto. Their treatment, based in part on The Archie Show, was titled Mysteries Five and featured five teenagers: Geoff, Mike, Kelly, Linda, and Linda's brother W.W., along with their bongo-playing dog, Too Much, who collectively formed the band Mysteries Five. When The Mysteries Five were not performing at gigs, they were out solving spooky mysteries involving ghosts, zombies, and other supernatural creatures. Ruby and Spears were unable to decide whether Too Much would be a large cowardly dog or a small feisty one. When the former was chosen, Ruby and Spears wrote Too Much as a Great Dane but revised the dog character to a large sheepdog (similar to the Archies' sheepdog, Hot Dog) just before their presentation to Silverman, as Ruby feared the character would be too similar to the comic strip character Marmaduke. Silverman rejected their initial pitch, and after consulting with Barbera on next steps, got Barbera's permission to go ahead with Too Much being a Great Dane instead of a sheepdog.",
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"plaintext": "During the design phase, lead character designer Takamoto consulted a studio colleague who was a breeder of Great Danes. After learning the characteristics of a prize-winning Great Dane from her, Takamoto proceeded to break most of the rules and designed Too Much with overly bowed legs, a double chin, and a sloped back, among other abnormalities.",
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"plaintext": "Ruby and Spears' second pass at the show used Dobie Gillis as the template for the teenagers rather than Archie. The treatment retained the dog Too Much, while reducing the number of teenagers to four, removing the Mike character and retaining Geoff, Kelly, Linda, and W.W. As their personalities were modified, so were the characters' names: Geoff became \"Ronnie\"—later renamed \"Fred\" (at Silverman's behest), Kelly became \"Daphne\", Linda \"Velma\", and W.W. \"Shaggy\". The teens were now based on four teenage characters from The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis: Dobie Gillis, Thalia Menninger, Zelda Gilroy and Maynard G. Krebs, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The revised show was re-pitched to Silverman, who liked the material but, disliking the title Mysteries Five, decided to call the show Who's S-S-Scared? Silverman presented Who's S-S-Scared? to the CBS executives as the centerpiece for the upcoming 1969–70 season's Saturday-morning cartoon block. CBS president Frank Stanton felt that the presentation artwork was too scary for young viewers and, thinking the show would be the same, decided to pass on it.",
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"plaintext": "Now without a centerpiece for the upcoming season's programming, Silverman had Ruby, Spears, and the Hanna-Barbera staff revise the treatments and presentation materials to tone down the show and better reflect its comedy elements. The rock band element was dropped, and more attention was focused upon Shaggy and Too Much. According to Ruby and Spears, Silverman was inspired by Frank Sinatra's scat \"doo-be-doo-be-doo\" at the end of his recording of \"Strangers in the Night\" on a red-eye flight to one of the development meetings, and decided to rename the dog \"Scooby-Doo\" and retitled the show Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! The revised show was re-presented to CBS executives, who approved it for production.",
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"plaintext": "The first episode of Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! \"What a Night for a Knight\" debuted on the CBS network Saturday, September 13, 1969, at 10:30 AM Eastern Time. The original voice cast featured Don Messick as Scooby-Doo, Casey Kasem as Shaggy, Frank Welker as Fred, actress Nicole Jaffe as Velma, and Indira Stefanianna as Daphne. Scooby's speech patterns closely resembled an earlier cartoon dog, Astro from The Jetsons (1962–63), also voiced by Messick. Seventeen episodes of Scooby-Doo Where Are You! were produced in 1969–70. The series theme song was written by David Mook and Ben Raleigh, and performed by Larry Marks.",
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"plaintext": "Each of these episodes features Scooby and the four teenage members of Mystery, Inc.—Fred, Shaggy, Daphne and Velma—arriving at a location in the Mystery Machine, a van painted with psychedelic colors and flower power imagery. Encountering a purportedly supernatural monster terrorizing the local populace, such as a ghost, they decide to investigate. The kids split up to look for clues and suspects, while being chased at turns by the monster. Eventually, the kids come to realize the paranormal activity is actually an elaborate hoax, and—often with the help of a Rube Goldberg-like trap designed by Fred—they capture the creature suit-wearing villain and unmask him or her. Revealed as a flesh and blood crook who used the costume to cover up their crimes, the villain is arrested and taken to jail, often with the catchphrase \"if it weren't for those pesky/meddling kids\".",
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"plaintext": "Scheduled opposite another teenage mystery-solving show, ABC's The Hardy Boys, Scooby-Doo became a ratings success, with Nielsen ratings reporting that as many as 65% of Saturday-morning audiences were tuned in to CBS when Scooby-Doo was being broadcast. The show was renewed for a second season in 1970, for which eight episodes were produced. Seven of the second-season episodes featured chase sequences set to bubblegum pop songs recorded by Austin Roberts, who also re-recorded the theme song for this season. With Stefanianna Christopherson having married and retired from voice acting, Heather North assumed the role of Daphne, and she continued to voice the character until 1997.",
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"plaintext": "The TV influences of I Love a Mystery and Dobie Gillis were apparent in the first episodes. Of the similarities between the Scooby-Doo teens and the Dobie Gillis teens, the similarities between Shaggy and Maynard are the most noticeable; both characters share the same beatnik-style goatee, similar hairstyles, and demeanors. The core premise of Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! was also similar to Enid Blyton's Famous Five books. Both series featured four youths with a dog, and the Famous Five stories often revolved around a mystery which invariably turned out not to be supernaturally based, but simply a ruse to disguise the villain's true intent.",
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"plaintext": "The role of each character was strongly defined in the series: Fred is the leader and the determined detective, Velma is the intelligent analyst, Daphne is danger-prone, Shaggy is a coward more motivated by hunger than any desire to solve mysteries, and Scooby is similar to Shaggy, save for a Bob Hope-inspired tendency towards temporary bravery. Later versions of the show made slight changes to the characters' established roles, such as showing the Daphne in 1990s and 2000s Scooby-Doo productions as knowing many forms of karate and having the ability to defend herself, and reducing her tendency towards being kidnapped.",
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"plaintext": "Scooby-Doo itself influenced many other Saturday-morning cartoons of the 1970s. During that decade, Hanna-Barbera and its rivals produced several animated programs also featuring teenage detectives solving mysteries with a pet or mascot of some sort, including Josie and the Pussycats (1970–71), The Funky Phantom (1971–72), The Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan (1972–73), Speed Buggy (1973–74), Goober and the Ghost Chasers (1973–74), Jabberjaw (1976–78), and Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels (1977–80).",
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"plaintext": "In the fall of 1972, new one-hour episodes under the title The New Scooby-Doo Movies were created; each episode featuring a real or fictitious guest star helping the gang solve mysteries, including characters from other Hanna-Barbera series such as Harlem Globetrotters, Josie and the Pussycats and Speed Buggy, the comic book characters Batman and Robin (later adapted into their own Hanna-Barbera series, Super Friends, a year later), and celebrities such as Sandy Duncan, The Addams Family, Cass Elliot, Phyllis Diller, Don Knotts and The Three Stooges. Hanna-Barbera musical director Hoyt Curtin composed a new theme song for this series, and Curtin's theme remained in use for much of Scooby-Doo's original broadcast run. After two seasons and 24 episodes of the New Movies format from 1972 to 1973, CBS began airing reruns of the original Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! series until its option on the series expired in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "Now president of ABC, Fred Silverman made a deal with Hanna-Barbera to bring new episodes of Scooby-Doo to the ABC Saturday-morning lineup, where the show went through almost yearly lineup changes. For their 1976–77 season, 16 new episodes of Scooby-Doo were joined with a new Hanna-Barbera show, Dynomutt, Dog Wonder, to create The Scooby-Doo/Dynomutt Hour (the show became The Scooby-Doo/Dynomutt Show when a bonus Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! rerun was added to the package in November 1976). Joe Ruby and Ken Spears, now working for Silverman as supervisors of the ABC Saturday-morning programs, returned the program to its original Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! format, with the addition of Scooby's dim-witted country cousin Scooby-Dum, voiced by Daws Butler, as a recurring character. The voice cast was held over from The New Scooby-Doo Movies save for Nicole Jaffe, who retired from acting in 1973. Pat Stevens took over her role as the voice of Velma.",
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"plaintext": "Then Joe Ruby and Ken Spears left again to start their own studio in 1977 as competition for Hanna-Barbera. They would remain away from the rest of the 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "For the 1977–78 season, The Scooby-Doo/Dynomutt Show became the two-hour programming block Scooby's All-Star Laff-A-Lympics (1977–78) with the addition of Laff-a-Lympics and Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels. In addition to eight new episodes of Scooby-Doo and reruns of the 1969 show, Scooby-Doo also appeared during the All-Star block's Laff-a-Lympics series, which featured 45 Hanna-Barbera characters competing in Battle of the Network Stars-esque parodies of Olympic sporting events. Scooby was seen as the team captain of the Laff-a-Lympics \"Scooby-Doobies\" team, which also featured Shaggy and Scooby-Dum among its members.",
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"plaintext": "Scooby's All-Star Laff-a-Lympics was retitled Scooby's All Stars for the 1978–79 season, reduced to 90 minutes when Dynomutt was spun off into its own half-hour and the 1969 reruns were dropped. Scooby's All-Stars continued broadcasting reruns of Scooby-Doo from 1976 and 1977, while new episodes of Scooby-Doo aired during a separate half-hour under the Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! banner. After nine weeks, the separate Where Are You! broadcast was cancelled, and the remainder of the 16 new 1978 episodes debuted during the Scooby's All-Stars block. The 40 total Scooby-Doo episodes produced from 1976 to 1978 were later packaged together for syndication as The Scooby-Doo Show, under which title they continue to air.",
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"plaintext": "The Scooby-Doo characters first appeared outside of their regular Saturday-morning format in Scooby Goes Hollywood, an hour-long ABC television special aired in prime time on December 13, 1979. The special revolved around Shaggy and Scooby attempting to convince the network to move Scooby out of Saturday morning and into a prime-time series, and featured spoofs of then-current television series and films such as Happy Days, The Movie, Laverne & Shirley and Charlie's Angels.",
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"plaintext": "In 1979, Scooby's tiny nephew Scrappy-Doo was added to both the series and the billing, in an attempt to boost Scooby-Doos slipping ratings. The 1979–80 episodes, aired under the new title Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo as an independent half-hour show, succeeded in regenerating interest in the show. Lennie Weinrib voiced Scrappy in the 1979–80 episodes, with Don Messick assuming the role thereafter. Marla Frumkin replaced Pat Stevens as the voice of Velma mid-season.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo success, the entire show was overhauled in 1980 to focus more upon Scrappy-Doo. At this time, Scooby-Doo started to walk and run anthropomorphically on two feet more often, rather than on four like a normal dog as he did previously. Fred, Daphne, and Velma were dropped from the series, and the new Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo format now consisted of three seven-minute comedic adventures starring Scooby, Scrappy, and Shaggy instead of one half-hour mystery. Most of the supernatural villains in the seven-minute Scooby and Scrappy cartoons, who in previous Scooby series had been revealed to be human criminals in costume, were now real within the context of the series.",
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"plaintext": "This version of Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo first aired from 1980 to 1982 as part of The Richie Rich/Scooby-Doo Show, an hour-long program also featuring episodes of Hanna-Barbera's new Richie Rich cartoon, adapted from the Harvey Comics character. From 1982 to 1983, Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo were part of The Scooby-Doo/Scrappy-Doo/Puppy Hour, a co-production with Ruby-Spears Productions which featured two Scooby and Scrappy shorts, a Scrappy and Yabba-Doo short featuring Scrappy-Doo and his Western deputy uncle Yabba-Doo, and The Puppy's New Adventures, based on characters from a 1977 Ruby-Spears TV special.",
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"plaintext": "This version of the show lasted for two seasons, with the second season airing under the title The New Scooby-Doo Mysteries. The 1984–85 season episodes featured semi-regular appearances from Fred and Velma, with Frank Welker and Marla Frumkin resuming their respective roles for these episodes.",
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"plaintext": "1985 saw the debut of The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo, which featured Daphne, Shaggy, Scooby, Scrappy, and new characters Flim-Flam (voiced by Susan Blu) and Vincent Van Ghoul (based upon and voiced by Vincent Price) traveling the globe to capture \"thirteen of the most terrifying ghosts upon the face of the earth.\" The final first-run episode of The 13 Ghosts of Scooby-Doo aired in December 1985, and after its reruns were removed from the ABC lineup the following March, no new Scooby series aired on the network for the next two years.",
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"plaintext": "Hanna-Barbera reincarnated the original Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! cast as elementary school students (a common trope in 1980s children's TV) for a new series titled A Pup Named Scooby-Doo, which debuted on ABC in 1988. A Pup Named Scooby-Doo was an irreverent re-imagining of the series, heavily inspired by the classic cartoons of Tex Avery and Bob Clampett, and eschewed the realistic aesthetic of the original Scooby series for a more Looney Tunes-like style, including an episode where Scooby-Doo's parents show up and reveal his real name to be \"Scoobert\". At the same time, the series returned to its original formula in that the group unmasked human villains in costume, as opposed to the supernatural monsters of the early to mid-1980s. The series also established \"Coolsville\" as the name of the gang's hometown; this setting was retained for several of the later Scooby productions. The retooled show was a success, remaining in production for four seasons and on ABC's lineup until 1991.",
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"plaintext": "From 1987 to 1988, Hanna-Barbera Productions produced Hanna-Barbera Superstars 10, a series of syndicated television films featuring their most popular characters, including Yogi Bear, Huckleberry Hound, The Flintstones, and The Jetsons. Scooby-Doo, Scrappy-Doo and Shaggy starred in three of these films: Scooby-Doo Meets the Boo Brothers (1987), Scooby-Doo and the Ghoul School (1988), and Scooby-Doo and the Reluctant Werewolf (1988). These three films took their tone from the early-1980s Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo entries, and featured the characters encountering actual monsters and ghosts rather than masqueraded people. Scooby-Doo and Shaggy later appeared as the narrators of the television film Arabian Nights, originally broadcast by TBS in 1994, Don Messick's final outing as the original voice of Scooby-Doo.",
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"plaintext": "With Scooby-Doo's restored popularity in reruns on Cartoon Network, Warner Bros. Animation and Hanna-Barbera (by then a subsidiary of Warner Bros. following the merger of Time Warner and Turner Entertainment in 1996) began producing one new Scooby-Doo direct-to-video film a year, beginning in 1998. These films featured a slightly older version of the original five-character cast from the Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! days. The first four DTV entries were Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island (1998), Scooby-Doo! and the Witch's Ghost (1999), Scooby-Doo and the Alien Invaders (2000), and Scooby-Doo and the Cyber Chase (2001). Frank Welker was the only original voice cast member to return for these productions. Don Messick had died in 1997 and Casey Kasem, a strict vegetarian, relinquished the role of Shaggy after having to provide the voice for a 1995 Burger King commercial. Therefore, Scott Innes took over as both Scooby-Doo and Shaggy (Billy West voiced Shaggy in Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island). B.J. Ward took over as Velma, and Mary Kay Bergman voiced Daphne until her death in November 1999, and was replaced by Grey DeLisle.",
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"plaintext": "The direct-to-video productions continued to be produced concurrently with at least one entry per year. Two of these entries, Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire and Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico (both 2003) were produced in a retro-style reminiscent of the original series, and featured Heather North and Nicole Jaffe as the voices of Daphne and Velma, respectively. Later entries produced between 2004 and 2009 were done in the style of What's New, Scooby-Doo, using that show's voice cast. Entries from 2010 on use the original 1969 designs and feature Matthew Lillard as the voice of Shaggy, the character Lillard portrayed in the live-action theatrical Scooby-Doo films. Two Scooby-Doo! movies were released in 2016, named Lego Scooby-Doo! Haunted Hollywood and Curse of the Speed Demon.",
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"plaintext": "A feature-length live-action film version of Scooby-Doo was released by Warner Bros. Pictures on June 14, 2002. Directed by Raja Gosnell, the film starred Freddie Prinze Jr. as Fred, Sarah Michelle Gellar as Daphne, Matthew Lillard as Shaggy, and Linda Cardellini as Velma. Scooby-Doo, voiced by Neil Fanning, was created on-screen by computer-generated special effects. Scooby-Doo was a financially successful release, with a domestic box office gross of over US$130 million.",
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"plaintext": "A sequel, Monsters Unleashed, followed in March 2004 with the same cast and director. Scooby-Doo 2 earned US$84 (€55.98) million at the U.S. box office. A third film was planned, but later scrapped following Warner Bros.' disappointment at the returns from Scooby-Doo 2.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, a live-action television film, Scooby-Doo! The Mystery Begins, was released on DVD and simultaneously aired on Cartoon Network on September 13, 2009, the 40th anniversary of the series' debut. The film starred Nick Palatas as Shaggy, Robbie Amell as Fred, Kate Melton as Daphne, Hayley Kiyoko as Velma, and Frank Welker as the voice of Scooby-Doo. A second live-action TV movie, Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster, retained the same cast and aired on October 16, 2010, and a direct-to-video spin-off Daphne & Velma in 2018. The Mystery Begins and Curse of the Lake Monster serve as prequels, taking place before the events of the 2002 film while Daphne and Velma serves as a spin-off.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2013, Warner Bros. Pictures was developing a fully animated Scooby-Doo feature film with Atlas Entertainment. Charles Roven and Richard Suckle, who produced the first two live-action films, were producing the animated film, and Matt Lieberman was writing the film. In 2014, Warner Bros. was restarting the film series with Randall Green writing a new movie. As of 2015, Warner Bros. had Tony Cervone directing an animated film, with Allison Abbate as producer and Dan Povenmire as executive producer. Originally planned for a September 21, 2018 release, it was later pushed back to May 15, 2020, with Dax Shepard co-directing and co-writing. The Hollywood Reporter announced that Frank Welker will be reprising his voice role as Scooby, and that he will be joined by Will Forte and Gina Rodriguez voicing Shaggy and Velma, while Tracy Morgan will be voicing Captain Caveman, from the Hanna-Barbera series Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels and Deadline reported that Zac Efron and Amanda Seyfried will voice Fred and Daphne. In addition, Ken Jeong will be voicing Dynomutt, Dog Wonder from Hanna-Barbera series of the same name and Kiersey Clemons will voice Dee Dee Sykes, a character from Captain Caveman and the Teen Angels. Dick Dastardly, from Hanna-Barbera's Wacky Races, will be the film's main antagonist, voiced by Jason Isaacs. In March 2020, the film's theatrical release was delayed indefinitely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On April 22, 2020, Warner Bros. announced that due to movie theater closures the theatrical release for Scoob! had been cancelled, with the film released instead on Premium Video On Demand in the United States and Canada on May 15, 2020, the original date of release. In July 2020, Warner Bros. confirmed the film would still play in theaters in select countries with relaxed COVID-19 restrictions. The film subsequently received a secondary theatrical release in the United States beginning on May 21, 2021, in selected markets.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning with this series, Frank Welker took over as Scooby's voice actor, while continuing to provide the voice of Fred as well. Casey Kasem returned as Shaggy, on the condition that the character be depicted as a vegetarian like Kasem himself. Grey DeLisle continued to voice Daphne, and former Facts of Life star Mindy Cohn voiced Velma. The series was produced by Chuck Sheetz, who had worked on The Simpsons.",
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"plaintext": "The next Scooby series, Scooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, premiered on Cartoon Network on April 5, 2010. The first Scooby series produced for cable television, Mystery Incorporated is a reboot of the franchise, re-establishing the characters' relationships, personalities, and locations, and expanding their world to feature their parents, high school, and neighbors. The series also borrowed pieces from many parts of Scooby-Doo's long history, as well as characters and elements of other Hanna-Barbera shows to form its back story and the bases of some of its episodes. Matthew Lillard was brought over from the live-action theatrical series as the new voice of Shaggy, while Welker, Cohn, and DeLisle continued in their respective roles. Patrick Warburton, Linda Cardellini, Lewis Black, Vivica A. Fox, Gary Cole, Udo Kier, Tim Matheson, Tia Carrere, and Kate Higgins were added as new semi-regular cast members. Casey Kasem appeared in a recurring role as Shaggy's father, one of his last roles before retiring due to declining health.",
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"plaintext": "The series, while still following the basic mystery-solving format of its predecessors, was broadcast as a 52-chapter animated televised novel and included elements similar to live-action mystery/adventure shows such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Lost. An overarching mystery surrounding the gang's hometown of Crystal Cove, California became the series' main story arc, with pieces to the mystery unfolding episode by episode. Also featured were romantic entanglements and interpersonal conflict between the lead characters. The series ran for 52 episodes over two seasons, with a three-part finale airing across April 4 and 5, 2013—exactly three years from the debut.",
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"plaintext": "On March 10, 2014, Cartoon Network announced several new series based on classic cartoons, including a new Scooby-Doo animated series titled Be Cool, Scooby-Doo!. The show features the gang \"living it up\" the summer after the gang's senior year of high school. Along the way, they run into monsters and mayhem. The series premiered October 5, 2015 on Cartoon Network and concluded on March 18, 2018.",
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"plaintext": " Scooby-Doo: Don Messick was the original voice of Scooby-Doo from 1969 until 1996. Hadley Kay performed the voice for the Johnny Bravo episodes \"Bravo Dooby-Doo\" and \"'Twas the Night\", as well as in commercials, in 1997. Scott Innes was the voice of Scooby-Doo from 1998 to 2002. Neil Fanning voiced Scooby-Doo in the live-action Warner Bros. theatrical films produced in 2002 and 2004. Frank Welker is the current voice of Scooby-Doo, having taken over the role from Innes in 2002, although Innes voiced the character in video game projects (including PC, DVD and board games), commercials and some toys until 2008. Dave Coulier (2005) and Seth Green (2007, 2012, 2018) voiced Scooby in the Robot Chicken parodies.",
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"plaintext": " Norville \"Shaggy\" Rogers: Casey Kasem was the original voice of Shaggy from 1969 until 1997. Billy West voiced Shaggy in Scooby-Doo on Zombie Island and Behind the Scenes in 1998. Scott Innes voiced the character from 1999 to 2002 and he continued to voice Shaggy in video game projects (including PC, DVD and board games), commercials and some toys until 2009. Casey Kasem returned to the voice role in 2002 and continued as Shaggy until 2009. In 2006, Kasem continued to voice Shaggy only in the direct-to-video film series until 2009, while Scott Menville performed the voice of Shaggy in the 2006–08 CW series Shaggy & Scooby-Doo Get a Clue!. Matthew Lillard appeared as Shaggy in the live action 2002 and 2004 theatrical films, and took over as the voice of the animated character in 2010. He also voiced Shaggy in four stop-motion parody sketches for the Adult Swim show Robot Chicken. Nick Palatas appeared as Shaggy in the 2009 and 2010 live-action TV movies. ",
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"plaintext": " Fred Jones: Frank Welker has always performed the voice of the animated versions of Fred since 1969, with the exception of the 1988–91 ABC series A Pup Named Scooby-Doo, where Carl Steven performed the voice of preteen Fred. Freddie Prinze Jr. appears as Fred in the live-action theatrical films and voiced the character in the Robot Chicken parodies. Robbie Amell played Fred in the live-action TV movies.",
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"plaintext": " Daphne Blake: Stefanianna Christopherson was the voice of Daphne in the first season of Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! in 1969–70. Heather North assumed the role for season two in 1970, and continued as Daphne through 1997, save for Kellie Martin's turn as preteen Daphne in A Pup Named Scooby-Doo. Mary Kay Bergman performed the voice of Daphne from 1998 to 2000, when Grey DeLisle assumed the role. She continues to perform the role to this day. North reprised her voice role for two 2003 direct-to-video films, Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire and Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico. Sarah Michelle Gellar appears as Daphne in the live-action theatrical films and as Daphne's voice in the Robot Chicken parodies. Kate Melton played Daphne in the live-action TV movies.",
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"plaintext": " Velma Dinkley: Nicole Jaffe was the original voice of Velma from 1969 to 1973. Pat Stevens assumed the role from 1976 to 1979, with Marla Frumkin taking over midseason on Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo in the latter year. Frumkin returned to voice Velma on a recurring basis for The New Scooby-Doo Mysteries in 1984, and Christina Lange voiced preteen Velma in A Pup Named Scooby-Doo. B. J. Ward voiced Velma from 1997 to 2002, with Mindy Cohn assuming the role in 2002. As with North, Jaffe reprised her voice role for Scooby-Doo! and the Legend of the Vampire and Scooby-Doo! and the Monster of Mexico in 2003. Stephanie D'Abruzzo voiced Velma for the 2013 puppet film The Mystery Map. In 2015, Kate Micucci took on the role for the series Be Cool, Scooby-Doo! and Lego Scooby-Doo shorts and specials; in 2016 she took over the role from Cohn completely. Linda Cardellini appears as Velma in the live-action theatrical films and as the voice of Velma in the Robot Chicken parodies. Hayley Kiyoko played Velma in the live-action TV movies.",
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"plaintext": " Scrappy-Doo: Lennie Weinrib voiced Scrappy-Doo during the first version of Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo in 1979–80. Don Messick assumed the role in 1980 for the Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo segments of The Richie Rich/Scooby-Doo Show and continued as Scrappy through 1988. Scrappy has only appeared sporadically since 1988, with Scott Innes performing the voice in the 2002 live-action film, which portrays Scrappy as the main villain, as well as in Cartoon Network bumpers, video games and toys since 1999. Dan Milano voiced Scrappy in a 2007 Robot Chicken sketch.",
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"plaintext": "Gold Key Comics began publication of Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! comic books in December 1969. The comics initially contained adaptations of episodes of the television show drawn by Phil DeLara, Jack Manning and Warren Tufts. The comic books later moved to all-original stories until ending with issue #30 in 1974. Several of these issues were written by Mark Evanier and drawn by Dan Spiegle. Charlton published Scooby comics, many drawn by Bill Williams, for 11 issues in 1975. From 1977 to 1979, Marvel Comics published nine issues of Scooby-Doo, all written by Evanier and drawn by Spiegel. Harvey Comics published reprints of the Charlton comics, as well as a handful of special issues, between 1993 and 1994.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, Archie Comics began publishing a monthly Scooby-Doo comic book, the first year of which featured Scrappy-Doo among its cast. Evanier and Spiegel worked on three issues of the series, which ended after 21 issues in 1997 when Warner Bros.' DC Comics acquired the rights to publish comics based on Hanna-Barbera characters. DC's Scooby-Doo series continues publication to this day. In 2013, DC began a digital bi-monthly comic book titled Scooby-Doo Team-Up, crossing over Mystery Inc. with other DC and Hanna-Barbera characters. Since then, the series has become a monthly comic book available in print.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, a limited series of a 100 comic books called Scooby-Doo! World of Mystery was released. In each issue, Mystery Inc. go from country to country solving mysteries. Each issue came with a pack of exclusive cards, with 350 in total able to be collected.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, DC launched a new monthly comic book entitled Scooby Apocalypse, with the characters being reinvented in a story set in a post-apocalyptic world, where monsters roam the streets and Scooby and the gang must find a way to survive at all costs, while also trying to find a way to reverse the apocalypse.",
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"plaintext": "Early Scooby-Doo merchandise included a 1973 Milton Bradley board game, decorated lunch boxes, iron-on transfers, coloring books, story books, records, underwear, and other such goods. When Scrappy-Doo was introduced to the series in 1979, he, Scooby, and Shaggy became the foci of much of the merchandising, including a 1983 Milton-Bradley Scooby-Doo and Scrappy-Doo board game. The first Scooby-Doo video game appeared in arcades in 1986, and has been followed by a number of games for both home consoles and personal computers. Scooby-Doo multivitamins also debuted at this time, and have been manufactured by Bayer since 2001.",
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"plaintext": "Scooby-Doo merchandising tapered off during the late 1980s and early 1990s, but increased after the series' revival on Cartoon Network in 1995. Today, all manner of Scooby-Doo-branded products are available for purchase, including Scooby-Doo breakfast cereal, plush toys, action figures, car decorations, and much more. Real \"Scooby Snacks\" dog treats are produced by Del Monte Pet Products. Hasbro has created a number of Scooby board games, including a Scooby-themed edition of the popular mystery board game Clue. In 2007, the Pressman Toy Corporation released the board game Scooby-Doo! Haunted House. Beginning in 2001, a Scooby-Doo children's book series was authorized and published by Scholastic. These books, written by Suzanne Weyn, include original stories and adaptations of Scooby theatrical and direct-to-video features.",
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"plaintext": "By 2004, the various Scooby-Doo merchandise had generated over in profit for Warner Bros. Licensed merchandise also sold in 2015, in 2016, and in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "During its five-decade broadcast history, Scooby-Doo has received two Emmy nominations: a 1989 Daytime Emmy nomination for A Pup Named Scooby-Doo, and a 2003 Daytime Emmy nomination for What's New, Scooby-Doos Mindy Cohn in the \"Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program\" category. Science advocate Carl Sagan favorably compared the predominantly skeptic oriented formula to that of most television dealing with paranormal themes, and considered that an adult analogue to Scooby-Doo would be a great public service.",
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"plaintext": "Scooby-Doo has maintained a significant fan base, which has grown steadily since the 1990s due to the show's popularity among both young children and nostalgic adults who grew up with the series. Several television critics have stated that the show's mix of the comedy-adventure and horror genres was the reason for its widespread success. As Fred Silverman and the Hanna-Barbera staff had planned when they first began producing the series, Scooby-Doos ghosts, monsters and spooky locales tend more towards humor than horror, making them easily accessible to younger children. \"Overall, [Scooby-Doo is] just not a show that is going to overstimulate kids' emotions and tensions,\" offered American Center for Children and Media executive director David Kleeman in a 2002 interview. \"It creates just enough fun to make it fun without getting them worried or giving them nightmares.",
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"plaintext": "Older teenagers and adults have admitted to enjoying Scooby-Doo because of presumed subversive themes which involve theories of drug use and sexuality, in particular that Shaggy is assumed to be a user of cannabis and Velma is assumed to be a lesbian. Such themes were pervasive enough in popular culture to find their way into Warner Bros.' initial Scooby-Doo feature film in 2002, though several of the scenes were edited before release to secure a family-friendly \"PG\" rating. Series creators Joe Ruby and Ken Spears reported that they \"took umbrage\" to the inclusion of such themes in the Scooby-Doo feature and other places, and denied intending their characters to be drug users in any way.",
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"plaintext": "Like many Hanna-Barbera shows, the early Scooby-Doo series have been criticized at times for their production values and storytelling. In 2002, Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times commented that \"[Scooby-Doos] mysteries are not very mysterious, and the humor is hardly humorous. As for the animation—well, the drawings on your refrigerator may give it competition.\"",
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"plaintext": "By the 2000s, Scooby-Doo had received recognition for its popularity by placing in a number of top cartoon or top cartoon character polls. The August 3, 2002, issue of TV Guide featured its list of the 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time, in which Scooby-Doo placed twenty-second. Scooby also ranked thirteenth in Animal Planet's list of the 50 Greatest TV Animals. For one year from 2004 to 2005, Scooby-Doo held the Guinness World Record for having the most episodes of any animated television series ever produced, a record previously held by and later returned to The Simpsons. Scooby-Doo was published as holding this record in the 2006 edition of the Guinness Book of Records.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2009, entertainment website IGN named Scooby-Doo #24 on its list of the Top 100 Best Animated TV Shows. Writing in 2020, Christopher Orr of The Atlantic queried why the franchise had remained popular for several decades, concluding that it was primarily due to the many differing ways in which the relationship between the main characters could be interpreted or used as a metaphor.",
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"plaintext": " The cult television and comic book series Buffy the Vampire Slayer features a group of characters that refer to themselves as the \"Scooby Gang\", who similarly battle supernatural forces and solve supernatural monster mysteries. The show contains obvious influences of Scooby-Doo, where \"The Scoobies\" use books to look up monsters. Sarah Michelle Gellar, the actress who plays Buffy Summers on the series, later went on to appear as Daphne Blake in the live-action films Scooby-Doo and Monsters Unleashed.",
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"plaintext": " Scooby-Doo and the Mystery Inc. gang (based on their classic 1972 incarnation as opposed to their more recent incarnations) appear in the second part of the The Brave and the Bold episode \"Bat-Mite Presents: Batman's Strangest Cases\" in which they team up with Batman and Robin to rescue Weird Al who was kidnapped by the Joker and the Penguin.",
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"plaintext": " The song Scooby-Doo and the Snowmen Mystery was released in 1972 in the United Kingdom by the label Music for Pleasure.",
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"plaintext": " The film Wayne's World includes an alternate ending called the \"Scooby-Doo Ending\" in which a character in the film is revealed to have been wearing a mask. It also includes a reference to the iconic line \"Let's see who this really is\" before removing the mask. When the culprit is revealed to be Old Man Withers, owner of the local haunted amusement park, Withers mutters \"And I would have gotten away with it, too, if it wasn't for those meddling kids!\"",
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"plaintext": " Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back has a brief scene where the title characters hitch a ride in the Mystery Machine with Scooby and the gang.",
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"plaintext": " Scooby-Doo was parodied on Futurama episode \"Saturday Morning Fun Pit\", where the characters from Planet Express take on the roles of the gang (Bender as Scooby, Hermes as Fred, Leela as Daphne, Amy as Velma and Fry as Shaggy).",
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"plaintext": " The Venture Bros. episode \"¡Viva los Muertos!\" features a thinly parodied version of the gang as aging, gone-to-seed miscreants with the characters matched to corresponding serial killers and radical figures, e.g. Fred being mixed with Ted Bundy into the composite character \"Ted\".",
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"plaintext": " In the South Park episode \"Korn's Groovy Pirate Ghost Mystery\", the nu metal band Korn, parodying Scooby and the gang, tackle an invasion of mysterious \"Pirate Ghosts\". They enlist the help of Stan Marsh, Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick, and after they solve the mystery they perform \"Falling Away from Me\" from their album Issues.",
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"plaintext": " Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law defends the gang against possession charges in the 2002 episode \"Shaggy Busted\".",
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"plaintext": " After defeating and capturing a pirate crew in the role playing video game The Lost Age, one of the imprisoned pirates declares that, \"Everything would have been fine if it hadn't been for you meddling kids!\" ",
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"plaintext": " In the Teen Titans Go! episode \"The Cruel Giggling Ghoul\", each Titan assumes the role of a Scooby Gang member (with Beast Boy as Scooby) to investigate a mystery at a spooky amusement park, with the help of LeBron James. The Scooby Gang later appears in the crossover episode \"Cartoon Feud\", where Control Freak forces them to compete in Family Feud.",
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"plaintext": " The novel Meddling Kids (2017) by Edgar Cantero parodies not only Scooby-Doo, but also teen-detective dramas (such as the Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew, and the Famous Five) in general.",
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"plaintext": " The CW's television series Supernatural crossed over with the Scooby-Doo franchise in the episode Scoobynatural, which aired March 29, 2018. The animated collaboration featured the three main characters of Supernatural (Sam, Dean, and Castiel) along with Scooby and the gang as they team up to solve a supernatural mystery.",
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"plaintext": " The Harvey Street Kids episode \"Crush 4U, Where RU?\" fully references the Scooby-Doo series, especially the title.",
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"plaintext": " Five-College folklore – A campus legend about the show.",
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37,290 | 1,077,498,505 | Saint_Casimir | [
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"plaintext": "Casimir Jagiellon (; ; ; 3 October 1458 – 4 March 1484) was a prince of the Kingdom of Poland and of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Second son of King Casimir IV Jagiellon, he was tutored by Johannes Longinus, a Polish chronicler and diplomat. After his elder brother Vladislaus was elected as King of Bohemia in 1471, Casimir became the heir apparent. At the age of 13, Casimir participated in the failed military campaign to install him as King of Hungary. He became known for his piety, devotion to God, and generosity towards the sick and poor. He became ill (most likely with tuberculosis) and died at the age of 25. He was buried in Vilnius Cathedral and his cult grew. His canonization was initiated by his brother King Sigismund I the Old in 1514 and the tradition holds that he was canonized in 1521.",
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"plaintext": "The age of the Protestant Reformation was not conducive to the cult of saints. Veneration of Casimir saw a resurgence in the 17th century when his feast day was confirmed by the pope in 1602 and the dedicated Chapel of Saint Casimir was completed in 1636. Casimir became a patron saint of Lithuania and Lithuanian youth. In Vilnius, his feast day is marked annually with Kaziuko mugė (a trade fair) held on the Sunday nearest to 4 March, the anniversary of his death. There are more than 50 churches named after Casimir in Lithuania and Poland, including Church of St. Casimir, Vilnius and St. Kazimierz Church, Warsaw, and more than 50 churches in Lithuanian and Polish diaspora communities in America. Women's congregation Sisters of Saint Casimir was established in 1908 and remains active in the United States.",
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"plaintext": "A member of the Jagiellon dynasty, Casimir was born in Wawel Castle in Kraków. Casimir was the third child and the second son of the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir IV and Queen Elisabeth Hamsburg of Austria. Elisabeth was a loving mother and took active interest in her children's upbringing. The Queen and the children often accompanied the King in his annual trips to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.",
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"plaintext": "From the age of nine, Casimir and his brother Vladislaus were educated by the Polish priest Fr. Jan Długosz. The boys were taught Latin and German, law, history, rhetoric, and classical literature. Długosz was a strict and conservative teacher who emphasized ethics, morality, and religious devotion. According to Stanisław Orzechowski (1513–1566), the princes were subject to corporal punishment which was approved by their father. Długosz noted Casimir's skills in oratory when he delivered speeches to greet his father returning to Poland in 1469 and Jakub Sienienski, the Bishop of Kujawy, in 1470.",
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"plaintext": "Prince Casimir's uncle Ladislaus the Posthumous, King of Hungary and Bohemia, died in 1457 at the age of 17, without leaving an heir. Casimir's father, King Casimir IV, subsequently advanced his claims to Hungary and Bohemia, but could not enforce them due to the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66). Instead, Hungarian nobles elected Matthias Corvinus and Bohemian nobles selected George of Poděbrady as their kings. George of Poděbrady died in March 1471. In May 1471, Vladislaus, eldest son of Casimir IV, was elected to the throne of Bohemia. However, a group of Catholic Bohemian nobles supported Matthias Corvinus instead of Vladislaus II. In turn, a group of Hungarian nobles conspired against Matthias Corvinus and invited the Polish king to overthrow him. King Casimir IV decided to install his son, Casimir, in Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "Poland amassed an army of 12,000 men, commanded by Piotr Dunin and Dziersław of Rytwiany. Both King Casimir and Prince Casimir participated in the campaign. In October 1471, the Polish army crossed the Hungarian border and slowly marched towards Buda. Matthias Corvinus managed to win over the majority of the Hungarian nobles, including the main conspirator Archbishop János Vitéz, and the Polish army did not receive the expected reinforcements. Only Deák, Perény and Rozgonyi families sent troops. Upon hearing that Corvinus' army of 16,000 men camped outside of Pest, the Polish army decided to retreat from Hatvan to Nitra. There the soldiers battled food shortages, spreading infectious diseases, and the upcoming winter. The Polish King also lacked funds to pay the mercenaries. As a result, the Polish army decreased by about a third. In December 1471, Prince Casimir, fearing for his safety, was sent to Jihlava closer to the Polish border and that further eroded their soldiers' morale. Corvinus took Nitra and a one-year truce was completed in March 1472 in Buda. Prince Casimir returned to Kraków to resume his studies with Długosz.",
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"plaintext": "Długosz remarked that Prince Casimir felt \"great sorrow and shame\" regarding the failure in Hungary. Polish propaganda, however, portrayed him as a savior, sent by divine providence, to protect the people from a godless tyrant (i.e. Matthias Corvinus) and marauding pagans (i.e. Muslim Ottoman Turks). Prince Casimir was also exposed to the cult of his uncle King Władysław III of Poland who died in the 1444 Battle of Varna against the Ottomans. This led some researchers, including Jacob Caro, to conclude that the Hungarian campaign pushed Prince Casimir into religious life.",
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"plaintext": "As his elder brother, Vladislaus II, ruled Bohemia, Prince Casimir became the heir apparent to the throne of Poland and Lithuania. Italian humanist writer Filippo Buonaccorsi (also known as Filip Callimachus) was hired to become Casimir's tutor in political matters, but his Renaissance views had less influence on Casimir than Długosz. In 1474, the Italian merchant and traveler Ambrogio Contarini met with Prince Casimir and was impressed by his wisdom. Prince Casimir completed his formal education at age 16 and spent most of his time with his father. In 1476, Prince Casimir accompanied his father to Royal Prussia where he tried to resolve the conflict with the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia (see War of the Priests). In 1478 Seimas of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania demanded that King Casimir IV leave either Prince Casimir or Prince John I Albert in Lithuania as a regent. King Casimir IV feared separatist moods and refused, but after settling the conflict in Prussia, moved to Vilnius.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1479 and 1484 his father spent most of his time in Vilnius attending to the affairs of Lithuania. In 1481, Mikhailo Olelkovich and his relatives planned to murder King Casimir and Prince Casimir during a hunt at a wedding of Feodor Ivanovich Belsky. The plan was discovered and Prince Casimir, perhaps fearing for his safety, was sent to Poland to act as vice-regent. Around the same time his father tried to arrange his marriage to Kunigunde of Austria, daughter of Emperor Frederick III. It is often claimed that Prince Casimir refused the match, preferring to remain celibate and sensing his approaching death. According to Maciej Miechowita, Prince Casimir developed tuberculosis. In May 1483, Prince Casimir joined his father in Vilnius. There, after the death of Andrzej Oporowski, Bishop and Vice-Chancellor of the Crown, Prince Casimir took over some of his duties in the chancellery. However, his health deteriorated while rumors about his piousness and good deeds spread further. In February 1484, the Polish sejm in Lublin was aborted as King Casimir IV rushed back to Lithuania to be with his ill son. Prince Casimir died on 4 March 1484, in Grodno. His remains were interred in Vilnius Cathedral, where the dedicated Saint Casimir's Chapel was built in 1636.",
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"plaintext": "Surviving contemporary accounts described Prince Casimir as a young man of exceptional intellect and education, humility and politeness, who strove for justice and fairness. Early sources do not attest to his piety or devotion to God, but his inclination to religious life increased towards the end of his life. Later sources provide some stories of Casimir's religious life. Marcin Kromer (1512–1589) claimed that Casimir refused his physician's advice to have sexual relations with women in hopes to cure his illness. Other accounts claimed that Casimir contracted his lung disease after a particularly hard fast or that he could be found pre-dawn, kneeling by the church gates, waiting for a priest to open them. Zacharias Ferreri (1479–1524) wrote that Casimir composed a prayer in hexameter on Christ's incarnation but this text has not survived. Later, a copy of Omni die dic Mariae (Daily, Daily Sing to Mary) was found in Casimir's coffin. The hymn became so strongly associated with Casimir that sometimes it known as Hymn of St. Casimir and he is credited as its author. The lengthy hymn has an intricate meter and rhyme scheme (alternate acatalectic and catalectic trochaic dimeter with internal rhyme in the first and third verses (aa/b, cc/b)) and was most likely written by Bernard of Cluny.",
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"plaintext": "One of the first miracles attributed to Casimir was his appearance before the Lithuanian army during the Siege of Polotsk in 1518. Casimir showed where Lithuanian troops could safely cross the Daugava River and relieve the city, besieged by the army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. Ferreri's hagiography of 1521 mentions many miracles of Casimir are known but describes only one – a Lithuanian victory against the Russians. The description lacks specifics, such as date or location, but most likely refers to the Lithuanian victory in 1519 against Russian troops that raided environs of Vilnius, and not the more popular story of the Siege of Polotsk.",
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"plaintext": "Casimir's official cult started spreading soon after his death. Already in 1501, Pope Alexander VI, citing chapel's splendor and Casimir's miracles, granted a special indulgence to those who would pray in the chapel where Casimir was buried from one vespers to another during certain Catholic festivals, and would contribute to the upkeep of the chapel. In 1513, Andrzej Krzycki wrote a poem mentioning numerous wax votive offerings on Casimir's grave. In 1514, during the Fifth Council of the Lateran, Casimir's brother Sigismund I the Old petitioned the pope to canonize Casimir. After repeated requests, in November 1517, Pope Leo X appointed a three-bishop commission and later sent his legate Zacharias Ferreri to investigate. He arrived at Vilnius in September 1520 and completed his work in about two months. His findings, the first short hagiography of Casimir, was published in 1521 in Kraków as Vita Beati Casimiri Confessoris. The canonization was all but certain but Pope Leo X died in December 1521. Research of Zenonas Ivinskis and Paulius Rabikauskas showed that there is no documentary proof that he issued a papal bull canonizing Casimir but many important documents were lost during the Sack of Rome (1527). The Protestant Reformation attacked the cult of saints and there were no new canonizations between 1523 and 1588. However, Casimir was included in the first Roman Martyrology, published in 1583.",
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"plaintext": "In 1607 and 1613, Bishop Woyna declared Casimir patron saint of Lithuania (Patronus principalis Lithuaniae). The issue of a universal Casimir's feast was not forgotten and in 1620 Bishop Eustachy Wołłowicz petitioned Pope Paul V to add Casimir to the Roman Breviary and Roman Missal. This time the Sacred Congregation of Rites granted the request in March 1621 and added his feast sub ritu semiduplici. In March 1636, Pope Urban VIII allowed the celebration of the feast of Casimir with an octave (duplex cum octava) in the Diocese of Vilnius and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. That is equivalent of proclaiming Casimir as the patron saint of Lithuania. On 28 September 1652, Pope Innocent X allowed a fest of transfer of relics of Casimir on a Sunday following the Assumption of Mary. On 11 June 1948, when many Lithuanians were displaced war refugees, Pope Pius XII named Casimir the special patron of Lithuanian youth.",
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"plaintext": "Saint Casimir's painting in Vilnius Cathedral is considered to be miraculous. The painting, probably completed around 1520, depicts the saint with two right hands. According to a legend, the painter attempted to redraw the hand in a different place and paint over the old hand, but the old hand miraculously reappeared. More conventional explanations claim that three-handed Casimir was the original intent of the painter to emphasize the exceptional generosity of Casimir (\"But when you give to someone in need, don't let your left hand know what your right hand is doing.\" 3) or that the old hand bled through a coat of new paint (similar to a palimpsest). Around 1636 the painting was covered in gilded silver clothing (riza).",
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"plaintext": "Casimir's iconography usually follows the three-handed painting. He is usually depicted as a young man in long red robe lined with stoat fur. Sometimes he wears a red cap of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, but other times, to emphasize his devotion to spiritual life, the cap is placed near Casimir. Almost always he holds a lily, a symbol of virginity, innocence, and purity. He might also hold a cross, a rosary, or a book with words from Omni die dic Mariae (Daily, Daily Sing to Mary). The towns of Kvėdarna and Nemunaitis in Lithuania have Saint Casimir depicted on their coat of arms.",
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"plaintext": "Casimir was buried in the crypt under the Royal Chapel of Vilnius Cathedral (present-day Wołłowicz Chapel to the left from the main entrance), constructed by his father in the Gothic style in 1474. In 1604, the coffin was elevated from the crypt to the altar and in 1636 moved to the dedicated Chapel of Saint Casimir. The present-day sarcophagus was made in 1747 under the last will of Bishop of Warmia Christopher Johan Szembek (1680–1740). It is made of linden wood and covered with silver plates; its corners are decorated with gilded eagles. The sarcophagus was removed from the cathedral on three occasions. In 1655, before the Battle of Vilnius during the Deluge, the relics were removed most likely by Jerzy Białłozor and hid by Cyprian Paweł Brzostowski and later by the Sapiehas in the Ruzhany Palace. They were returned to the devastated chapel in 1663. The relics were removed for a short time in 1702 during the Battle of Vilnius of the Great Northern War. In October 1952, the relics were quietly moved to the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul by the order of Soviet authorities. The cathedral was turned into an art gallery. The relics returned to their place in 1989 when the cathedral was reconsecrated.",
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"plaintext": "After the rediscovery of the Catacombs of Rome in 1578, the cult of relics spread throughout Europe (see also catacomb saints) and the trend did not skip Casimir. The coffin of Casimir was opened in early 1602 and in August 1604. At the time, canon Gregorius Swiecicki testified that despite humidity the body was intact. But in 1667 there were only bones left; they were inventoried and placed into six cloth bags. Surviving written records indicate that the coffin was opened in 1664, 1667, 1677, 1690, 1736, 1838, 1878 (twice), and 1922. There are several recorded instances when Casimir's relics were gifted to prominent figures and societies: to musicians' confraternity at San Giorgio Maggiore, Naples in early 1650s, to King John III Sobieski and Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany in October 1677, to the Sodality of Our Lady of the Jesuit academy in Mechelen and the Order of Malta in October 1690, to Queen Maria Josepha of Austria in February 1736, to Cistercian abbot Sztárek Lajos of in 1860. Many more relics of Casimir can be found in local churches. In particular, in 1838, two teeth and ten unspecified bones were removed from the coffin; the bones were cut into small pieces and distributed among various churches. In 1922, the bones were wrapped in a new cloth and the old cloth was distributed as a relic. It was the last time that a relic of Casimir (one tooth for the Church of St. Casimir) was taken.",
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"plaintext": "In his 1970 monograph priest Florijonas Neviera (Florian Niewiero, 1896–1976) counted churches named after Casimir. He found 12 churches in Lithuania (as of 1940), 48 churches and 5 chapels in Poland, 23 Lithuanian and 36 Polish churches in United States (as of 1964), five churches in Canada (Montreal, Winnipeg, Toronto, Portneuf, and Ripon), two churches in United Kingdom (London and Manchester), and two churches in Belarus (Vselyub and Lepiel). The women's congregation Sisters of Saint Casimir was established in 1908 by Maria Kaupas and is active in the United States. In 1945, the College of Saint Casimir was established in Rome to educate Lithuanian priests who fled west after World War II.",
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"plaintext": "While the devotion to Casimir is most prevalent in Lithuania and Poland and their diaspora communities, his cult can be found in other countries as well. In the 17th century, at least two societies of Saint Casimir were active in Mechelen and Antwerp (now Belgium). In the 17th century, Casimir's cult also spread in Italy, particularly Florence, Palermo, Naples; his cult in Rome was more associated with Polish dignitaries and émigrés. Musical performances were organized in Rome in 1675 (words by Sebastiano Lazzarini, music by Francesco Beretta, performed at Santo Spirito in Sassia) and in 1678 (words by Ottavio Santacroce, music probably by Giovanni Bicilli, performed at Santa Maria in Vallicella on the occasion of the visit by Michał Kazimierz Radziwiłł and his wife Katarzyna Sobieska), and in Florence in 1706 (words possibly by Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, music by Alessandro Scarlatti). In Palermo, Pietro Novelli was commissioned painting Coronation of Saint Casimir (l’Incoronazione di s. Casimiro) for the altar of (now held at the Galleria Regionale della Sicilia).",
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"plaintext": "The settlements of Saint-Casimir in Canada (founded 1836) and San Casimiro in Venezuela (founded 1785) are named after him. Sculptures of Casimir, among other canonized royals, can be found in San Ferdinando, Livorno, Italy and Metropolitan Cathedral, Mexico City. Stained glass windows with Casimir can be found at the Cathedral Basilica of St. Joseph in San Jose, California, and at the Church of St. Peter in Chevaigné, France. Since 1846, there is a nursing home in Paris named Maison Saint-Casimir. It was created by the Polish community of France and is run since its opening by Polish nuns Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul.",
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"plaintext": " Saint Casimir, patron saint archive",
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"plaintext": "Notes",
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"plaintext": "References",
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"plaintext": "Bibliography",
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"plaintext": "Interactive panorama of Saint Casimir's Chapel at Vilnius Cathedral",
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"1458_births",
"1484_deaths",
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"National_symbols_of_Lithuania",
"15th-century_Christian_saints",
"Tuberculosis_deaths_in_Belarus"
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| 312,057 | 1,578 | 125 | 194 | 0 | 0 | Saint Casimir | Polish and Lithuanian prince (1458–1484) | [
"St. Casimir",
"Casimir Jagellon",
"Casimir Jagiellon"
]
|
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"plaintext": " The prime spectrum of a Boolean ring (e.g., a power set ring) is a (Hausdorff) compact space.",
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"plaintext": " (M. Hochster) A topological space is homeomorphic to the prime spectrum of a commutative ring (i.e., a spectral space) if and only if it is quasi-compact, quasi-separated and sober.",
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"plaintext": "Here are some examples of schemes that are not affine schemes. They are constructed from gluing affine schemes together.",
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"plaintext": " The Projective -Space over a field . This can be easily generalized to any base ring, see Proj construction (in fact, we can define Projective Space for any base scheme). The Projective -Space for is not affine as the global section of is .",
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"plaintext": " Affine plane minus the origin. Inside are distinguished open affine subschemes . Their union is the affine plane with the origin taken out. The global sections of are pairs of polynomials on that restrict to the same polynomial on , which can be shown to be , the global section of . is not affine as in .",
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"plaintext": "Some authors (notably M. Hochster) consider topologies on prime spectra other than Zariski topology.",
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"section_name": "Non-Zariski topologies on a prime spectrum",
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"plaintext": "First, there is the notion of constructible topology: given a ring A, the subsets of of the form satisfy the axioms for closed sets in a topological space. This topology on is called the constructible topology.",
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"plaintext": "In , Hochster considers what he calls the patch topology on a prime spectrum. By definition, the patch topology is the smallest topology in which the sets of the forms and are closed.",
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"section_name": "Non-Zariski topologies on a prime spectrum",
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"plaintext": "There is a relative version of the functor called global , or relative . If is a scheme, then relative is denoted by or . If is clear from the context, then relative Spec may be denoted by or . For a scheme and a quasi-coherent sheaf of -algebras , there is a scheme and a morphism such that for every open affine , there is an isomorphism , and such that for open affines , the inclusion is induced by the restriction map . That is, as ring homomorphisms induce opposite maps of spectra, the restriction maps of a sheaf of algebras induce the inclusion maps of the spectra that make up the Spec of the sheaf.",
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"plaintext": "Global Spec has a universal property similar to the universal property for ordinary Spec. More precisely, just as Spec and the global section functor are contravariant right adjoints between the category of commutative rings and schemes, global Spec and the direct image functor for the structure map are contravariant right adjoints between the category of commutative -algebras and schemes over . In formulas,",
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"section_name": "Global or relative Spec",
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"plaintext": "where is a morphism of schemes.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Global or relative Spec",
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"plaintext": "The relative spec is the correct tool for parameterizing the family of lines through the origin of over Consider the sheaf of algebras and let be a sheaf of ideals of Then the relative spec parameterizes the desired family. In fact, the fiber over is the line through the origin of containing the point Assuming the fiber can be computed by looking at the composition of pullback diagrams",
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"plaintext": "where the composition of the bottom arrows",
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"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": "gives the line containing the point and the origin. This example can be generalized to parameterize the family of lines through the origin of over by letting and ",
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"plaintext": "From the perspective of representation theory, a prime ideal I corresponds to a module R/I, and the spectrum of a ring corresponds to irreducible cyclic representations of R, while more general subvarieties correspond to possibly reducible representations that need not be cyclic. Recall that abstractly, the representation theory of a group is the study of modules over its group algebra.",
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"plaintext": "The connection to representation theory is clearer if one considers the polynomial ring or, without a basis, As the latter formulation makes clear, a polynomial ring is the group algebra over a vector space, and writing in terms of corresponds to choosing a basis for the vector space. Then an ideal I, or equivalently a module is a cyclic representation of R (cyclic meaning generated by 1 element as an R-module; this generalizes 1-dimensional representations).",
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"plaintext": "In the case that the field is algebraically closed (say, the complex numbers), every maximal ideal corresponds to a point in n-space, by the nullstellensatz (the maximal ideal generated by corresponds to the point ). These representations of are then parametrized by the dual space the covector being given by sending each to the corresponding . Thus a representation of (K-linear maps ) is given by a set of n numbers, or equivalently a covector ",
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"plaintext": "Thus, points in n-space, thought of as the max spec of correspond precisely to 1-dimensional representations of R, while finite sets of points correspond to finite-dimensional representations (which are reducible, corresponding geometrically to being a union, and algebraically to not being a prime ideal). The non-maximal ideals then correspond to infinite-dimensional representations.",
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{
"plaintext": "The term \"spectrum\" comes from the use in operator theory.",
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"plaintext": "Given a linear operator T on a finite-dimensional vector space V, one can consider the vector space with operator as a module over the polynomial ring in one variable R=K[T], as in the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. Then the spectrum of K[T] (as a ring) equals the spectrum of T (as an operator).",
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"plaintext": "Further, the geometric structure of the spectrum of the ring (equivalently, the algebraic structure of the module) captures the behavior of the spectrum of the operator, such as algebraic multiplicity and geometric multiplicity. For instance, for the 2×2 identity matrix has corresponding module:",
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"plaintext": "the 2×2 zero matrix has module",
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},
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"plaintext": "showing geometric multiplicity 2 for the zero eigenvalue,",
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"plaintext": "while a non-trivial 2×2 nilpotent matrix has module",
"section_idx": 10,
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"plaintext": "showing algebraic multiplicity 2 but geometric multiplicity 1.",
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{
"plaintext": "In more detail:",
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},
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"plaintext": " the eigenvalues (with geometric multiplicity) of the operator correspond to the (reduced) points of the variety, with multiplicity;",
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"plaintext": " the primary decomposition of the module corresponds to the unreduced points of the variety;",
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"plaintext": " a diagonalizable (semisimple) operator corresponds to a reduced variety;",
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},
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"plaintext": " a cyclic module (one generator) corresponds to the operator having a cyclic vector (a vector whose orbit under T spans the space);",
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"plaintext": " the last invariant factor of the module equals the minimal polynomial of the operator, and the product of the invariant factors equals the characteristic polynomial.",
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"plaintext": "The spectrum can be generalized from rings to C*-algebras in operator theory, yielding the notion of the spectrum of a C*-algebra. Notably, for a Hausdorff space, the algebra of scalars (the bounded continuous functions on the space, being analogous to regular functions) is a commutative C*-algebra, with the space being recovered as a topological space from of the algebra of scalars, indeed functorially so; this is the content of the Banach–Stone theorem. Indeed, any commutative C*-algebra can be realized as the algebra of scalars of a Hausdorff space in this way, yielding the same correspondence as between a ring and its spectrum. Generalizing to non-commutative C*-algebras yields noncommutative topology.",
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105,
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146,
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439,
459
],
[
692,
715
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},
{
"plaintext": " Scheme (mathematics)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
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364754
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Projective scheme",
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"section_name": "See also",
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320469
],
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[
1,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spectrum of a matrix",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
206136
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Serre's theorem on affineness",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
46592334
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Étale spectrum",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
54321373
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ziegler spectrum",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
54608601
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Primitive spectrum",
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"section_name": "See also",
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485842
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kevin R. Coombes: The Spectrum of a Ring",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " , relative spec",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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| [
"Commutative_algebra",
"Scheme_theory",
"Prime_ideals",
"Functional_analysis"
]
| 1,154,351 | 1,753 | 206 | 73 | 0 | 0 | spectrum of a ring | set of a ring's prime ideals | [
"ring spectrum",
"prime spectrum",
"spectrum of a commutative ring"
]
|
37,292 | 1,105,819,964 | List_of_Unitarians,_Universalists,_and_Unitarian_Universalists | [
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"plaintext": "See also History of Unitarianism",
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"plaintext": "A number of notable people have considered themselves Unitarians, Universalists, and following the merger of these denominations in the United States and Canada in 1961, Unitarian Universalists. Additionally, there are persons who, because of their writings or reputation, are considered to have held Unitarian or Universalist beliefs. Individuals who held unitarian (nontrinitarian) beliefs but were not affiliated with Unitarian organizations are often referred to as \"small 'u unitarians. The same principle can be applied to those who believed in universal salvation but were not members of Universalist organizations. This article, therefore, makes the distinction between capitalized \"Unitarians\" and \"Universalists\" and lowercase \"unitarians\" and \"universalists\".",
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"plaintext": "The Unitarians and Universalists are groups that existed long before the creation of Unitarian Universalism.",
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"plaintext": "Early Unitarians did not hold Universalist beliefs, and early Universalists did not hold Unitarian beliefs. But beginning in the nineteenth century the theologies of the two groups started becoming more similar.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, their eventual merger as the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) did not eliminate divergent Unitarian and Universalist congregations, especially outside the US. Even within the US, some congregations still keep only one of the two names, \"Unitarian\" or \"Universalist\". However, with only a few exceptions, all belong to the UUA—even those that maintain dual affiliation (e.g., Unitarian and Quaker). Transcendentalism was a movement that diverged from contemporary American Unitarianism but has been embraced by later Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists.",
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"plaintext": "In Northern Ireland, Unitarian churches are officially called \"Non-Subscribing Presbyterian\", but are informally known as \"Unitarian\" and are affiliated with the Unitarian churches of the rest of the world.",
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"plaintext": " Francis Ellingwood Abbot (1836–1903) – Unitarian minister who led a group that attempted to liberalize the Unitarian constitution and preamble. He later helped found the Free Religious Association.",
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"plaintext": " Abigail Adams (1744–1818) – women's rights advocate and first Second Lady and the second First Lady of the United States",
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"plaintext": " James Luther Adams (1901–1994) – Unitarian theologian.",
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"plaintext": " John Adams (1735–1826) – second President of the United States.",
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"plaintext": " John Quincy Adams (1767–1848) – sixth President of the United States. Co-founder, All Souls Church, Unitarian (Washington, D.C.)",
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"plaintext": " Sarah Fuller Adams (1805–1848) – English poet and hymn writer",
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"plaintext": " Conrad Aiken (1889–1973) – poet",
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"plaintext": " Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888) – author of Little Women.",
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"plaintext": " Ethan Allen (1738–1789) – author of Reason the Only Oracle of Man, and the chief source of Hosea Ballou's universalist ideas",
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"plaintext": " Joseph Henry Allen (1820–1898) – American Unitarian scholar and minister",
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"plaintext": " Arthur J. Altmeyer (1891–1972) – father of Social Security",
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"plaintext": " Oliver Ames, Jr. (1807–1877) – Massachusetts businessman and industrialist who commissioned the building of the Unity Church of North Easton",
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"plaintext": " J. M. Andrews (1871–1956) – Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (a Non-subscribing Presbyterian member)",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Andrews (1873-1912) – Master-shipbuilder of the RMS Oceanic (1899), \"Big Four\", and Olympic-class ocean liners (a Non-subscribing Presbyterian member)",
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"plaintext": " Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906) – Quaker",
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"plaintext": " Robert Aspland (1782–1845) – English Unitarian minister, editor and activist, founder of the British and Foreign Unitarian Association",
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"plaintext": "Francis (Frank) X. Arvan ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "(1955-) Architect, Writer, Musician]]",
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"plaintext": "Robert Brook Aspland (1805–1869) – English Unitarian minister and editor, son of Robert Aspland",
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"plaintext": " Samuel Bache (1804-1876) - English Unitarian minister",
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"plaintext": " E. Burdette Backus (1888–1955) – Unitarian Humanist minister (originally a Universalist)",
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"plaintext": " Bill Baird (born 1932) – abortion rights pioneer, Unitarian.",
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"plaintext": " Sara Josephine Baker (1873–1945) – physician and public health worker.",
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"plaintext": " Emily Greene Balch (1867–1961) – Nobel Peace Laureate",
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"plaintext": " Roger Nash Baldwin (1884–1981) – founder of American Civil Liberties Union",
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45,
75
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adin Ballou (1803–1890) – abolitionist and former Baptist who became a Universalist minister, then a Unitarian minister.",
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"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hosea Ballou (1771–1852) – American Universalist leader. (Universalist minister and a unitarian in theology)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
148280
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Aaron Bancroft (1755–1839) – Congregationalist Unitarian minister",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
3351441
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Bardeen (1908–1991) – physicist, Nobel Laureate 1956 (inventing the transistor) and in 1972 (superconductivity)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
15737
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phineas Taylor Barnum (1810–1891) – American showman and Circus Owner",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
160158
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ysaye Maria Barnwell (born 1946) – member of Sweet Honey in the Rock, founded the Jubilee Singers, a choir at All Souls Church in Washington, D.C.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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21
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[
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[
111,
127
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Béla Bartók (1881–1945) – composer.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clara Barton (1821–1912) – organizer of American Red Cross, Universalist",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
43417
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Clara Bancroft Beatley (1858-1923) – educator, lecturer, author",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Christopher C. Bell (born 1933) – author",
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"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ami Bera (born 1965) – U.S. Representative for California",
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"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
28670879
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry Bergh (1811–1888) – founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
12
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[
39,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tim Berners-Lee (born 1955) – inventor of the World Wide Web.",
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"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
30034
],
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul Blanshard (1892–1980) – activist.",
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"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
3546960
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chester Bliss Bowles (1901–1986) – Connecticut Governor and diplomat.",
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Ray Bradbury (1920–2012) – author.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andre Braugher (born 1962) - American actor",
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"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " T. Berry Brazelton (1918-2018) – pediatrician, author, TV show host.",
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"target_page_ids": [
560309
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alice Williams Brotherton (1848-1930), poet and magazine writer ",
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"target_page_ids": [
53860093
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Olympia Brown (1835–1926) – suffragist, Universalist minister of the Unitarian Universalist Church of Kent Ohio",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
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[
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112
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Percival Brundage (1892–1979) – technocrat",
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"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John A. Buehrens (born 1947) – president of the Unitarian Universalist Association from 1993–2001",
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"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
9723484,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
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83
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Bulfinch (1763–1844) – most notable for being Architect of the Capitol. Co-founder, All Souls Church, Unitarian (Washington, D.C.)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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],
[
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[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ralph Wendell Burhoe (1911–1997) – scholar",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
13290537
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Harold Hitz Burton (1888–1964) – U.S. Supreme Court Justice 1945–1958",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
549620
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Edmund Butcher (1757–1822) – English minister",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "B",
"target_page_ids": [
32926035
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John C. Calhoun (1782–1850) – U.S. Vice President and Senator Co-founder, All Souls Church, Unitarian (Washington, D.C.)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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5444831
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
75,
121
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Walter Bradford Cannon (1871–1945) – experimental physiologist",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
606411
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Louise Whitfield Carnegie (1857–1946) – wife of philanthropist Andrew Carnegie. After Carnegie died Louise made donations to charities.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
16557195,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
26
],
[
64,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lant Carpenter (1780–1840) – English Unitarian minister, author and educator",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
1410630
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Russell Lant Carpenter (1816–1892) – Unitarian minister. Son and biographer of Dr. Lant Carpenter",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
30026832,
1410630
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
],
[
84,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Herbert Carruth (1859-1924) – educator, poet, President of Pacific Coast Conference of the Unitarian Church",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
48272027
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel Carter (1805–1878) – British MP and early railway solicitor",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
56511796
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Lee Carter (born 1987) — delegate for Virginia's 50th House of Delegates district (according to his campaign website, he and his family attend their local Unitarian Universalist Church)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
55754701
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914) – Manufacturer, Unitarian, founder of local government in Britain.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
88256
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Neville Chamberlain (1869–1940) – Unitarian, then an agnostic and, British Prime Minister.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
21453,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
54,
62
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Augusta Jane Chapin (1836–1905) – American Universalist minister, educator and activist for women's rights",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
7876482
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Ellery Channing (1780–1842) – Unitarian minister, whose 1819 sermon \"Unitarian Christianity\" laid the foundations for American Unitarianism.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
168700
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Chauncy (1592–1672) – Unitarian Congregationalist minister.",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
757395
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jesse Chickering (1797–1855) – Unitarian minister and economist",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brock Chisholm (1896–1971) – director, World Health Organization",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
684914
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Parley P. Christensen (1869–1954) – Utah and California politician, Esperantist",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
6904051
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Judy Chu (born 1953) - Congressperson representing California's 27th Congressional District. First Chinese-American woman elected to the U.S. Congress",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
7197854
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Annie Clark (born 1982) – musician and singer-songwriter, better known by her stage name, St. Vincent (musician). ",
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"section_name": "C",
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402052
],
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[
1,
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[
91,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andrew Inglis Clark (1848–1907) – Tasmanian politician. Responsible for the adoption of the Hare-Clark system of proportional representation by the Parliament of Tasmania",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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23298,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
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[
114,
141
],
[
149,
171
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grenville Clark (1882–1931) – author",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
3218745
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[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Joseph S. Clark (1901–1990) – U.S. Senator and mayor of Philadelphia",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Laurel Clark (1961–2003) – U.S. Navy officer and NASA Astronaut who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
177608,
177541
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
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[
81,
112
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]
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{
"plaintext": " James Freeman Clarke (1810–1888) – Unitarian minister, theologian and author",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stanley Cobb (1887–1968) – neurologist and psychiatrist",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
4173249
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Cohen (born 1940) – U.S. Secretary of Defense (1997–2001), U.S. Senator from Maine (1979–1997)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
375197,
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19977
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1,
14
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[
29,
54
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[
68,
80
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[
86,
91
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emily Parmely Collins (1814–1909) — American suffragist, activist, writer",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
59565859
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Henry Steele Commager (1902–1998) – American historian and biographer of Theodore Parker",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
321860
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Kent Conrad (born 1948) – U.S. Senator from North Dakota (1992–2013)",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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24909346,
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
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[
27,
39
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[
45,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Maria Cook (1779–1835) – first woman to be recognized as a Universalist preacher.",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
69448732
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William David Coolidge (1873–1975) – inventor, physician, research director",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
2107186
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Cooper (1791-1883) - industrialist, inventor, philanthropist, and politician; founder of The Cooper Union.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
372163,
275339
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
96,
112
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Norman Cousins (1915–1990) – editor and writer, Unitarian friend",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
1630495
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "* E. E. Cummings (1894–1962) – poet and painter",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
2,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William Cushing (1732–1810) – one of the original US Supreme Court Justices, appointed by Geo. Washington and longest serving of the original justices (1789–1810).",
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"section_name": "C",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Cyrus Dallin (1861–1944) – American sculptor",
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
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]
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"plaintext": " Charles Darwin (1809–1882) – English naturalist and biologist",
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"section_name": "D",
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8145410
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ferenc Dávid (born as Franz David Hertel, often rendered as Francis David or Francis Davidis) (1510–1579) – Transylvanian priest, minister and bishop, founder of the Unitarian Church of Transylvania, first to use the word \"Unitarian\" to describe his faith",
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1,
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109,
122
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[
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199
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]
},
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"plaintext": " George de Benneville (1703–1793) – Universalist",
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Morris Dees (born 1936) – attorney, cofounder, chief legal counsel of Southern Poverty Law Center",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
474298,
27164
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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[
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Karl W. Deutsch (1912–1992) – international political scientist",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
1194594
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Dewey (1859–1952) – author of A Common Faith, Unitarian friend",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
16187
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Charles Dickens (1812–1870) – English novelist.",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) – prison reformer in New England.",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
149355
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John H. Dietrich (1878–1957) – Unitarian minister",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " James Drummond Dole (1877–1958) – entrepreneur",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Emily Taft Douglas (1899–1994) – U.S. Representative, Illinois",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
8587065
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul Douglas (1892–1976) – U.S. Senator, also a Quaker",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
302684,
4812151
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
49,
55
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Madelyn Dunham (1922–2008) – grandmother of U.S. President Barack Obama",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
16682347,
534366
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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[
60,
72
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stanley Armour Dunham (1918–1992) – grandfather of Barack Obama",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Stanley Ann Dunham (1942–1995) – mother of Barack Obama",
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"section_name": "D",
"target_page_ids": [
9478182
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Eddy (1828–1906) – minister and author of 1886 book Universalism in America.",
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"section_name": "E",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " James Chuter Ede (1882-1965) - British teacher, trade unionist and politician, Home Secretary (1945-1951) and President of the General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "E",
"target_page_ids": [
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218476
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
17
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[
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185
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},
{
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37,297 | 1,084,774,825 | Criminal_procedure | [
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"plaintext": "Criminal procedure is the adjudication process of the criminal law. While criminal procedure differs dramatically by jurisdiction, the process generally begins with a formal criminal charge with the person on trial either being free on bail or incarcerated, and results in the conviction or acquittal of the defendant. Criminal procedure can be either in form of inquisitorial or adversarial criminal procedure.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, in many countries with a democratic system and the rule of law, criminal procedure puts the burden of proof on the prosecution that is, it is up to the prosecution to prove that the defendant is guilty beyond any reasonable doubt, as opposed to having the defense prove that they are innocent, and any doubt is resolved in favor of the defendant. This provision, known as the presumption of innocence, is required, for example, in the 46 countries that are members of the Council of Europe, under Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights, and it is included in other human rights documents. However, in practice it operates somewhat differently in different countries. Such basic rights also include the right for the defendant to know what offence he or she has been arrested for or is being charged with, and the right to appear before a judicial official within a certain time of being arrested. Many jurisdictions also allow the defendant the right to legal counsel and provide any defendant who cannot afford their own lawyer with a lawyer paid for at the public expense.",
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"plaintext": "Most countries make a rather clear distinction between civil and criminal procedures. For example, an English criminal court may force a defendant to pay a fine as punishment for his crime, and he may sometimes have to pay the legal costs of the prosecution. But the victim of the crime pursues his claim for compensation in a civil, not a criminal, action. In France, Italy, and many countries besides, the victim of a crime (known as the \"injured party\") may be awarded damages by a criminal court judge.",
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"plaintext": "The standards of proof are higher in a criminal action than in a civil one since the loser risks not only financial penalties but also being sent to prison (or, in some countries, execution). In English law the prosecution must prove the guilt of a criminal “beyond reasonable doubt”; but the plaintiff in a civil action is required to prove his case “on the balance of probabilities”. \"Beyond reasonable doubt\" is not defined for the jury which decides the verdict, but it has been said by appeal courts that proving guilt beyond reasonable doubt requires the prosecution to exclude any reasonable hypothesis consistent with innocence: Plomp v. R. In a civil case, however, the court simply weighs the evidence and decides what is most probable.",
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"plaintext": "In Anglo-American law, the party bringing a criminal action (that is, in most cases, the state) is called the prosecution, but the party bringing a civil action is the plaintiff. In both kinds of action the other party is known as the defendant. A criminal case in the United States against a person named Ms. Sanchez would be entitled United States v. (short for versus, or against) Sanchez if initiated by the federal government; if brought by a state, the case would typically be called State v. Sanchez or People v. Sanchez. In the United Kingdom, the criminal case would be styled R. (short for Rex or Regina, that is, the King or Queen) v. Sanchez. In both the United States and the United Kingdom, a civil action between Ms. Sanchez and a Mr. Smith would be Sanchez v. Smith if started by Sanchez and Smith v. Sanchez if begun by Smith.",
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"plaintext": "Evidence given at a criminal trial is not necessarily admissible in a civil action about the same matter, just as evidence given in a civil cause is not necessarily admissible on a criminal trial. For example, the victim of a road accident does not directly benefit if the driver who injured him is found guilty of the crime of careless driving. He still has to prove his case in a civil action. In fact he may be able to prove his civil case even when the driver is found not guilty in the criminal trial. If the accused has given evidence on his trial he may be cross-examined on those statements in a subsequent civil action regardless of the criminal verdict.",
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"plaintext": " The majority of civil law jurisdictions ('civil law' as a type of law system, not as opposed to criminal law) follow an inquisitorial system of adjudication, in which judges undertake an active investigation of the claims by examining the evidence at the trial (while other judges contribute likewise by preparing reports).",
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"plaintext": "Proponents of either system tend to consider that their system defends best the rights of the innocent. There is a tendency in common law countries to believe that civil law / inquisitorial systems do not have the so-called \"presumption of innocence\", and do not provide the defence with adequate rights. Conversely, there is a tendency in countries with an inquisitorial system to believe that accusatorial proceedings unduly favour rich defendants who can afford large legal teams, and are very harsh on poorer defendants.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Court Appointed Special Advocates",
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"plaintext": " Criminal Procedure Act",
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"plaintext": " Criminal procedure in the United States",
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"plaintext": " Italian Criminal Procedure",
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"plaintext": " Code of Criminal Procedure (Japan) ",
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"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Criminal Procedure Code (Malaysia)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Criminal Procedure Code (Ukraine)",
"section_idx": 4,
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34
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| [
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| 146,071 | 2,920 | 525 | 61 | 0 | 0 | criminal procedure | area of law that sets out the rules and standards that courts follow when adjudicating criminal lawsuits | []
|
37,298 | 1,096,656,252 | Media | [
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},
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| 1,727,518 | 3,055 | 6 | 41 | 0 | 0 | Media | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
37,299 | 1,107,848,138 | Malayalam | [
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"plaintext": "Some scholars however believe that both Tamil and Malayalam developed during the prehistoric period from a common ancestor, 'Proto-Tamil-Malayalam', and that the notion of Malayalam being a 'daughter' of Tamil is misplaced. This is based on the fact that Malayalam and several Dravidian languages on the Western Coast have common archaic features which are not found even in the oldest historical forms of literary Tamil. ",
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"plaintext": "Despite this the literary form of Malayalam shares many common innovations with literary Tamil that emerged during the early Middle Tamil period, thus making independent descent untenable. For example, Old Tamil lacks the first and second person plural pronouns with the ending . It is in the Early Middle Tamil stage that first appears: ",
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"plaintext": "Indeed, most features of literary Malayalam morphology are derivable from a form of speech corresponding to early Middle Tamil.",
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"plaintext": "Robert Caldwell, in his 1856 book \"A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian Family of Languages\", opined that literary Malayalam branched from Classical Tamil and over time gained a large amount of Sanskrit vocabulary and lost the personal terminations of verbs. As the language of scholarship and administration, Old-Tamil, which was written in Tamil-Brahmi and the Vatteluttu alphabet later, greatly influenced the early development of Malayalam as a literary language. The Malayalam script began to diverge from the Vatteluttu and the Western Grantha scripts in the 8th and 9th centuries of Common Era. And by the end of the 13th century a written form of the language emerged which was unique from the Vatteluttu script that was used to write Tamil on the eastern coast.",
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"plaintext": "Old Malayalam (Pazhaya Malayalam), an inscriptional language found in Kerala from c. 9th to c. 13th century CE, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The beginning of the development of Old Malayalam as a written language from a western coastal dialect of contemporary Tamil (Karintamil) can be dated to c. 7th - 8th century CE. It remained a west coast dialect until c. 9th century CE or a little later. The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE. The formation of the language is mainly attributed to geographical separation of Kerala from the Tamil country and the influence of immigrant Tulu-Canarese Brahmins in Kerala (who also knew Sanskrit and Prakrit). It is generally agreed that the western coastal dialect of Tamil began to separate, diverge, and grow as a distinct language, mainly due to the heavy influence of Sanskrit and Prakrit, those became common prominent languages on Malabar Coast, when the caste system became strong in Kerala under Nambudiri Brahmins. ",
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"plaintext": "The Old Malayalam language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Perumal kings as well as the upper-caste (Nambudiri) village temples). Most of the inscriptions in Old Malayalam were found from the northern districts of Kerala, those lie adjacent to Tulu Nadu. Old Malayalam was mostly written in Vatteluttu script (with Pallava/Southern Grantha characters). Old Malayalam had several features distinct from the contemporary Tamil, which include the Nasalisation of adjoining sounds, Substitution of palatal sounds for dental sounds, Contraction of vowels, and the Rejection of gender verbs. Ramacharitam and Thirunizhalmala are the possible literary works of Old Malayalam found so far.",
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"plaintext": "The Old Malayalam got gradually developed into Middle Malayalam (Madhyakaala Malayalam) by 13th century CE. The Malayalam literature also completely got diverged from Tamil literature by this period. The works including Unniyachi Charitham, Unnichiruthevi Charitham, and Unniyadi Charitham, are written in Middle Malayalam, those date back to 13th and 14th centuries of Common Era. The Sandesha Kavyas of 14th century CE written in Manipravalam language include Unnuneeli Sandesam. Kannassa Ramayanam and Kannassa Bharatham by Rama Panikkar of the Niranam poets who lived between 1350 and 1450, are representative of this language. Ulloor has opined that Rama Panikkar holds the same position in Malayalam literature that Edmund Spenser does in English literature. The Champu Kavyas written by Punam Nambudiri, one among the Pathinettara Kavikal (Eighteen and a half poets) in the court of the Zamorin of Calicut, also belong to Middle Malayalam. The literary works of this period were heavily influenced by Manipravalam, which was a combination of contemporary Malayalam and Sanskrit. The word Mani-Pravalam literally means Diamond-Coral or Ruby-Coral. The 14th-century Lilatilakam text states Manipravalam to be a Bhashya (language) where \"Malayalam and Sanskrit should combine together like ruby and coral, without the least trace of any discord\". The scripts of Kolezhuthu and Malayanma were also used to write Middle Malayalam, in addition to Vatteluthu and Grantha script those were used to write Old Malayalam. The literary works written in Middle Malayalam were heavily influenced by Sanskrit and Prakrit, while comparing them with the modern Malayalam literature.",
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"plaintext": "The Middle Malayalam was succeeded by Modern Malayalam (Aadhunika Malayalam) by 15th century CE. The poem Krishnagatha written by Cherusseri Namboothiri, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446–1475) of Kolathunadu, is written in modern Malayalam. The language used in Krishnagatha is the modern spoken form of Malayalam. During the 16th century CE, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan from the Kingdom of Tanur and Poonthanam Nambudiri from the Kingdom of Valluvanad followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu written by Ezhuthachan and Jnanappana written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam. ",
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"plaintext": "It is Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan who is also credited with the development of Malayalam script into the current form through the intermixing and modification of the erstwhile scripts of Vatteluttu, Kolezhuthu, and Grantha script, which were used to write the inscriptions and literary works of Old and Middle Malayalam. He further eliminated excess and unnecessary letters from the modified script. Hence, Ezhuthachan is also known as The Father of modern Malayalam. The development of modern Malayalam script was also heavily influenced by the Tigalari script, which was used to write Sanskrit, due to the influence of Tuluva Brahmins in Kerala. The language used in the Arabi Malayalam works of 16th–17th century CE is a mixture of Modern Malayalam and Arabic. They follow the syntax of modern Malayalam, though written in a modified form of Arabic script, which is known as Arabi Malayalam script. P. Shangunny Menon ascribes the authorship of the medieval work Keralolpathi, which describes the Parashurama legend and the departure of the final Cheraman Perumal king to Mecca, to Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan. ",
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"plaintext": "Kunchan Nambiar introduced a new literary form called Thullal, and Unnayi Variyar introduced reforms in Attakkatha literature. The printing, prose literature, and Malayalam journalism, developed after the latter-half of 18th century CE. Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late 19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting of Kumaran Asan, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer and Vallathol Narayana Menon. In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, O. N. V. Kurup, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature. Later, writers like O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, Arundhati Roy, Vaikom Muhammed Basheer, have gained international recognition. Malayalam has also borrowed a lot of its words from various foreign languages, mainly from the Semitic languages including Arabic, and the European languages including Dutch and Portuguese, due to the long heritage of Indian Ocean trade and the Portuguese-Dutch colonisation of the Malabar Coast.",
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"plaintext": "Variations in intonation patterns, vocabulary, and distribution of grammatical and phonological elements are observable along the parameters of region, religion, community, occupation, social stratum, style and register.",
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"plaintext": "According to the Dravidian Encyclopedia, the regional dialects of Malayalam can be divided into fifteen dialect areas. They are as follows:",
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"plaintext": " Kasaragod",
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"plaintext": " North Malabar",
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"plaintext": " Wayanad",
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"plaintext": " Kozhikode",
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"plaintext": " Eranad",
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"plaintext": " Valluvanad (South Malabar)",
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"plaintext": " Palakkad",
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"plaintext": " Thrissur-Kochi",
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"plaintext": " North Travancore",
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"plaintext": " West Vembanad",
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"plaintext": " Central Travancore",
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"plaintext": " South Travancore",
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{
"plaintext": " Lakshadweep",
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"plaintext": " Beary",
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"plaintext": " Ravula",
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"plaintext": "According to Ethnologue, the dialects are: Malabar, Nagari-Malayalam, North Kerala, Central Kerala, South Kerala, Kayavar, Namboodiri, Nair, Mappila, Beary, Jeseri, Yerava, Pulaya, Nasrani, and Kasargod. The community dialects are: Namboodiri, Nair, Arabi Malayalam, Pulaya, and Nasrani. Whereas both the Namboothiri and Nair dialects have a common nature, the Arabi Malayalam is among the most divergent of dialects, differing considerably from literary Malayalam. Jeseri is a dialect of Malayalam spoken mainly in the Union territory of Lakshadweep and Beary is spoken in Tulu Nadu which are nearer to Kerala. Of the total 33,066,392 Malayalam speakers in India in 2001, 33,015,420 spoke the standard dialects, 19,643 spoke the Yerava dialect and 31,329 spoke non-standard regional variations like Eranadan. ",
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"plaintext": "The dialects of Malayalam spoken in the districts like Kasaragod, Kannur, Wayanad, Kozhikode, and Malappuram in the former Malabar District have few influences from Kannada. For example, the words those start with the sound \"V\" in Malayalam become \"B\" in these districts as in Kannada. Also the Voiced retroflex approximant (/ɻ/) which is seen in both Tamil and the standard form of Malayalam, are not seen in the northern dialects of Malayalam, as in Kannada. For example the words Vazhi (Path), Vili (Call), Vere (Another), and Vaa (Come/Mouth), become Bayi, Bili, Bere, and Baa in the northern dialects of Malayalam. Similarly the Malayalam spoken in the southern districts of Kerala, i.e., Thiruvananthapuram-Kollam-Pathanamthitta area is influenced by Tamil.",
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"plaintext": "Labels such as \"Nampoothiri Dialect\", \"Mappila Dialect\", and \"Nasrani Dialect\" refer to overall patterns constituted by the sub-dialects spoken by the subcastes or sub-groups of each such caste. The most outstanding features of the major communal dialects of Malayalam are summarized below:",
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},
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"plaintext": " Lexical items with phonological features reminiscent of Sanskrit (e.g., meaning 'fool'), 'lie', 'impudence', 'impurity', and and (both meaning 'good-for-nothing fellow') abound in Nampoothiri dialect.",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
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"plaintext": " The Muslim dialect, also known as Arabi Malayalam, shows maximum divergence from the literary Standard Dialect of Malayalam. It is very much influenced by Arabic and Persian rather than by Sanskrit or by English. The retroflex continuant of the literary dialect is realised in the Muslim dialect as the palatal . In some other dialects of Northern Kerala too, of the literary dialect is realised as .",
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"plaintext": " The Syrian Christian or Nasrani dialect of Malayalam is quite close to the Nair dialect, especially in phonology. The speech of the educated section among Syrian Christians and that of those who are close to the church are peculiar in having a number of assimilated as well as unassimilated loan words from English and Syriac. The few loan words which have found their way into the Christian dialect are assimilated in many cases through the process of de-aspiration.",
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"plaintext": " The Ravula is a tribal dialect of Malayalam spoken by the members of Ravula tribe who are primarily inhabitants of the Kodagu district of Karnataka.",
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"plaintext": " Tamil spoken in the Kanyakumari district has influences from Malayalam language.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam has incorporated many elements from other languages over the years, the most notable of these being Sanskrit and later, English. According to Sooranad Kunjan Pillai who compiled the authoritative Malayalam lexicon, the other principal languages whose vocabulary was incorporated over the ages were Arabic, Dutch, Hindustani, Pali, Persian, Portuguese, Prakrit, and Syriac. ",
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"plaintext": " Many medieval liturgical texts were written in an admixture of Sanskrit and early Malayalam, called Manipravalam. The influence of Sanskrit was very prominent in formal Malayalam used in the medeival literature. Malayalam has a substantially high number of Sanskrit loanwords but these are seldom used. ",
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"plaintext": " Some Arabic loanwords like adālattŭ (court of justice), jāmyaṃ (bail), japti (foreclosure), jilla (district), tālukkŭ (subdistrict), etc, are used in the formal literary Malayalam for administrative purposes. ",
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"plaintext": " Loanwords and influences also from Hebrew, Syriac, and Ladino abound in the Jewish Malayalam dialects, as well as English, Portuguese, Syriac, and Greek in the Christian dialects, while Arabic and Persian elements predominate in the Muslim dialects. ",
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"plaintext": " The Muslim dialect known as Mappila Malayalam is predominantly in the northern districts of Kerala. Another Muslim dialect called Beary bashe is used in the extreme northern part of Kerala along with the southern part of Karnataka in a former region called Tulu Nadu.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam is a language spoken by the native people of southwestern India and the islands of Lakshadweep in Arabian Sea. According to the Indian census of 2011, there were 32,413,213 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 93.2% of the total number of Malayalam speakers in India, and 97.03% of the total population of the state. There were a further 701,673 (1.14% of the total number) in Karnataka, 957,705 (2.70%) in Tamil Nadu, and 406,358 (1.2%) in Maharashtra. ",
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"plaintext": "The number of Malayalam speakers in Lakshadweep is 51,100, which is only 0.15% of the total number, but is as much as about 84% of the population of Lakshadweep. Malayalam was the most spoken language in erstwhile Gudalur taluk (now Gudalur and Panthalur taluks) of Nilgiris district in Tamil Nadu which accounts for 48.8% population and it was the second most spoken language in Mangalore and Puttur taluks of South Canara accounting for 21.2% and 15.4% respectively according to 1951 census report. 25.57% of the total population in the Kodagu district of Karnataka are Malayalis, and they form single largest linguistic group accounting for 35.5% in the Virajpet Taluk. Around one-third of the Malayalis in Kodagu district speak the Yerava dialect according to the 2011 census, which is native to Kodagu and Wayanad.",
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"plaintext": "In all, Malayalis made up 3.22% of the total Indian population in 2011. Of the total 34,713,130 Malayalam speakers in India in 2011, 33,015,420 spoke the standard dialects, 19,643 spoke the Yerava dialect and 31,329 spoke non-standard regional variations like Eranadan. As per the 1991 census data, 28.85% of all Malayalam speakers in India spoke a second language and 19.64% of the total knew three or more languages.",
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"plaintext": "Just before independence, Malaya attracted many Malayalis. Large numbers of Malayalis have settled in Chennai, Bengaluru, Mangaluru, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Pune, Mysuru and Delhi. Many Malayalis have also emigrated to the Middle East, the United States, and Europe. There were 179,860 speakers of Malayalam in the United States, according to the 2000 census, with the highest concentrations in Bergen County, New Jersey, and Rockland County, New York. There are 144,000 of Malayalam speakers in Malaysia. There were 11,687 Malayalam speakers in Australia in 2016. The 2001 Canadian census reported 7,070 people who listed Malayalam as their mother tongue, mainly in Toronto. The 2006 New Zealand census reported 2,139 speakers. 134 Malayalam speaking households were reported in 1956 in Fiji. There is also a considerable Malayali population in the Persian Gulf regions, especially in Dubai and Doha.",
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"plaintext": "For the consonants and vowels, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol is given, followed by the Malayalam character and the ISO 15919 transliteration. The current Malayalam script bears high similarity with Tigalari script, which was used for writing the Tulu language, spoken in coastal Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts) and the northernmost Kasargod district of Kerala. Tigalari script was also used for writing Sanskrit in Malabar region.",
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"plaintext": " ്* formed from word final short /u/s but now there are /u/s finally as well, mostly in loanwords like in guru but native pērŭ; It is also added to the end of loanwords ending in some consonants, e.g. Skt. manas, suhr̥t, Ml. manassŭ, suhr̥ttŭ, En. current Ml. karaṇḍŭ. It is the , an epenthentic vowel in Malayalam. Therefore, it has no independent vowel letter (because it never occurs at the beginning of words) but, when it comes after a consonant, there are various ways of representing it. In medieval times, it was just represented with the symbol for ⟨⟩, but later on it was just completely omitted (that is, written as an inherent vowel ⟨⟩). In modern times, it is written in two different ways – the Northern style, in which a chandrakkala is used ⟨⟩, and the Southern or Travancore style, in which the diacritic for a is attached to the preceding consonant and a chandrakkala is written above ⟨⟩. According to one author, this alternative form ⟨⟩ is historically more correct, though the simplified form without a vowel sign u is common nowadays.",
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"plaintext": " * (phonetically central: ) is represented as basic or the \"default\" vowel in the Abugida script.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam has also borrowed the Sanskrit diphthongs of (represented in Malayalam as , au) and (represented in Malayalam as , ai), although these mostly occur only in Sanskrit loanwords. Traditionally (as in Sanskrit), four vocalic consonants (usually pronounced in Malayalam as consonants followed by the , which is not officially a vowel, and not as actual vocalic consonants) have been classified as vowels: vocalic r (, , r̥), long vocalic r (, , r̥̄), vocalic l (, , l̥) and long vocalic l (, , l̥̄). Except for the first, the other three have been omitted from the current script used in Kerala as there are no words in current Malayalam that use them.",
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"plaintext": "Some authors say that Malayalam has no diphthongs and /ai̯, au̯/ are clusters of V+glide j/ʋ while others consider all V+glide clusters to be diphthongs /ai̯, aːi̯, au̯, ei̯, oi̯, i̯a/ as in kai, vāypa, auṣadhaṁ, cey, koy and kāryaṁ",
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"plaintext": "Vowel length is phonemic and all of the vowels have minimal pairs for example paṭṭŭ \"silk\", pāṭṭŭ \"song\", koḍi \"flag\", kōḍi \"crore\" (10 million), er̠i \"throw\", ēr̠i \"lots\"",
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"plaintext": "Some speakers also have /æː/, /ɔː/, /ə/ from English loanwords e.g. /bæːŋgɨ̆/ \"bank\" but most speakers switch it with /aː/, /eː/ or /ja/; /oː/ or /aː/ and /e/ or /a/.",
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"plaintext": " As in other Dravidian languages, the retroflex series are true subapical consonants, in which the underside of the tongue contacts the roof.",
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"plaintext": " All of the alveolars except /s/ are apical.",
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"plaintext": " /, , , , / can either be postalveolar or alveolo-palatal depending upon the speaker and dialect; the postalveolar and alveolo-palatal realizations are in free variation.",
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"plaintext": " The alveolar nasal once had a separate character ⟨ഩ⟩ that is now obsolete and the sound is now almost always represented by the symbol that was originally used only for the dental nasal. However, both sounds are extensively used in current colloquial and official Malayalam, and although they were allophones in Old Malayalam, they now occasionally contrast in gemination – for example, ('by me', first person singular pronoun in the instrumental case) and ('if that is so'), which are both written (എന്നാൽ).",
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"plaintext": " The unaspirated alveolar stop also had a separate character ⟨ഺ⟩ but it has become obsolete, as the sound only occurs in geminate form (when geminated it is written with a below another ⟨റ്റ⟩) or immediately following other consonants (in these cases, or are usually written in small size underneath the first consonant).",
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"plaintext": "The proto Dravidian alveolar stop *ṯ developed into an alveolar trill /r/ in many of the Dravidian languages while *ṯṯ and *ṉṯ remained in Malayalam.",
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"plaintext": " ന്റ is pronounced only as n̠d̠ but ൻറ can be pronounced as n̠d̠ or n̠r̠, n̠r̠ doesn't occur natively but it occurs in loans like എൻറോൾ (en̠r̠ōḷ) 'enroll' or ഹെൻറി (hen̠r̠i) 'Henry'.",
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"plaintext": " All non geminated voiceless stops and affricate become voiced in intervocalic position like in Tamil but unlike Tamil it doesnt spirantize, it remains a stop; eg. makaṉ Ml. [mɐgɐn] Ta. [mɐɣɐn]; it also gets voiced after a nasal.",
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"plaintext": " The geminated velars /k:/ and /ŋ:/ are sometimes palatalized word medially after /j, i(:), e(:)/ like in the words [kiɖɐk:ugɐ] vs [iɾikʲ:ugɐ] and [mɐŋ:ɐl] vs. [mɐt̪:ɐŋʲ:ɐ], their distribution is unpredictable eg. it doesn’t palatalize in vikkŭ but does in irikkŭ. If the palatalization is from /j/ it is sometimes deleted e.g. poykko can be [pojkʲːo] or [pokʲːo], aḍaykka as [ɐɖɐjkʲːɐ] or [ɐɖɐkʲːɐ]. Some of the northern dialects might pronounce them without palatalization.",
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"plaintext": " The letter ഫ represents both , a phoneme occurring in Sanskrit loanwords, and , which is mostly found in comparatively recent borrowings from European languages. Though nowadays most people (especially youngsters) pronounce as like in the word . In the Jesari dialect the native /p/ too spirantized to [f].",
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"plaintext": " /m, n, ɳ, l, ɭ/ are unreleased word finally. Words will never begin or end with a geminated consonant. /ɻ/ never occur word initially. All consonants appear word medially.",
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"plaintext": " The plain stops, affricates, nasals, laterals, the fricatives /s/ and /ʃ/ and approximants other than /ɻ/ can be geminated and gemination can sometimes change the meaning of the word, e.g. /kaɭam/ 'cell', /kaɭ:am/ 'lie'. /n̪, ɲ, ŋ, t/ only occur in geminated form intervocalically.",
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"plaintext": " The retroflex lateral is clearly retroflex, but may be more of a flap (= ) than an approximant . The approximant has both rhotic and lateral qualities, and is indeterminate between an approximant and a fricative, but is laminal post-alveolar rather than a true retroflex. The articulation changes part-way through, perhaps explaining why it behaves as both a rhotic and a lateral, both an approximant and a fricative, but the nature of the change is not understood.",
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"plaintext": " /ɾ, l, ɻ/ are very weakly palatalized while /r, ɭ/ are clear.",
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"plaintext": " Around 75% of nk and 50% of ñc and nt from Old Malayalam got assimilated to ṅṅ, ññ and nn, almost all of the n̠t̠ merged with nn suggesting an earlier merger of some of the n̠t̠ and nt (for e.g. the cognate of Ta. nan̠r̠i is spelt as nandi and pronounced nanni); mp and ṇṭ were unchanged, e.g. Ta. mūṉṟu, maruntu, kañci, teṅku, Ml. mūnnŭ, marunnŭ, kaññi, teṅṅŭ. Word final ai, āy and ey became a unless the word is monosyllabic, e.g. Ta. avai, māṅgāy, veṇṇey Ml. ava, māṅṅa, veṇṇa. Final āy in monosyllabic words became āya e.g. Ta. kāy, Ml. kāya.",
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"plaintext": " Loanwords with /z/ are switched with /s/ but not /d͡ʒ/ like in Hindi or Telugu eg. /brasi:l/ En. \"Brazil\" unless it was loaned through Hindi then the Hindi pronunciation is taken eg. /d͡ʒil:a/ Hi. /d͡ʒila:/ Per. /zilʔ/, other Perso-Arabic phonemes like /q, x, ɣ, ħ, Cˤ, ʕ, ʔ/ are switched with /k, kʰ, g, h, C, ∅, ∅/, sometimes /q, x/ are switched with /kʰ, k/ eg. قطر (Qaṭar) as ഖത്തർ (khattaṟ) and Arb. خَطّ (xaṭṭ) as കത്ത് (kattŭ). English loans with /θ, ð, ʒ/ are switched with /t̪, d̪, ʃ/; the dentals do not clash with English loans with /t, d/, which are switched with [t, d] or [ʈ, ɖ] though [d] is rare because of the limited distribution natively eg. \"taxi\" as ṯāksi or more commonly ṭāksi. The English /ɹ/ is loaned as either /ɾ/ or /r/ unpredictably, for e.g. 'current' got loaned as karaṇḍŭ but 'maroon' got loaned as 'mar̠ūṇ' or 'mer̠ūṇ' but the cluster /ɹs/ is loaned as /ɻs/ other clusters are loaned as /rC/ or /ɾC/, /ɻ/ only occurs in words with /ɹs/ e.g. 'force' as fōḻsŭ. Speakers with non rhotic English accents don't have /ɹC/ clusters in English loans and pronounce it as fōs(ŭ). In Sanskrit loans with /t̪C/ and /d̪C/ (unless C is a sonorant or a dental stop) sometimes the /t̪, d̪/ becomes /l/ especially in /t̪s/ e.g. utsava > ulsavam, utpādana > ulpādaṉam, udghāṭana > ulghāḍaṉam. There are some native words with /s/ (urasŭ) and /ʃ/ (vīśŭ) but rest of the fricatives (except /f/ in native words of Jesari) and aspirates are only found in loans.",
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"plaintext": " Rarely some speakers pronounce the voiced aspirated consonants as voiceless so words like dhaṉam as thaṉam, it is more commonly deaspirated so dhaṉam as daṉam and kharam as karam, intervocalically the voiceless aspirate also becomes voiced so mukham as mugam.",
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"plaintext": "The following text is Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.",
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"plaintext": "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.",
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"plaintext": "മനുഷ്യരെല്ലാവരും തുല്യാവകാശങ്ങളോടും അന്തസ്സോടും സ്വാതന്ത്ര്യത്തോടുംകൂടി ജനിച്ചിട്ടുള്ളവരാണ്. അന്യോന്യം ഭ്രാതൃഭാവത്തോടെ പെരുമാറുവാനാണ് മനുഷ്യന് വിവേകബുദ്ധിയും മനസാക്ഷിയും സിദ്ധമായിരിക്കുന്നത്.",
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"plaintext": "man̠uṣyarellāvaruṁ tulyāvakāśaṅṅaḷōṭuṁ antassōṭuṁ svātantryattōṭuṅkūṭi jan̠icciṭṭuḷḷavarāṇŭ. an̠yōn̠yaṁ bhrātr̥bhāvattōṭe perumāṟuvān̠āṇŭ man̠uṣyan̠ŭ vivēkabuddhiyuṁ man̠asākṣiyuṁ siddhamāyirikkunnatŭ.",
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"plaintext": "/manuʂjaɾellaːʋaɾum t̪uljaːʋaɡaːʃaŋŋaɭoːɖum an̪d̪assoːɖum sʋaːd̪an̪d̪rjat̪t̪oːɖuŋguːɖi d͡ʒanit͡ʃt͡ʃiʈʈuɭɭaʋaɾaːɳɨ̆ ǁ anjoːnjam bʱraːt̪ribʱaːʋat̪t̪oːɖe peɾumaːruʋaːnaːɳɨ̆ manuʂjanɨ̆ ʋiʋeːɡabud̪d̪ʱijum manasaːkʂijum sid̪d̪ʱamaːjiɾikkun̪n̪ad̪ɨ̆ ǁ/",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam has a canonical word order of SOV (subject–object–verb), as do other Dravidian languages. A rare OSV word order occurs in interrogative clauses when the interrogative word is the subject. Both adjectives and possessive adjectives precede the nouns they modify. Malayalam has 6 or 7 grammatical cases. Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood and aspect, but not for person, gender nor number except in archaic or poetic language. The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book Kerala Panineeyam written by A. R. Raja Raja Varma in late 19th century CE.",
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"plaintext": "The declensional paradigms for some common nouns and pronouns are given below. As Malayalam is an agglutinative language, it is difficult to delineate the cases strictly and determine how many there are, although seven or eight is the generally accepted number. Alveolar plosives and nasals (although the modern Malayalam script does not distinguish the latter from the dental nasal) are underlined for clarity, following the convention of the National Library at Kolkata romanization.",
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"plaintext": "Vocative forms are given in parentheses after the nominative, as the only pronominal vocatives that are used are the third person ones, which only occur in compounds.",
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"plaintext": "The following are examples of some of the most common declension patterns.",
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"plaintext": "When words are adopted from Sanskrit, their endings are usually changed to conform to Malayalam norms:",
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"plaintext": " Masculine Sanskrit nouns with a word stem ending in a short /a/ take the ending /an/ in the nominative singular. For example, Kr̥ṣṇa → Kr̥ṣṇan. The final /n/ is dropped before masculine surnames, honorifics, or titles ending in /an/ and beginning with a consonant other than /n/ – e.g., \"Krishna Menon\", \"Krishna Kaniyaan\" etc., but \"Krishnan Ezhutthachan\". Surnames ending with /ar/ or /aḷ/ (where these are plural forms of \"an\" denoting respect) are treated similarly – \"Krishna Pothuval\", \"Krishna Chakyar\", but \"Krishnan Nair\", \"Krishnan Nambiar\", as are Sanskrit surnames such \"Varma(n)\", \"Sharma(n)\", or \"Gupta(n)\" (rare) – e.g., \"Krishna Varma\", \"Krishna Sharman\". If a name is a compound, only the last element undergoes this transformation – e.g., \"Kr̥ṣṇa\" + \"dēva\" = \"Kr̥ṣṇadēvan\", not \"Kr̥ṣṇandēvan\".",
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"plaintext": " Feminine words ending in a long /ā/ or /ī/ are changed to end in a short /a/ or /i/, for example \"Sītā\" → \"Sīta\" and \"Lakṣmī\" → \"Lakṣmi\". However, the long vowel still appears in compound words, such as \"Sītādēvi\" or\" Lakṣmīdēvi\". The long ī is generally reserved for the vocative forms of these names, although in Sanskrit the vocative actually takes a short /i/. There are also a small number of nominative /ī/ endings that have not been shortened – a prominent example being the word \"strī\" for \"woman\".",
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"plaintext": " Nouns that have a stem in /-an/ and which end with a long /ā/ in the masculine nominative singular have /vŭ/ added to them, for example \"Brahmā\" (stem \"Brahman\") → \"Brahmāvŭ\". When the same nouns are declined in the neuter and take a short /a/ ending in Sanskrit, Malayalam adds an additional /m/, e.g. \"Brahma\" (neuter nominative singular of \"Brahman\") becomes \"Brahmam\". This is again omitted when forming compounds.",
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"plaintext": " Words whose roots end in /-an/ but whose nominative singular ending is /-a-/ (for example, the Sanskrit root of \"karma\" is actually \"karman\") are also changed. The original root is ignored and \"karma\" (the form in Malayalam being \"karmam\" because it ends in a short /a/) is taken as the basic form of the noun when declining. However, this does not apply to all consonant stems, as \"unchangeable\" stems such as \"manas\" (\"mind\") and \"suhr̥t\" (\"friend\") are identical to the Malayalam nominative singular forms (although the regularly derived \"manam\" sometimes occurs as an alternative to \"manas\").",
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"plaintext": " Sanskrit words describing things or animals rather than people with a stem in short /a/ end with an /m/ in Malayalam. For example,\"Rāmāyaṇa\" → \"Rāmāyaṇam\". In most cases, this is actually the same as the Sanskrit accusative case ending, which is also /m/ (or, allophonically, anusvara due to the requirements of the sandhi word-combining rules) in the neuter nominative. However, \"things and animals\" and \"people\" are not always differentiated based on whether or not they are sentient beings; for example, \"Narasimha\" becomes \"Narasiṃham\" and not \"Narasiṃhan\", whereas \"Ananta\" becomes \"Anantan\" even though both are sentient. This does not strictly correspond to the Sanskrit neuter gender, as both \"Narasiṃha\" and \"Ananta\" are masculine nouns in the original Sanskrit.",
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"plaintext": " Nouns with short vowel stems other than /a/, such as \"Viṣṇu\", \"Prajāpati\" etc. are declined with the Sanskrit stem acting as the Malayalam nominative singular (the Sanskrit nominative singular is formed by adding a visarga, e.g., as in \"Viṣṇuḥ\")",
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"plaintext": " The original Sanskrit vocative is often used in formal or poetic Malayalam, e.g. \"Harē\" (for \"Hari\") or \"Prabhō\" (for \"Prabhu\" – \"Lord\"). This is restricted to certain contexts – mainly when addressing deities or other exalted individuals, so a normal man named Hari would usually be addressed using a Malayalam vocative such as \"Harī\". The Sanskrit genitive is also occasionally found in Malayalam poetry, especially the personal pronouns \"mama\" (\"my\" or \"mine\") and \"tava\" (\"thy\" or \"thine\"). Other cases are less common and generally restricted to the realm of Maṇipravāḷam.",
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"plaintext": " Along with these tatsama borrowings, there are also many tadbhava words in common use. These were incorporated via borrowing before the separation of Malayalam and Tamil. As the language did not then accommodate Sanskrit phonology as it now does, words were changed to conform to the Old Tamil phonological system, for example \"Kr̥ṣṇa\" → \"Kaṇṇan\". Most of his works are oriented on the basic Malayalam family and cultures and many of them were path-breaking in the history of Malayalam literature",
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"plaintext": "Aside from the Malayalam script, the Malayalam language has been written in other scripts like Latin, Syriac and Arabic. Suriyani Malayalam was used by Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Nasranis) until the 19th century. Arabic scripts particularly were taught in madrasahs in Kerala and the Lakshadweep Islands.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, several scripts were used to write Malayalam. Among these were the Vatteluttu, Kolezhuthu and Malayanma scripts. But it was the Grantha script, another Southern Brahmi variation, which gave rise to the modern Malayalam script. The modern Malayalam script bears high similarity to Tigalari script, which was used for writing Tulu language in Coastal Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts) and the northernmost Kasaragod district of Kerala. It is syllabic in the sense that the sequence of graphic elements means that syllables have to be read as units, though in this system the elements representing individual vowels and consonants are for the most part readily identifiable. In the 1960s Malayalam dispensed with many special letters representing less frequent conjunct consonants and combinations of the vowel /u, u:/ with different consonants. ",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam script consists of a total of 578 characters. The script contains 52 letters including 16 vowels and 36 consonants, which forms 576 syllabic characters, and contains two additional diacritic characters named anusvāra and visarga. The earlier style of writing has been superseded by a new style as of 1981. This new script reduces the different letters for typesetting from 900 to fewer than 90. This was mainly done to include Malayalam in the keyboards of typewriters and computers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999 a group named \"Rachana Akshara Vedi\" produced a set of free fonts containing the entire character repertoire of more than 900 glyphs. This was announced and released along with a text editor in the same year at Thiruvananthapuram, the capital of Kerala. In 2004, the fonts were released under the GNU GPL license by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation at the Cochin University of Science and Technology in Kochi, Kerala.",
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"plaintext": "A chillu (, ), or a chillaksharam (, ), is a special consonant letter that represents a pure consonant independently, without help of a virama. Unlike a consonant represented by an ordinary consonant letter, this consonant is never followed by an inherent vowel. Anusvaram and Visargam fit this definition but are not usually included. ISCII and Unicode 5.0 treat a chillu as a glyph variant of a normal (\"base\") consonant letter. In Unicode 5.1 and later, chillu letters are treated as independent characters, encoded atomically.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam numbers and fractions are written as follows. These are archaic and no longer used. Instead, the common Hindu-Arabic numeral system is followed. Note that there is a confusion about the glyph of Malayalam digit zero. The correct form is oval-shaped, but occasionally the glyph for () is erroneously shown as the glyph for 0.",
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"plaintext": "Number \"11\" is written as \"൰൧\" and not \"൧൧\". \"32\" is written as \"൩൰൨\" similar to the Tamil numeral system.",
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"plaintext": "For example, the number \"2013\" is read in Malayalam as (). It is split into:",
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"plaintext": " () : 2 – ",
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"plaintext": " () : 1000 – ",
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"plaintext": " () : 10 – ",
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"plaintext": " () : 3 – ",
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"plaintext": "Combine them together to get the Malayalam number .",
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"plaintext": "And 1,00,000 as \"\" = hundred(), thousand() (100×1000), 10,00,000 as \"\" = ten(), hundred(), thousand() (10×100×1000) and 1,00,00,000 as \"\" = hundred(), hundred(), thousand() (100×100×1000).",
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"plaintext": "Later on this system got reformed to be more similar to the Hindu-Arabic numerals so 10,00,000 in the reformed numerals it would be .",
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"plaintext": "In Malayalam you can transcribe any fraction by affixing () after the denominator followed by the numerator, so a fraction like would be read as () 'out of ten, seven' but fractions like and have distinct names (, , ) and () 'half quarter'.",
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"plaintext": "Vatteluttu (, \"round writing\") is a script that had evolved from Tamil-Brahmi and was once used extensively in the southern part of present-day Tamil Nadu and in Kerala.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam was first written in Vattezhuthu. The Vazhappally inscription issued by Rajashekhara Varman is the earliest example, dating from about 830 CE. During the medieval period, the Tigalari script that was used for writing Tulu in South Canara, and Sanskrit in the adjacent Malabar region, had a close similarity to the modern Malayalam script. In the Tamil country, the modern Tamil script had supplanted Vattezhuthu by the 15th century, but in the Malabar region, Vattezhuthu remained in general use up to the 17th century, or the 18th century. A variant form of this script, Kolezhuthu, was used until about the 19th century mainly in the Malabar-Cochin area. ",
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"plaintext": "Vatteluttu was in general use, but was not suitable for literature where many Sanskrit words were used. Like Tamil-Brahmi, it was originally used to write Tamil, and as such, did not have letters for voiced or aspirated consonants used in Sanskrit but not used in Tamil. For this reason, Vatteluttu and the Grantha alphabet were sometimes mixed, as in the Manipravalam. One of the oldest examples of the Manipravalam literature, Vaishikatantram (, Vaiśikatantram), dates back to the 12th century, where the earliest form of the Malayalam script was used, which seems to have been systematized to some extent by the first half of the 13th century.",
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"plaintext": "Another variant form, Malayanma, was used in the south of Thiruvananthapuram. By the 19th century, old scripts like Kolezhuthu had been supplanted by Arya-eluttu – that is the current Malayalam script. Nowadays, it is widely used in the press of the Malayali population in Kerala.",
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"plaintext": "According to Arthur Coke Burnell, one form of the Grantha alphabet, originally used in the Chola dynasty, was imported into the southwest coast of India in the 8th or 9th century, which was then modified in course of time in this secluded area, where communication with the east coast was very limited. It later evolved into Tigalari-Malayalam script was used by the Malayali, Havyaka Brahmins and Tulu Brahmin people, but was originally only applied to write Sanskrit. This script split into two scripts: Tigalari and Malayalam. While Malayalam script was extended and modified to write vernacular language Malayalam, the Tigalari was written for Sanskrit only. In Malabar, this writing system was termed Arya-eluttu (, Ārya eḻuttŭ), meaning \"Arya writing\" (Sanskrit is Indo-Aryan language while Malayalam is a Dravidian language).",
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"plaintext": "Suriyani Malayalam (സുറിയാനി മലയാളം, ܣܘܪܝܢܝ ܡܠܝܠܡ), also known as Karshoni, Syro-Malabarica or Syriac Malayalam, is a version of Malayalam written in a variant form of the Syriac alphabet which was popular among the Saint Thomas Christians (also known as Syrian Christians or Nasranis) of Kerala in India. It uses Malayalam grammar, the Maḏnḥāyā or \"Eastern\" Syriac script with special orthographic features, and vocabulary from Malayalam and East Syriac. This originated in the South Indian region of the Malabar Coast (modern-day Kerala). Until the 20th century, the script was widely used by Syrian Christians in Kerala.",
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"plaintext": "The Arabi Malayalam script, otherwise known as the Ponnani script, is a writing system – a variant form of the Arabic script with special orthographic features – which was developed during the early medieval period and used to write Arabi Malayalam until the early 20th century CE. Though the script originated and developed in Kerala, today it is predominantly used in Malaysia and Singapore by the migrant Muslim community.",
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"plaintext": "The Sangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam. According to Iravatham Mahadevan, the earliest Malayalam inscription discovered until now is the Edakal-5 inscription (ca. late 4th century – early 5th century) reading (English: 'this is old'). Although this has been disputed by other scholars. The use of the pronoun and the lack of the literary Tamil ending are archaisms from Proto-Dravidian rather than unique innovations of Malayalam. ",
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"plaintext": "The early literature of Malayalam comprised three types of composition:",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam Nada, Tamil Nada and Sanskrit Nada.",
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"plaintext": " Classical songs known as Nadan Pattu",
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"plaintext": " Manipravalam of the Sanskrit tradition, which permitted a generous interspersing of Sanskrit with Malayalam. Niranam poets Manipravalam Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar wrote Manipravalam poetry in the 14th century.",
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"plaintext": " The folk song rich in native elements",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam literature has been profoundly influenced by poets Cherusseri Namboothiri, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, and Poonthanam Nambudiri, in the 15th and the 16th centuries of Common Era. Unnayi Variyar, a probable 17th–18th century poet, and Kunchan Nambiar, a poet of 18th century, also greatly influenced Malayalam literature in its early form. The words used in many of the Arabi Malayalam works those date back to 16th–17th centuries of Common Era are also very closer to the modern Malayalam language. The prose literature, criticism, and Malayalam journalism began after the latter half of 18th century CE. Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards political radicalism. Malayalam literature has been presented with six Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.",
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"plaintext": "Malayalam poetry to the late 20th century betrays varying degrees of the fusion of the three different strands. The oldest examples of Pattu and Manipravalam, respectively, are Ramacharitam and Vaishikatantram, both from the 12th century.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest extant prose work in the language is a commentary in simple Malayalam, Bhashakautalyam (12th century) on Chanakya's Arthashastra. Adhyatmaramayanam by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (known as the father of modern Malayalam literature) who was born in Tirur, one of the most important works in Malayalam literature. Unnunili Sandesam written in the 14th century is amongst the oldest literary works in Malayalam language. Cherusseri Namboothiri of 15th century (Kannur-based poet), Poonthanam Nambudiri of 16th century (Perinthalmanna-based poet), Unnayi Variyar of 17th–18th centuries (Thrissur-based poet), and Kunchan Nambiar of 18th century (Palakkad-based poet), have played a major role in the development of Malayalam literature into current form. The words used in many of the Arabi Malayalam works, which dates back to 16th–17th centuries are also very closer to modern Malayalam language. The basin of the river Bharathappuzha, which is otherwise known as River Ponnani, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the 18th century some of the Christian missionaries from Kerala started writing in Malayalam but mostly travelogues, dictionaries and religious books. Varthamanappusthakam (1778), written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar is considered to be the first travelogue in an Indian language. The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book Kerala Panineeyam written by A. R. Raja Raja Varma in late 19th century CE.",
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"plaintext": "For the first 600 years of the Malayalam calendar, Malayalam literature remained in a preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs (Pattu). Folk songs are the oldest literary form in Malayalam. They were just oral songs. Many of them were related to agricultural activities, including Pulayar Pattu, Pulluvan Pattu, Njattu Pattu, Koythu Pattu, etc. Other Ballads of Folk Song period include the Vadakkan Pattukal (Northern songs) in North Malabar region and the Thekkan Pattukal (Southern songs) in Southern Travancore. Some of the earliest Mappila songs (Muslim songs) were also folk songs.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known poems in Malayalam, Ramacharitam and Thirunizhalmala, dated to the 12th to 14th century, were completed before the introduction of the Sanskrit alphabet. It was written by a poet with the pen name Cheeramakavi who, according to poet Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer, was Sree Veerarama Varman, a king of southern Kerala from AD 1195 to 1208. However the claim that it was written in Southern Kerala is expired on the basis of new discoveries. Other experts, like Chirakkal T Balakrishnan Nair, Dr. K.M. George, M. M. Purushothaman Nair, and P.V. Krishnan Nair, state that the origin of the book is in Kasaragod district in North Malabar region. They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from Nileshwaram in North Malabar. The influence of Ramacharitam is mostly seen in the contemporary literary works of Northern Kerala. The words used in Ramacharitam such as Nade (Mumbe), Innum (Iniyum), Ninna (Ninne), Chaaduka (Eriyuka) are special features of the dialect spoken in North Malabar (Kasaragod-Kannur region). Furthermore, the Thiruvananthapuram mentioned in Ramacharitham is not the Thiruvananthapuram in Southern Kerala. But it is Ananthapura Lake Temple of Kumbla in the northernmost Kasaragod district of Kerala. The word Thiru is used just by the meaning Honoured. Today it is widely accepted that Ramacharitham was written somewhere in North Malabar (most likely near Kasaragod).",
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"plaintext": "But the period of the earliest available literary document cannot be the sole criterion used to determine the antiquity of a language. In its early literature, Malayalam has songs, Pattu, for various subjects and occasions, such as harvesting, love songs, heroes, gods, etc. A form of writing called Campu emerged from the 14th century onwards. It mixed poetry with prose and used a vocabulary strongly influenced by Sanskrit, with themes from epics and Puranas.",
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"plaintext": "The works including Unniyachi Charitham, Unnichirudevi Charitham, and Unniyadi Charitham, are written in Middle Malayalam, those date back to 13th and 14th centuries of Common Era. The Sandesha Kavyas of 14th century CE written in Manipravalam language include Unnuneeli Sandesam The literary works written in Middle Malayalam were heavily influenced by Sanskrit and Prakrit, while comparing them with the modern Malayalam literature. The word Manipravalam literally means Diamond-Coral or Ruby-Coral. The 14th-century Lilatilakam text states Manipravalam to be a Bhashya (language) where \"Malayalam and Sanskrit should combine together like ruby and coral, without the least trace of any discord\". The Champu Kavyas written by Punam Nambudiri, one among the Pathinettara Kavikal (Eighteen and a half poets) in the court of the Zamorin of Calicut, also belong to Middle Malayalam.",
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"plaintext": "The poem Krishnagatha written by Cherusseri Namboothiri, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446–1475) of Kolathunadu, is written in modern Malayalam. The language used in Krishnagatha is the modern spoken form of Malayalam. It appears to be the first literary work written in the present-day language of Malayalam. During the 16th century CE, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan from the Kingdom of Tanur and Poonthanam Nambudiri from the Kingdom of Valluvanad followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu and Mahabharatham Kilippattu written by Ezhuthachan and Jnanappana written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam. The words used in most of the Arabi Malayalam works, which dates back to 16th–17th centuries, are also very closer to modern Malayalam language. P. Shangunny Menon ascribes the authorship of the medieval work Keralolpathi, which describes the Parashurama legend and the departure of the final Cheraman Perumal king to Mecca, to Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan.",
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"plaintext": "Kunchan Nambiar, the founder of Thullal movement, was a prolific literary figure of the 18th century.",
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"plaintext": "The British printed Malabar English Dictionary by Graham Shaw in 1779 was still in the form of a Tamil-English Dictionary. Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar wrote the first Malayalam travelogue called Varthamanappusthakam in 1789.",
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"plaintext": "Hermann Gundert, (1814–1893), a German missionary and scholar of exceptional linguistic talents, played a distinguishable role in the development of Malayalam literature. His major works are Keralolpathi (1843), Pazhancholmala (1845), Malayalabhaasha Vyakaranam (1851), Paathamala (1860) the first Malayalam school text book, Kerala pazhama (1868), the first Malayalam dictionary (1872), Malayalarajyam (1879) – Geography of Kerala, Rajya Samacharam (1847 June) the first Malayalam news paper, Paschimodayam (1879) – Magazine. He lived in Thalassery for around 20 years. He learned the language from well established local teachers Ooracheri Gurukkanmar from Chokli, a village near Thalassery and consulted them in works. He also translated the Bible into Malayalam.",
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"plaintext": "In 1821, the Church Mission Society (CMS) at Kottayam in association with the Syriac Orthodox Church started a seminary at Kottayam in 1819 and started printing books in Malayalam when Benjamin Bailey, an Anglican priest, made the first Malayalam types. In addition, he contributed to standardizing the prose. Hermann Gundert from Stuttgart, Germany, started the first Malayalam newspaper, Rajya Samacaram in 1847 at Talasseri. It was printed at Basel Mission. Malayalam and Sanskrit were increasingly studied by Christians of Kottayam and Pathanamthitta. The Marthomite movement in the mid-19th century called for replacement of Syriac by Malayalam for liturgical purposes. By the end of the 19th century Malayalam replaced Syriac as language of Liturgy in all Syrian Christian churches.",
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"plaintext": "Vengayil Kunhiraman Nayanar, (1861–1914) from Thalassery was the author of first Malayalam short story, Vasanavikriti. After him innumerable world class literature works by was born in Malayalam.",
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"plaintext": "O. Chandu Menon wrote his novels \"Indulekha\" and \"Saradha\" while he was the judge at Parappanangadi Munciff Court. Indulekha is also the first Major Novel written in Malayalam language.",
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"plaintext": ".",
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"plaintext": "The third quarter of the 19th century CE bore witness to the rise of a new school of poets devoted to the observation of life around them and the use of pure Malayalam. The major poets of the Venmani School were Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad (1817–1891), Venmani Mahan Nambudiripad (1844–1893), Poonthottam Achhan Nambudiri (1821–1865), Poonthottam Mahan Nambudiri (1857–1896) and the members of the Kodungallur Kovilakam (Royal Family) such as Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran. The style of these poets became quite popular for a while and influenced even others who were not members of the group like Velutheri Kesavan Vaidyar (1839–1897) and Perunlli Krishnan Vaidyan (1863–1894). The Venmani school pioneered a style of poetry that was associated with common day themes, and the use of pure Malayalam (Pachcha Malayalam) rather than Sanskrit.",
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"plaintext": "In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, O. N. V. Kurup, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature. Later, writers like O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, Arundhati Roy, and Vaikom Muhammed Basheer, have gained international recognition.",
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"plaintext": "The travelogues written by S. K. Pottekkatt were turning point in the travelogue literature. The writers like Kavalam Narayana Panicker have contributed much to Malayalam drama.",
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"plaintext": "Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai turned away from party politics and produced a moving romance in Chemmeen (Shrimps) in 1956. For S. K. Pottekkatt and Vaikom Muhammad Basheer, who had not dabbled in politics, the continuity is marked in the former's Vishakanyaka (Poison Maid, 1948) and the latter's Ntuppuppakkoranendarnnu (My Grandpa had an Elephant, 1951). The non-political social or domestic novel was championed by P. C. Kuttikrishnan (Uroob) with his Ummachu (1955) and Sundarikalum Sundaranmarum (Men and Women of Charm, 1958). ",
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"plaintext": "In 1957 Basheer's Pathummayude Aadu (Pathumma's Goat) brought in a new kind of prose tale, which perhaps only Basheer could handle with dexterity. The fifties thus mark the evolution of a new kind of fiction, which had its impact on the short stories as well. This was the auspicious moment for the entry of M. T. Vasudevan Nair and T. Padmanabhan upon the scene. Front runners in the post-modern trend include Kakkanadan, O. V. Vijayan, E. Harikumar, M. Mukundan and Anand.",
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"plaintext": "In 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary professorship in philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, Paul Tillich, and Paul Natorp. Heidegger's students at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Günther Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy: the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Paul of Tarsus, Augustine of Hippo, Martin Luther, and Søren Kierkegaard. He also read the works of Wilhelm Dilthey, Husserl, Max Scheler, and Friedrich Nietzsche.",
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"plaintext": "In 1927 Heidegger published his main work, Sein und Zeit (Being and Time). When Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburg's election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining later offers including one from Humboldt University of Berlin. His students at Freiburg included Hannah Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse, and Ernst Nolte. Karl Rahner likely attended four of his seminars in four semesters from 1934 to 1936. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928, as did Jan Patočka in 1933; Patočka in particular was deeply influenced by him.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the Nazi Party on 1 May. During his time as rector he was a member and an enthusiastic supporter of the party. There is continuing controversy as to the relationship between his philosophy and his political allegiance to Nazism. He wanted to position himself as the philosopher of the party, but the highly abstract nature of his work and the opposition of Alfred Rosenberg, who himself aspired to act in that position, limited Heidegger's role. His withdrawal from his position as rector owed more to his frustration as an administrator than to any principled opposition to the Nazis, according to historians. In his inaugural address as rector on 27 May he expressed his support of a German revolution, and in an article and a speech to the students from the same year he also supported Adolf Hitler. In November 1933, Heidegger signed the Vow of allegiance of the Professors of the German Universities and High-Schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic State.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger resigned the rectorate in April 1934, but remained a member of the Nazi Party until 1945 even though the Nazis eventually prevented him from publishing. From 1936 to 1940, Heidegger delivered a series of lectures on Nietzsche at Freiburg that presented much of the raw material incorporated in his more established work and thought from this time. Of this series, Heidegger said in his 1966 interview with Der Spiegel: \"Everyone who had ears to hear was able to hear in these lectures... a confrontation with National Socialism.\" Later scholars, however, have come to the opposite conclusion about this material; for example David Farrell Krell, in the introduction to an English translation of the seminar, writes: \"The problem is not that Heidegger lacked a political theory and praxis but that he had one.\"",
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"plaintext": "In the autumn of 1944, Heidegger was drafted into the Volkssturm and assigned to dig anti-tank ditches along the Rhine.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's Black Notebooks, written between 1931 and into the early 1970s and first published in 2014, contain several expressions of anti-semitic sentiments, which have led to a reevaluation of Heidegger's relation to Nazism. Having analysed the Black Notebooks, Donatella di Cesare asserts in her book Heidegger and the Jews that \"metaphysical anti-semitism\" and antipathy toward Jews was central to Heidegger's philosophical work. Heidegger, according to di Cesare, considered Jewish people to be agents of modernity disfiguring the spirit of Western civilization; he held the Holocaust to be the logical result of the Jewish acceleration of technology, and thus blamed the Jewish genocide on its victims themselves.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1946, as France engaged in épuration légale in its occupation zone, the French military authorities determined that Heidegger should be blocked from teaching or participating in any university activities because of his association with the Nazi Party. The denazification procedures against Heidegger continued until March 1949 when he was finally pronounced a Mitläufer (the second lowest of five categories of \"incrimination\" by association with the Nazi regime). No punitive measures against him were proposed. This opened the way for his readmission to teaching at Freiburg University in the winter semester of 1950–51. He was granted emeritus status and then taught regularly from 1951 until 1958, and by invitation until 1967.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger died on 26 May 1976 in Meßkirch and was buried in the Meßkirch cemetery.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger married Elfride Petri on 21 March 1917, in a Catholic ceremony officiated by his friend , and a week later in a Protestant ceremony in the presence of her parents. Their first son, Jörg, was born in 1919. Elfride then gave birth to in August 1920. Heidegger knew that he was not Hermann's biological father but raised him as his son. Hermann's biological father, who became godfather to his son, was family friend and doctor Friedel Caesar. Hermann was told of this at the age of 14; Hermann became a historian and would later serve as the executor of Heidegger's will. Hermann Heidegger died on 13 January 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger spent much time at his vacation home at Todtnauberg, on the edge of the Black Forest. He considered the seclusion provided by the forest to be the best environment in which to engage in philosophical thought. He was a wine connoisseur, an avid hiker and an accomplished skier; he held seminars on the way up mountains and would then ski back down with his students.",
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"plaintext": "A few months before his death, he met with Bernhard Welte, a Catholic priest, Freiburg University professor and earlier correspondent. The exact nature of their conversation is not known, but what is known is that it included talk of Heidegger's relationship to the Catholic Church and subsequent Christian burial at which the priest officiated. ",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger had a four-year affair with Hannah Arendt and a decades-long affair with Elisabeth Blochmann, both students of his. Arendt was Jewish, and Blochmann had one Jewish parent, making them subject to severe persecution by the Nazi authorities. ",
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"plaintext": "The 35-year-old Heidegger, who was married with two young sons, began a long romantic relationship with 17-year-old Arendt who later faced criticism for this because of Heidegger's support for the Nazi Party after his election as rector at the University of Freiburg in 1933. They agreed to keep the details of the relationship a secret, preserving their letters but keeping them unavailable. The relationship was not known until Elisabeth Young-Bruehl's biography of Arendt appeared in 1982. At the time of publishing, Arendt and Heidegger were deceased and Heidegger's wife, Elfride (1893–1992), was still alive. The affair was not well known until 1995, when Elzbieta Ettinger gained access to the sealed correspondence.",
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"plaintext": "It is probably fair to say that, after that with Hannah Arendt, Blochmann had one of the most important extramarital affairs with Heidegger (as is known since 2005, Heidegger led something of an open marriage and his wife Elfriede both knew about his affairs and conducted her own). Elfriede Heidegger and Elisabeth Blochmann were friends and former classmates. The story is well documented in the 1989 edition of their letters, starting in 1918. Heidegger's letters to his wife contain information about several other affairs of his. He helped Blochmann emigrate from Germany before the start of World War II and resumed contact with both of them after the war.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1927 Being and Time, Heidegger rejects the Cartesian view of the human being as a subjective spectator of objects, according to Marcella Horrigan-Kelly (et al.). The book instead holds that both subject and object are inseparable. In presenting \"being\" as inseparable, Heidegger introduced the term Dasein (literally: being there), intended to embody a \"living being\" through their activity of \"being there\" and \"being-in-the-world\". \"Famously, Heidegger writes of Dasein as Being-in-the-world,\" according to Michael Wheeler (2011). Understood as a unitary phenomenon rather than a contingent, additive combination, being-in-the-world is an essential characteristic of Dasein, Wheeler writes.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's account of Dasein in Being and Time passes through a dissection of the experiences of Angst, \"the Nothing\" and mortality, and then through an analysis of the structure of \"Care\" as such. From there he raises the problem of \"authenticity\", that is, the potentiality for mortal Dasein to exist fully enough that it might actually understand being and its possibilities. Dasein is not \"man\", but is nothing other than \"man\", according to Heidegger. Moreover, he wrote that Dasein is \"the being that will give access to the question of the meaning of Being\".",
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"plaintext": "Dasein's ordinary and even mundane experience of \"being-in-the-world\" provides \"access to the meaning\" or \"sense of being\" (Sinn des Seins). This access via Dasein is also that \"in terms of which something becomes intelligible as something.\" Heidegger proposes that this meaning would elucidate ordinary \"prescientific\" understanding, which precedes abstract ways of knowing, such as logic or theory.",
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"plaintext": "This supposed \"non-linguistic, pre-cognitive access\" to the meaning of Being didn't underscore any particular, preferred narrative, according to an account of Richard Rorty's analysis by Edward Grippe. In this account, Heidegger holds that no particular understanding of Being (nor state of Dasein and its endeavors) is to be preferred over another. Moreover, \"Rorty agrees with Heidegger that there is no hidden power called Being,\" Grippe writes, adding that Heidegger's concept of Being is viewed by Rorty as metaphorical.",
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"plaintext": "But Heidegger actually offers \"no sense of how we might answer the question of being as such,\" writes Simon Critchley in his 2009 nine-part blog commentary on the work for The Guardian. The book instead provides \"an answer to the question of what it means to be human,\" according to Critchley. Nonetheless, Heidegger does present the concept: \"'Being' is not something like a being but is rather \"what determines beings as beings.\" ",
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"plaintext": "The interpreters Thomas Sheehan and Mark Wrathall each separately assert that commentators' emphasis on the term \"Being\" is misplaced, and that Heidegger's central focus was never on \"Being\" as such. Wrathall wrote (2011) that Heidegger's elaborate concept of \"unconcealment\" was his central, life-long focus, while Sheehan (2015) proposed that the philosopher's prime focus was on that which \"brings about being as a givenness of entities.\" Heidegger claims that traditional ontology has prejudicially overlooked the question of being.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger believes that time finds its meaning in death, according to Michael Kelley. That is, time is understood only from a finite or mortal vantage. Dasein's essential mode of being-in-the-world is temporal: Having been \"thrown\" into a world implies a “pastness” to its being. Dasein occupies itself with the present tasks required by goals it has projected on the future. Thus Heidegger concludes that Dasein's fundamental characteristic is temporality, Kelley writes.",
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"plaintext": "Dasein as an inseparable subject/object, cannot be separated from its objective \"historicality\". On the one hand, Dasein is \"stretched along\" between birth and death, and thrown into its world; into its possibilities which Dasein is charged with assuming. On the other hand, Dasein's access to this world and these possibilities is always via a history and a tradition—this is the question of \"world historicality\".",
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"plaintext": "In Being and Time,\"Heidegger drew a sharp distinction between ontical and the ontological -- or beings and \"Being\" as such. He labelled this the \"Ontological Difference\". It is from this distinction that he developed the concept of \"Fundamental Ontology\".",
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"plaintext": "According to Taylor Carman (2003), traditional ontology asks \"Why is there anything?\" whereas Heidegger's \"Fundamental Ontology\" asks \"What does it mean for something to be?\". Heidegger's ontology \"is fundamental relative to traditional ontology in that it concerns what any understanding of entities necessarily presupposes, namely, our understanding of that in virtue of which entities are entities\", Carman writes.",
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"plaintext": "This line of inquiry is based on the \"ontological difference\"—central to Heidegger's philosophy. In 1937's \"Contributions to Philosophy\" Heidegger calls the ontological difference \"the essence of Dasein\". ",
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"plaintext": "He accuses the Western philosophical tradition of incorrectly focusing on the \"ontic\"—and thus forgetful of this distinction. This has led to the mistake of understanding being as such as a kind of ultimate entity, for example as idea, energeia, substantia, actualitas or will to power. According to Richard Rorty, Heidegger envisioned no \"hidden power of Being\" as an ultimate entity. Heidegger tries to rectify ontic philosophy by focusing instead on the meaning of being—or what he called \"fundamental ontology\". This \"ontological inquiry\" is required to understand the basis of the sciences, according to \"Being and Time\" (1927).",
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"plaintext": "This inquiry is engaged by studying the human being, or Dasein, according to Heidegger. This method works because of Dasein's pre-ontological understanding of being that shapes experience. This implicit understanding can be made explicit through phenomenology and its methods, but these must be employed using hermeneutics in order to avoid distortions by the forgetfulness of being, according to interpretations of Heidegger.",
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"plaintext": "Fundamental Ontology, regarded as a project, is akin to contemporary meta-ontology. ",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's Kehre, or \"the turn\" (die Kehre) refers to a change in his work as early as 1930 that became clearly established by the 1940s, according to various commentators. Heidegger rarely used the term. Recurring themes include poetry and technology. Commentators such as William J. Richardson (1963) describe, variously, a shift of focus, or a major change in outlook.",
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"plaintext": "The 1935 Introduction to Metaphysics \"clearly shows the shift\" to an emphasis on language from a previous emphasis on Dasein in Being and Time eight years earlier, according to Brian Bard's 1993 essay titled \"Heidegger's Reading of Heraclitus\". In a 1950 lecture Heidegger formulated the famous saying \"Language speaks\", later published in the 1959 essays collection Unterwegs zur Sprache, and collected in the 1971 English book Poetry, Language, Thought.",
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"plaintext": "This supposed shift—applied here to cover about thirty years of Heidegger's 40-year writing career—has been described by commentators from widely varied viewpoints; including as a shift in priority from Being and Time to Time and Being—namely, from dwelling (being) in the world to doing (time) in the world. (This aspect, in particular the 1951 essay \"Building, Dwelling Thinking\" influenced architectural theorists including Christian Norberg-Schulz, Dalibor Vesely, Joseph Rykwert, Daniel Libeskind and the philosopher-architect Nader El-Bizri.)",
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"plaintext": "Other interpreters believe \"the Kehre\" can be overstated or even that it doesn't exist. Thomas Sheehan (2001) believes this supposed change is \"far less dramatic than usually suggested,\" and entailed a change in focus and method. Sheehan contends that throughout his career, Heidegger never focused on \"being\", but rather tried to define \"[that which] brings about being as a givenness of entities.\" Mark Wrathall argued (2011) that the Kehre isn't found in Heidegger's writings but is simply a misconception. As evidence for this view, Wrathall sees a consistency of purpose in Heidegger's life-long pursuit and refinement of his notion of \"unconcealment\".",
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"plaintext": "Some notable \"later\" works are The Origin of the Work of Art\", (1935), Contributions to Philosophy (1937), Letter on Humanism (1946). \"Building Dwelling Thinking\", (1951), \"The Question Concerning Technology\", (1954) \" and What Is Called Thinking? (1954). Also during this period, Heidegger wrote extensively on Nietzsche and the poet Holderlin.",
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"plaintext": "In his later philosophy, Heidegger attempted to reconstruct the \"history of being\" in order to show how the different epochs in the history of philosophy were dominated by different conceptions of being. His goal is to retrieve the original experience of being present in the early Greek thought that was covered up by later philosophers.",
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"plaintext": "Michael Allen Gillespie says (1984) that Heidegger's theoretical acceptance of \"destiny\" has much in common with the millenarianism of Marxism. But Marxists believe Heidegger's \"theoretical acceptance is antagonistic to practical political activity and implies fascism. Gillespie, however, says \"the real danger\" from Heidegger isn't quietism but fanaticism. \"History, as Heidegger understands it, doesn't move forward gradually and regularly but spasmodically and unpredictably.\" Modernity has cast mankind toward a new goal \"on the brink of profound nihilism\" that is \"so alien it requires the construction of a new tradition to make it comprehensible.\"",
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"plaintext": "Allen extrapolated from Heidegger's writings that mankind may degenerate into scientists, workers and brutes. According to Allen, Heidegger envisaged this abyss to be the greatest event in the West's history because it would enable Humanity to comprehend Being more profoundly and primordially than the Pre-Socratics.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger was substantially influenced by St. Augustine of Hippo, and Being and Time would not have been possible without the influence of Augustine's thought. Augustine's Confessions was particularly influential in shaping Heidegger's thought. Almost all central concepts of Being and Time are derived from Augustine, Luther, and Kierkegaard, according to Christian Lotz.",
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"plaintext": "Augustine viewed time as relative and subjective, and that being and time were bound up together. Heidegger adopted similar views, e.g. that time was the horizon of Being: ' ...time temporalizes itself only as long as there are human beings.'",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger was influenced at an early age by Aristotle, mediated through Catholic theology, medieval philosophy and Franz Brentano. Aristotle's ethical, logical, and metaphysical works were crucial to the development of his thought in the crucial period of the 1920s. Although he later worked less on Aristotle, Heidegger recommended postponing reading Nietzsche, and to \"first study Aristotle for ten to fifteen years\". In reading Aristotle, Heidegger increasingly contested the traditional Latin translation and scholastic interpretation of his thought. Particularly important (not least for its influence upon others, both in their interpretation of Aristotle and in rehabilitating a neo-Aristotelian \"practical philosophy\") was his radical reinterpretation of Book Six of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and several books of the Metaphysics. Both informed the argument of Being and Time. Heidegger's thought is original in being an authentic retrieval of the past, a repetition of the possibilities handed down by the tradition.",
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"plaintext": "The idea of asking about being may be traced back via Aristotle to Parmenides. Heidegger claimed to have revived the question of being, the question having been largely forgotten by the metaphysical tradition extending from Plato to Descartes, a forgetfulness extending to the Age of Enlightenment and then to modern science and technology. In pursuit of the retrieval of this question, Heidegger spent considerable time reflecting on ancient Greek thought, in particular on Plato, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Anaximander, as well as on the tragic playwright Sophocles.",
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"plaintext": "According to W. Julian Korab-Karpowicz, Heidegger believed \"the thinking of Heraclitus and Parmenides, which lies at the origin of philosophy, was falsified and misinterpreted\" by Plato and Aristotle, thus tainting all of subsequent Western philosophy. In his Introduction to Metaphysics, Heidegger states:",
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"plaintext": "Among the most ancient Greek thinkers, it is Heraclitus who was subjected to the most fundamentally un-Greek misinterpretation in the course of Western history, and who nevertheless in more recent times has provided the strongest impulses toward redisclosing what is authentically Greek.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Guignon wrote that Heidegger aimed to correct this misunderstanding by reviving Presocratic notions of 'being' with an emphasis on \"understanding the way beings show up in (and as) an unfolding happening or event.\" Guignon adds that \"we might call this alternative outlook 'event ontology.'\"",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's very early project of developing a \"hermeneutics of factical life\" and his hermeneutical transformation of phenomenology was influenced in part by his reading of the works of Wilhelm Dilthey.",
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"plaintext": "Of the influence of Dilthey, Hans-Georg Gadamer writes that Dilthey's influence was important in helping the youthful Heidegger \"in distancing himself from the systematic ideal of Neo-Kantianism, as Heidegger acknowledges in Being and Time.\"",
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"plaintext": "Scholars as diverse as Theodore Kisiel and David Farrell Krell have argued for the importance of Diltheyan concepts and strategies in the formation of Heidegger's thought.",
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"plaintext": "Even though Gadamer's interpretation of Heidegger has been questioned, there is little doubt that Heidegger seized upon Dilthey's concept of hermeneutics. Heidegger's novel ideas about ontology required a gestalt formation, not merely a series of logical arguments, in order to demonstrate his fundamentally new paradigm of thinking, and the hermeneutic circle offered a new and powerful tool for the articulation and realization of these ideas.",
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"plaintext": "Husserl's influence on Heidegger is controversial. Disagreements centre upon how much of Husserlian phenomenology is contested by Heidegger, and how much his phenomenology in fact informs Heidegger's own understanding. On the relation between the two figures, Gadamer wrote: \"When asked about phenomenology, Husserl was quite right to answer as he used to in the period directly after World War I: 'Phenomenology, that is me and Heidegger'.\" Nevertheless, Gadamer noted that Heidegger was no patient collaborator with Husserl, and that Heidegger's \"rash ascent to the top, the incomparable fascination he aroused, and his stormy temperament surely must have made Husserl, the patient one, as suspicious of Heidegger as he always had been of Max Scheler's volcanic fire.\"",
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"plaintext": "Robert J. Dostal understood the importance of Husserl to be profound:",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger himself, who is supposed to have broken with Husserl, bases his hermeneutics on an account of time that not only parallels Husserl's account in many ways but seems to have been arrived at through the same phenomenological method as was used by Husserl.... The differences between Husserl and Heidegger are significant, but if we do not see how much it is the case that Husserlian phenomenology provides the framework for Heidegger's approach, we will not be able to appreciate the exact nature of Heidegger's project in Being and Time or why he left it unfinished.",
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"plaintext": "Daniel O. Dahlstrom saw Heidegger's presentation of his work as a departure from Husserl as unfairly misrepresenting Husserl's own work. Dahlstrom concluded his consideration of the relation between Heidegger and Husserl as follows:",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's silence about the stark similarities between his account of temporality and Husserl's investigation of internal time-consciousness contributes to a misrepresentation of Husserl's account of intentionality. Contrary to the criticisms Heidegger advances in his lectures, intentionality (and, by implication, the meaning of 'to be') in the final analysis is not construed by Husserl as sheer presence (be it the presence of a fact or object, act or event). Yet for all its \"dangerous closeness\" to what Heidegger understands by temporality, Husserl's account of internal time-consciousness does differ fundamentally. In Husserl's account the structure of protentions is accorded neither the finitude nor the primacy that Heidegger claims are central to the original future of ecstatic-horizonal temporality.",
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"plaintext": "Heideggerians regarded Søren Kierkegaard as, by far, the greatest philosophical contributor to Heidegger's own existentialist concepts. Heidegger's concepts of anxiety (Angst) and mortality draw on Kierkegaard and are indebted to the way in which the latter lays out the importance of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the face of death, the temporality of existence, and the importance of passionate affirmation of one's individual being-in-the-world.",
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"plaintext": "Patricia J. Huntington claims that Heidegger's book Being and Time continued Kierkegaard's existential goal. Nevertheless, she argues that Heidegger began to distance himself from any existentialist thought.",
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"plaintext": "Calvin Shrag argues Heidegger's early relationship with Kierkegaard as:",
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"plaintext": "Friedrich Hölderlin and Friedrich Nietzsche were both important influences on Heidegger, and many of his lecture courses were devoted to one or the other, especially in the 1930s and 1940s. The lectures on Nietzsche focused on fragments posthumously published under the title The Will to Power, rather than on Nietzsche's published works. Heidegger read The Will to Power as the culminating expression of Western metaphysics, and the lectures are a kind of dialogue between the two thinkers.",
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"plaintext": "This is also the case for the lecture courses devoted to the poetry of Friedrich Hölderlin, which became an increasingly central focus of Heidegger's work and thought. Heidegger grants to Hölderlin a singular place within the history of being and the history of Germany, as a herald whose thought is yet to be \"heard\" in Germany or the West. Many of Heidegger's works from the 1930s onwards include meditations on lines from Hölderlin's poetry, and several of the lecture courses are devoted to the reading of a single poem (see, for example, Hölderlin's Hymn \"The Ister\").",
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"plaintext": "Some writers on Heidegger's work see possibilities within it for dialogue with traditions of thought outside of Western philosophy, particularly East Asian thinking. Despite perceived differences between Eastern and Western philosophy, some of Heidegger's later work, particularly \"A Dialogue on Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer\", does show an interest in initiating such a dialogue. Heidegger himself had contact with a number of leading Japanese intellectuals, including members of the Kyoto School, notably Hajime Tanabe and Kuki Shūzō. Reinhard May refers to Chang Chung-Yuan who stated (in 1977) \"Heidegger is the only Western Philosopher who not only intellectually understands Tao, but has intuitively experienced the essence of it as well.\" May sees great influence of Taoism and Japanese scholars in Heidegger's work, although this influence is not acknowledged by the author. He asserts (1996): \"The investigation concludes that Heidegger's work was significantly influenced by East Asian sources. It can be shown, moreover, that in particular instances Heidegger even appropriated wholesale and almost verbatim major ideas from the German translations of Daoist and Zen Buddhist classics. This clandestine textual appropriation of non-Western spirituality, the extent of which has gone undiscovered for so long, seems quite unparalleled, with far-reaching implications for our future interpretation of Heidegger's work.\"",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger has been influential in research on the relationship between Western philosophy and the history of ideas in Islam, particularly for some scholars interested in Arabic philosophical medieval sources. These include the Lebanese philosopher and architectural theorist Nader El-Bizri, who, as well as focusing on the critique of the history of metaphysics (as an 'Arab Heideggerian'), also moves towards rethinking the notion of \"dwelling\" in the epoch of the modern unfolding of the essence of technology and Gestell, and realizing what can be described as a \"confluence of Western and Eastern thought\" as well. El-Bizri has also taken a new direction in his engagement in 'Heidegger Studies' by way of probing the Arab/Levantine Anglophone reception of Sein und Zeit in 1937 as set in the Harvard doctoral thesis of the 20th century Lebanese thinker and diplomat Charles Malik.",
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"plaintext": "It is also claimed that the works of counter-enlightenment philosophers such as Heidegger, along with Friedrich Nietzsche and Joseph de Maistre, influenced Iran's Shia Islamist scholars, notably Ali Shariati. A clearer impact of Heidegger in Iran is associated with thinkers such as Reza Davari Ardakani, Ahmad Fardid, and Fardid's student Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, who have been closely associated with the unfolding of philosophical thinking in a Muslim modern theological legacy in Iran. This included the construction of the ideological foundations of the Iranian Revolution and modern political Islam in its connections with theology.",
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"plaintext": "Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933. Heidegger was elected rector of the University of Freiburg on 21 April 1933, and assumed the position the following day. On May 1, he joined the Nazi Party.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 May 1933, Heidegger delivered his inaugural address, the Rektoratsrede (\"The Self-assertion of the German University\"), in a hall decorated with swastikas, with members of the Sturmabteilung and prominent Nazi Party officials present.",
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"plaintext": "His tenure as rector was fraught with difficulties from the outset. Some Nazi education officials viewed him as a rival, while others saw his efforts as comical. Some of Heidegger's fellow Nazis also ridiculed his philosophical writings as gibberish. He finally offered his resignation as rector on 23 April 1934, and it was accepted on 27 April. Heidegger remained a member of both the academic faculty and of the Nazi Party until the end of the war.",
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"plaintext": "Philosophical historian Hans Sluga wrote:",
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"plaintext": "Though as rector he prevented students from displaying an anti-Semitic poster at the entrance to the university and from holding a book burning, he kept in close contact with the Nazi student leaders and clearly signaled to them his sympathy with their activism.",
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"plaintext": "In 1945, Heidegger wrote of his term as rector, giving the writing to his son Hermann; it was published in 1983:",
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"plaintext": "The rectorate was an attempt to see something in the movement that had come to power, beyond all its failings and crudeness, that was much more far-reaching and that could perhaps one day bring a concentration on the Germans' Western historical essence. It will in no way be denied that at the time I believed in such possibilities and for that reason renounced the actual vocation of thinking in favor of being effective in an official capacity. In no way will what was caused by my own inadequacy in office be played down. But these points of view do not capture what is essential and what moved me to accept the rectorate.",
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"plaintext": "Beginning in 1917, German-Jewish philosopher Edmund Husserl championed Heidegger's work, and helped Heidegger become his successor for the chair in philosophy at the University of Freiburg in 1928.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 April 1933, the Gauleiter of Baden Province, Robert Wagner, suspended all Jewish government employees, including present and retired faculty at the University of Freiburg. Heidegger's predecessor as rector formally notified Husserl of his \"enforced leave of absence\" on 14 April 1933.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger became Rector of the University of Freiburg on 22 April 1933. The following week the national Reich law of 28 April 1933 replaced Reichskommissar Wagner's decree. The Reich law required the firing of Jewish professors from German universities, including those, such as Husserl, who had converted to Christianity. The termination of the retired professor Husserl's academic privileges thus did not involve any specific action on Heidegger's part.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger had by then broken off contact with Husserl, other than through intermediaries. Heidegger later claimed that his relationship with Husserl had already become strained after Husserl publicly \"settled accounts\" with Heidegger and Max Scheler in the early 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger did not attend his former mentor's cremation in 1938. In 1941, under pressure from publisher Max Niemeyer, Heidegger agreed to remove the dedication to Husserl from Being and Time (restored in post-war editions).",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's behavior towards Husserl has provoked controversy. Hannah Arendt initially suggested that Heidegger's behavior precipitated Husserl's death. She called Heidegger a \"potential murderer\". However, she later recanted her accusation.",
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"plaintext": "In 1939, only a year after Husserl's death, Heidegger wrote in his Black Notebooks: \"The more original and inceptive the coming decisions and questions become, the more inaccessible will they remain to this [Jewish] 'race'. Thus, Husserl's step toward phenomenological observation, and his rejection of psychological explanations and historiological reckoning of opinions, are of enduring importance—yet it never reaches into the domains of essential decisions\", seeming to imply that Husserl's philosophy was limited purely because he was Jewish.",
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"plaintext": "After the failure of Heidegger's rectorship, he withdrew from most political activity, but remained a member of the Nazi Party. In May 1934 he accepted a position on the Committee for the Philosophy of Law in the Academy for German Law (Ausschuß für Rechtphilosophie der Akademie für Deutsches Recht), where he remained active until at least 1936. The academy had official consultant status in preparing Nazi legislation such as the Nuremberg racial laws that came into effect in 1935. In addition to Heidegger, such Nazi notables as Hans Frank, Julius Streicher, Carl Schmitt and Alfred Rosenberg belonged to the Academy and served on this committee.",
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"plaintext": "In a 1935 lecture, later published in 1953 as part of the book Introduction to Metaphysics, Heidegger refers to the \"inner truth and greatness\" of the Nazi movement (die innere Wahrheit und Größe dieser Bewegung), but he then adds a qualifying statement in parentheses: \"namely, the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity\" (nämlich die Begegnung der planetarisch bestimmten Technik und des neuzeitlichen Menschen). However, it subsequently transpired that this qualification had not been made during the original lecture, although Heidegger claimed that it had been. This has led scholars to argue that Heidegger still supported the Nazi party in 1935 but that he did not want to admit this after the war, and so he attempted to silently correct his earlier statement.",
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"plaintext": "In private notes written in 1939, Heidegger took a strongly critical view of Hitler's ideology; however, in public lectures, he seems to have continued to make ambiguous comments which, if they expressed criticism of the regime, did so only in the context of praising its ideals. For instance, in a 1942 lecture, published posthumously, Heidegger said of recent German classics scholarship:",
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"plaintext": "In the majority of \"research results,\" the Greeks appear as pure National Socialists. This overenthusiasm on the part of academics seems not even to notice that with such \"results\" it does National Socialism and its historical uniqueness no service at all, not that it needs this anyhow.",
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"plaintext": "An important witness to Heidegger's continued allegiance to Nazism during the post-rectorship period is his former student Karl Löwith, who met Heidegger in 1936 while Heidegger was visiting Rome. In an account set down in 1940 (though not intended for publication), Löwith recalled that Heidegger wore a swastika pin to their meeting, though Heidegger knew that Löwith was Jewish. Löwith also recalled that Heidegger \"left no doubt about his faith in Hitler\", and stated that his support for Nazism was in agreement with the essence of his philosophy.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger rejected the \"biologically grounded racism\" of the Nazis, replacing it with linguistic-historical heritage.",
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"plaintext": "After the end of World War II, Heidegger was summoned to appear at a denazification hearing. Heidegger's former lover Hannah Arendt spoke on his behalf at this hearing, while Karl Jaspers spoke against him. He was charged on four counts, dismissed from the university and declared a \"follower\" (Mitläufer) of Nazism. Heidegger was forbidden to teach between 1945 and 1951. One consequence of this teaching ban was that Heidegger began to engage far more in the French philosophical scene.",
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"plaintext": "In his postwar thinking, Heidegger distanced himself from Nazism, but his critical comments about Nazism seem \"scandalous\" to some since they tend to equate the Nazi war atrocities with other inhumane practices related to rationalisation and industrialisation, including the treatment of animals by factory farming. For instance in a lecture delivered at Bremen in 1949, Heidegger said: \"Agriculture is now a motorized food industry, the same thing in its essence as the production of corpses in the gas chambers and the extermination camps, the same thing as blockades and the reduction of countries to famine, the same thing as the manufacture of hydrogen bombs.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1967 Heidegger met with the Jewish poet Paul Celan, a concentration camp survivor. Having corresponded since 1956, Celan visited Heidegger at his country retreat and wrote an enigmatic poem about the meeting, which some interpret as Celan's wish for Heidegger to apologize for his behavior during the Nazi era.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 September 1966, Heidegger was interviewed by Rudolf Augstein and Georg Wolff for Der Spiegel magazine, in which he agreed to discuss his political past provided that the interview be published posthumously. (\"Only a God Can Save Us\" was published five days after his death, on 31 May 1976.) In the interview, Heidegger defended his entanglement with Nazism in two ways: first, he argued that there was no alternative, saying that he was trying to save the university (and science in general) from being politicized and thus had to compromise with the Nazi administration. Second, he admitted that he saw an \"awakening\" (Aufbruch) which might help to find a \"new national and social approach,\" but said that he changed his mind about this in 1934, largely prompted by the violence of the Night of the Long Knives.",
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"plaintext": "In his interview Heidegger defended as double-speak his 1935 lecture describing the \"inner truth and greatness of this movement.\" He affirmed that Nazi informants who observed his lectures would understand that by \"movement\" he meant Nazism. However, Heidegger asserted that his dedicated students would know this statement wasn't praise for the Nazi Party. Rather, he meant it as he expressed it in the parenthetical clarification later added to Introduction to Metaphysics (1953), namely, \"the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity.\"",
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"plaintext": "The eyewitness account of Löwith from 1940 contradicts the account given in the Der Spiegel interview in two ways: that he did not make any decisive break with Nazism in 1934, and that Heidegger was willing to entertain more profound relations between his philosophy and political involvement. The Der Spiegel interviewers did not bring up Heidegger's 1949 quotation comparing the industrialization of agriculture to the extermination camps. In fact, the interviewers were not in possession of much of the evidence now known for Heidegger's Nazi sympathies. Der Spiegel journalist Georg Wolff had been an SS-Hauptsturmführer with the Sicherheitsdienst, stationed in Oslo during World War II, and had been writing articles with antisemitic and racist overtones in Der Spiegel since the end of the war.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger is \"widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th century while remaining one of the most controversial.\" His ideas have penetrated into many areas, but in France there is a very long and particular history of reading and interpreting his work which in itself resulted in deepening the impact of his thought in Continental Philosophy. He influenced Jean Beaufret, François Fédier, Dominique Janicaud, Jean-Luc Marion, Jean-François Courtine, Jean Paul Sartre, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and others.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's influence on French philosophy began in the 1930s, when Being and Time, \"What is Metaphysics?\" and other Heideggerian texts were read by Jean-Paul Sartre and other existentialists, as well as by thinkers such as Alexandre Kojève, Georges Bataille and Emmanuel Levinas. Because Heidegger's discussion of ontology (the study of being) is rooted in an analysis of the mode of existence of individual human beings (Da-sein, or there-being), his work has often been associated with existentialism. The influence of Heidegger on Sartre's Being and Nothingness (1943) is marked, but Heidegger felt that Sartre had misread his work, as he argued in later texts such as the \"Letter on Humanism\". In that text, intended for a French audience, Heidegger explained this misreading in the following terms:",
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"plaintext": " Sartre's key proposition about the priority of existentia over essentia [that is, Sartre's statement that \"existence precedes essence\"] does, however, justify using the name \"existentialism\" as an appropriate title for a philosophy of this sort. But the basic tenet of \"existentialism\" has nothing at all in common with the statement from Being and Time [that \"the 'essence' of Dasein lies in its existence\"]—apart from the fact that in Being and Time no statement about the relation of essentia and existentia can yet be expressed, since there it is still a question of preparing something precursory.",
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"plaintext": "\"Letter on 'Humanism'\" is often seen as a direct response to Sartre's 1945 lecture \"Existentialism Is a Humanism\". Aside from merely disputing readings of his own work, however, in the \"Letter on Humanism\" Heidegger asserts that \"Every humanism is either grounded in a metaphysics or is itself made to be the ground of one.\" Heidegger's largest issue with Sartre's existential humanism is that, while it does make a humanistic 'move' in privileging existence over essence, \"the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement.\" From this point onward in his thought, Heidegger attempted to think beyond metaphysics to a place where the articulation of the fundamental questions of ontology were fundamentally possible: only from this point can we restore (that is, re-give [redonner]) any possible meaning to the word \"humanism\".",
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"plaintext": "After the war, Heidegger was banned from university teaching for a period on account of his support of Nazism while serving as Rector of Freiburg University. He developed a number of contacts in France, where his work continued to be taught, and a number of French students visited him at Todtnauberg (see, for example, Jean-François Lyotard's brief account in Heidegger and \"the Jews\", which discusses a Franco-German conference held in Freiburg in 1947, one step toward bringing together French and German students). Heidegger subsequently made several visits to France, and made efforts to keep abreast of developments in French philosophy by way of correspondence with Jean Beaufret, an early French translator of Heidegger, and with Lucien Braun.",
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"plaintext": "Deconstruction came to Heidegger's attention in 1967 by way of Lucien Braun's recommendation of Jacques Derrida's work (Hans-Georg Gadamer was present at an initial discussion and indicated to Heidegger that Derrida's work came to his attention by way of an assistant). Heidegger expressed interest in meeting Derrida personally after the latter sent him some of his work. There was discussion of a meeting in 1972, but this failed to take place. Heidegger's interest in Derrida is said by Braun to have been considerable (as is evident in two letters, of September 29, 1967 and May 16, 1972, from Heidegger to Braun). Braun also brought to Heidegger's attention the work of Michel Foucault. Foucault's relation to Heidegger is a matter of considerable difficulty; Foucault acknowledged Heidegger as a philosopher whom he read but never wrote about. (For more on this see Penser à Strasbourg, Jacques Derrida, et al., which includes reproductions of both letters and an account by Braun, \"À mi-chemin entre Heidegger et Derrida\").",
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"plaintext": "Derrida attempted to displace the understanding of Heidegger's work that had been prevalent in France from the period of the ban against Heidegger teaching in German universities, which amounted to an almost wholesale rejection of the influence of Jean-Paul Sartre and existentialist terms. In Derrida's view, deconstruction is a tradition inherited via Heidegger (the French term \"déconstruction\" is a term coined to translate Heidegger's use of the words \"Destruktion\"—literally \"destruction\"—and \"Abbau\"—more literally \"de-building\"). According to Derrida, Sartre's interpretation of Dasein and other key Heideggerian concerns is overly psychologistic, anthropocentric, and misses the historicality central to Dasein in Being and Time.",
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"plaintext": "Jacques Derrida, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, and Jean-François Lyotard, among others, all engaged in debate and disagreement about the relation between Heidegger's philosophy and his Nazi politics. These debates included the question of whether it was possible to do without Heidegger's philosophy, a position which Derrida in particular rejected. Forums where these debates took place include the proceedings of the first conference dedicated to Derrida's work, published as \"Les Fins de l'homme à partir du travail de Jacques Derrida: colloque de Cerisy, 23 juillet-2 août 1980\", Derrida's \"Feu la cendre/cio' che resta del fuoco\", and the studies on Paul Celan by Lacoue-Labarthe and Derrida which shortly preceded the detailed studies of Heidegger's politics published in and after 1987.",
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"plaintext": "When in 1987 Víctor Farías published his book Heidegger et le nazisme, this debate was taken up by many others, some of whom were inclined to disparage so-called \"deconstructionists\" for their association with Heidegger's philosophy. Derrida and others not only continued to defend the importance of reading Heidegger, but attacked Farías on the grounds of poor scholarship and for what they saw as the sensationalism of his approach. Not all scholars agreed with this negative assessment: Richard Rorty, for example, declared that \"[Farías'] book includes more concrete information relevant to Heidegger's relations with the Nazis than anything else available, and it is an excellent antidote to the evasive apologetics that are still being published.\"",
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"plaintext": "More recently, Heidegger's thought has influenced the work of the French philosopher Bernard Stiegler. This is evident even from the title of Stiegler's multi-volume magnum opus, La technique et le temps (volume one translated into English as The Fault of Epimetheus). Stiegler offers an original reading of Heidegger, arguing that there can be no access to \"originary temporality\" other than via material, that is, technical, supports, and that Heidegger recognised this in the form of his account of world historicality, yet in the end suppressed that fact. Stiegler understands the existential analytic of Being and Time as an account of psychic individuation, and his later \"history of being\" as an account of collective individuation. He understands many of the problems of Heidegger's philosophy and politics as the consequence of Heidegger's inability to integrate the two.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger has been very influential on the work of the Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben. Agamben attended seminars in France led by Heidegger in the late 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "According to Husserl, Being and Time claimed to deal with ontology but only did so in the first few pages of the book. Having nothing further to contribute to an ontology independent of human existence, Heidegger changed the topic to Dasein. Whereas Heidegger argued that the question of human existence is central to the pursuit of the question of being, Husserl criticised this as reducing phenomenology to \"philosophical anthropology\" and offering an abstract and incorrect portrait of the human being.",
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"plaintext": "In 1929 the Neo-Kantian Ernst Cassirer and Heidegger engaged in an influential debate, during the Second Davos Hochschulkurs in Davos, concerning the significance of Kantian notions of freedom and rationality (see Cassirer–Heidegger debate). Whereas Cassirer defended the role of rationality in Kant, Heidegger argued for the priority of the imagination.",
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"plaintext": "Dilthey's student Georg Misch wrote the first extended critical appropriation of Heidegger in Lebensphilosophie und Phänomenologie. Eine Auseinandersetzung der Diltheyschen Richtung mit Heidegger und Husserl, Leipzig 1930 (3rd ed. Stuttgart 1964).",
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"plaintext": "Hegel-influenced Marxist thinkers, especially György Lukács and the Frankfurt School, associated the style and content of Heidegger's thought with German irrationalism and criticised its political implications.",
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"plaintext": "Initially members of the Frankfurt School were positively disposed to Heidegger, becoming more critical at the beginning of the 1930s. Heidegger's student Herbert Marcuse (1928-1932) became associated with the Frankfurt School. Initially striving for a synthesis between Hegelian Marxism and Heidegger's phenomenology, Marcuse later rejected Heidegger's thought for its \"false concreteness\" and \"revolutionary conservatism\". Theodor Adorno wrote an extended critique of the ideological character of Heidegger's early and later use of language in the Jargon of Authenticity. Contemporary social theorists associated with the Frankfurt School have remained largely critical of Heidegger's works and influence. In particular, Jürgen Habermas admonishes the influence of Heidegger on recent French philosophy in his polemic against \"postmodernism\" in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (1985). However, work by philosopher and critical theorist Nikolas Kompridis tries to show that Heidegger's insights into world disclosure are badly misunderstood and mishandled by Habermas, and are of vital importance for critical theory, offering an important way of renewing that tradition.",
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"plaintext": "Criticism of Heidegger's philosophy has also come from analytic philosophy (whose value upon clarity he seemingly did not share) beginning with logical positivism. ",
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"plaintext": "In \"The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language\" (1932), Rudolf Carnap accused Heidegger of offering an \"illusory\" ontology, criticising him for committing the fallacy of reification and for wrongly dismissing the logical treatment of language which, according to Carnap, can only lead to writing \"nonsensical pseudo-propositions\".",
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"plaintext": "The British logical positivist A. J. Ayer was strongly critical of Heidegger's philosophy. In Ayer's view, Heidegger proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence, which are completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis. For Ayer, this sort of philosophy was a poisonous strain in modern thought. He considered Heidegger to be the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed to be entirely useless. In his Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (1982) Ayer accuses Heidegger of \"surprising ignorance\" or \"unscrupulous distortion\" and \"what can fairly be described as charlatanism.\"",
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"plaintext": "Bertrand Russell considered Heidegger an obscurantist, writing, ",
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"plaintext": "Highly eccentric in its terminology, his philosophy is extremely obscure. One cannot help suspecting that language is here running riot. An interesting point in his speculations is the insistence that nothingness is something positive. As with much else in Existentialism, this is a psychological observation made to pass for logic.",
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"plaintext": "This quote expresses the sentiments of many 20th-century analytic philosophers concerning Heidegger.",
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"plaintext": "Roger Scruton stated that: \"His major work Being and Time is formidably difficult—unless it is utter nonsense, in which case it is laughably easy. I am not sure how to judge it, and have read no commentator who even begins to make sense of it\".",
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"plaintext": "Apart from the charge of obscurantism, other analytic philosophers considered the actual content of Heidegger's work to be either faulty and meaningless, vapid or uninteresting. Positive evaluations include Gilbert Ryle's critical yet sympathetic review of Being and Time. And a remark attributed to Ludwig Wittgenstein by Friedrich Waismann: \"To be sure, I can imagine what Heidegger means by being and anxiety\" has been construed by some commentators as sympathetic to Heidegger's philosophical approach. Positive and negative analytic evaluations have been collected in, for example, Michael Murray's Heidegger and Modern Philosophy: Critical Essays (1978). Heidegger's reputation within English-language philosophy has slightly improved in philosophical terms in some part through the efforts of Hubert Dreyfus, Richard Rorty, and a recent generation of analytically oriented phenomenology scholars. Pragmatist Rorty claimed that Heidegger's approach to philosophy in the first half of his career has much in common with that of the latter-day Ludwig Wittgenstein. Nevertheless, Rorty asserted that what Heidegger had constructed in his writings was a myth of being rather than an account of it.",
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"plaintext": "Although Heidegger is considered by many observers to be one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, aspects of his work have been criticised by those who nevertheless acknowledge this influence, such as Hans-Georg Gadamer and Jacques Derrida. Some questions raised about Heidegger's philosophy include the priority of ontology, the status of animals, the nature of the religious, Heidegger's supposed neglect of ethics (Levinas), the body (Maurice Merleau-Ponty), sexual difference (Luce Irigaray), or space (Peter Sloterdijk).",
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"plaintext": "Levinas was deeply influenced by Heidegger, and yet became one of his fiercest critics, contrasting the infinity of the good beyond being with the immanence and totality of ontology. Levinas also condemned Heidegger's involvement with Nazism, stating: \"One can forgive many Germans, but there are some Germans it is difficult to forgive. It is difficult to forgive Heidegger.\"",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's defenders, notably Arendt, see his support for Nazism as arguably a personal \" 'error' \" (a word which Arendt placed in quotation marks when referring to Heidegger's Nazi-era politics). Defenders think this error was irrelevant to Heidegger's philosophy. Critics such as Levinas, Karl Löwith, and Theodor Adorno claim that Heidegger's support for Nazism revealed flaws inherent in his thought.",
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"plaintext": "W. Julian Korab-Karpowicz states in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy that Heidegger's writing is \"notoriously difficult\", possibly because his thinking was \"original\" and focused on obscure and innovative topics. He concludes that Being and Time \"remains his most influential work\".",
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"plaintext": " Being in the World draws on Heidegger's work to explore what it means to be human in a technological age. A number of Heidegger scholars are interviewed, including Hubert Dreyfus, Mark Wrathall, Albert Borgmann, John Haugeland and Taylor Carman.",
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"plaintext": " The Ister (2004) is a film based on Heidegger's 1942 lecture course on Friedrich Hölderlin, and features Jean-Luc Nancy, Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Bernard Stiegler, and Hans-Jürgen Syberberg.",
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"plaintext": " The film director Terrence Malick translated Heidegger's 1929 essay Vom Wesen des Grundes into English. It was published under the title The Essence of Reasons (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1969, bilingual edition). It is also frequently said of Malick that his cinema has Heideggerian sensibilities. See for instance: Marc Furstenau and Leslie MacAvoy, \"Terrence Malick's Heideggerian Cinema: War and the Question of Being in The Thin Red Line\" In The cinema of Terrence Malick: Poetic visions of America, 2nd ed. Edited by Hanna Patterson (London: Wallflower Press 2007): 179–91. See also: Stanley Cavell, The World Viewed: Reflections on the Ontology of Film (Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1979): XV.",
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"plaintext": " The 2006 experimental short Die Entnazifizierung des MH by James T. Hong imagines Heidegger's denazification proceedings.",
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"plaintext": " In the 2012 film Hannah Arendt, Heidegger is portrayed by actor Klaus Pohl.",
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"plaintext": "Heidegger's collected works are published by Vittorio Klostermann. The Gesamtausgabe was begun during Heidegger's lifetime. He defined the order of publication and dictated that the principle of editing should be \"ways not works\". Publication has not yet been completed.",
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"plaintext": "The contents are listed here: Heidegger Gesamtausgabe.",
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"plaintext": " Daseinsanalysis",
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"plaintext": " Heidegger Gesamtausgabe",
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"plaintext": " Hölderlin's Hymn \"The Ister\"",
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9490626
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"plaintext": " Khôra",
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"plaintext": " List of Nazi ideologues",
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20939825
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"plaintext": " Object-oriented ontology",
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]
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{
"plaintext": " Sous rature",
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"target_page_ids": [
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12
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]
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"plaintext": " William Blattner, Heidegger's Temporal Idealism",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Taylor Carman, Heidegger's Analytic: Interpretation, Discourse, and Authenticity in \"Being and Time\" (2003) ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Craig J. N. de Paulo, The Influence of Augustine on Heidegger: The Emergence of an Augustinian Phenomenology",
"section_idx": 12,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hubert Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World: A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I",
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952926
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]
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"plaintext": " Michael Gelven, A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Revised Edition",
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"plaintext": " E.F. Kaelin, \"Heidegger's Being & Time: A Reading for Readers\"",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Magda King, A Guide to Heidegger's Being and Time",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Theodore Kisiel, The Genesis of Heidegger's Being and Time",
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2801753
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]
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"plaintext": " Stephen Mulhall, Heidegger and Being and Time",
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"target_page_ids": [
12595790
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
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"plaintext": " James Luchte, Heidegger's Early Philosophy: The Phenomenology of Ecstatic Temporality",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mark Wrathall, How to Read Heidegger",
"section_idx": 12,
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
14
]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Víctor Farías, Heidegger and Nazism, ed. by Joseph Margolis and Tom Rockmore",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
7417849,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
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60
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugo Ott, Martin Heidegger: A Political Life",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Otto Pöggeler, Martin Heidegger's Path of Thinking, trans. by D. Magurshak and S. Barber, Humanities Press, 1987.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Rüdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger: Between Good and Evil",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
22071028
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John van Buren, The Young Heidegger: Rumor of the Hidden King",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Pierre Bourdieu, The Political Ontology of Martin Heidegger",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
109275
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Miguel de Beistegui, Heidegger and the Political: Dystopias",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jacques Derrida, Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
53255
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Víctor Farías, Heidegger and Nazism, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1989.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger, l'introduction du nazisme dans la philosophie : autour des séminaires inédits de 1933–1935, Paris, Albin Michel, 2005. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger. The Introduction of Nazism into Philosophy in Light of the Unpublished Seminars of 1933–1935, Translated by Michael B. Smith, foreword by Tom Rockmore, Yale University Press, 2009, 436 p. Foreword Award: Book of the year 2009 for Philosophy.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert & Otto Pöggeler (eds.), Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie, Frankfurt a. M., Suhrkamp, 1989. ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
27
],
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111,
119
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dominique Janicaud, The Shadow of That Thought",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " W.J. Korab-Karpowicz, \"Heidegger's Hidden Path: From Philosophy to Politics\", Review of Metaphysics, 61 (2007) ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
43107288,
18210164
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
21
],
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, \"Transcendence Ends in Politics\", in Typography: Mimesis, Philosophy, Politics",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1152135
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Heidegger, Art, and Politics: The Fiction of the Political",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " George Leaman, Heidegger im Kontext: Gesamtüberblick zum NS-Engagement der Universitätsphilosophen, Argument Verlag, Hamburg, 1993. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Karl Löwith, Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Karl Löwith, Heidegger's Existentialism",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jean-François Lyotard, Heidegger and \"the Jews\"",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
241981
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Hugo Ott, Heidegger. A Political Life.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Günther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Political Texts – Rectoral Addresses",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Guillaume Payen, Martin Heidegger. Catholicisme, révolution, nazisme, Perrin, 2016 (in French)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Tom Rockmore and Joseph Margolis (ed.), The Heidegger Case",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
9903002
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
18,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Daniel Ross, Heidegger and the Question of the Political",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
7043941
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hans Sluga, Heidegger's Crisis: Philosophy and Politics in Nazi Germany",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
1504912
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Iain Thomson, Heidegger on Ontotheology: Technology and the Politics of Education",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
41323414
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
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13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Dana Villa, Arendt and Heidegger: the Fate of the Political",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Wolin (ed.), The Heidegger Controversy .",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2339631
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Julian Young, Heidegger, Philosophy, Nazism",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
56146122
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Renate Maas, Diaphan und gedichtet. Der künstlerische Raum bei Martin Heidegger und Hans Jantzen, Kassel 2015, 432 Pages, 978-3-86219-854-2. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jeffrey Andrew Barash, Martin Heidegger and the Problem of Historical Meaning (New York: Fordham, 2003)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Bernasconi, Heidegger in Question: The Art of Existing",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
8094067
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Babette Babich, Words in Blood, Like Flowers. Philosophy and Poetry, Music and Eros in Hoelderlin, Nietzsche and Heidegger (2006). ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
9059338
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Walter A. Brogan, Heidegger and Aristotle: The Twofoldness of Being",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Scott M. Campbell: The Early Heidegger's Philosophy of Life: Facticity, Being, and Language. Fordham University Press, 2012. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard M. Capobianco, Engaging Heidegger with a foreword by William J. Richardson. University of Toronto Press, 2010.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
52340713
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
22
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard M. Capobianco, Heidegger's Way of Being. University of Toronto Press, 2014.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Maxence Caron, Heidegger – Pensée de l'être et origine de la subjectivité, 1760 pages, first and only book on Heidegger awarded by the Académie française.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
24681766,
105232
],
"anchor_spans": [
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0,
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],
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135,
153
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Gabriel Cercel and Cristian Ciocan (eds.), The Early Heidegger (Studia Phaenomenologica I, 3–4), Bucharest: Humanitas, 2001, 506 p., including letters by Heidegger and Pöggeler, and articles by Walter Biemel, Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann, Theodore Kisiel, Marion Heinz, Alfred Denker",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
59521125,
2801753
],
"anchor_spans": [
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210,
240
],
[
242,
257
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Steven Galt Crowell, Husserl, Heidegger, and the Space of Meaning: Paths toward Transcendental Phenomenology",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Walter A. Davis. Inwardness and Existence: Subjectivity in/and Hegel, Heidegger, Marx, and Freud. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
34529211
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jacques Derrida, \"Ousia and Gramme: Note on a Note from Being and Time\", in Margins of Philosophy",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
53255
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hubert L. Dreyfus & Mark A. Wrathall, A Companion to Heidegger (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul Edwards, Heidegger's Confusions",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2159372
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nader El-Bizri The Phenomenological Quest Between Avicenna and Heidegger (New York, 2000); reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
16593123,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
15
],
[
51,
59
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Christopher Fynsk, Heidegger: Thought and Historicity",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
8093096
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Allen Gillespie, Hegel, Heidegger, and the Ground of History (University of Chicago Press, 1984)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
32731092
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Glazebrook, Trish (2000), Heidegger's Philosophy of Science, Fordham University Press.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Patricia Altenbernd Johnson, On Heidegger (Wadsworth Philosophers Series), Wadsworth Publishing, 1999",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
31291410
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Alan Kim, Plato in Germany: Kant-Natorp-Heidegger (Academia, 2010)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Poetry as Experience",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Heidegger and the Politics of Poetry",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " S. J. McGrath, Heidegger. A (Very) Critical Introduction",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
58613310
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
16,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William McNeill, The Glance of the Eye: Heidegger, Aristotle, and the Ends of Theory",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
8092660
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " William McNeill, The Time of Life: Heidegger and Ethos",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jean-Luc Nancy, \"The Decision of Existence\", in The Birth to Presence",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
510845
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Herman Philipse, Heidegger's Philosophy of Being: A Critical Interpretation",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
8464408
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Polt, Heidegger: An Introduction",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
5771400
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " François Raffoul, Heidegger and the Subject",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " François Raffoul & David Pettigrew (ed), Heidegger and Practical Philosophy",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " François Raffoul & Eric S. Nelson (ed), The Bloomsbury Companion to Heidegger (Bloomsbury, 2013)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " William J. Richardson, Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " John Sallis, Echoes: After Heidegger",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
7902225
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Sallis (ed), Reading Heidegger: Commemorations, including articles by Robert Bernasconi, Jacques Derrida, Rodolphe Gasché, and John Sallis, among others.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
8093515
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"anchor_spans": [
[
112,
127
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Reiner Schürmann, Heidegger on Being and Acting: From Principles to Anarchy",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
2521375
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tony See, Community without Identity: The Ontology and Politics of Heidegger",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
26771109
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
9
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adam Sharr, Heidegger's Hut",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bernard Stiegler, The Fault of Epimetheus",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
7012397
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leo Strauss, \"An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism\", in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism (University of Chicago: 1989).",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
210244
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Andrzej Warminski, Readings in Interpretation: Hölderlin, Hegel, Heidegger",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Hue Woodson, Heideggerian Theologies: The Pathmarks of John Macquarrie, Rudolf Bultmann, Paul Tillich, and Karl Rahner (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2018)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Julian Young, Heidegger's Philosophy of Art",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Julian Young, Heidegger's Later Philosophy",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Bastian Zimmermann, Die Offenbarung des Unverfügbaren und die Würde des Fragens. Ethische Dimensionen der Philosophie Martin Heideggers (London: 2010) ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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"plaintext": " Sean J. McGrath and Andrzej Wierciński, ed., A Companion to Heidegger's \"Phenomenology of Religious Life\" (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010).",
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"plaintext": " Jean Beaufret, Dialogue avec Heidegger, 4 vols., Paris: Minuit, 1973–1985.",
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"plaintext": " Jean-François Courtine, Heidegger et la phénoménologie, Paris: Vrin, 1990.",
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"plaintext": " John E. Drabinski and Eric S. Nelson, eds., Between Levinas and Heidegger, Albany: SUNY Press, 2014.",
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{
"plaintext": " Dominique Janicaud, trans. François Raffoul and David Pettigrew, Heidegger en France, 2 vols., Paris: Albin Michel, 2001.",
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"plaintext": " Ethan Kleinberg, Generation Existential: Heidegger's Philosophy in France, 1927–1961",
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"plaintext": " David Pettigrew and François Raffoul, eds., French Interpretations of Heidegger: An Exceptional Reception, Albany : SUNY Press, 2006.",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Mayeda, Graham. 2006. Time, space and ethics in the philosophy of Watsuji Tetsurō, Kuki Shūzō, and Martin Heidegger (New York: Routledge, 2006). (alk. paper).",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": " Parkes, Graham (1987). Heidegger and Asian Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " May, Reinhard, & Parkes, Graham (1996). Heidegger's Hidden Sources: East Asian influences on his work. London: Routledge. ",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nelson, Eric S. (2017). Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought London: Bloomsbury. ",
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"plaintext": " Original Heidegger manuscripts are kept at the Loyola University Chicago archives. See also \"The transcripts and photocopies of Martin Heidegger’s writings were given to Barbara Fiand, SNDdeN, Ph.D., by Fritz Heidegger in 1978\".",
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"plaintext": " Martin Heidegger Collection, ca. 1918-1976 ",
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"plaintext": " Guide to the Student Notes from Lectures by Martin Heidegger. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.",
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"plaintext": " Works by Heidegger and on Heidegger (categorization)",
"section_idx": 13,
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"plaintext": " Majority of Heidegger Archives. Online: Deutsches Literaturarchiv in the town of Marbach am Neckar, Germany. Also known as: DLA - German Literature Archive. Most of Martin Heidegger’s manuscripts are in the DLA’s collection. Search for Heidegger in their Manuscript collections is online here.",
"section_idx": 13,
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{
"plaintext": " Political Texts – Rectoral Addresses",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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{
"plaintext": " W.J. Korab-Karpowicz, Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy",
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"plaintext": " Karl Löwith, My Last Meeting with Heidegger, Rome 1936",
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"plaintext": " German Heidegger Society ",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Arne D. Naess, Jr., Martin Heidegger in Encyclopædia Britannica",
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"plaintext": " Martin Heidegger, Der Spiegel Interview by Rudolf Augstein and Georg Wolff, 23 September 1966; published May 31 1976 ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Heidegger's Notebooks Renew Focus on Anti-Semitism",
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},
{
"plaintext": " English translations of Heidegger's works",
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| 48,301 | 44,196 | 1,331 | 393 | 0 | 0 | Martin Heidegger | German philosopher (1889-1976) | [
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37,307 | 1,107,607,540 | Political_prisoner | [
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"plaintext": "A political prisoner is someone imprisoned for their political activity. The political offense is not always the official reason for the prisoner's detention.",
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"plaintext": "There is no internationally recognized legal definition of the concept, although numerous similar definitions have been proposed by various organizations and scholars, and there is a general consensus among scholars that \"individuals have been sanctioned by legal systems and imprisoned by political regimes not for their violation of codified laws but for their thoughts and ideas that have fundamentally challenged existing power relations\". The status of a political prisoner is generally awarded to individuals based on declarations of non-governmental organizations like Amnesty International, on a case-by-case basis. While such status are often widely recognized by the international public opinion, they are often rejected by individual governments accused of holding political prisoners, which tend to deny any bias in their judicial systems.",
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"plaintext": "A related term is prisoner of conscience, popularized by Amnesty International. It describes someone who was prosecuted because of their personal beliefs.",
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"plaintext": "Some prisons, known as political prisons, are focused or even dedicated solely to hosting political prisoners.",
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"plaintext": "The concept of a political prisoner, like many concepts in social sciences, sports numerous definitions, and is undefined in international law and human right treaties. Helen Taylor Greene and Shaun L. Gabbidon in 2009 that \"standard legal definitions have remained elusive\", but at the same time, observing that there is a general consensus that \"individuals have been sanctioned by legal systems and imprisoned by political regimes not for their violation of codified laws but for their thoughts and ideas that have fundamentally challenged existing power relations\".",
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"plaintext": "A number of organizations involved in human rights issues, as well as scholars studying them, have developed their own definitions, some of which are presented below.",
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"plaintext": "Amnesty International campaigns for the release of prisoners of conscience, which include both political prisoners as well as those imprisoned for their religious or philosophical beliefs. To reduce controversy, and as a matter of principle, the organization's policy applies only to prisoners who have not committed or advocated violence. Thus, there are political prisoners who do not fit the narrower criteria for POCs. The organisation defines the differences as follows:",
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"plaintext": "AI uses the term \"political prisoner\" broadly. It does not use it, as some others do, to imply that all such prisoners have a special status or should be released. It uses the term only to define a category of prisoners for whom AI demands a fair and prompt trial.",
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"plaintext": "In AI's usage, the term includes any prisoner whose case has a significant political element: whether the motivation of the prisoner's acts, the acts in themselves, or the motivation of the authorities.",
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"plaintext": "\"Political\" is used by AI to refer to aspects of human relations related to \"politics\": the mechanisms of society and civil order, the principles, organization, or conduct of government or public affairs, and the relation of all these to questions of language, ethnic origin, sex or religion, status or influence (among other factors).",
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"plaintext": "The category of political prisoners embraces the category of prisoners of conscience, the only prisoners who AI demands should be immediately and unconditionally released, as well as people who resort to criminal violence for a political motive.",
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"plaintext": "In AI's use of the term, here are some examples of political prisoners:",
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"plaintext": " a person accused or convicted of an ordinary crime carried out for political motives, such as murder or robbery carried out to support the objectives of an opposition group;",
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"plaintext": " a person accused or convicted of an ordinary crime committed in a political context, such as at a demonstration by a trade union or a peasants' organization;",
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"plaintext": " a member or suspected member of an armed opposition group who has been charged with treason or \"subversion\".",
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"plaintext": "Governments often say they have no political prisoners, only prisoners held under the normal criminal law. AI however describes cases like the examples given above as \"political\" and uses the terms \"political trial\" and \"political imprisonment\" when referring to them. But by doing so AI does not oppose the imprisonment, except where it further maintains that the prisoner is a prisoner of conscience, or condemn the trial, except where it concludes that it was unfair.",
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"plaintext": "The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has the following definition:",
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"plaintext": "A person deprived of their personal liberty is to be regarded as a 'political prisoner':",
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"plaintext": "Burmese Assistance Association for Political Prisoners defines a political prisoner as \"anyone who is arrested because of [their] perceived or real involvement in or supporting role in opposition movements with peaceful or resistance means.\"",
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"plaintext": "The US Congressional-Executive Commission on China defines a political prisoner broadly as any individual who is detained for exercising “[their] human rights under international law, such as peaceable assembly, freedom of religion, freedom of association, free expression including the freedom to advocate peaceable social or political change, and to criticize government policy or government officials.”.",
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"plaintext": "Christoph Valentin Steinert, who in 2020 reviewed 366 definitions of political prisoners used in (mainly English language) academic literature in 1956 and 2019, argued that any definition of political prisoner needs to avoid focusing on prisoners’ individual motivations and the term \"should be exclusively reserved for victims of politically biased trials\" (in other words, \"victims of state repression\"), to avoid delegitimizing the term by diluting it with applications to prisoners of any possibly politically motivated action (which on extreme end of spectrum would include, for example, Ku Klux Klanners, neo-Nazis and jihadist terrorists). He specifically criticizes definitions of political prisoners as \"individuals imprisoned for politically motivated actions\" or \"committing a political offense\". He proposed the following definition:",
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"plaintext": "Political prisoners are defined as individuals that are convicted and incarcerated in politically biased trials (or executive decisions in absence of any trials). Trials are deemed politically biased if they are endorsed by the government and (a) lack a domestic legal basis, (b) violate principles of procedural justice, or (c) violate universal human rights.",
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"plaintext": "Steinert noted that his definition does extend to prisoners \"imprisoned for nonpolitical identities such as their religious beliefs or their sexual orientations\", as well as individuals engaged in violent actions, arguing that the neutral \"classification as a political prisoner neither entails an a priori judgment about the moral legitimacy of prisoners’ actions nor does it imply that individuals committed politically motivated crimes\".",
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"plaintext": "The purpose of political prisons and of imprisoning dissidents is to demonstrate the strength of the regime to the dissidents. The regime's opponents are isolated and stigmatised, frequently abused and tortured. The goal of such treatment is not just punish those opposing the regime, but to frighten those who consider opposing the regime by demonstrating the power of the regime by sending a clear warning that objecting is not tolerated, and that the regime is well prepared and ready to punish the objectors through creation of total institutions dedicated to hosting political prisoners.",
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"plaintext": "The status of a political prisoner is conferred to one only after their detention. Before that, potential political prisoners may be considered \"dissidents, revolutionaries, social reformers, or radical thinkers\". The nature of the behavior that leads to political imprisonment is hard to define and can be roughly described as any \"activity deemed questionable by ruling elites\". Therefore, political prisoners are officially detained and sentenced for multitude of different transgressions, instead of for a single well defined crime. Political prisoners are frequently arrested and tried with a veneer of legality where false criminal charges, manufactured evidence, and unfair trials (kangaroo courts, show trials) are used to disguise the fact that an individual is a political prisoner. For example, AAPP states that \"the motivation behind the arrest of every individual in AAPP’s database is political, regardless of the laws they have been sentenced under\". This is common in situations which may otherwise be decried nationally and internationally as a human rights violation or suppression of a political dissident, and Steinert notes that \"objective evidence about politically biased imprisonments is chronically sparse considering that governments face substantial incentives to hide repressive practices\". In fact, all governments habitually deny accusations that they imprison any individuals for political activities.",
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"plaintext": "A political prisoner can also be someone that has been denied bail unfairly, denied parole when it would reasonably have been given to a prisoner charged with a comparable crime, or special powers may be invoked by the judiciary. Particularly in this latter situation, whether an individual is regarded as a political prisoner may depend upon subjective political perspective or interpretation of the evidence. Political prisoners can also be imprisoned with no legal veneer by extrajudicial processes or through executive decisions in absence of any trials or even charges. Some political prisoners need not be imprisoned at all, as they can be subject to prolonged pre-trial detainment instead. Steinert noted that technically, political detainees should be distinguished from political prisoners, but they are often grouped together, and in practical terms, he recommends treating them as special types of political prisoners. Examples of such detainees can include individuals such as the former Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi, detained for many years without a trial. Likewise, supporters of Tibetan spiritual leader Gedhun Choekyi Nyima in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy have called him a \"political prisoner\", despite the fact that he is not accused of a political offense. He is held under secluded house arrest.",
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"plaintext": "The status of a political prisoner can be significant, as such inmates can become the subjects of international advocacy and receive aid from various non-governmental organizations. Criticism from the international public opinion has been shown to facilitate release of political detainees, or reduce their sentences, but is less effective in securing release of already-sentenced individuals. When the status of a prisoner as political is well known, it can be seen as a form of status symbol, some political prisoners purposefully frame themselves as \"the imprisoned martyrs and leaders of their movement\", and this status can also be seen as \"providing a guarantee of their security and of respect for their rights behind the bars\".",
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"plaintext": "Ancient Greek philosopher Socrates has been described as perhaps the earliest known political prisoner; imprisoned for allegedly “poisoning” the minds of Grecian youth through his critique of Athenian society and its rulers. Early Christians, including Jesus Christ, and St. Peter, have also been described as such. Another famous historical figure described as a political prisoner is the 15th century French heroine, Joan of Arc, whose final charge of heresy was seen as a legal justification for her real crime of \"inconveniencing the elites\".",
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"plaintext": "Padraic Kenney noted that \"the emergence of modern political prisoners coincides with a fifty-year period (1860s–1910s) during which [modern] political movements matured around the world\", also defining such movements as having \"clearly articulated political and social programs\" which forced the governments to develop a specific response to such movements (a response which often involved incarceration rather than dialogue, particularly under the less liberal regimes).",
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"plaintext": "In some places, political prisoners had their own customs, traditions, and semi-formal organizations and privileges; historically, this has been more common up to around the interwar period, as the many political prisoners came from higher social classes (in particular, nobility), and authorities often treated them better than common criminals. This changed with the emergence of the totalitarian regimes, which attempted to throughout indoctrinate or eliminate any opposition. ",
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"plaintext": "While the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 is not legally binding, it is generally recognized as \"a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations.\" Of particular relevance to political prisoners are its Articles 5, 6, 9 and 18. The UDHR and the later Helsinki Accords of 1975 have been used by a number of nongovernmental organizations as basis for arguing that some governments are in fact holding political prisoners.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, the term political prisoner has been used during the mid-20th century civil rights struggle and has been occasionally applied to individuals like Rosa Parks or Martin Luther King Jr., and later used for individuals imprisoned for objecting to US involvement in the Vietnam War.",
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"plaintext": "Political prisoners sometimes write memoirs of their experiences and resulting insights. Some of these memoirs have become important political texts. For example, King's \"Letter From a Birmingham City Jail\" has been described as \"one of the most important historical documents penned by a modern political prisoner\".",
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"plaintext": " In the Soviet Union, dubious psychiatric diagnoses were sometimes used to confine political prisoners in the so-called \"psikhushkas\".",
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"plaintext": " In Nazi Germany, socialists and communists were among the first victims of fascist repression, later groups like the \"Night and Fog\" prisoners and priests.",
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"plaintext": " In the United States, African-American activists such as the Wilmington Ten (which included Benjamin Chavis), have been wrongfully imprisoned.",
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"plaintext": " According to human rights groups there are some 60,000 political prisoners in Egypt.",
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"plaintext": " Aung San Suu Kyi led the opposition National League for Democracy which was victorious in 1990 general election. She was imprisoned or under house arrest for 15 out of the 21 years from 1990 to 2010. In 2021, she was imprisoned by the Myanmar military in a coup d'état. As of August 2022, she is being held in solitary confinement serving a 17 year sentence following a series of secret trials.",
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"plaintext": " Dietrich Bonhoeffer was a German pastor, theologian, anti-Nazi dissident, being accused of being associated with the July 20 plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler.",
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"plaintext": " Rubin \"Hurricane\" Carter, African American boxer wrongfully imprisoned for 19 years in the US due to \"an appeal to racism rather than reason\".",
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"plaintext": " Eugene Debs, leader of the Socialist Party of the United States, was imprisoned by the US government for his opposition to the First World War.",
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"plaintext": " Mahatma Gandhi was imprisoned numerous times by the British both in South Africa and India.",
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"plaintext": " Emma Goldman was imprisoned for two years and then deported by the US government for her opposition to the First World War.",
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"plaintext": " Antonio Gramsci was a leftist Italian writer and political activist who was jailed and spent 8 years in prison. He was released conditionally due to his health situation and died shortly after.",
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"plaintext": " Palden Gyatso, a Tibetan Buddhist monk arrested during the Chinese invasion of Tibet for protesting, spent 33 years in Chinese prisons and labor camps where he was extensively tortured, serving the longest term of any Tibetan political prisoner.",
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"plaintext": " Anwar Ibrahim, was a Malaysian opposition party leader was imprisoned twice because of sodomy case.",
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"plaintext": " Kim Dae Jung served one term (1976–1979) and in 1980 was exiled to the United States, but returned in 1985 and became President of South Korea in 1998.",
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"plaintext": " Martin Luther King Jr. was imprisoned several times, most notoriously in Birmingham, Alabama.",
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"plaintext": " Leopoldo López, Venezuelan opposition leader, declared as prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International.",
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"plaintext": " John Maclean was imprisoned by the British government for his opposition to the First World War.",
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"plaintext": " Heinrich Maier was a Roman Catholic priest and leader of one of the most important resistance groups against Nazi Germany.",
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"plaintext": " Nelson Mandela was imprisoned from 1963 until 1990 in South Africa due to his anti-apartheid activism and organizing attacks on several government targets. He later became the President of South Africa between 1994 and 1999.",
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"plaintext": " Thomas Mapfumo was imprisoned without charges in 1979 by the Rhodesian government in what is now Zimbabwe for his Shona-language music calling for revolution.",
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"plaintext": " Carlos Menem, former Argentine president who was a political prisoner under the National Reorganization Process.",
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"plaintext": " Antonio Nariño (1765–1823) was a Colombian who translated the Declaration des Droits de L'Homme et du Citoyen into Spanish, and faced multiple terms in prison under charges of translating censored material.",
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"plaintext": " Jawaharlal Nehru, political activist, statesman, and first Prime Minister of India (1948–1963) was imprisoned several times for his nationalist activism against the British Raj, serving a total of over 9 years in incarceration.",
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"plaintext": " Abdullah Öcalan, a Kurdish political activist and founding member of the PKK who is imprisoned and is held in isolation due to militant activism and opposition against the Turkish state.",
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"plaintext": " Dilma Rousseff former Brazilian president, was imprisoned by the right-wing military government between 1970 and 1973.",
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"plaintext": " Bertrand Russell was imprisoned by the British government for six months for opposing the First World War.",
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"plaintext": " Leonora Christina Ulfeldt was imprisoned in solitary confinement in a royal dungeon for twenty-one years as the wife and later widow of Count Corfitz Ulfeldt.",
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"plaintext": " Ai Weiwei, is a Chinese artist and political dissident from the People's Republic of China.",
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"plaintext": " Liu Xiaobo a Chinese pro-democracy activist, was imprisoned multiple times (from the late 1980s to prior to his death in 2017) in China by the Chinese government.",
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"plaintext": " Hossein Rajabian is an Iranian filmmaker, writer and photographer who was imprisoned for 3 years as a political prisoner between 2015 up to 2018 on charges related to his filmmaking in Evin prison in Iran.",
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"plaintext": "The following prisons have been recognized as incarcerating primarily political prisoners, and have therefore been called \"political prisons\".",
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"plaintext": " Bereza Kartuska, interwar Poland",
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"plaintext": "Evin Prison, Iran",
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"plaintext": " Peter and Paul Fortress, Imperial Russia",
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"plaintext": " Shlisselburg Fortress, Imperial Russia",
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"plaintext": " Spaç Prison, Albania",
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"plaintext": " List of memoirs of political prisoners",
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"plaintext": " Freedom of speech",
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"plaintext": " Hostage diplomacy",
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"plaintext": " Political freedom",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Azerbaijan",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in China",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Imperial Japan",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Israel",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Myanmar",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Poland",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Russia",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Saudi Arabia",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Syria",
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"plaintext": " Political prisoners in Yugoslavia",
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"plaintext": "Working Group on Arbitrary Detention",
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"plaintext": " Whitehorn, Laura. (2003). Fighting to Get Them Out. Social Justice, San Francisco; 2003. Vol. 30, Iss. 2; pg. 51.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " n.a. 1973. Political Prisoners in South Vietnam. London: Amnesty International Publications.",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Luz Arce. 2003. The Inferno: A Story of Terror and Survival in Chile. Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press. ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Stuart Christie. 2004. Granny Made Me An Anarchist: General Franco, The Angry Brigade and Me. London: Simon & Schuster. ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
999632
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},
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"plaintext": " Christina Fink. 2001. Living Silence: Burma Under Military Rule. Bangkok: White Lotus Press and London: Zed Press. (See in particular Chapter 8: Prison: 'Life University' ). In Thailand , elsewhere and ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
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"plaintext": " Marek M. Kaminski. 2004. Games Prisoners Play. Princeton University Press. ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ben Kiernan. 2002. The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, 1975–1975. Yale University Press. ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Stephen M. Kohn. 1994. American Political Prisoners. Westport, CT: Praeger. ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Barbara Olshansky. 2002. Secret Trials and Executions: Military Tribunals and the Threat to Democracy. New York: Seven Stories Press. ",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Azerbaijan: List of Political Prisoners in Azerbaijan (March 20, 2018) ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Belarus: List of Political Prisoners",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " China: List of Political Prisoners Detained or Imprisoned as of November 5, 2017 (1,414 cases)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Israel: Statistics on Palestinians in the custody of the Israeli security forces (3 Jul 2018)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Russia is holding over 70 Ukrainian Political Prisoners of War",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Russia: List of Individuals Recognized as Political Prisoners by the Human Rights Centre Memorial and Persecuted in connection with the Realization of their Right to Freedom of Religion as of 29 October 2017 ",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Turkey: Political Prisoners: Statistics (15 July 2016)",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Dissidents",
"Imprisonment_and_detention",
"Political_opposition",
"Political_prisoners",
"Political_repression",
"Political_imprisonment"
]
| 217,105 | 5,362 | 1,462 | 159 | 0 | 0 | political prisoner | someone imprisoned because they have opposed or criticized the government responsible for their imprisonment | []
|
37,308 | 1,093,958,931 | Reptilia_(zoo) | [
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"plaintext": "Reptilia interacts closely with other educational organizations, supplying reptiles and other supplies to the Ontario Science Centre, helping the Toronto Zoo with their educational programs, and working with many of the schools in the Greater Toronto Area. Reptilia also has a number of classrooms and party rooms that can be rented out for activities such as birthday parties. Each room is named after a different reptile.",
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37,310 | 1,069,584,175 | Federal_Standard_1037C | [
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"plaintext": "In 1956, due to poor academic performance and possibly poor conduct, he was transferred to St. Francis Xavier's College, where he would be mentored by Brother Edward, a teacher and coach of the school boxing team. After Lee was involved in several street fights, his parents decided that he needed to be trained in the martial arts. Lee's friend William Cheung introduced him to Ip Man but he was rejected from learning Wing Chun Kung Fu under him because of the long-standing rule in the Chinese martial arts world not to teach foreigners. His one quarter German background from his mother's side would be an initial obstacle towards his Wing Chun training; however, Cheung would speak on his behalf and Lee was accepted into the school. Lee began training in Wing Chun with Yip Man. Yip tried to keep his students from fighting in the street gangs of Hong Kong by encouraging them to fight in organised competitions. After a year into his Wing Chun training, most of Yip Man's other students refused to train with Lee when they had learned of his mixed ancestry, as the Chinese were generally against teaching their martial arts techniques to non-Asians. Lee's sparring partner, Hawkins Cheung, states, \"Probably fewer than six people in the whole Wing Chun clan were personally taught, or even partly taught, by Yip Man\". However, Lee showed a keen interest in Wing Chun and continued to train privately with Yip Man, William Cheung and Wong Shun-leung. In 1958, Bruce won the Hong Kong schools boxing tournament, knocking out the previous champion, Gary Elms, in the final. That year, Lee was also a cha-cha dancer, winning Hong Kong's Crown Colony Cha-Cha Championship.",
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"plaintext": "Lee dropped out of college in early 1964 and moved to Oakland to live with James Yimm Lee. James Lee was twenty years senior to Bruce Lee and a well-known Chinese martial artist in the area. Together, they founded the second Jun Fan martial arts studio in Oakland. James Lee was also responsible for introducing Bruce Lee to Ed Parker, an American martial artist. At the invitation of Parker, Lee appeared in the 1964 Long Beach International Karate Championships and performed repetitions of two-finger push-ups (using the thumb and the index finger of one hand) with feet at approximately shoulder-width apart. In the same Long Beach event he also performed the \"one inch punch\". Lee stood upright, his right foot forward with knees bent slightly, in front of a standing, stationary partner. Lee's right arm was partly extended and his right fist approximately away from the partner's chest. Without retracting his right arm, Lee then forcibly delivered the punch to volunteer Bob Baker while largely maintaining his posture, sending Baker backwards and falling into a chair said to be placed behind Baker to prevent injury, though Baker's momentum soon caused him to fall to the floor. Baker recalled, \"I told Bruce not to do this type of demonstration again. When he punched me that last time, I had to stay home from work because the pain in my chest was unbearable\". It was at the 1964 championships that Lee first met Taekwondo master Jhoon Goo Rhee. The two developed a friendship—a relationship from which they benefited as martial artists. Rhee taught Lee the side kick in detail, and Lee taught Rhee the \"non-telegraphic\" punch.",
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"plaintext": "Wong claims that although he had originally expected a serious but polite bout, Lee aggressively attacked him with intent to kill. When Wong presented the traditional handshake, Lee appeared to accept the greeting, but instead, Lee allegedly thrust his hand as a spear aimed at Wong's eyes. Forced to defend his life, Wong nonetheless asserted that he refrained from striking Lee with killing force when the opportunity presented itself because it could have earned him a prison sentence, but used illegal cufflings under his sleeves. According to Michael Dorgan's 1980 book Bruce Lee's Toughest Fight, the fight ended due to Lee's \"unusually winded\" condition, as opposed to a decisive blow by either fighter. However, according to Bruce Lee, Linda Lee Cadwell, and James Yimm Lee, the fight lasted a mere three minutes with a decisive victory for Lee. In Cadwell's account, \"The fight ensued, it was a no-holds-barred fight, it took three minutes. Bruce got this guy down to the ground and said 'Do you give up?' and the man said he gave up\". A couple of weeks after the bout, Lee gave an interview claiming that he had defeated an unnamed challenger, which Wong says was an obvious reference to him. In response, Wong published his own account of the fight in the Chinese Pacific Weekly, a Chinese-language newspaper in San Francisco, with an invitation to a public rematch if Lee was not satisfied with the account. Lee did not respond to the invitation despite his reputation for violently responding to every provocation, and there were no further public announcements by either, though Lee continued to teach white people. Lee had abandoned thoughts of a film career in favour of pursuing martial arts. However, a martial arts exhibition on Long Beach in 1964 eventually led to the invitation by television producer William Dozier for an audition for a role in the pilot for \"Number One Son\" about Lee Chan, the son of Charlie Chan. The show never materialised, but Dozier saw potential in Lee.",
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"plaintext": "From 1966 to 1967, Lee played the role of Kato alongside the title character played by Van Williams in the TV series produced and narrated by William Dozier titled The Green Hornet, based on the radio show by the same name. The show lasted only one season (26 episodes) from September 1966 to March 1967. Lee and Williams also appeared as their characters in three crossover episodes of Batman, another William Dozier-produced television series.",
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"plaintext": "The Green Hornet introduced the adult Bruce Lee to an American audience, and became the first popular American show presenting Asian-style martial arts. The show's director wanted Lee to fight in the typical American style using fists and punches. As a professional martial artist, Lee refused, insisting that he should fight in the style of his expertise. At first, Lee moved so fast that his movements could not be caught on film, so he had to slow them down. After the show was cancelled in 1967, Lee wrote to Dozier thanking him for starting \"my career in show business\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1967, Lee played a role in one episode of Ironside.",
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"plaintext": "Jeet Kune Do originated in 1967. After filming one season of The Green Hornet, Lee found himself out of work and opened The Jun Fan Gung Fu Institute. The controversial match with Wong Jack-man influenced Lee's philosophy about martial arts. Lee concluded that the fight had lasted too long and that he had failed to live up to his potential using his Wing Chun techniques. He took the view that traditional martial arts techniques were too rigid and formalised to be practical in scenarios of chaotic street fighting. Lee decided to develop a system with an emphasis on \"practicality, flexibility, speed, and efficiency\". He started to use different methods of training such as weight training for strength, running for endurance, stretching for flexibility, and many others which he constantly adapted, including fencing and basic boxing techniques.",
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"plaintext": "Lee emphasised what he called \"the style of no style\". This consisted of getting rid of the formalised approach which Lee claimed was indicative of traditional styles. Lee felt that even the system he now called Jun Fan Gung Fu was too restrictive, and it eventually evolved into a philosophy and martial art he would come to call Jeet Kune Do or the Way of the Intercepting Fist. It is a term he would later regret, because Jeet Kune Do implied specific parameters that styles connote, whereas the idea of his martial art was to exist outside of parameters and limitations.",
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"plaintext": "At the time, two of Lee's martial arts students were Hollywood script writer Stirling Silliphant and actor James Coburn. In 1969, the three worked on a script for a film called The Silent Flute, and went together on a location hunt to India. The project was not realised at the time, but the 1978 film Circle of Iron, starring David Carradine, was based on the same plot. In 2010, producer Paul Maslansky was reported to have planned and received funding for a film based on the original script for The Silent Flute. In 1969, Lee made a brief appearance in the Silliphant-penned film Marlowe, where he played a hoodlum hired to intimidate private detective Philip Marlowe, (played by James Garner), who uses his martial arts abilities to commit acts of vandalisation to intimidate Marlowe. The same year, he was credited as the karate advisor in The Wrecking Crew, the fourth instalment of the Matt Helm comedy spy-fi film starring Dean Martin. Also that year, Lee acted in one episode of Here Come the Brides and Blondie.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970, he was responsible for fight choreography for A Walk in the Spring Rain starring Ingrid Bergman and Anthony Quinn, again written by Silliphant.",
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"plaintext": "In 1971, Lee appeared in four episodes of the television series Longstreet, written by Silliphant. Lee played Li Tsung the martial arts instructor of the title character Mike Longstreet (played by James Franciscus), and important aspects of his martial arts philosophy were written into the script. According to statements made by Lee, and also by Linda Lee Cadwell after Lee's death, in 1971 Lee pitched a television series of his own tentatively titled The Warrior, discussions of which were also confirmed by Warner Bros. During a December 9, 1971, television interview on The Pierre Berton Show, Lee stated that both Paramount and Warner Brothers wanted him \"to be in a modernized type of a thing, and that they think the Western idea is out, whereas I want to do the Western\". According to Cadwell, however, Lee's concept was retooled and renamed Kung Fu, but Warner Bros. gave Lee no credit. Warner Brothers states that they had for some time been developing an identical concept, created by two writers and producers, Ed Spielman and Howard Friedlander in 1969, as stated too by Lee's biographer Matthew Polly. According to these sources, the reason Lee was not cast was because he had a thick accent, but Fred Weintraub attributes that to his ethnicity. The role of the Shaolin monk in the Wild West was eventually awarded to then-non-martial-artist David Carradine. In The Pierre Berton Show interview, Lee stated he understood Warner Brothers' attitudes towards casting in the series: \"They think that business-wise it is a risk. I don't blame them. If the situation were reversed, and an American star were to come to Hong Kong, and I was the man with the money, I would have my own concerns as to whether the acceptance would be there\".",
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"plaintext": "Producer Fred Weintraub had advised Lee to return to Hong Kong and make a feature film which he could showcase to executives in Hollywood. Not happy with his supporting roles in the US, Lee returned to Hong Kong. Unaware that The Green Hornet had been played to success in Hong Kong and was unofficially referred to as \"The Kato Show\", he was surprised to be recognised as the star of the show. After negotiating with both Shaw Brothers Studio and Golden Harvest, Lee signed a film contract to star in two films produced by Golden Harvest.",
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"plaintext": "Lee played his first leading role in The Big Boss (1971), which proved to be an enormous box office success across Asia and catapulted him to stardom. He soon followed up with Fist of Fury (1972), which broke the box office records set previously by The Big Boss. Having finished his initial two-year contract, Lee negotiated a new deal with Golden Harvest. Lee later formed his own company, Concord Production Inc., with Chow. For his third film, Way of the Dragon (1972), he was given complete control of the film's production as the writer, director, star, and choreographer of the fight scenes. In 1964, at a demonstration in Long Beach, California, Lee met karate champion Chuck Norris. In Way of the Dragon Lee introduced Norris to moviegoers as his opponent, their showdown has been characterised as \"one of the best fight scenes in martial arts and film history\". The role had originally been offered to American karate champion Joe Lewis. Fist of Fury and Way of the Dragon went on to gross an estimated and worldwide, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "From August to October 1972, Lee began work on his fourth Golden Harvest film Game of Death. He began filming some scenes, including his fight sequence with American basketball star Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a former student. Production stopped in November 1972 when Warner Brothers offered Lee the opportunity to star in Enter the Dragon, the first film to be produced jointly by Concord, Golden Harvest, and Warner Bros. Filming began in Hong Kong in February 1973 and was completed in April 1973. One month into the filming, another production company, Starseas Motion Pictures, promoted Bruce Lee as a leading actor in Fist of Unicorn, although he had merely agreed to choreograph the fight sequences in the film as a favour to his long-time friend Unicorn Chan. Lee planned to sue the production company, but retained his friendship with Chan. However, only a few months after the completion of Enter the Dragon, and six days before its July 26, 1973, release, Lee died. Enter the Dragon would go on to become one of the year's highest-grossing films and cement Lee as a martial arts legend. It was made for US$850,000 in 1973 (equivalent to $4million adjusted for inflation as of 2007). Enter the Dragon is estimated to have grossed over worldwide, estimated to be the equivalent of over adjusted for inflation . The film sparked a brief fad in martial arts, epitomised in songs such as \"Kung Fu Fighting\" and some TV shows.",
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"plaintext": "Robert Clouse, the director of Enter the Dragon, together with Golden Harvest, revived Lee's unfinished film Game of Death. Lee had shot over 100 minutes of footage, including out-takes, for Game of Death before shooting was stopped to allow him to work on Enter the Dragon. In addition to Abdul-Jabbar, George Lazenby, Hapkido master Ji Han-Jae, and another of Lee's students, Dan Inosanto, were also to appear in the film, which was to culminate in Lee's character, Hai Tien (clad in the now-famous yellow track suit) taking on a series of different challengers on each floor as they make their way through a five-level pagoda. In a controversial move, Robert Clouse finished the film using a look-alike and archive footage of Lee from his other films with a new storyline and cast, which was released in 1978. However, the cobbled-together film contained only fifteen minutes of actual footage of Lee (he had printed many unsuccessful takes) while the rest had a Lee look-alike, Kim Tai Chung, and Yuen Biao as stunt double. The unused footage Lee had filmed was recovered 22 years later and included in the documentary A Warrior's Journey.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from Game of Death, other future film projects were planned to feature Lee at the time. In 1972, after the success of The Big Boss and Fist of Fury, a third film was planned by Raymond Chow at Golden Harvest to be directed by Lo Wei, titled Yellow-Faced Tiger. However, at the time, Lee decided to direct and produce his own script for Way of the Dragon instead. Although Lee had formed a production company with Raymond Chow, a period film was also planned from September–November 1973 with the competing Shaw Brothers Studio, to be directed by either Chor Yuen or Cheng Kang, and written by Yi Kang and Chang Cheh, titled The Seven Sons of the Jade Dragon.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, Perfect Storm Entertainment and Bruce Lee's daughter, Shannon Lee, announced that the series The Warrior would be produced and would air on the Cinemax and filmmaker Justin Lin was chosen to direct the series. Production began on October 22, 2017, in Cape Town, South Africa. The first season will contain 10 episodes. In April 2019, Cinemax renewed the series for a second season.",
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"plaintext": "On March 25, 2021, it was announced that producer Jason Kothari had acquired the rights to The Silent of Flute \"to become a miniseries, which would have John Fusco as a screenwriter and executive producer.",
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"plaintext": "Lee had also worked on several scripts himself. A tape containing a recording of Lee narrating the basic storyline to a film tentatively titled Southern Fist/Northern Leg exists, showing some similarities with the canned script for The Silent Flute (Circle of Iron). Another script had the title Green Bamboo Warrior, set in San Francisco, planned to co-star Bolo Yeung and to be produced by Andrew Vajna. Photoshoot costume tests were also organised for some of these planned film projects.",
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"plaintext": "Lee was also trained in boxing, between 1956 and 1958, by Brother Edward, coach of the St. Francis Xavier's College boxing team. Lee went on to win the Hong Kong schools boxing tournament in 1958, while scoring knockdowns against the previous champion Gary Elms in the final. After moving to the United States, Lee was heavily influenced by heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali, whose footwork he studied and incorporated into his own style in the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "Lee demonstrated his Jeet Kune Do martial arts at the Long Beach International Karate Championships in 1964 and 1968, with the latter having higher-quality video footage available. Lee can be seen demonstrating quick eye strikes before his opponent can block, and demonstrating the one-inch punch on several volunteers. He also demonstrates chi sao drills while blindfolded against an opponent, probing for weaknesses in his opponent while scoring with punches and takedowns. Lee then participates in a full-contact sparring bout against an opponent, with both wearing leather headgear. Lee can be seen implementing his Jeet Kune Do concept of economical motion, using Ali-inspired footwork to keep out of range while counter-attacking with backfists and straight punches. He also halts attacks with stop-hit side kicks, and quickly executes several sweeps and head kicks. The opponent repeatedly attempts to attack Lee, but is never able to connect with a clean hit; he once manages to come close with a spin kick, but Lee counters it. The footage was reviewed by Black Belt magazine in 1995, concluding that \"the action is as fast and furious as anything in Lee's films.\"",
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"plaintext": "It was at the 1964 championships that Lee first met taekwondo master Jhoon Goo Rhee. While Rhee taught Lee the side kick in detail, Lee taught Rhee the \"non-telegraphic\" punch. Rhee learned what he calls the \"accupunch\" from Lee and incorporated it into American taekwondo. The \"accupunch\" is a rapid fast punch that is very difficult to block, based on human reaction time—\"the idea is to finish the execution of the punch before the opponent can complete the brain-to-wrist communication.\"",
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"plaintext": "Lee also commonly used the oblique kick, made popular much later in mixed martial arts. It is called the jeet tek (\"stop kick\" or \"intercepting kick\") in Jeet Kune Do.",
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"plaintext": "Lee was also influenced by the training routine of The Great Gama, an Indian/Pakistani pehlwani wrestling champion known for his grappling strength. Lee incorporated Gama's exercises into his own training routine.",
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"plaintext": "When Lee returned to Hong Kong in the early 1970s, his reputation as \"the fastest fist in the east\" routinely led to locals challenging him to street fights; he sometimes accepted these challenges and engaged in street fights, which led to some criticism from the press portraying him as violent at the time.",
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"plaintext": "At and weighing at the time, Lee was renowned for his physical fitness and vigor, achieved by using a dedicated fitness regimen to become as strong as possible. After his match with Wong Jack-man in 1965, Lee changed his approach toward martial arts training. Lee felt that many martial artists of his time did not spend enough time on physical conditioning. Lee included all elements of total fitness—muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility. He used traditional bodybuilding techniques to build some muscle mass, though not overdone, as that could decrease speed or flexibility. At the same time, with respect to balance, Lee maintained that mental and spiritual preparation are fundamental to the success of physical training in martial arts skills. In Tao of Jeet Kune Do he wrote:",
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"plaintext": "According to Linda Lee Cadwell, soon after he moved to the United States, Lee started to take nutrition seriously and developed an interest in health foods, high-protein drinks, and vitamin and mineral supplements. He later concluded that achieving a high-performance body was akin to maintaining the engine of a high-performance automobile. Allegorically, as one could not keep a car running on low-octane fuels, one could not sustain one's body with a steady diet of junk food, and with \"the wrong fuel\", one's body would perform sluggishly or sloppily. Lee also avoided baked goods and refined flour, describing them as providing empty calories that did nothing for his body. He was known for being a fan of Asian cuisine for its variety, and often ate meals with a combination of vegetables, rice, and fish. Lee had a dislike for dairy products and as a result, used powdered milk in his diet.",
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"plaintext": "Dan Inosanto recalls Lee practiced meditation as the first action on his schedule.",
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"plaintext": "While best known as a martial artist, Lee also studied drama and Asian and Western philosophy starting while a student at the University of Washington. He was well-read and had an extensive library dominated by martial arts subjects and philosophical texts. His own books on martial arts and fighting philosophy are known for their philosophical assertions, both inside and outside of martial arts circles. His eclectic philosophy often mirrored his fighting beliefs, though he was quick to claim that his martial arts were solely a metaphor for such teachings. He believed that any knowledge ultimately led to self-knowledge, and said that his chosen method of self-expression was martial arts. His influences include Taoism, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and Buddhism. Lee's philosophy was very much in opposition to the conservative worldview advocated by Confucianism. John Little states that Lee was an atheist. When asked in 1972 about his religious affiliation, he replied, \"none whatsoever\", and when asked if he believed in God, he said, \"To be perfectly frank, I really do not.\"",
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"plaintext": "Aside from martial arts and philosophy, which focus on the physical aspect and self-consciousness for truths and principles, Lee also wrote poetry that reflected his emotion and a stage in his life collectively. Many forms of art remain concordant with the artist creating them. Lee's principle of self-expression was applied to his poetry as well. His daughter Shannon Lee said, \"He did write poetry; he was really the consummate artist.\" His poetic works were originally handwritten on paper, then later on edited and published, with John Little being the major author (editor), for Bruce Lee's works. Linda Lee Cadwell (Bruce Lee's wife) shared her husband's notes, poems, and experiences with followers. She mentioned \"Lee's poems are, by American standards, rather dark—reflecting the deeper, less exposed recesses of the human psyche\".",
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"plaintext": "Most of Bruce Lee's poems are categorised as anti-poetry or fall into a paradox. The mood in his poems shows the side of the man that can be compared with other poets such as Robert Frost, one of many well-known poets expressing himself with dark poetic works. The paradox taken from the Yin and Yang symbol in martial arts was also integrated into his poetry. His martial arts and philosophy contribute a great part to his poetry. The free verse form of Lee's poetry reflects his famous quote \"Be formless... shapeless, like water.\"",
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"plaintext": "Lee's Cantonese birth name was Lee Jun-fan (). The name homophonically means \"return again\", and was given to Lee by his mother, who felt he would return to the United States once he came of age. Because of his mother's superstitious nature, she had originally named him Sai-fon (), which is a feminine name meaning \"small phoenix\". The English name \"Bruce\" is thought to have been given by the hospital attending physician, Dr. Mary Glover.",
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"plaintext": "Lee had three other Chinese names: Lee Yuen-cham (), a family/clan name; Lee Yuen-kam (), which he used as a student name while he was attending La Salle College, and his Chinese screen name Lee Siu-lung (; Siu-lung means \"little dragon\"). Lee's given name Jun-fan was originally written in Chinese as ; however, the Jun () Chinese character was identical to part of his grandfather's name, Lee Jun-biu (). Hence, the Chinese character for Jun in Lee's name was changed to the homonym instead, to avoid naming taboo in Chinese tradition.",
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"plaintext": "Lee's father, Lee Hoi-chuen, was one of the leading Cantonese opera and film actors at the time and was embarking on a year-long opera tour with his family on the eve of the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong. Lee Hoi-chuen had been touring the United States for many years and performing in numerous Chinese communities there.",
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"plaintext": "Although many of his peers decided to stay in the US, Lee Hoi-chuen returned to Hong Kong after Bruce's birth. Within months, Hong Kong was invaded and the Lees lived for three years and eight months under Japanese occupation. After the war ended, Lee Hoi-chuen resumed his acting career and became a more popular actor during Hong Kong's rebuilding years.",
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"plaintext": "Lee's mother, Grace Ho, was from one of the wealthiest and most powerful clans in Hong Kong, the Ho-tungs. She was the half-niece of Sir Robert Ho-tung, the Eurasian patriarch of the clan. As such, the young Bruce Lee grew up in an affluent and privileged environment. Despite the advantage of his family's status, the neighbourhood in which Lee grew up became overcrowded, dangerous, and full of gang rivalries due to an influx of refugees fleeing communist China for Hong Kong, at that time a British Crown Colony.",
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"plaintext": "Grace Ho is reported as either the adopted or biological daughter of Ho Kom-tong (Ho Gumtong, ) and the half-niece of Sir Robert Ho-tung, both notable Hong Kong businessmen and philanthropists. Bruce was the fourth of five children: Phoebe Lee (), Agnes Lee (), Peter Lee, and Robert Lee.",
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"plaintext": "Grace's parentage remains unclear. Linda Lee, in her 1989 biography The Bruce Lee Story, suggests that Grace had a German father and was a Catholic. Bruce Thomas, in his influential 1994 biography Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit, suggests that Grace had a Chinese mother and a German father. Lee's relative Eric Peter Ho, in his 2010 book Tracing My Children's Lineage, suggests that Grace was born in Shanghai to a Eurasian woman named Cheung King-sin. Eric Peter Ho said that Grace Lee was the daughter of a mixed race Shanghainese woman and her father was Ho Kom Tong. Grace Lee said her mother was English and her father was Chinese. Fredda Dudley Balling said Grace Lee was three-quarters Chinese and one-quarter British.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2018 biography Bruce Lee: A Life, Matthew Polly identifies Lee's maternal grandfather as Ho Kom-tong, who had often been reported as his adoptive grandfather. Ho Kom-tong's father, Charles Maurice Bosman, was a Dutch Jewish businessman from Rotterdam. He moved to Hong Kong with the Dutch East India Company and served as the Dutch consul to Hong Kong at one time. He had a Chinese concubine named Sze Tai with whom he had six children, including Ho Kom Tong. Bosman subsequently abandoned his family and immigrated to California. Ho Kom Tong became a wealthy businessman with a wife, 13concubines, and a British mistress who gave birth to Grace Ho.",
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"plaintext": "His younger brother Robert Lee Jun-fai is a notable musician and singer, his group The Thunderbirds were famous in Hong Kong. A few singles were sung mostly or all in English. Also released was Lee singing a duet with Irene Ryder. Lee Jun-fai lived with Lee in Los Angeles in the United States and stayed. After Lee's death, Lee Jun-fai released an album and the single by the same name dedicated to Lee called The Ballad of Bruce Lee. While studying at the University of Washington he met his future wife Linda Emery, a fellow student studying to become a teacher. As relations between people of different races was still banned in many US states, they married in secret in August 1964. Lee had two children with Linda: Brandon (1965–1993) and Shannon Lee (born 1969). Upon's Lee passing in 1973, she continued to promote Bruce Lee's martial art Jeet Kune Do. She wrote the 1975 book The Man Only I Knew, on which the 1993 feature film The Bruce Lee Story was based. In 1989, she wrote the book The Bruce Lee Story. She retired in 2001 from the family estate.",
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"plaintext": "Lee died when his son Brandon was eight years old. While alive, Lee taught Brandon martial arts and would invite him to visit sets. This gave Brandon the desire to act and went on to study the craft. As a young adult, Brandon Lee found some success acting in action-oriented pictures such as Legacy of Rage (1986), Showdown in Little Tokyo (1991), and Rapid Fire (1992). In 1993, at the age of 28, Brandon Lee died after being accidentally shot by a prop gun on the set of The Crow.",
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"plaintext": "Lee died when his daughter Shannon was four. In her youth she studied Jeet Kune Do under Richard Bustillo, one of her father's students; however, her serious studies did not begin until the late 1990s. To train for parts in action movies, she studied Jeet Kune Do with Ted Wong.",
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"plaintext": "Lee's brother Robert with his friends Taky Kimura, Dan Inosanto, Steve McQueen, James Coburn, and Peter Chin were his pallbearers. Coburn was a martial arts student and a friend of Lee. Coburn worked with Lee and Stirling Silliphant on developing The Silent Flute. Upon Lee's early death, at his funeral Coburn gave a eulogy. Regarding McQueen, Lee made no secret that he wanted everything McQueen had and would stop at nothing to get it. Inosanto and Kimura were friends and disciple of Lee. Inosanto who would go on to train Lee's son Brandon. Kimura continued to teach Lee's craft in Seattle. According to Lee's wife, Chin was a lifelong family friend and a student of Lee.",
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"plaintext": "James Yimm Lee (no relation) was one of Lee's three personally certified 3rd rank instructors and co-founded the Jun Fan Gung Fu Institute in Oakland where he taught Jun Fan Gung Fu in Lee's absence. James was responsible for introducing Lee to Ed Parker, the organiser of the Long Beach International Karate Championships, where Lee was first introduced to the martial arts community.",
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"plaintext": "Hollywood couple Roman Polanski and Sharon Tate studied martial arts with Lee. Polanski flew Lee to Switzerland to train him. Tate studied with Lee in preparation for her role in The Wrecking Crew. After Tate was murdered by the Manson Family, Polanski initially suspected Lee.",
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"plaintext": "Screenwriter Stirling Silliphant was a martial arts student and a friend of Lee. Silliphant worked with Lee and James Coburn on developing The Silent Flute. Lee acted and provided his martial arts expertise in several projects penned by Silliphant, the first in Marlowe (1969) where Lee plays Winslow Wong a hoodlum well versed in martial arts. Lee also did fight choreographies for the film A Walk in the Spring Rain (1970), and played Li Tsung, a Jeet Kune Do instructor who teaches the main character in the television show Longstreet (1971). Elements of his martial arts philosophy were included in the script for the latter.",
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"plaintext": "Basketball player Kareem Abdul-Jabbar studied martial arts and developed a friendship with Lee.",
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"plaintext": "Actor and karate champion Chuck Norris was a friend and training partner of Lee's. After Lee's passing, Norris said he kept in touch with Lee's family.",
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"plaintext": "Judoka and professional wrestler Gene LeBell became a friend of Lee on the set of The Green Hornet. They trained together and exchanged their knowledge of martial arts.",
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"plaintext": "On May 10, 1973, Lee collapsed during an automated dialogue replacement session for Enter the Dragon at Golden Harvest film studio in Hong Kong. Because he was having seizures and headaches, he was immediately rushed to Hong Kong Baptist Hospital, where doctors diagnosed cerebral edema. They were able to reduce the swelling through the administration of mannitol. The headache and cerebral edema that occurred in his first collapse were later repeated on the day of his death.",
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"plaintext": "On Friday, July 20, 1973, Lee was in Hong Kong to have dinner with actor George Lazenby, with whom he intended to make a film. According to Lee's wife Linda, Lee met producer Raymond Chow at 2p.m. at home to discuss the making of the film Game of Death. They worked until 4p.m. and then drove together to the home of Lee's colleague Betty Ting Pei, a Taiwanese actress. The three went over the script at Ting's home, and then Chow left to attend a dinner meeting.",
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"plaintext": "Later, Lee complained of a headache, and Ting gave him the painkiller Equagesic, which contained both aspirin and the tranquiliser meprobamate. Around 7:30p.m., he went to lie down for a nap. When Lee did not come for dinner, Chow came to the apartment, but he was unable to wake Lee up. A doctor was summoned, and spent ten minutes attempting to revive Lee before sending him by ambulance to Queen Elizabeth Hospital. Lee was declared dead on arrival at the age of 32.",
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"plaintext": "There was no visible external injury; however, according to autopsy reports, Lee's brain had swollen considerably, from 1,400 to 1,575 grams (a 13% increase). The autopsy found Equagesic in his system. On October 15, 2005, Chow stated in an interview that Lee died from an allergic reaction to the tranquiliser meprobamate, the main ingredient in Equagesic, which Chow described as an ingredient commonly used in painkillers. When the doctors announced Lee's death, it was officially ruled a \"death by misadventure\".",
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"plaintext": "Lee's wife Linda returned to her hometown of Seattle, and had Lee's body buried in Lake View Cemetery in Seattle. Pallbearers at Lee's funeral on July 25, 1973, included Taky Kimura, Steve McQueen, James Coburn, Dan Inosanto, Peter Chin, and Lee's brother Robert. Around the time of Lee's death, numerous rumours appeared in the media. Lee's iconic status and untimely death fed many wild rumours and theories. These included murder involving the triads and a supposed curse on him and his family, rumors that persist to the present day.",
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"plaintext": "Donald Teare, a forensic scientist, recommended by Scotland Yard, who had overseen over 1,000 autopsies, was assigned to the Lee case. His conclusion was \"death by misadventure\" caused by cerebral edema due to a reaction to compounds present in the combination medication Equagesic. Although there was initial speculation that cannabis found in Lee's stomach may have contributed to his death, Teare said it would \"be both 'irresponsible and irrational' to say that [cannabis] might have triggered either the events of Bruce's collapse on May 10 or his death on July 20\". Dr. R. R. Lycette, the clinical pathologist at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, reported at the coroner hearing that the death could not have been caused by cannabis.",
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"plaintext": "In a 2018 biography, author Matthew Polly consulted with medical experts and theorised that the cerebral edema that killed Lee had been caused by over-exertion and heat stroke; heat stroke was not considered at the time because it was then a poorly understood condition. Furthermore, Lee had his underarm sweat glands removed in late 1972, in the apparent belief that underarm sweat was unphotogenic on film. Polly further theorised that this caused Lee's body to overheat while practising in hot temperatures on May 10 and July 20, 1973, resulting in heat stroke that in turn exacerbated the cerebral edema that led to his death.",
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"plaintext": "Lee was largely responsible for launching the \"kung fu craze\" of the 1970s. He initially introduced kung fu to the West with American television shows such as The Green Hornet and Kung Fu, before the \"kung fu craze\" began with the dominance of Hong Kong martial arts films in 1973. Lee's success inspired a wave of Western martial arts films and television shows throughout the 1970s–1990s (launching the careers of Western martial arts stars such as Jean-Claude Van Damme, Steven Seagal and Chuck Norris), as well as the more general integration of Asian martial arts into Western action films and television shows during the 1980s1990s. Enter the Dragon has been cited as one of the most influential action films of all time. Sascha Matuszak of Vice said Enter the Dragon \"is referenced in all manner of media, the plot line and characters continue to influence storytellers today, and the impact was particularly felt in the revolutionizing way the film portrayed African-Americans, Asians and traditional martial arts.\" Kuan-Hsing Chen and Beng Huat Chua cited fight scenes in Lee's films such as Enter the Dragon as being influential for the way they pitched \"an elemental story of good against evil in such a spectacle-saturated way\".",
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"plaintext": "In North America, his films initially played largely to black, Asian and Hispanic audiences. Within black communities, Lee's popularity was second only to heavyweight boxer Muhammad Ali in the 1970s. As Lee broke through to the mainstream, he became a rare non-white movie star in a Hollywood industry dominated by white actors at the time. According to rapper LL Cool J, Lee's films were the first time many non-white American children such as himself had seen a non-white action hero on the big screen in the 1970s.",
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"plaintext": "Bruce Lee influenced several comic book writers, notably Marvel Comics founder Stan Lee, who considered Bruce Lee to be a superhero without a costume. Shortly after his death, Lee inspired the Marvel characters Shang-Chi (debuted 1973) and Iron Fist (debuted 1974) as well as the comic book series The Deadly Hands of Kung Fu (debuted 1974). According to Stan Lee, any character that is a martial artist since then owes their origin to Bruce Lee in some form.",
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"plaintext": "In India, Lee films had an influence on Bollywood masala films. After the success of Lee films such as Enter the Dragon in India, Deewaar (1975) and later Bollywood films incorporated fight scenes inspired by 1970s Hong Kong martial arts films up until the 1990s. According to Indian film star Aamir Khan, when he was a child, \"almost every house had a poster of Bruce Lee\" in 1970s Bombay.",
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"plaintext": "In Japan, the manga and anime franchises Fist of the North Star (1983–1988) and Dragon Ball (1984–1995) were inspired by Lee films such as Enter the Dragon. In turn, Fist of the North Star and especially Dragon Ball are credited with setting the trends for popular shōnen manga and anime from the 1980s onwards. Spike Spiegel, the protagonist from the 1998 anime Cowboy Bebop, is seen practising Jeet Kune Do and quotes Lee.",
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"plaintext": "Bruce Lee films such as Game of Death and Enter the Dragon were the foundation for video game genres such as beat 'em up action games and fighting games. The first beat 'em up game, Kung-Fu Master (1984), was based on Lee's Game of Death. The Street Fighter video game franchise (1987 debut) was inspired by Enter the Dragon, with the gameplay centered around an international fighting tournament, and each character having a unique combination of ethnicity, nationality and fighting style; Street Fighter went on to set the template for all fighting games that followed. Since then, nearly every major fighting game franchise has had a character based on Bruce Lee. In April 2014, Lee was named a featured character in the combat sports video game EA Sports UFC, and is playable in multiple weight classes.",
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"plaintext": "In France, the Yamakasi cited the martial arts philosophy of Bruce Lee as an influence on their development of the parkour discipline in the 1990s, along with the acrobatics of Jackie Chan. The Yamakasi considered Lee to be the \"unofficial president\" of their group.",
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"plaintext": "The Legend of Bruce Lee (2008), a Chinese television drama series based on the life of Bruce Lee, has been watched by over viewers in China, making it the most-watched Chinese television drama series of all time, as of 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Though Bruce Lee did not appear in commercials during his lifetime, his likeness and image has since appeared in hundreds of commercials around the world. Nokia launched an Internet-based campaign in 2008 with staged \"documentary-looking\" footage of Bruce Lee playing ping-pong with his nunchaku and also igniting matches as they are thrown toward him. The videos went viral on YouTube, creating confusion as some people believed them to be authentic footage.",
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"plaintext": " 1972: Golden Horse Awards Best Mandarin Film",
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"plaintext": " 1972: Fist of Fury Special Jury Award",
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"plaintext": " 1994: Hong Kong Film Award for Lifetime Achievement",
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"plaintext": " 1999: Named by Time as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century",
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"plaintext": " 2004: Star of the Century Award",
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"plaintext": " 2013: The Asian Awards Founders Award",
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"plaintext": " Statue of Bruce Lee (Los Angeles): unveiled June 15, 2013, Chinatown Central Plaza, Los Angeles, California",
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"plaintext": " Statue of Bruce Lee (Hong Kong): bronze statue of Lee was unveiled on November 27, 2005, on what would have been his 65th birthday.",
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"plaintext": " Statue of Bruce Lee (Mostar): The day before the Hong Kong statue was dedicated, the city of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina unveiled its own bronze statue; supporters of the statue cited Lee as a unifying symbol against the ethnic divisions in the country, which had culminated in the 1992–95 Bosnian War.",
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"plaintext": "On January 6, 2009, it was announced that Lee's Hong Kong home (41 Cumberland Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong) would be preserved and transformed into a tourist site by Yu Pang-lin. Yu died in 2015 and this plan did not materialise. In 2018, Yu's grandson, Pang Chi-ping, said: \"We will convert the mansion into a centre for Chinese studies next year, which provides courses like Mandarin and Chinese music for children.\"",
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"plaintext": " The Philosophical Art of Self Defense (Bruce Lee's first book)– 1963",
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"plaintext": " Tao of Jeet Kune Do (Published posthumously)– 1973",
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"plaintext": " List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame – Bruce Lee at 6933 Hollywood Blvd",
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37,314 | 1,106,626,762 | Cypherpunk | [
{
"plaintext": "A cypherpunk is any individual advocating widespread use of strong cryptography and privacy-enhancing technologies as a route to social and political change. Originally communicating through the Cypherpunks electronic mailing list, informal groups aimed to achieve privacy and security through proactive use of cryptography. Cypherpunks have been engaged in an active movement since at least the late 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "Until about the 1970s, cryptography was mainly practiced in secret by military or spy agencies. However, that changed when two publications brought it into public awareness: the US government publication of the Data Encryption Standard (DES), a block cipher which became very widely used; and the first publicly available work on public-key cryptography, by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman.",
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"plaintext": "The technical roots of Cypherpunk ideas have been traced back to work by cryptographer David Chaum on topics such as anonymous digital cash and pseudonymous reputation systems, described in his paper \"Security without Identification: Transaction Systems to Make Big Brother Obsolete\" (1985).",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1980s, these ideas coalesced into something like a movement.",
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"plaintext": "In late 1992, Eric Hughes, Timothy C. May and John Gilmore founded a small group that met monthly at Gilmore's company Cygnus Solutions in the San Francisco Bay Area, and was humorously termed cypherpunks by Jude Milhon at one of the first meetings - derived from cipher and cyberpunk. In November 2006, the word was added to the Oxford English Dictionary.",
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"plaintext": "The Cypherpunks mailing list was started in 1992, and by 1994 had 700 subscribers. At its peak, it was a very active forum with technical discussion ranging over mathematics, cryptography, computer science, political and philosophical discussion, personal arguments and attacks, etc., with some spam thrown in. An email from John Gilmore reports an average of 30 messages a day from December 1, 1996 to March 1, 1999, and suggests that the number was probably higher earlier. The number of subscribers is estimated to have reached 2000 in the year 1997.",
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"plaintext": "In early 1997, Jim Choate and Igor Chudov set up the Cypherpunks Distributed Remailer, a network of independent mailing list nodes intended to eliminate the single point of failure inherent in a centralized list architecture. At its peak, the Cypherpunks Distributed Remailer included at least seven nodes. By mid-2005, al-qaeda.net ran the only remaining node. In mid 2013, following a brief outage, the al-qaeda.net node's list software was changed from Majordomo to GNU Mailman and subsequently the node was renamed to cpunks.org. The CDR architecture is now defunct, though the list administrator stated in 2013 that he was exploring a way to integrate this functionality with the new mailing list software.",
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"plaintext": "For a time, the cypherpunks mailing list was a popular tool with mailbombers, who would subscribe a victim to the mailing list in order to cause a deluge of messages to be sent to him or her. (This was usually done as a prank, in contrast to the style of terrorist referred to as a mailbomber.) This precipitated the mailing list sysop(s) to institute a reply-to-subscribe system. Approximately two hundred messages a day was typical for the mailing list, divided between personal arguments and attacks, political discussion, technical discussion, and early spam.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"plaintext": "The cypherpunks mailing list had extensive discussions of the public policy issues related to cryptography and on the politics and philosophy of concepts such as anonymity, pseudonyms, reputation, and privacy. These discussions continue both on the remaining node and elsewhere as the list has become increasingly moribund.",
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"plaintext": "Events such as the GURPS Cyberpunk raid lent weight to the idea that private individuals needed to take steps to protect their privacy. In its heyday, the list discussed public policy issues related to cryptography, as well as more practical nuts-and-bolts mathematical, computational, technological, and cryptographic matters. The list had a range of viewpoints and there was probably no completely unanimous agreement on anything. The general attitude, though, definitely put personal privacy and personal liberty above all other considerations.",
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"plaintext": "The list was discussing questions about privacy, government monitoring, corporate control of information, and related issues in the early 1990s that did not become major topics for broader discussion until at least ten years later. Some list participants were highly radical on these issues.",
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"plaintext": "Those wishing to understand the context of the list might refer to the history of cryptography; in the early 1990s, the US government considered cryptography software a munition for export purposes. (PGP source code was published as a paper book to bypass these regulations and demonstrate their futility.) In 1992, a deal between NSA and SPA allowed export of cryptography based on 40-bit RC2 and RC4 which was considered relatively weak (and especially after SSL was created, there were many contests to break it). The US government had also tried to subvert cryptography through schemes such as Skipjack and key escrow. It was also not widely known that all communications were logged by government agencies (which would later be revealed during the NSA and AT&T scandals) though this was taken as an obvious axiom by list members.",
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"plaintext": "The original cypherpunk mailing list, and the first list spin-off, coderpunks, were originally hosted on John Gilmore's toad.com, but after a falling out with the sysop over moderation, the list was migrated to several cross-linked mail-servers in what was called the \"distributed mailing list.\" The coderpunks list, open by invitation only, existed for a time. Coderpunks took up more technical matters and had less discussion of public policy implications. There are several lists today that can trace their lineage directly to the original Cypherpunks list: the cryptography list ([email protected]), the financial cryptography list ([email protected]), and a small group of closed (invitation-only) lists as well.",
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"plaintext": "Toad.com continued to run with the existing subscriber list, those that didn't unsubscribe, and was mirrored on the new distributed mailing list, but messages from the distributed list didn't appear on toad.com. As the list faded in popularity, so too did it fade in the number of cross-linked subscription nodes.",
"section_idx": 1,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "To some extent, the cryptography list acts as a successor to cypherpunks; it has many of the people and continues some of the same discussions. However, it is a moderated list, considerably less zany and somewhat more technical. A number of current systems in use trace to the mailing list, including Pretty Good Privacy, /dev/random in the Linux kernel (the actual code has been completely reimplemented several times since then) and today's anonymous remailers.",
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"plaintext": "The basic ideas can be found in A Cypherpunk's Manifesto (Eric Hughes, 1993): \"Privacy is necessary for an open society in the electronic age. ... We cannot expect governments, corporations, or other large, faceless organizations to grant us privacy ... We must defend our own privacy if we expect to have any. ... Cypherpunks write code. We know that someone has to write software to defend privacy, and ... we're going to write it.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some are or were quite senior people at major hi-tech companies and others are well-known researchers (see list with affiliations below).",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "The first mass media discussion of cypherpunks was in a 1993 Wired article by Steven Levy titled Crypto Rebels:",
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"plaintext": "The three masked men on the cover of that edition of Wired were prominent cypherpunks Tim May, Eric Hughes and John Gilmore.",
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"plaintext": "Later, Levy wrote a book, Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government– Saving Privacy in the Digital Age,",
"section_idx": 2,
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": "covering the crypto wars of the 1990s in detail. \"Code Rebels\" in the title is almost synonymous with cypherpunks.",
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"plaintext": "The term cypherpunk is mildly ambiguous. In most contexts it means anyone advocating cryptography as a tool for social change, social impact and expression. However, it can also be used to mean a participant in the Cypherpunks electronic mailing list described The cypherpunks mailing list. The two meanings obviously overlap, but they are by no means synonymous.",
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"plaintext": "Documents exemplifying cypherpunk ideas include Timothy C. May's The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto (1992) and The Cyphernomicon (1994), A Cypherpunk's Manifesto.",
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"plaintext": "A very basic cypherpunk issue is privacy in communications and data retention. John Gilmore said he wanted \"a guarantee -- with physics and mathematics, not with laws -- that we can give ourselves real privacy of personal communications.\"",
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"plaintext": "Such guarantees require strong cryptography, so cypherpunks are fundamentally opposed to government policies attempting to control the usage or export of cryptography, which remained an issue throughout the late 1990s. The Cypherpunk Manifesto stated \"Cypherpunks deplore regulations on cryptography, for encryption is fundamentally a private act.\"",
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"plaintext": "This was a central issue for many cypherpunks. Most were passionately opposed to various government attempts to limit cryptography— export laws, promotion of limited key length ciphers, and especially escrowed encryption.",
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"plaintext": "The questions of anonymity, pseudonymity and reputation were also extensively discussed.",
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"plaintext": "Arguably, the possibility of anonymous speech and publication is vital for an open society and genuine freedom of speech— this is the position of most cypherpunks. That the Federalist Papers were originally published under a pseudonym is a commonly-cited example.",
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},
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"plaintext": "A whole set of issues around privacy and the scope of self-revelation were perennial topics on the list.",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
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"plaintext": "Consider a young person who gets \"carded\" when he or she enters a bar and produces a driver's license as proof of age. The license includes things like full name and home address; these are completely irrelevant to the question of legal drinking. However, they could be useful to a lecherous member of bar staff who wants to stalk a hot young customer, or to a thief who cleans out the apartment when an accomplice in the bar tells him you look well off and are not at home. Is a government that passes a drinking age law morally obligated to create a privacy-protecting form of ID to go with it, one that only shows you can legally drink without revealing anything else about you? In the absence of that, is it ethical to acquire a bogus driver's license to protect your privacy? For most cypherpunks, the answer to both those questions is \"Yes, obviously!\"",
"section_idx": 2,
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"plaintext": "What about a traffic cop who asks for your driver's license and vehicle registration? Should there be some restrictions on what he or she learns about you? Or a company that issues a frequent flier or other reward card, or requires registration to use its web site? Or cards for toll roads that potentially allow police or others to track your movements? Or cameras that record license plates or faces on a street? Or phone company and Internet records? In general, how do we manage privacy in an electronic age?",
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"plaintext": "Cypherpunks naturally consider suggestions of various forms of national uniform identification card too dangerous; the risks of abuse far outweigh any benefits.",
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"plaintext": "In general, cypherpunks opposed the censorship and monitoring from government and police. ",
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"plaintext": "In particular, the US government's Clipper chip scheme for escrowed encryption of telephone conversations (encryption supposedly secure against most attackers, but breakable by government) was seen as anathema by many on the list. This was an issue that provoked strong opposition and brought many new recruits to the cypherpunk ranks. List participant Matt Blaze found a serious flaw in the scheme, helping to hasten its demise.",
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"plaintext": "Steven Schear first suggested the warrant canary in 2002 to thwart the secrecy provisions of court orders and national security letters. , warrant canaries are gaining commercial acceptance.",
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"plaintext": "An important set of discussions concerns the use of cryptography in the presence of oppressive authorities. As a result, Cypherpunks have discussed and improved steganographic methods that hide the use of crypto itself, or that allow interrogators to believe that they have forcibly extracted hidden information from a subject. For instance, Rubberhose was a tool that partitioned and intermixed secret data on a drive with fake secret data, each of which accessed via a different password. Interrogators, having extracted a password, are led to believe that they have indeed unlocked the desired secrets, whereas in reality the actual data is still hidden. In other words, even its presence is hidden. Likewise, cypherpunks have also discussed under what conditions encryption may be used without being noticed by network monitoring systems installed by oppressive regimes.",
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"plaintext": "As the Manifesto says, \"Cypherpunks write code\"; the notion that good ideas need to be implemented, not just discussed, is very much part of the culture of the mailing list. John Gilmore, whose site hosted the original cypherpunks mailing list, wrote: \"We are literally in a race between our ability to build and deploy technology, and their ability to build and deploy laws and treaties. Neither side is likely to back down or wise up until it has definitively lost the race.\"",
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"plaintext": "Anonymous remailers such as the Mixmaster Remailer were almost entirely a cypherpunk development. Among the other projects they have been involved in were PGP for email privacy, FreeS/WAN for opportunistic encryption of the whole net, Off-the-record messaging for privacy in Internet chat, and the Tor project for anonymous web surfing.",
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"plaintext": "In 1998, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, with assistance from the mailing list, built a $200,000 machine that could brute-force a Data Encryption Standard key in a few days. The project demonstrated that DES was, without question, insecure and obsolete, in sharp contrast to the US government's recommendation of the algorithm.",
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"plaintext": "Cypherpunks also participated, along with other experts, in several reports on cryptographic matters.",
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"plaintext": "One such paper was \"Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security\". It suggested 75 bits was the minimum key size to allow an existing cipher to be considered secure and kept in service. At the time, the Data Encryption Standard with 56-bit keys was still a US government standard, mandatory for some applications.",
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"plaintext": "Other papers were critical analysis of government schemes. \"The Risks of Key Recovery, Key Escrow, and Trusted Third-Party Encryption\", evaluated escrowed encryption proposals. Comments on the Carnivore System Technical Review. looked at an FBI scheme for monitoring email.",
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"plaintext": "Cypherpunks provided significant input to the 1996 National Research Council report on encryption policy,",
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"plaintext": "Cryptography's Role In Securing the Information Society (CRISIS).",
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"plaintext": "This report, commissioned by the U.S. Congress in 1993, was developed via extensive hearings across the nation from all interested stakeholders, by a committee of talented people. It recommended a gradual relaxation of the existing U.S. government restrictions on encryption. Like many such study reports, its conclusions were largely ignored by policy-makers. Later events such as the final rulings in the cypherpunks lawsuits forced a more complete relaxation of the unconstitutional controls on encryption software.",
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"plaintext": "Cypherpunks have filed a number of lawsuits, mostly suits against the US government alleging that some government action is unconstitutional.",
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"plaintext": "Phil Karn sued the State Department in 1994 over cryptography export controls after they ruled that, while the book Applied Cryptography could legally be exported, a floppy disk containing a verbatim copy of code printed in the book was legally a munition and required an export permit, which they refused to grant. Karn also appeared before both House and Senate committees looking at cryptography issues.",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Daniel J. Bernstein, supported by the EFF, also sued over the export restrictions, arguing that preventing publication of cryptographic source code is an unconstitutional restriction on freedom of speech. He won, effectively overturning the export law. See Bernstein v. United States for details.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Peter Junger also sued on similar grounds, and won.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cypherpunks encouraged civil disobedience, in particular US law on the export of cryptography. Until 1997, cryptographic code was legally a munition and fall until ITAR, and the key length restrictions in the EAR was not removed until 2000.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": "In 1995 Adam Back wrote a version of the RSA algorithm for public-key cryptography in three lines of Perl and suggested people use it as an email signature file:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Vince Cate put up a web page that invited anyone to become an international arms trafficker; every time someone clicked on the form, an export-restricted item— originally PGP, later a copy of Back's program— would be mailed from a US server to one in Anguilla.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In Neal Stephenson's novel Cryptonomicon many characters are on the \"Secret Admirers\" mailing list. This is fairly obviously based on the cypherpunks list, and several well-known cypherpunks are mentioned in the acknowledgements. Much of the plot revolves around cypherpunk ideas; the leading characters are building a data haven which will allow anonymous financial transactions, and the book is full of cryptography.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
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{
"plaintext": "But, according to the author the book's title is— in spite of its similarity— not based on the Cyphernomicon, an online cypherpunk FAQ document.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Activities",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Cypherpunk achievements would later also be used on the Canadian e-wallet, the MintChip, and the creation of bitcoin. It was an inspiration for CryptoParty decades later to such an extent that the Cypherpunk Manifesto is quoted at the header of its Wiki, and Eric Hughes delivered the keynote address at the Amsterdam CryptoParty on 27 August 2012.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Cypherpunks list participants included many notable computer industry figures. Most were list regulars, although not all would call themselves \"cypherpunks\". The following is a list of noteworthy cypherpunks and their achievements:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Marc Andreessen: co-founder of Netscape which invented SSL",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
331986
],
"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jacob Appelbaum: Former Tor Project employee, political advocate",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
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1,
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],
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],
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57,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Julian Assange: WikiLeaks founder, deniable cryptography inventor, journalist; co-author of Underground; author of Freedom and the Future of the Internet; member of the International Subversives. Assange has stated that he joined the list in late 1993 or early 1994. An archive of his cypherpunks mailing list posts is at the Mailing List Archives.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
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],
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[
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],
[
116,
155
],
[
171,
196
],
[
328,
349
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Derek Atkins: computer scientist, computer security expert, and one of the people who factored RSA-129",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
12697081
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adam Back: inventor of Hashcash and of NNTP-based Eternity networks; co-founder of Blockstream",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
10348688,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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],
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],
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84,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jim Bell: author of \"Assassination Politics\"",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
13648623
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Steven Bellovin: Bell Labs researcher; later Columbia professor; Chief Technologist for the US Federal Trade Commission in 2012",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
2315567
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matt Blaze: Bell Labs researcher; later professor at University of Pennsylvania; found flaws in the Clipper Chip",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
1289219,
409665
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
],
[
101,
113
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eric Blossom: designer of the Starium cryptographically secured mobile phone; founder of the GNU Radio project",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
19246365,
1089178
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
94,
103
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jon Callas: technical lead on OpenPGP specification; co-founder and Chief Technical Officer of PGP Corporation; co-founder with Philip Zimmermann of Silent Circle",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
17832662,
38503539
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
11
],
[
150,
163
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bram Cohen: creator of BitTorrent",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
265666,
239098
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
24,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matt Curtin: founder of Interhack Corporation; first faculty advisor of the Ohio State University Open Source Club; lecturer at Ohio State University",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
1631409,
22217
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
77,
98
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hugh Daniel (deceased): former Sun Microsystems employee; manager of the FreeS/WAN project (an early and important freeware IPsec implementation)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
23199056,
43342
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
125,
130
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Suelette Dreyfus: deniable cryptography co-inventor, journalist, co-author of Underground",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
31168132,
1753420,
12640727
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
19,
40
],
[
79,
90
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hal Finney (deceased): cryptographer; main author of PGP 2.0 and the core crypto libraries of later versions of PGP; designer of RPOW",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
24623541,
1560204
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
130,
134
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eva Galperin: malware researcher and security advocate; Electronic Frontier Foundation activist",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
54834616
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Gilmore*: Sun Microsystems' fifth employee; co-founder of the Cypherpunks and the Electronic Frontier Foundation; project leader for FreeS/WAN",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
43308
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mike Godwin: Electronic Frontier Foundation lawyer; electronic rights advocate",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
16774266
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ian Goldberg*: professor at University of Waterloo; co-designer of the off-the-record messaging protocol",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
829135
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rop Gonggrijp: founder of XS4ALL; co-creator of the Cryptophone",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
5289557,
162104
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
27,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Matthew D. Green, influential in the development of the Zcash system",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
41494988,
51849458
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
16
],
[
56,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sean Hastings: founding CEO of Havenco; co-author of the book God Wants You Dead",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
22657770,
18933358
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
32,
39
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Johan Helsingius: creator and operator of Penet remailer",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
1400213,
85765
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
43,
57
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nadia Heninger: assistant professor at University of Pennsylvania; security researcher",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
58521378
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Robert Hettinga: founder of the International Conference on Financial Cryptography; originator of the idea of Financial cryptography as an applied subset of cryptography",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
38752828,
222858
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
111,
133
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Mark Horowitz: author of the first PGP key server",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
11162812,
616119
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
36,
50
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tim Hudson: co-author of SSLeay, the precursor to OpenSSL",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
438819
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
51,
58
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Eric Hughes: founding member of Cypherpunks; author of A Cypherpunk's Manifesto",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
37052031
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Peter Junger (deceased): law professor at Case Western Reserve University",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
8323198
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Paul Kocher: president of Cryptography Research, Inc.; co-author of the SSL 3.0 protocol",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
808639,
18356058
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
27,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ryan Lackey: co-founder of HavenCo, the world's first data haven",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
26252,
18933358,
168753
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
28,
35
],
[
55,
65
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Brian LaMacchia: designer of XKMS; research head at Microsoft Research",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
2448418,
1456829
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
],
[
30,
34
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ben Laurie: founder of The Bunker, core OpenSSL team member, Google engineer.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
3020376,
438819,
1092923
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
41,
48
],
[
62,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jameson Lopp: software engineer, CTO of Casa ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
60210341
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Morgan Marquis-Boire: researcher, security engineer, and privacy activist",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
42835394
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Matt Thomlinson (phantom): security engineer, leader of Microsoft's security efforts on Windows, Azure and Trustworthy Computing, CISO at Electronic Arts",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
262933
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
139,
154
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Timothy C. May (deceased): former Assistant Chief Scientist at Intel; author of A Crypto Anarchist Manifesto and the Cyphernomicon; a founding member of the Cypherpunks mailing list",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
331296,
331296
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
118,
131
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jude Milhon (deceased; aka \"St. Jude\"): a founding member of the Cypherpunks mailing list, credited with naming the group; co-creator of Mondo 2000 magazine",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
299670,
167611,
1108228
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
],
[
78,
90
],
[
138,
148
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vincent Moscaritolo: founder of Mac Crypto Workshop; Principal Cryptographic Engineer for PGP Corporation; co-founder of Silent Circle and 4th-A Technologies, LLC",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
38589054,
2170520,
38503539
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
],
[
91,
106
],
[
122,
135
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Satoshi Nakamoto: Pseudonym for the inventor(s) of Bitcoin.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
30128660
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sameer Parekh: former CEO of C2Net and co-founder of the CryptoRights Foundation human rights non-profit",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
7902079,
1731315,
14474240
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
],
[
30,
35
],
[
58,
81
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Vipul Ved Prakash: co-founder of Sense/Net; author of Vipul's Razor; founder of Cloudmark",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
670651
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Runa Sandvik: Tor developer, political advocate",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
58011440
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Len Sassaman (deceased): maintainer of the Mixmaster Remailer software; researcher at Katholieke Universiteit Leuven; biopunk",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
92210,
54665,
29975400,
955298
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
44,
62
],
[
87,
117
],
[
119,
126
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Steven Schear: creator of the warrant canary; street performer protocol; founding member of the International Financial Cryptographer's Association and GNURadio; team member at Counterpane; former Director at data security company Cylink and MojoNation",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
16227046,
179124,
1089178,
6207857,
569978
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
31,
45
],
[
47,
72
],
[
153,
161
],
[
178,
189
],
[
243,
253
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bruce Schneier*: well-known security author; founder of Counterpane",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
36732,
6207857
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
57,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Stallman: founder of Free Software Foundation, privacy advocate",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
3434143,
18949437
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
],
[
30,
54
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nick Szabo: inventor of smart contracts; designer of bit gold, a precursor to Bitcoin",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
41302099,
5604205,
41302099,
28249265
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
25,
40
],
[
54,
62
],
[
79,
86
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Wei Dai: Created b-money; cryptocurrency system and co-proposed theVMACmessage authentication algorithm. The smallest subunit ofEther, thewei, is named after him.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
48686641
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Zooko Wilcox-O'Hearn: DigiCash and MojoNation developer; founder of Zcash; co-designer of Tahoe-LAFS",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
17866114,
9079428,
569978,
51849458,
24447073
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
21
],
[
23,
31
],
[
36,
46
],
[
69,
74
],
[
91,
101
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Jillian C. York: Director of International Freedom of Expression at the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
24633662
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " John Young: anti-secrecy activist and co-founder of Cryptome",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
217038,
217038
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
53,
61
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Philip Zimmermann: original creator of PGP v1.0 (1991); co-founder of PGP Inc. (1996); co-founder with Jon Callas of Silent Circle",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [
23486,
38503539
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
],
[
118,
131
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " indicates someone mentioned in the acknowledgements of Stephenson's Cryptonomicon.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Notable cypherpunks",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Andy Greenberg: This Machine Kills Secrets: How WikiLeakers, Cypherpunks, and Hacktivists Aim to Free the World's Information. Dutton Adult 2012, ",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
47347528,
2014724
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
],
[
128,
140
]
]
}
]
| [
"Punk",
"Cypherpunks",
"Internet_privacy"
]
| 1,434,323 | 8,465 | 77 | 208 | 0 | 0 | cypherpunk | activist advocating widespread use of strong cryptography | []
|
37,315 | 1,106,223,899 | Computer-aided_design | [
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"plaintext": "Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computers (or ) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. This software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing. Designs made through CAD software are helpful in protecting products and inventions when used in patent applications. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The terms computer-aided drafting (CAD) and computer aided design and drafting (CADD) are also used.",
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"plaintext": "Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation (EDA). In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation (MDA), which includes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software.",
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"plaintext": "CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.",
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"plaintext": "CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) space.",
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"plaintext": "CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design (building information modeling), prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals, often called DCC digital content creation. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry.",
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"plaintext": "The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design (CAGD).",
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"plaintext": "Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question.",
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"plaintext": "CAD is one part of the whole digital product development (DPD) activity within the product lifecycle management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or stand-alone products, such as:",
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"plaintext": "Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and finite element analysis (FEA, FEM)",
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"plaintext": "Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to computer numerical control (CNC) machines",
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"plaintext": "Photorealistic rendering and motion simulation.",
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"plaintext": "Document management and revision control using product data management (PDM)",
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"plaintext": "CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation of environmental impact reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like, where the proposed facilities are allowed to be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD.",
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"plaintext": "CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history, features, parameterization, and high-level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the model's personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used to determine the size, shape, and other properties of the different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile strength, yield strength, electrical, or electromagnetic properties. Also its stress, strain, timing, or how the element gets affected in certain temperatures, etc.",
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"plaintext": "There are several different types of CAD, each requiring the operator to think differently about how to use them and design their virtual components in a different manner for each.",
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"plaintext": "There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open-source programs. These provide an approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing sheet that accompanied hand drafting since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft.",
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"plaintext": "3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line has to be manually inserted into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly add to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.",
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"plaintext": "3D \"dumb\" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real-world objects (not often used today). Basic three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, rectangle) have solid volumes added or subtracted from them as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated from the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow the motion of the components, set their limits to their motion, or identify interference between components.",
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"plaintext": "There are two types of 3D solid modeling",
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"plaintext": " Parametric modeling allows the operator to use what is referred to as \"design intent\". The objects and features are created modifiable. Any future modifications can be made by changing on how the original part was created. If a feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator should locate it from the center of the model. The feature could be located using any geometric object already available in the part, but this random placement would defeat the design intent. If the operator designs the part as it functions the parametric modeler is able to make changes to the part while maintaining geometric and functional relationships.",
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"plaintext": " Direct or explicit modeling provide the ability to edit geometry without a history tree With direct modeling, once a sketch is used to create geometry the sketch is incorporated into the new geometry and the designer just modifies the geometry without needing the original sketch. As with parametric modeling, direct modeling has the ability to include the relationships between selected geometry (e.g., tangency, concentricity).",
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"plaintext": "The top-end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetic and ergonomic features into the designs. Freeform surface modeling is often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the machine.",
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"plaintext": "Originally software for CAD systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran, ALGOL but with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically changed. Typical modern parametric feature-based modeler and freeform surface systems are built around a number of key C modules with their own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI) with NURBS geometry or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.",
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"plaintext": "Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form of prototyping called digital prototyping. In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD models can be generated by a computer after the physical prototype has been scanned using an industrial CT scanning machine. Depending on the nature of the business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen according to specific needs.",
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"plaintext": "Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac OS X); some packages support multiple platforms.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD systems can do graphically and computationally intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card, high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM may be recommended.",
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"plaintext": "The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of a Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model. Technologies which in the past were limited to larger installations or specialist applications have become available to a wide group of users. These include the CAVE or HMDs and interactive devices like motion-sensing technology",
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"plaintext": "Starting around the mid-1960s, with the IBM Drafting System, computer-aided design systems began to provide more capability than just an ability to reproduce manual drafting with electronic drafting, the cost-benefit for companies to switch to CAD became apparent. The benefits of CAD systems over manual drafting are the capabilities one often takes for granted from computer systems today; automated generation of bills of materials, auto layout in integrated circuits, interference checking, and many others. Eventually, CAD provided the designer with the ability to perform engineering calculations. During this transition, calculations were still performed either by hand or by those individuals who could run computer programs. CAD was a revolutionary change in the engineering industry, where draftsmen, designers, and engineering roles begin to merge. It did not eliminate departments as much as it merged departments and empowered draftsmen, designers, and engineers. CAD is an example of the pervasive effect computers were beginning to have on the industry.",
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"plaintext": "Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling.",
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"plaintext": "CAD technology is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).",
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"plaintext": "CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects such as jewelry, furniture, appliances, etc. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs. 4D BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule-related information for project management.",
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"plaintext": "CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.",
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"plaintext": "In the beginning of 2000, some CAD system software vendors might have shipped their distributions with a dedicated license manager software that might control how often or how many users can utilize CAD system. It could run either on a local machine (by loading from a local storage device) or a local network fileserver and was usually tied to a specific IP address in latter case. ",
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"plaintext": "CAD software enables engineers and architects to design, inspect and manage engineering projects within an integrated graphical user interface (GUI) on a personal computer system. Most applications support solid modeling with boundary representation (B-Rep) and NURBS geometry, and enable the same to be published in a variety of formats. A geometric modeling kernel is a software component that provides solid modeling and surface modeling features to CAD applications.",
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"plaintext": "Based on market statistics, commercial software from Autodesk, Dassault Systems, Siemens PLM Software, and PTC dominate the CAD industry. The following is a list of major CAD applications, grouped by usage statistics.",
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"plaintext": " AC3D",
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"plaintext": " Alibre Design",
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"plaintext": " ArchiCAD (Graphisoft)",
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"plaintext": " AutoCAD (Autodesk)",
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"plaintext": " Autodesk Inventor",
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"plaintext": " AxSTREAM",
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"plaintext": " BricsCAD",
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"plaintext": " CATIA (Dassault Systèmes)",
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"plaintext": " Cobalt",
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"plaintext": " CorelCAD",
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"plaintext": " Fusion 360 (Autodesk)",
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"plaintext": " IntelliCAD",
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"plaintext": " IRONCAD",
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"plaintext": " KeyCreator (Kubotek)",
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"plaintext": " Landscape Express",
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"plaintext": " MEDUSA",
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"plaintext": " MicroStation (Bentley Systems)",
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"plaintext": " Modelur (AgiliCity)",
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"plaintext": " Onshape",
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"plaintext": " Promine",
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"plaintext": " PTC Creo (successor to Pro/ENGINEER)",
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"plaintext": " PunchCAD",
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"plaintext": " Remo 3D",
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"plaintext": " Revit (Autodesk)",
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"plaintext": " Rhinoceros 3D",
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37,316 | 1,098,984,868 | Scientific_journal | [
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"plaintext": "Electronic publishing will likely continue to exist alongside paper publishing for the foreseeable future, since whilst output to a screen is important for browsing and searching, it is not well suited for extensive reading. Formats suitable both for reading on paper, and for manipulation by the reader's computer will need to be integrated. Many journals are electronically available in formats readable on screen via web browsers, as well as in portable document format PDF, suitable for printing and storing on a local desktop or laptop computer. New tools such as JATS and Utopia Documents provide a 'bridge' to the 'web-versions' in that they connect the content in PDF versions directly to the World Wide Web via hyperlinks that are created 'on-the-fly'. The PDF version of an article is usually seen as the version of record, but the matter is subject to some debate.",
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"plaintext": "Electronic counterparts of established print journals already promote and deliver rapid dissemination of peer-reviewed and edited, \"published\" articles. Other journals, whether spin-offs of established print journals, or created as electronic only, have come into existence promoting the rapid dissemination capability, and availability, on the Internet. In tandem with this is the speeding up of peer review, copyediting, page makeup, and other steps in the process to support rapid dissemination.",
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"plaintext": "Other improvements, benefits and unique values of electronically publishing the scientific journal are easy availability of supplementary materials (data, graphics and video), lower cost, and availability to more people, especially scientists from non-developed countries. Hence, research results from more developed nations are becoming more accessible to scientists from non-developed countries.",
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"plaintext": "Moreover, electronic publishing of scientific journals has been accomplished without compromising the standards of the refereed, peer review process.",
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"plaintext": "One form is the online equivalent of the conventional paper journal. By 2006, almost all scientific journals have, while retaining their peer-review process, established electronic versions; a number have moved entirely to electronic publication. In a similar manner, most academic libraries buy the electronic version and purchase a paper copy only for the most important or most-used titles.",
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"plaintext": "There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it is published in a journal, making paper journals not an ideal format for announcing the latest research. Many journals now publish the final papers in their electronic version as soon as they are ready, without waiting for the assembly of a complete issue, as is necessary with paper. In many fields in which even greater speed is wanted, such as physics, the role of the journal at disseminating the latest research has largely been replaced by preprint databases such as arXiv.org. Almost all such articles are eventually published in traditional journals, which still provide an important role in quality control, archiving papers, and establishing scientific credit.",
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"plaintext": "Many scientists and librarians have long protested the cost of journals, especially as they see these payments going to large for-profit publishing houses. To allow their researchers online access to journals, many universities purchase site licenses, permitting access from anywhere in the university, and, with appropriate authorization, by university-affiliated users at home or elsewhere. These may be quite expensive, sometimes much more than the cost for a print subscription, although this may reflect the number of people who will be using the license—while a print subscription is the cost for one person to receive the journal; a site-license can allow thousands of people to gain access.",
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"plaintext": "Publications by scholarly societies, also known as not-for-profit-publishers, usually cost less than commercial publishers, but the prices of their scientific journals are still usually several thousand dollars a year. In general, this money is used to fund the activities of the scientific societies that run such journals, or is invested in providing further scholarly resources for scientists; thus, the money remains in and benefits the scientific sphere.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the transition to electronic publishing, the serials crisis persists.",
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"plaintext": "Concerns about cost and open access have led to the creation of free-access journals such as the Public Library of Science (PLoS) family and partly open or reduced-cost journals such as the Journal of High Energy Physics. However, professional editors still have to be paid, and PLoS still relies heavily on donations from foundations to cover the majority of its operating costs; smaller journals do not often have access to such resources.",
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"plaintext": "Based on statistical arguments, it has been shown that electronic publishing online, and to some extent open access, both provide wider dissemination and increase the average number of citations an article receives.",
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"plaintext": "Traditionally, the author of an article was required to transfer the copyright to the journal publisher. Publishers claimed this was necessary in order to protect authors' rights, and to coordinate permissions for reprints or other use. However, many authors, especially those active in the open access movement, found this unsatisfactory, and have used their influence to effect a gradual move towards a license to publish instead. Under such a system, the publisher has permission to edit, print, and distribute the article commercially, but the authors retain the other rights themselves.",
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"plaintext": "Even if they retain the copyright to an article, most journals allow certain rights to their authors. These rights usually include the ability to reuse parts of the paper in the author's future work, and allow the author to distribute a limited number of copies. In the print format, such copies are called reprints; in the electronic format, they are called postprints. Some publishers, for example the American Physical Society, also grant the author the right to post and update the article on the author's or employer's website and on free e-print servers, to grant permission to others to use or reuse figures, and even to reprint the article as long as no fee is charged. The rise of open access journals, in which the author retains the copyright but must pay a publication charge, such as the Public Library of Science family of journals, is another recent response to copyright concerns.",
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"plaintext": " A.J. Meadows, ed. The Scientific Journal. London : Aslib, c1979. ",
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"plaintext": " R.E. Abel et al. \"Scholarly Publishing: Books Journals, Publishers, and Libraries in the Twentieth Century\". N.Y.: Wiley, 2002. ",
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"plaintext": " D.W. King et al. \"Scientific Journals in the United States: their Production, Use, and Economics\". Stroudsberg, PA: Hutchinson-Ross, 1981 ",
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"plaintext": " A. Gielas & A. Fyfe, eds. \"Editorship and the Editing of Scientific Journals, 1750–1950\", Special Issue: Centaurus. International Journal for the History of Science and its Cultural Aspects, 2020.",
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"plaintext": " The cost of publishing in a scientific journal, some examples and recommended reading from OpenWetWare life scientists' wiki",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles is a science fiction fix-up novel, published in 1950, by American writer Ray Bradbury that chronicles the exploration and settlement of Mars, the home of indigenous Martians, by Americans leaving a troubled Earth that is eventually devastated by nuclear war.",
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"plaintext": "Events in the chronicle include the apocalyptic destruction of both Martian and human civilizations, both instigated by humans, though there are no stories with settings at the catastrophes. The outcomes of many stories raise concerns about the values and direction of America of the time by addressing militarism, science, technology, and war time prosperity that could result in a global nuclear war (e.g., \"There Will Come Soft Rains\" and \"October 2026/2057: The Million-Year Picnic\"); depopulation that might be considered genocide (e.g., \"April 2000/2031: The Third Expedition\", \"June 2001/2032: —And the Moon Be Still as Bright\" and \"April 2003/2034: The Musicians\"); racial oppression and exploitation (e.g., \"June 2003: Way in the Middle of the Air\"); ahistoricism, philistinism, and hostility towards religion (e.g., \"June 2001/2032: —And the Moon Be Still as Bright\"); and censorship and conformity (e.g., \"April 2005/2036: Usher II\"), among others. On Bradbury's award of a Pulitzer Prize Special Citation in 2007, the book was recognized as one of his \"masterworks that readers carry with them over a lifetime.\"",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles is a fix-up novel consisting of previously-published short stories along with new short bridge narratives in the form of interstitial vignettes, intercalary chapters, or expository narratives. The previously-published stories were revised for consistency of the overall story line and refinement.",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles may at first appear to be a planned short story cycle; however, Bradbury did not specifically write The Martian Chronicles as a singular work – rather, its creation as a novel was suggested to Bradbury by a publisher's editor years after most of the stories had already appeared in many different publications (see Publication history and original publication notes under Contents). In responding to the suggestion, the 29-year-old Bradbury was shocked by the idea that he had already written a novel and remembers saying: \"Oh, my God... I read Winesburg, Ohio by Sherwood Anderson when I was 24 and I said to myself, 'Oh God, wouldn't it be wonderful if someday I could write a book as good as this but put it on the planet Mars.'\". (See the Influences section on literary influences affecting the works's structure.)",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles is written as a chronicle, each story presented as a chapter within an overall chronological ordering of the plot. Overall, the chronicle can be viewed as three extended episodes or parts, punctuated by two apocalyptic events. Events in the original edition of the book ranged from 1999 to 2026. As 1999 approached in real life, the dates in the book were advanced by thirty-one years in the 1997 edition. The summary that follows includes the dates of both editions.",
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"plaintext": " The first part covering two and a half years from January 1999/2030 to June 2001/2032 consists of seven chapters about four exploratory missions from the United States during which humans and Martians discover each other. The efforts of Martians to repel the human explorers ends in catastrophe when chicken pox brought to Mars by humans kills almost all Martians. Two of the chapters are original works for the fix-up.",
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"plaintext": " The second part covers four and a half years from August 2001/2032 to December 2005/2036 and consists of sixteen chapters in the first edition and seventeen in the 1997 edition. It is about the human colonizers of Mars, including human contact with the few surviving Martians, the preoccupation of the emigrants with making Mars like America on Earth, and the return of all settlers but seven to Earth as war on Earth threatens. All of the settlers are from the United States, and the settlements are administered by the United States' government. A global war on Earth ensues, and contact between Mars and Earth ends. Eleven of the chapters are original works for the first edition and thirteen for the 1997 edition.",
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"plaintext": " The third part, covering six months from April 2026/2057 to October 2026/2057, is three chapters about the remaining Martian settlers and the occurrence and aftermath of global nuclear war on Earth that eliminates human civilization there, and the few humans who manage to flee Earth and settle on Mars. None of the chapters are original works for the fix-up.",
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"plaintext": "The creation of The Martian Chronicles by weaving together previous works was suggested to the author by New York City representatives of Doubleday & Company in 1949 after Norman Corwin recommended Bradbury travel to the city to be \"'discovered'\". The work was subsequently published in hardbound form by Doubleday in the United States in 1950. Publication of the book was concurrent with the publication of Bradbury's short story, \"There Will Come Soft Rains\" that appeared in Collier's magazine. The short story appears as a chapter in the novel, though with some differences. The novel has been reprinted numerous times by many different publishers since 1950.",
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"plaintext": "The Spanish language version of The Martian Chronicles, Crónicas Marcianas, was published in Argentina concurrently with the U.S. first edition, and included of all the chapters contained in the U.S. edition. The edition included a foreword by Jorge Luis Borges.",
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"plaintext": "The book was published in the United Kingdom under the title The Silver Locusts (1951), with slightly different contents. In some editions the story \"The Fire Balloons\" was added, and the story \"Usher II\" was removed to make room for it.",
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"plaintext": "The book was published in1963 as part of the Time Reading Program with an introduction by Fred Hoyle.",
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"plaintext": "In1979, Bantam Books published a trade paperback edition with illustrations by Ian Miller.",
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"plaintext": "As 1999 approached, the fictional future written into the first edition was in jeopardy, so the work was revised and a 1997 edition was published to advance all of the dates by 31 years (with the plot running from 2030 to 2057 instead of 1999 to 2026). The 1997 edition added \"November 2002/2033: The Fire Balloons\" and \"May 2003/2034: The Fire Balloons\", and omitted \"June 2003: Way in the Middle of the Air\", a story considered less topical in 1997 than 1950.",
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"plaintext": "The 1997 edition of Crónicas Marcianas included the same revisions as the U.S. 1997 edition.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, the Subterranean Press and PS Publishing published The Martian Chronicles: The Complete Edition that included the 1997 edition of the work and additional stories under the title \"The Other Martian Tales\". (See The Other Martian Tales section of this article.)",
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"plaintext": "Bradbury called the table of contents for The Martian Chronicles \"Chronology\" with each item formatted with the date of the story followed by a colon followed by the story title. The title of each chapter in the first edition was the corresponding line in \"Chronology\". In the 1997 edition, chapter titles omitted the colons by printing the date and the story title on separate lines. The chapter titles that follow are formatted consistent with the \"Chronology\". The years are those appearing in the first edition followed by the year appearing in 1997 edition.",
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"plaintext": "Publication information concerning short stories published prior to their appearance in The Martian Chronicles is available in Ray Bradbury short fiction bibliography.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. Not to be confused with the short story of the same name published in 1947.",
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"plaintext": "\"Rocket Summer\" is a short vignette that describes the rocket launch of the first human expedition to Mars on a cold winter day in Ohio.",
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"plaintext": "First published as \"I'll Not Ask for Wine\" in Maclean's, January1, 1950.",
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"plaintext": "Ylla, an unhappily married Martian, who, like all Martians, has telepathy, receives an impression of the human space traveler Nathaniel York. Ylla sings the 17th century song \"Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes\" (with lyrics from the poem \"To Celia\" by Ben Jonson), in English she doesn't understand. She has a romantic dream involving him, in which he takes her back to Earth. Her jealous husband, Yll, kills York and her memories fade.",
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"plaintext": "First published as \"The Spring Night\" in The Arkham Sampler, winter1949.",
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"plaintext": "An idyllic Martian summer night is disrupted when Martian adults and children spontaneously start to sing the words from English poems and children's rhymes they don't understand, including Lord Byron's \"She Walks in Beauty\" and \"Old Mother Hubbard\". The music, poems and rhymes emanate from astronauts aboard the Second Expedition's spaceship heading towards Mars. The Martians are terrified and sense that a terrible event will occur the next morning.",
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"plaintext": "The Second Expedition encounters members of a Martian community not far from their landing site. The Earth explorers, mistaken for delusional Martians, find themselves locked up in an insane asylum.",
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"plaintext": "A man named Pritchard believes he is entitled to be in the crew of the Third Expedition because he is a taxpayer. He doesn't want to be left on Earth because \"there's going to be an atomic war.\"",
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"plaintext": "First published as \"Mars is Heaven!\" in Planet Stories, fall1948. The original short story was set in 1960. The story in The Martian Chronicles contains paragraph about medical treatments that slow the aging process, so that the characters can be traveling to Mars in 2000 but still remember the 1920s.",
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"plaintext": "The Third Expedition find themselves lulled into a collective hallucination by the Martians and then killed by them. The ending leaves it ambiguous whether this was the plan of the Martians all along, or, given the telepathic origins of the hallucination and the way it was molded to their expectations and desires, Captain John Black accidentally willed it into being by coming to believe the hallucination was a trap for those perceived as invaders.",
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"plaintext": "Jeff Spender, a crew member with the Fourth Expedition, becomes repelled by the others' ugly American attitude as they explore a dead Martian city and begins to kill the others for their disrespect of the ruins.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Settlers\" is a vignette that describes the \"Lonely Ones\", the first settlers of Mars, single men from the United States who are few in number.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "A tall tale concerning Benjamin Driscoll, who Johnny Appleseed-like, is an emigrant who is threatened to be returned to Earth because he has difficulty breathing due to the thin Martian atmosphere. Driscoll believes Mars can be made more hospitable by planting trees to add more oxygen to the atmosphere. Referencing this story, Driscoll Forest is a place named in \"February 2004-2005/2035-2036: The Naming of Names\".",
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"plaintext": "A vignette describing the arrival of ninety thousand American emigrants to Mars.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "\"Night Meeting\" is the story of Tomás Gomez, a young Latino construction worker on Mars, who drives his truck across an empty expanse between towns to attend a party, and his encounters along the way with an elderly gas station owner and a Martian who appears to him as a phantom. They each regard each other as a dream.",
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"plaintext": "The fearless Tomás Gomez reflects a common Mexican attitude toward death, which Bradbury understood. Prior to the publication of The Martian Chronicles in 1950, two of his short stories relating to the Day of the Dead were published in 1947 — \"El Día de Muerte\" set on the Day of the Dead in Mexico City and \"The Next in Line\" that was published in his book Dark Carnival about a visit to catacombs in a Mexican village which terrifies the American protagonist. Both stories were likely inspired by his learning about Mexican death rites during his own frightful experience on a 1945 trip to Mexico that included a visit in Guanajuato where he viewed mummies.",
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"plaintext": "This vignette characterizes two successive groups of settlers as American emigrants who arrive in \"waves\" that \"spread upon\" the Martian \"shore\" – the first are the frontiersmen described in \"The Settlers\", and the second are men from the \"cabbage tenements and subways\" of urban America.",
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"plaintext": "The story first appeared as \"…In This Sign\" in Imagination, April1951 after publication of the first (1950) edition of The Martian Chronicles and so, was included in the U.S. edition of The Illustrated Man and in The Silver Locusts. The story was included in the 1997 edition of The Martian Chronicles, though it appeared in earlier special editions – the 1974edition from The Heritage Press, the September1979 illustrated trade edition from Bantam Books, the \"40th Anniversary Edition\" from Doubleday Dell Publishing Group and in the 2001 Book-of-the-Month Club edition.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Fire Balloons\" is a story about an Episcopal missionary expedition to cleanse Mars of sin, consisting of priests from large American cities led by the Most Reverend Father Joseph Daniel Peregrine and his assistant Father Stone. Peregrine has a passionate interest in discovering the kinds of sins that may be committed by aliens reflected in his book, The Problem of Sin on Other Worlds. Peregrine and Stone argue constantly about whether the mission should focus on cleansing humans or Martians. With the question unanswered, the priests travel to Mars aboard the spaceship Crucifix. The launch of the rocket triggers Peregrine's memories as a young boy of the Fourth of July with his grandfather.",
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"plaintext": "After landing on Mars, Peregrine and Stone meet with the mayor of First City, who advises them to focus their mission on humans. The mayor tells the priests that the Martians look like blue \"luminous globes of light\" and they saved the life of an injured prospector working in a remote location by transporting him to a highway. The mayor's description of the Martians triggers Peregine's endearing memories of himself launching fire balloons with his grandfather on Independence Day.",
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"plaintext": "Peregrine decides to search for and meet Martians, and he and Stone venture into the hills where the prospector encountered them. The two priests are met by a thousand fire balloons. Stone is terrified and wants to return to First City while Peregrine is overwhelmed by their beauty, imagines his grandfather is there with him to admire them, and wants to converse with them, though the fire balloons disappear. The two priests immediately encounter a rock slide, which Stone believes they escaped by chance and Peregrine believes they were saved by Martians. The two argue their disagreement, and during the night while Stone is sleeping, Peregrine tests his faith in his hunch by throwing himself off a high cliff. As he falls, Peregrine is surrounded by blue light and is set safely on the ground. Peregrine tells Stone of the experience but Stone believes Peregrine was dreaming, so Peregrine takes a gun which he fires at himself and the bullets drop at his feet, convincing his assistant.",
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"plaintext": "Peregrine uses his authority to have the mission build a church in the hills for the Martians. The church is for outdoor services and is constructed after six days of work. A blue glass sphere is brought as a representation of Jesus for the Martians. On the seventh day, a Sunday, Peregrine holds a service in which he plays an organ and uses his thoughts to summon the Martians. The fire balloons, who call themselves the Old Ones, appear as glorious apparitions to the priests and communicate the story of their creation, their immortality, their normally solitary existences, and their pure virtuousness. They thank the priests for building the church and tell them they are unneeded and ask them to relocate to the towns to cleanse the people there. The fire balloons depart, which fills Peregrine with such overwhelming sadness that he wants to be lifted up like his grandfather did when he was a small child. The priests are convinced and withdraw to First Town along with the blue glass sphere that has started to glow from within. Peregrine and Stone believe the sphere is Jesus.",
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"plaintext": "Bradbury said he consulted a Catholic priest in Beverly Hills while he developed the plot for \"Fire Balloons\". In an interview, Bradbury recalled part of a day-long conversation: \"'Listen, Father, how would you act if you landed on Mars and found intelligent creatures in the form of balls of fire? Would you think you ought to save them or would you think they were saved already?' 'Wow! That's a hell of a fine question!' the father exclaimed. And he told me what he would do. In short, what I make Father Peregrine do.\"",
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"plaintext": "Interpretation of \"The Fire Balloons\" has been called \"ambiguous\" because its meaning can be dramatically different due to the context set by the stories that accompany it. Its first appearance in the U.S. in 1951 was as a stand-alone story as \"... In This Sign\" and in The Illustrated Man that was concurrent with its first appearance in The Silver Locusts in the U.K. which included all of The Martian Chronicles stories with Martian characters. Within The Silver Locusts and the 1997 edition of The Martian Chronicles the strategy used by Martians in \"The Fire Balloons\" is implicit – they use their telepathic powers to peacefully keep settlers away from their mountains. As in \"February 1999/2030: Ylla\" the Martians understand Father Peregrine's fond memories of his grandfather and the Fourth of July celebrations they shared together involving fire balloons before and after the Crucifix lands on Mars. As in \"August 1999/2030: The Earth Men\", an elaborate, imaginary world is constructed, though in \"The Fire Balloons\" it is for the priests to convince them to cleanse humans of sin in First City. The appearance of Martians as fire balloons ends with the chapter.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. Not to be confused with the short horror story or \"Time Intervening,\" which is also under that title.",
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"plaintext": "A vignette describing how the Tenth City are built by colonists",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "Young boys defy their parents and habitually play in and among the otherwise unpopulated ruins of indigenous Martian towns where they perished in their homes. The Firemen methodically incinerate the remnants of Martian civilization and the bones of the Martians. The boys play amongst the relics and make Martian bones into musical instruments.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, November1952. The story appears in the 1974edition of The Martian Chronicles by The Heritage Press, the 1979 Bantam Books illustrated trade edition, and the 1997edition of The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "In Independence, Missouri, a woman, Janice Smith, expects a telephone call at midnight from her fiancée Will on Mars. He has already purchased a home on Mars identical to her home on Earth. His response after the long delay due to the distance to Mars is incomplete due to natural interference so, she only hears him say \"love\". Smith contemplates being a pioneer as the women before her, and then falls asleep for the last time on Earth.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in the first edition of The Martian Chronicles and not included in the 1997 edition. ",
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"plaintext": "The work later appeared in the July 1950 issue of Other Worlds Science Stories after five major magazines rejected the manuscript drafted in 1948.",
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"plaintext": "Bradbury explained that the drafting of \"Way in the Middle of the Air\" was a common way he used writing to address his emotional state affecting him at a moment. He recalled in a 1962 interview that he was so upset about the circumstances of African-Americans in the United States that \"I put them in rocket ships and send them off to Mars, in a short story, to rid myself of that tension\".",
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"plaintext": "Publication of \"Way in the Middle of the Air\" in 1950 was groundbreaking for a science fiction story even though the work is considered limited by providing only the viewpoint of white Americans. According to Isiah Lavender III, \"Bradbury is one of the very few authors in [science fiction] who dared to consider the effects and consequences of race in America at a time when racism was sanctioned by the culture.\" Even with the story's limitations, Robert Crossley suggested that it might be considered \"the single most incisive episode of black and white relations in science fiction by a white author.\"",
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"plaintext": "\"Way in the Middle of the Air\" is the story about Samuel Teece, a white racist and terrorist hardware store owner in an unnamed town in the Jim Crow era American South of 2003, and his efforts to dissuade the African-Americans in the town area from emigrating to Mars. Teece and a group of white men sit on the porch of his hardware store when they see a flood of black families and others marching into town with their belongings. One of the men tells Teece that the entire community has decided to leave for Mars. Teece is incensed and declares that the governor and militia should be contacted because the migrants should have notified everyone in advance before departing.",
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"plaintext": "As the migrants pass the store, Teece's wife, accompanied by the wives of other men on the porch, asks her husband to come home to prevent their house servant, Lucinda, from leaving. Mrs. Teece says she couldn't convince Lucinda from leaving after offering an increase in pay and two nights a week off, and said she didn't understand her decision because she thought Lucinda loved her. Teece restrains himself from beating his wife, and orders her to go back home. She obeys, and after she's gone he takes his gun out and threatens to kill any migrant who laughs. The march continues quietly through town toward the rocket launch site.",
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"plaintext": "Teece sees black man, Belter, and threatens to horsewhip him because Belter owes him fifty dollars. Belter tells Teece that he forgot about the debt, and Teece tells Belter that he shouldn't leave because his rocket will explode but Belter responds that he doesn't care. Teece calls Belter \"Mister Way in the Middle of the Air\" taken from the lyrics of the negro spiritual \"Ezekiel Saw the Wheel\" about a vision of the prophet Ezekiel that occurred in the sky. After Belter begs Teece to let him depart for Mars, an old man among the migrants passes his hat around and quickly collects fifty dollars in donations from other migrants and gives it to Belter, who gives it to Teece and leaves. Teece is enraged and waves his gun at the migrants and threatens to shoot their rockets down one by one. The men on Teece's porch ponder the reason for the mass migration mentioning advances in civil rights like elimination of the poll tax, some states enacting anti-lynching laws, \"all kinds of equal rights\", and that the wages of black men are nearly on par with white men.",
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"plaintext": "After almost all of the migrants have passed through town, Silly, Teece's seventeen year old black employee, comes to the porch to return Teece's bicycle Silly uses for deliveries. Teece shoves Silly off the machine and orders Silly to go inside the hardware store and start working. Silly doesn't move and Teece pulls out a contract he says Silly signed with an \"X\" that requires the boy to \"give four weeks notice and continue working until his position is filled\". Silly says he didn't sign a contract and Teece responds by saying he will treat the boy well. Silly asks one of the white men on the porch if one of them will take his place and Grandpa Quartermain volunteers so Silly can leave. Teece claims Silly as his and says he'll lock the boy in the back room until the evening. Silly starts to cry and then three other men on the porch tell Teece to let Silly go. Teece feels for the gun in his pocket and then relents. Silly cleans out his shed at the store on orders from Teece and departs the store in an old car. As Silly leaves, he asks Teece what he is going to do at night when all the black people are gone. After the car drives away, Teece figures out that Silly was asking about lynchings Teece participated in, and gets his open-top car to chase down Silly and kill him. Quartermain volunteers to drive, and in their pursuit a tire goes flat after running over cast off belongings that migrants abandoned onto the road. Teece returns to his store where men are watching rockets shooting up into the sky. Teece refuses to watch and proudly comments that Silly addressed him as \"Mister\" to the very end.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. (Not to be confused with the short story \"The Naming of Names\", first published in Thrilling Wonder Stories, August1949, later published as \"Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed\".)",
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"plaintext": "\"The Naming of Names\" is a short vignette about the names of places on Mars being given American names that memorialize the crews of the four exploratory expeditions, or \"mechanical\" or \"metal\" names, which replace the Martian names that were for geographic features and things in nature.",
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"plaintext": "The vignette also describes tourists who visit Mars and shop, and describes the next wave of emigrants as \"sophisticates\" and people who \"instruct\" and \"rule\" and \"push\" other people about.",
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"plaintext": "First published as Carnival of Madness in Thrilling Wonder Stories, April1950. In 2010, Los Angeles artist Allois, in collaboration with Bradbury, released illustrated copies of \"Usher\" and \"UsherII\". The story also appeared in the 2008 Harper Collins/ Voyager edition of The Illustrated Man.",
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"plaintext": "\"UsherII\" is a horror story and homage to Edgar Allan Poe about the wealthy William Stendahl and the house he built to murder his enemies. The story begins with Stendahl's meeting with Mr. Bigelow, his architect, to perform a final check-out for the completion of his newly built house. Stendahl reads Bigelow architectural specifications taken directly from the description of the House of Usher from the text of Poe's \"The Fall of the House of Usher\". Stendahl is satisfied and refers to the house as, The House of Usher. The owner is angered that Bigelow doesn't know anything of or about Poe and sends him away. Bigelow's ignorance is innocent because for decades, anything \"produced in any way suggesting ... any creature of the imagination\" has been outlawed, including books, many of which were confiscated and burned in the Great Fire thirty years earlier, including Stendahl's own fifty thousand book library.",
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"plaintext": "Stendahl is visited by Mr. Garrett, an investigator of Moral Climates, who immediately tells Stendahl that he will have his place dismantled and burned later that day. Stendahl tells Garrett that he spent a huge sum of money for the house and invites the investigator inside for additional information for his investigative report. During the tour, Garrett experiences an automated horror fantasy world, and finds the place \"deplorable\" as well as a work of genius. Garrett is met by a robot ape that Stendahl demonstrates is a robot and then orders it to kill Garrett. Stendahl has his assistant Pikes, who he regards as the greatest horror film actor ever when such films were made, construct a robot replica of Garrett to return to Moral Climates to delay any action affecting the house for forty-eight hours. Stendahl and Pikes send invitations out to their enemies for a party later that evening.",
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"plaintext": "About thirty guests arrive at Stendahl's party. Upon greeting them, he tells them to enjoy themselves because the house will be soon be destroyed, though Pikes interrupts and shows Stendahl the remnants of Garrett, which are the parts of a robot. They first panic and then Stendahl figures the real Garrett will come to visit since they sent a robot back, and very soon Garrett appears and informs Stendahl that the Dismantlers will arrive in an hour. Stendahl tells Garrett to enjoy the party and offers him some wine that is politely refused. Garrett and Miss Pope then observe Miss Blunt being strangled by an ape and her corpse being stuffed up a chimney. Another laughing Miss Blunt comforts Miss Pope by telling her that what she saw killed was a robot replica of herself. Stendahl serves Garrett wine which he drinks. Garrett watches additional killings performed in a similar manner that he remembers from Poe's \"The Premature Burial\", \"The Pit and the Pendulum\", and one other from \"The Murders in the Rue Morgue\". Stendahl serves Garrett more wine which is consumed and asks the investigator if he would like to see what is planned for him. Garrett agrees and is treated as the character Fortunato from Poe's \"The Cask of Amontillado\". After Stendahl and Pikes have disposed of all their guests, they leave in a helicopter and, from above, watch the house break apart like the one in Poe's story.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Old Ones\" is a short vignette that describes the last wave of emigrants to Mars – elderly Americans. The title does not refer to the Martians in \"The Fire Balloons\".",
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"plaintext": "First published in Super Science Stories, November1949.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Martian\" is the story about an elderly married couple, LaFarge and Anna, who encounter a Martian who wants to live with them as their fourteen-year-old son, Tom, even though Tom died of pneumonia many years before. On a rainy night, Lafarge mentions his grief for Tom to Anna, who asks him to \"forget him and everything on Earth\". They go to bed but before they can sleep they respond to a knock at their front door and find a boy who looks like Tom there. Anna is afraid but LaFarge thinks of the boy as Tom. Anna tells the boy to leave and asks her husband to lock the door, but LaFarge tells the boy that he can enter the house if he wants to and shuts the door unlocked. The next morning, LaFarge finds the boy bathing in the canal adjacent to his house while his wife treats the boy as her son with no discernible sign of concern or doubt. LaFarge asks the boy to give his true identity and guesses he is a Martian. The boy asks to be accepted and not to be doubted, and then runs away. Anna becomes distressed as she sees the boy running away, and LaFarge asks his wife if she remembers anything about Tom's death. Anna responds that she doesn't know what he's talking about.",
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"plaintext": "The boy returns late in the afternoon and makes an agreement with LaFarge on not asking any more questions. The boy says he was almost \"trapped\" by a man living in a tin shack by the canal after he ran away. After the boy leaves LaFarge to prepare for suppertime, Saul in a canal boat tells LaFarge that Nomland, the man living in the tin shack known to have murdered a man named Gillings on Earth, said Nomland saw Gillings that afternoon and tried to lock himself in the jail, and when he couldn't, went home and shot himself dead only twenty minutes earlier. LaFarge asks the boy what he did during the afternoon, and the boy responds, \"Nothing\" and LaFarge stops the questioning.",
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"plaintext": "LaFarge, Anna, and the boy leave the house on a canal boat over fearful objections of the boy. The boy falls asleep in the boat and talks in his sleep about \"changing\" and \"the trap\" which the couple don't understand. Soon after they arrive in the town and start to meet numerous people, the boy runs off. Anna is distressed and Tom reassures her that the boy will return before they leave. The couple buys theater tickets and return to the canal boat late at night when the entertainment ends, but the boy is not there. LaFarge goes into town to find the boy and meets Mike who tells him that Joe Spaulding and his wife found their daughter, Lavinia, on Main Street while buying their theater tickets. LaFarge goes to the Spaulding's house and finds Lavinia, though he calls her Tom, and asks Lavinia to come back to him and Anna. LaFarge makes a fatherly commitment and Lavinia leaves with LaFarge, though the departure is detected and her father shoots at them and misses. As they flee, LaFarge sends the boy off in a different direction to rendezvous at the canal boat where Anna awaits. As the boy runs through town his appearance changes to a figure that is recognizable to each person who sees him. The boy makes it to the boat where LaFarge and Anna await, but Joe Spaulding has a gun and stops their departure. The boy steps off the boat and Spaulding takes his wrist while all the people around him claim the boy is theirs. As the crowd argues, the boy sickens and screams as his appearance changes rapidly and uncontrollably from one recognizable figure to a person in the crowd to another, and then dies. It starts to rain again. LaFarge and Anna return home and go to bed. At midnight, LaFarge hears something at the door, opens it to a rainy night and watches the empty yard for five minutes before locking the door shut.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Luggage Store\" is a short dialogue between Father Peregrine and the elderly owner of a luggage store. The proprietor tells Peregrine that he heard on the radio that there will be a war on Earth, looks at Earth in the night sky, and tells the priest he finds the news incredible. Peregrine changes the proprietor's mind by telling him that news of war is unbelievable because Earth is so far away. The shop owner tells the priest of the hundred thousand new emigrants expected in the coming months and Peregrine comments that the travelers will be needed on Earth and that they'll probably be turning back. The proprietor tells the priest that he'd better prepare his luggage for a quick sale after which the priest asks if the owner thinks all the emigrants on Mars will return to Earth. The owner believes so because the emigrants haven't been on Mars for long, except for himself because he is so old. Peregrine tells the shopkeeper that he's wrong about staying on Mars. The owner is convinced again by the priest, and Peregrine buys a new valise to replace his old one.",
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"plaintext": "First published in Thrilling Wonder Stories, December1948.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Off Season\" is the story of former Fourth Expedition crewman Sam Parkhill, who is a character in \"June 2001/2032: —And the Moon Be Still as Bright\", and his wife Elma, and their encounters with Martians as they prepare to open the first hot dog stand on Mars, which is decorated with glass Sam broke off old Martian buildings. The Parkhills hope to become wealthy because one hundred thousand new emigrants are expected to arrive to establish Earth Settlement 101 nearby, though Elma points out that the new inhabitants will be Mexican and Chinese nationals. The couple is unaware that Earth is on the brink of global war because their radio is broken.",
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"plaintext": "During the evening, the Parkhills are approached by a Martian they spoke to earlier that day. The Martian learns the Parkhills don't know about the situation on Earth and as the Martian says he wants to show Sam a bronze tube that appears in the Martian's hand. Sam shoots the Martian dead with a gun believing the tube is a weapon. However, Elma discovers the tube contains a document written with Martian hieroglyphics neither of them understand. As Sam tells Elma that the Earth Settlement will protect him from Martians, Elma sees twelve Martian sand ships approaching and Sam believes the Martians want to kill him. Sam takes Elma onto a Martian sand ship he purchased at an auction and learned to operate, and takes off to a town for protection. As Sam's sand ship sails, a young woman appears on the ship's tiller bench. The woman, a vision, tells Sam to return to the hot dog stand. Sam refuses and tells the women to get off his ship. The vision argues that the ship isn't his and claims it as part of the Martian world. Sam shoots the vision and it vanishes after breaking into crystals and vaporizing. Elma is disappointed in Sam and asks him to stop the ship, but Sam refuses. In frustration and to display his might, Sam destroys the crystal ruins of a Martian city by shooting them as the sand ship passes by, though Elma is unimpressed and then falls unconscious.",
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"plaintext": "As Sam readies to shoot up another Martian city, three sand ships catch up with him. Sam shoots at them and one ship disintegrates and vaporizes along with its crew. As the two other ships approach Sam's, he gives up by stopping his ship. A Martian calls him, and Sam explains himself and surrenders by throwing down his gun. The Martian tells him to retrieve his gun and return to the hot dog stand where they want to explain something without harming him. Elma wakes up on the journey back.",
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"plaintext": "Back at the hot dog stand, the Martian Leader tells the Parkhills to ready it for operation and to have a celebration. The Leader produces the scrolls which he explains are grants to Sam that sum to half of the entire planet. Sam asks the Leader for an explanation for the gift but the Martians announce their departure and tell him to \"prepare\" and repeat that the land is his. Sam believes the Martians were telling him the rockets with the new emigrants are arriving, so Sam and Elma start preparing hot dogs. As they prepare food, Sam thinks of the hungry emigrants to feed and botches recitation of Emma Lazarus' poem \"The New Colossus\" which is on a plaque at the Statue of Liberty in Sam's hometown, New York City. Elma looks at Earth in the night sky and sees an explosion on the planet that gains Sam's attention. Elma tells Sam she believes no customers will be coming to the hot dog stand for a million years.",
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"plaintext": "In \"—And the Moon Be Still as Bright\", the bodies of dead Martians are corpses. Sam Parkhill's shooting of the Martians dead at his hot dog stand and on his sand ship are illusions projected by one or more Martians somewhere else.",
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"plaintext": "First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. Not to be confused with the 1945 short story of the same name.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Watchers\" is a short vignette about the concerns of the Martian colonists, who are all Americans, about reports of war on Earth. At nine o'clock in the night sky, they view an explosion that changes the color of Earth, though, three hours later the color returns to normal. At two o'clock in the morning, colonists receive a message that war had begun, that a stockpile of nuclear weapons \"prematurely\" detonated destroying the Australian continent, and that Los Angeles and London had been bombed. The message said \"come home\" repeatedly without explanation. The proprietor of a luggage store, who is a character in \"The Luggage Store\", sells out of stock early in the morning, as colonists prepare to return to Earth.",
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"plaintext": "First published in Charm, March1949.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Silent Towns\" is a story about thirty year old Walter Gripp, a miner who lived in a remote mountain shack and walked to the town of Marlin Village every two weeks to find a wife. On his December visit Gripp finds the town abandoned and happily helps himself to money, food, clothing, movies, and other luxuries, but soon realizes he's lonely. As he walks to return to his shack, Gripp hears a phone ringing in an abandoned house but he can't reach it soon enough to communicate with the caller. He hears a telephone ringing in another house and misses the call and realizes he expects the caller to be a woman. In the abandoned home, he obtains a colony telephone directory and starts calling the listed numbers in alphabetal order but stops after contacting a woman's automated message service. Gripps tries his luck with telephone exchanges and government and public institutions, and then places where he thinks a woman would take herself. Gripp calls the biggest beauty parlor in New Texas City and reaches Genevieve Selsor but is cut off. He finds a car and drives a thousand miles to the Deluxe Beauty Salon, fantasizing about Selsor along the way. Gripp can't find Selsor there and believes she drove to Marlin Village to find him, so he returns and finds Selsor at a beauty parlor holding a box of cream chocolates.",
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"plaintext": "Gripps finds the twenty-seven-year old physically unattractive and suffers while they watch a Clark Gable movie together after which she pours perfume into her hair. They return to the beauty parlor and Selsor declares herself as \"last lady on Mars\" and Gripp as the last man and presents him with a box containing a wedding dress. Gripp flees, driving across Mars to another tiny town to spend his life happily alone and ignoring any phone he hears ringing.",
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"plaintext": "First published in Maclean's, September15, 1948.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Long Years\" is the story of the last days of the life of Hathaway, the physician/geologist crewman from the Fourth Expedition's story \"June 2001/2032: —And the Moon Be Still as Bright\". At night during a windstorm, Hathaway visits four graves on a hill away from his family's hut and asks the dead for forgiveness for what he's done because he was lonely. As he returns to the hut, he spots a rocket approaching. He tells the family of the \"good news\" of a rocket arrival in the morning. He goes to the nearby ruins of New New York City and sets it ablaze as a location for the rocket to land. Hathaway returns to the hut to serve wine to his family in celebration. He reminisces about missing all the rockets evacuating colonists from Mars when the Great War started because he and his whole family were doing archaeological work in the mountains. As his wife and three children drink their wine it all just runs down their chins.",
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"plaintext": "In the morning, the family prepares to greet whoever is in the rocket ship, including a great breakfast. As the rocket lands, Hathaway suffers an angina attack while running toward it. He recovers and continues on. Wilder, who was captain of the Fourth Expedition, emerges, sees Hathaway and greets him. Wilder explains that he's been on a twenty-year mission to the outer solar system; reports that he surveyed Mars before landing and found only one other person, Walter Gripp, who decided to stay on Mars, Wilder ponders with Hathaway the fate of Earth; and agrees to take Hathaway and his family on his return to Earth. Hathaway compliments Wilder on his promotion to lead the twenty-year mission so that Wilder would not slow the development of Mars. Wilder orders his crew out of the spaceship to join Hathaway's family.",
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"plaintext": "On their way to the family hut, Hathaway updates Wilder on the Fourth Expedition's crewmen. Hathway tells Wilder that he visits Jeff Spender's tomb annually to pay his respects, and about Sam Parkhill's hot dog stand which was abandoned a week after opening to return to Earth. Wilder observes Hathaway in physical distress and has his physician crewman check Hathaway. Hathaway tells Wilder that he has stayed alive just to await rescue and now that Wilder has arrived he can die. The doctor gives him a pill and then says what he just spoke was \"nonsense\". Hathway recovers and continues on to the family hut.",
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"plaintext": "At the hut, Hathaway introduces his family to the crew. Wilder is struck by how young Hathaway's wife appears, given that he met her decades earlier, and he compliments her on her youthfulness. Wilder asks John, Hathaway's son, his age, and John answers twenty-three. Crewman Williamson tells Wilder that John is supposed to be forty-two. Wilder sends Williamson off to investigate on the pretense of checking up on their rocket. Williamson returns to report that he found the graves of Hathaway's wife and children, and that the gravestones said that they died of an unknown disease during July 2007/2038.",
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"plaintext": "As breakfast ends, Hathaway stands and toasts the crew and his family, and as soon he is done he collapses and knows that he will soon be dead. Wilder wants to call the family in to see Hathaway, but Hathaway stops him. Hathaway says they won't understand and wouldn't want them to understand, and then dies. Wilder converses with Hathaway's wife and concludes that she and the children are all androids, created by Hathaway to keep him company after his wife and children died. The crew buries Hathaway in his family's graveyard.",
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"plaintext": "As Wilder prepares to depart, Williamson asks Wilder about what should be done about the android family and specially asks whether they should be deactivated. Wilder rejects taking them to Earth and says deactivation never crossed his mind. Wilder hands Williamson a gun and tells the crewman that if he can do anything it is better than anything he can do. Williamson goes into the hut and returns to Wilder reporting that he pointed the gun at an android daughter, who responded by smiling, and that he felt shooting them would be \"murder\". Wilder speculates the androids could operate for up to two more centuries. The rocket departs, and the android family continues on with its endless routines, that includes, for no reason at all, the android wife nightly looking up at Earth in the sky and tending a fire.",
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"plaintext": "First published in Collier's, May6, 1950, and revised for inclusion in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "An unoccupied, highly automated house of the McClellan family that stands and operates intact in a California city that is otherwise obliterated by a nuclear bomb, and its destruction by a fire caused by a windstorm. The story marks the end of the United States as a nation. The story also commemorates the United States' atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 5, 1945 (US time) during World War II. The title of the story was taken from Sara Teasdale's anti-war poem \"There Will Come Soft Rains\" originally published in 1918 during World War I and the 1918 Flu Pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "First published in Planet Stories, summer 1946.",
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"plaintext": "\"The Million-Year Picnic\" is the story of William Thomas, a former governor of the state of Minnesota and Alice, his wife, and three sons, who traveled to Mars to escape war under the parents' pretense that the family is taking a fishing trip. Alice is not noticeably pregnant with a girl. The family enjoys a warm Martian summer day in and along water-filled canals traveling in a power boat prepared for an encampment. William is troubled by the war on Earth and does his best to keep the children entertained though he mutters his concerns as stray thoughts his children don't completely comprehend. William draws the boys' attention on fish, the ancient Martian cities they pass by, and on finding Martians – the latter, William assures the boys that they will find. While boating in a canal William and his wife listen to a broadcast on their atomic radio and are jolted by what they hear. William remotely detonates the family's rocket that causes a great sound, throttles the boat faster to drown out the noise and collides with a wharf and stops. No damage is done and William laughingly tells everyone he just exploded their rocket. The boys instantly think it is part of a game. William tells the boys he did it to keep their location secret, and the boys think it is still part of a game. William listens in on the atomic radio again and hears nothing for a couple of minutes. He tells the family, \"It's over at last\" and the children fall silent. William boats down the canal where they pass six Martian cities and asks the family to choose the best one. They all choose the last one and William declares that it will be their new home. The boys are saddened to tears about missing Minnesota but the father tells the boys that the Martian city is theirs and the boys become filled with a sense of adventure. The family walks through their new city and William tells the family that they will be joined by Bert Edward's family that includes four girls. He tells his son Timothy that he destroyed the rocket to prevent them from returning to Earth and to leave no trace for \"evil men\" from Earth to find them.",
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"plaintext": "The family settles around a campfire and William explains how he purchased the rocket when the Great War started and hid it in case he needed to escape Earth, as Edwards did too. The father burns in a campfire a variety of documents, including government bonds, he brought to Mars to burn \"a way of life\". While he burns his papers, he tells his sons that Earth has been destroyed, that interplanetary travel has ended, that people grew too dependent on technology and couldn't manage its war time use, and that the way of life on Earth \"proved itself wrong\" through its own self-destruction. He warns his sons that he will tell them the last point everyday until they really understand it. William finishes burning his papers, saving a map of Earth for last. William takes the family to the canal and tells the children that they will be taught what they need to learn and that they are going to see Martians. William stops at the canal and points to the family's reflection in the water.",
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"plaintext": "Bradbury's fascination with Mars started when he was a child, including depictions of Mars in the works of Edgar Rice Burroughs' The Gods of Mars and John Carter, Warrior of Mars. Burroughs' influence on the author was immense, as Bradbury believed \"Burroughs is probably the most influential writer in the entire history of the world.\" Bradbury said that as a child, he memorized all of John Carter and Tarzan and repeated the stories to anyone who would listen. Harold Foster's 1931 series of Tarzan Sunday comics had such an impact on his life that \"The Martian Chronicles would never have happened\" otherwise.",
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"plaintext": "Ray Bradbury referred to The Martian Chronicles as \"a book of stories pretending to be a novel\". He credited a diverse set of literary influences that had an effect on the structure and literary style of The Martian Chronicles, among them Sherwood Anderson, William Shakespeare, Saint-John Perse, and John Steinbeck, as well as Edgar Rice Burroughs, particularly the Barsoom stories and John Carter of Mars books.",
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"plaintext": "Bradbury was particularly inspired by plot and character development in Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio that helped him write \"vivid and real\" stories that improved his earlier writings that were \"lifeless robots, mechanical and motionless\". The author said the stories took their form as combinations of component \"Martian pensées\" which were \"Shakespearian 'asides,' wandering thoughts, long night visions, predawn half-dreams\" honed in a manner inspired by the perfection of Saint-John Perse.",
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"plaintext": "The combination of separate stories to create The Martian Chronicles as \"a half-cousin to a novel\" was a suggestion of Doubleday editor Walter Bradbury (no relation to the author), who paid Ray Bradbury $750 for the outline of the book. The author only then realized such a book would be comparable to his idea of Winesburg, Ohio. For his approach to integrating previous work into a novel, Bradbury credited Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio and John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath as influences on the structure of the work. Winesburg, Ohio is a short story cycle, and The Grapes of Wrath separates narrative chapters with narrative expositions that serve as prologues to subsequent narrative chapters. The idea of using short vignettes, intercalary chapters, and expository narratives to connect the full-length Chronicle stories, their role in the overall work, and the literary style used to write them, Bradbury said were \"subconsciously borrowed\" from those in The Grapes of Wrath, which he first read at age nineteen, the year the novel was published.",
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"plaintext": "Upon publication, The Paris Review noted that \"The Martian Chronicles ... was embraced by the science-fiction community as well as critics, a rare achievement for the genre. Christopher Isherwood hailed Bradbury as 'truly original' and a 'very great and unusual talent'.\" Isherwood argued that Bradbury's works were \"tales of the grotesque and arabesque\" and compared them to the works of Edgar Allan Poe by writing, Bradbury \"already deserves to be measured against the greatest master of his particular genre.\" Writer and critic Anthony Boucher and critic J. Francis McComas praised Chronicles as \"a poet's interpretation of future history beyond the limits of any fictional form\". The writer L. Sprague de Camp, however, declared that Bradbury would improve \"when he escapes from the influence of Hemingway and Saroyan\", placing him in \"the tradition of anti-science-fiction writers [who] see no good in the machine age\". Still, de Camp acknowledged that \"[Bradbury's] stories have considerable emotional impact, and many will love them\".",
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"plaintext": "A decade of after its publication, Damon Knight in his \"Books\" column for F&SF, listed The Martian Chronicles on his top-ten science fiction books of the1950s.",
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"plaintext": "By September 1979 more than three million copies of The Martian Chronicles had been sold.",
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"plaintext": "On November 28, 1964, the NASA spacecraft Mariner 4 flew by Mars and took the first close-up pictures of the Martian surface that were far different than those described by Ray Bradbury. In spite of direct visual and scientific information since then that indicate Mars is nothing like Bradbury's descriptions in The Martian Chronicles, the novel remains a popular work of \"classic short stories\", \"science fiction\", and \"classic fiction anthologies and collections\" as indicated by the Amazon book store best seller lists. In an introduction to a 2015 edition of the work, Canadian astronaut and former International Space Station commander Chris Hadfield speculated on the continuing popularity of the work, attributing it to beautiful descriptions of the Martian landscape, its ability to \"challenge and inspire\" the reader to reflect on humanity's history of related follies and failures, and the popular idea that someday some people will come to accept Mars as being their permanent home. Bradbury attributed the attraction of readers to his book because the story is a myth or fable rather than science fiction. He said \"... even the most deeply rooted physicists at Cal-Tech accept breathing the fraudulent oxygen atmosphere I have loosed on Mars. Science and machines can kill each other off or be replaced. Myth, seen in mirrors, incapable of being touched, stays on. If it is not immortal, it almost seems such.\"",
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"plaintext": "The August 6, 2012, Martian landing site of Curiosity, NASA's Mars Rover, was named Bradbury Landing in honor of Ray Bradbury on August 22, 2012, on what would have been the author's ninety-second birthday. On naming the location, Michael Meyer, NASA program scientist for Curiosity, said \"This was not a difficult choice for the science team. Many of us and millions of other readers were inspired in our lives by stories Ray Bradbury wrote to dream of the possibility of life on Mars.\" The author died on June 5, 2012.",
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"plaintext": "A stage production of \"June 2003: Way in the Middle of the Air\" was produced at the Desilu Studios Gower Studios, Hollywood, California in 1962.",
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"plaintext": "The debut of a theater adaptation of The Martian Chronicles was at the Cricket Theater (The Ritz) in Northeast Minneapolis in 1976.",
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"plaintext": "MGM bought the film rights in 1960 but no film was made.",
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"plaintext": "In1988, the Soviet Armenian studio Armenfilm produced the feature film The 13th Apostle, starring Juozas Budraitis, Donatas Banionis, Armen Dzhigarkhanyan, based on The Martian Chronicles. The film was directed by Armenian actor and screenwriter, Suren Babayan.",
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"plaintext": "The Uzbek filmmaker Nozim To'laho'jayev made two films based on sections from the book: 1984's animated short There Will Come Soft Rains (Russian: Будет ласковый дождь) and 1987's full-length live action film Veld (Russian: Вельд), with one of the subplots based on The Martian.",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles was adapted as a full-length contemporary opera by composer Daniel Levy and librettist Elizabeth Margid. This is the only musical adaptation authorized by Bradbury himself, who turned down Lerner and Loewe in the 1960s when they asked his permission to make a musical based on the novel. The work received its initial readings from the Harriet Lake Festival of New Plays at the Orlando Shakespeare Theater in 2006, and was presented in workshop form in the inaugural season of the Fordham University Lincoln Center Alumni Company in 2008. The \"Night Meeting\" episode was presented at Cornelia Street Cafe's \"Entertaining Science\" series on June 9, 2013. The entire work was presented as a staged reading with a cast of Broadway actors at Ars Nova NYC on February 11, 2015. Three scenes were presented as a workshop production with immersive staging, directed by Carlos Armesto of Theatre C and conducted by Benjamin Smoulder at Miami University, Oxford OH on September 17–19, 2015.",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles was adapted for radio in the science fiction radio series Dimension X. This truncated version contained elements of the stories \"Rocket Summer\", \"Ylla\", \"–and the Moon Be Still as Bright\", \"The Settlers\", \"The Locusts\", \"The Shore\", \"The Off Season\", \"There Will Come Soft Rains\", and \"The Million-Year Picnic\".",
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"plaintext": "\"—and the Moon Be Still as Bright\" and \"There Will Come Soft Rains\" were also adapted for separate episodes in the same series. The short stories \"Mars Is Heaven\" and \"Dwellers in Silence\" also appeared as episodes of DimensionX. The latter is in a very different form from the one found in The Martian Chronicles.",
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"plaintext": "A very abridged spoken word reading of \"There Will Come Soft Rains\" and \"UsherII\" was made in1975 with Leonard Nimoy as narrator.",
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"plaintext": "A BBC Radio 4 adaption, produced by Andrew Mark Sewell as an hour-long programme and starring Derek Jacobi as Captain Wilder, was broadcast on June 21, 2014, as part of the Dangerous Visions series.",
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"plaintext": "In1979 NBC partnered with the BBC to commission The Martian Chronicles, a three-episode miniseries adaptation running just over four hours. It was written by Richard Matheson and was directed by Michael Anderson. Rock Hudson starred as Wilder, Darren McGavin as Parkhill, Bernadette Peters as Genevieve Selsor, Bernie Casey as Jeff Spender, Roddy McDowall as Father Stone, and Barry Morse as Hathaway, as well as Fritz Weaver. Bradbury found the miniseries \"just boring\".",
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"plaintext": "The cable television series The Ray Bradbury Theater adapted some individual short stories from The Martian Chronicles including \"Mars is Heaven\", \"The Earthmen\", \"And the Moon Be Still as Bright\", \"Usher II\", \"The Martian\", \"Silent Towns\", and \"The Long Years\". Video releases of the series included a VHStape entitled Ray Bradbury's Chronicles: The Martian Episodes with some editions with three episodes and others with five.",
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"plaintext": "Several of the short stories in The Martian Chronicles were adapted into graphic novel-style stories in the EC Comics magazines, including \"There Will Come Soft Rains\" in Weird Fantasy#17, \"The Long Years\" in Weird Science#17, \"Mars Is Heaven\" in Weird Science#18, \"The Million-Year Picnic\" in Weird Fantasy#21 and \"The Silent Towns\" in Weird Fantasy#22.",
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"plaintext": "The Martian Chronicles: The Complete Edition published in 2009 by Subterranean Press and PS Publishing contains the 1997 edition of The Martian Chronicles with an additional collection of stories under the title The Other Martian Tales, which includes the following:",
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"plaintext": "\"They All Had Grandfathers\" (previously unpublished)",
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"plaintext": "\"The Strawberry Window\" (Star Science Fiction Stories#3, ed. Frederik Pohl, Ballantine, 1954, reprinted in A Medicine for Melancholy)",
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"plaintext": "\"The Love Affair\" (The Love Affair, Lord John Press 1982, reprinted in The Toynbee Convector)",
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"plaintext": "and essays by John Scalzi, Marc Scott Zicree, and Richard Matheson.",
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"plaintext": "Le Monde 100 Books of the Century",
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| [
"1950_American_novels",
"Novels_by_Ray_Bradbury",
"Novels_set_on_Mars",
"Space_Western_novels",
"Environmental_fiction_books",
"1950_short_story_collections",
"Science_fiction_short_story_collections",
"Doubleday_(publisher)_books",
"American_novels_adapted_into_films",
"Debut_science_fiction_novels",
"1950_debut_novels",
"Future_history"
]
| 918,052 | 14,034 | 137 | 223 | 0 | 0 | The Martian Chronicles | 1950 novel by Ray Bradbury | []
|
37,322 | 1,106,430,983 | Aeneid | [
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid ( ; or ) is a Latin epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Trojan who fled the fall of Troy and travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Romans. It comprises 9,896 lines in dactylic hexameter. The first six of the poem's twelve books tell the story of Aeneas' wanderings from Troy to Italy, and the poem's second half tells of the Trojans' ultimately victorious war upon the Latins, under whose name Aeneas and his Trojan followers are destined to be subsumed.",
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"plaintext": "The hero Aeneas was already known to Greco-Roman legend and myth, having been a character in the Iliad. Virgil took the disconnected tales of Aeneas' wanderings, his vague association with the foundation of Rome and his description as a personage of no fixed characteristics other than a scrupulous pietas, and fashioned the Aeneid into a compelling founding myth or national epic that tied Rome to the legends of Troy, explained the Punic Wars, glorified traditional Roman virtues, and legitimized the Julio-Claudian dynasty as descendants of the founders, heroes, and gods of Rome and Troy.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid can be divided into halves based on the disparate subject matter of Books 1–6 (Aeneas' journey to Latium in Italy) and Books 7–12 (the war in Latium). These two-halves are commonly regarded as reflecting Virgil's ambition to rival Homer by treating both the Odysseys wandering theme and the Iliads warfare themes. This is, however, a rough correspondence, the limitations of which should be borne in mind.",
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"plaintext": "Virgil begins his poem with a statement of his theme (Arma virumque cano..., \"Of arms and the man I sing...\") and an invocation to the Muse, falling some seven lines after the poem's inception (Musa, mihi causas memora..., \"O Muse, recount to me the causes...\"). He then explains the reason for the principal conflict in the story: the resentment held by the goddess Juno against the Trojan people. This is consistent with her role throughout the Homeric epics.",
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"plaintext": "Also in the manner of Homer, the story proper begins in medias res (into the middle of things), with the Trojan fleet in the eastern Mediterranean, heading in the direction of Italy. The fleet, led by Aeneas, is on a voyage to find a second home. It has been foretold that in Italy he will give rise to a race both noble and courageous, a race which will become known to all nations. Juno is wrathful, because she had not been chosen in the judgment of Paris, and because her favourite city, Carthage, will be destroyed by Aeneas' descendants. Also, Ganymede, a Trojan prince, was chosen to be the cupbearer to her husband, Jupiter—replacing Juno's daughter, Hebe. Juno proceeds to Aeolus, King of the Winds, and asks that he release the winds to stir up a storm in exchange for a bribe (Deiopea, the loveliest of all her sea nymphs, as a wife). Aeolus agrees to carry out Juno's orders (line 77, \"My task is / To fulfill your commands\"); the storm then devastates the fleet.",
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"plaintext": "Neptune takes notice: although he himself is no friend of the Trojans, he is infuriated by Juno's intrusion into his domain, and stills the winds and calms the waters, after making sure that the winds would not bother the Trojans again, lest they be punished more harshly than they were this time. The fleet takes shelter on the coast of Africa, where Aeneas rouses the spirits of his men, reassuring them that they have been through worse situations before. There, Aeneas' mother, Venus, in the form of a huntress very similar to the goddess Diana, encourages him and recounts to him the history of Carthage. Eventually, Aeneas ventures into the city, and in the temple of Juno he seeks and gains the favour of Dido, queen of the city. The city has only recently been founded by refugees from Tyre and will later become a great imperial rival and enemy to Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, Venus has her own plans. She goes to her son, Aeneas' half-brother Cupid, and tells him to imitate Ascanius (the son of Aeneas and his first wife Creusa). Thus disguised, Cupid goes to Dido and offers the gifts expected from a guest. As Dido cradles the boy during a banquet given in honour of the Trojans, Cupid secretly weakens her sworn fidelity to the soul of her late husband Sychaeus, who was murdered by her brother Pygmalion back in Tyre, by inciting fresh love for Aeneas.",
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"plaintext": "In books 2 and 3, Aeneas recounts to Dido the events that occasioned the Trojans' arrival. He begins the tale shortly after the war described in the Iliad. Cunning Ulysses devised a way for Greek warriors to gain entry into the walled city of Troy by hiding in a large wooden horse. The Greeks pretended to sail away, leaving a warrior, Sinon, to mislead the Trojans into believing that the horse was an offering and that if it were taken into the city, the Trojans would be able to conquer Greece. The Trojan priest Laocoön saw through the Greek plot and urged the horse's destruction, but his protests fell on deaf ears, so he hurled his spear at the horse. Then, in what would be seen by the Trojans as punishment from the gods, two serpents emerged from the sea and devoured Laocoön, along with his two sons. The Trojans then took the horse inside the fortified walls, and after nightfall the armed Greeks emerged from it, opening the city's gates to allow the returned Greek army to slaughter the Trojans.",
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"plaintext": "In a dream, Hector, the fallen Trojan prince, advised Aeneas to flee with his family. Aeneas awoke and saw with horror what was happening to his beloved city. At first he tried to fight the enemy, but soon he lost his comrades and was left alone to fend off the Greeks. He witnessed the murder of Priam by Achilles' son Pyrrhus. His mother, Venus, appeared to him and led him back to his house. Aeneas tells of his escape with his son, Ascanius, his wife Creusa, and his father, Anchises, after the occurrence of various omens (Ascanius' head catching fire without his being harmed, a clap of thunder and a shooting star). At the city gates, they notice they lost Creusa, and Aeneas goes back into the city to look for her. He only encounters her ghost, who tells him that his destiny is to reach Hesperia, where kingship and a royal spouse await him.",
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"plaintext": "Aeneas continues his account to Dido by telling how, rallying the other survivors, he built a fleet of ships and made landfall at various locations in the Mediterranean: Thrace, where they find the last remains of a fellow Trojan, Polydorus; Delos, where Apollo tells them to leave and to find the land of their forefathers; Crete, which they believe to be that land, and where they build their city (Pergamea) and promptly desert it after a plague proves this is not the place for them; the Strophades, where they encounter the Harpy Celaeno, who tells them to leave her island and to look for Italy, though, she prophesies, they won't find it until hunger forces them to eat their tables; and Buthrotum. This last city had been built in an attempt to replicate Troy. In Buthrotum, Aeneas meets Andromache, the widow of Hector. She is still lamenting the loss of her valiant husband and beloved child. There, too, Aeneas sees and meets Helenus, one of Priam's sons, who has the gift of prophecy. Through him, Aeneas learns the destiny laid out for him: he is divinely advised to seek out the land of Italy (also known as Ausonia or Hesperia), where his descendants will not only prosper, but in time rule the entire known world. In addition, Helenus also bids him go to the Sibyl in Cumae.",
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"plaintext": "Heading into the open sea, Aeneas leaves Buthrotum, rounds the south eastern tip of Italy and makes his way towards Sicily (Trinacria). There, they are caught in the whirlpool of Charybdis and driven out to sea. Soon they come ashore at the land of the Cyclopes. There they meet a Greek, Achaemenides, one of Ulysses' men, who has been left behind when his comrades escaped the cave of Polyphemus. They take Achaemenides on board and narrowly escape Polyphemus. Shortly after, at Drepanum, Aeneas' father Anchises dies of old age. Aeneas heads on (towards Italy) and gets deflected to Carthage (by the storm described in book 1). Here, Aeneas ends his account of his wanderings to Dido.",
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"plaintext": "Dido realises that she has fallen in love with Aeneas. Juno seizes upon this opportunity to make a deal with Venus, Aeneas' mother, with the intention of distracting Aeneas from his destiny of founding a city in Italy. Aeneas is inclined to return Dido's love, and during a hunting expedition, a storm drives them into a small covered grove in which Aeneas and Dido presumably made love, after which Juno presides over what Dido considers a marriage ceremony. But when Jupiter sends Mercury to remind Aeneas of his duty, he has no choice but to part. At the behest of Mercury's apparition, he leaves clandestinely at night. Her heart broken, Dido commits suicide by stabbing herself upon a pyre with Aeneas' sword. Before dying, she predicts eternal strife between Aeneas' people and hers; \"rise up from my bones, avenging spirit\" (4.625, trans. Fitzgerald) is a possible invocation to Hannibal.",
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"plaintext": "Looking back from the deck of his ship, Aeneas sees the smoke of Dido's funeral pyre, and although he does not understand the exact reason behind it, he understands it as a bad omen, considering the angry madness of her love.",
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"plaintext": "Hindered by bad weather from reaching Italy, the Trojans return to where they started at the beginning of book 1. Book 5 then takes place on Sicily and centers on the funeral games that Aeneas organises for the anniversary of his father's death. Aeneas organises celebratory games for the men—a boat race, a foot race, a boxing match, and an archery contest. In all those contests, Aeneas is careful to reward winners and losers, showing his leadership qualities by not allowing antagonism even after foul play. Each of these contests comments on past events or prefigures future events: the boxing match, for instance, is \"a preview of the final encounter of Aeneas and Turnus\", and the dove, the target during the archery contest, is connected to the deaths of Polites and King Priam in Book 2 and that of Camilla in Book 11. Afterwards, Ascanius leads the boys in a military parade and mock battle, the Lusus Troiae—a tradition he will teach the Latins while building the walls of Alba Longa.",
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"plaintext": "During these events, Juno, via her messenger Iris, who disguises herself as an old woman, incites the Trojan women to burn the fleet and prevent the Trojans from ever reaching Italy, but her plan is thwarted when Ascanius and Aeneas intervene. Aeneas prays to Jupiter to quench the fires, which the god does with a torrential rainstorm. An anxious Aeneas is comforted by a vision of his father, who tells him to go to the underworld to receive a vision of his and Rome's future. In return for safe passage to Italy, the gods, by order of Jupiter, will receive one of Aeneas' men as a sacrifice: Palinurus, who steers Aeneas' ship by night, is put to sleep by Somnus and falls overboard.",
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"plaintext": "Aeneas, with the guidance of the Cumaean Sibyl, descends into the underworld. They pass by crowds of the dead by the banks of the river Acheron and are ferried across by Charon before passing by Cerberus, the three-headed guardian of the underworld. Then Aeneas is shown the fates of the wicked in Tartarus and is warned by the Sibyl to bow to the justice of the gods. He also meets the shade of Dido, who remains unreconcilable. He is then brought to green fields of Elysium. There he speaks with the spirit of his father and is offered a prophetic vision of the destiny of Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Upon returning to the land of the living, Aeneas leads the Trojans to settle in Latium, where King Latinus received oracles pointing towards the arrival of strangers and bidding him to marry his daughter Lavinia to the foreigners, and not to Turnus, the ruler of another native people, the Rutuli. Juno, unhappy with the Trojans' favourable situation, summons the fury Alecto from the underworld to stir up a war between the Trojans and the locals. Alecto incites Amata, the Queen of Latium and the wife of Latinus, to demand that Lavinia be married to noble Turnus, and she causes Ascanius to wound a revered deer during a hunt. Hence, although Aeneas wishes to avoid a war, hostilities break out. The book closes with a catalogue of Italic warriors.",
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"plaintext": "Given the impending war, Aeneas seeks help from the Tuscans, enemies of the Rutuli, after having been encouraged to do so in a dream by Tiberinus. At the place where Rome will be, he meets a friendly Greek, King Evander of Arcadia. His son Pallas agrees to join Aeneas and lead troops against the Rutuli. Venus urges her spouse Vulcan to create weapons for Aeneas, which she then presents to Aeneas as a gift. On the shield, the future history of Rome is depicted.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, the Trojan camp is attacked by Turnus—spurred on by Juno, who informs him that Aeneas is away from his camp—and a midnight raid by the Trojans Nisus and Euryalus on Turnus' camp leads to their death. The next day, Turnus manages to breach the gates but is forced to retreat by jumping into the Tiber.",
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"plaintext": "A council of the gods is held, in which Venus and Juno speak before Jupiter, and Aeneas returns to the besieged Trojan camp accompanied by his new Arcadian and Tuscan allies. In the ensuing battle many are slain—notably Pallas, whom Evander has entrusted to Aeneas but who is killed by Turnus. Mezentius, Turnus' close associate, allows his son Lausus to be killed by Aeneas while he himself flees. He reproaches himself and faces Aeneas in single combat—an honourable but essentially futile endeavour leading to his death.",
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"plaintext": "After a short break in which the funeral ceremony for Pallas takes place, the war continues. Another notable native, Camilla, an Amazon character and virgin devoted to Diana, fights bravely but is killed, poisoned by the coward Arruns, who in turn is struck dead by Diana's sentinel Opis.",
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"plaintext": "Single combat is proposed between Aeneas and Turnus, but Aeneas is so obviously superior to Turnus that the Rutuli, urged on by Turnus' divine sister, Juturna—who in turn is instigated by Juno—break the truce. Aeneas is injured by an arrow but is soon healed with the help of his mother Venus and returns to the battle. Turnus and Aeneas dominate the battle on opposite wings, but when Aeneas makes a daring attack at the city of Latium (causing the queen of Latium to hang herself in despair), he forces Turnus into single combat once more. In the duel, Turnus' strength deserts him as he tries to hurl a rock, and Aeneas' spear goes through his thigh. As Turnus is on his knees, begging for his life, the epic ends with Aeneas initially tempted to obey Turnus' pleas to spare his life, but then killing him in rage when he sees that Turnus is wearing Aeneas' friend Pallas' belt over his shoulder as a trophy.",
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"plaintext": "Critics of the Aeneid focus on a variety of issues. The tone of the poem as a whole is a particular matter of debate; some see the poem as ultimately pessimistic and politically subversive to the Augustan regime, while others view it as a celebration of the new imperial dynasty. Virgil makes use of the symbolism of the Augustan regime, and some scholars see strong associations between Augustus and Aeneas, the one as founder and the other as re-founder of Rome. A strong teleology, or drive towards a climax, has been detected in the poem. The Aeneid is full of prophecies about the future of Rome, the deeds of Augustus, his ancestors, and famous Romans, and the Carthaginian Wars; the shield of Aeneas even depicts Augustus' victory at Actium in 31 BC. A further focus of study is the character of Aeneas. As the protagonist of the poem, Aeneas seems to constantly waver between his emotions and commitment to his prophetic duty to found Rome; critics note the breakdown of Aeneas' emotional control in the last sections of the poem where the \"pious\" and \"righteous\" Aeneas mercilessly slaughters the Latin warrior Turnus.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid appears to have been a great success. Virgil is said to have recited Books 2, 4 and 6 to Augustus; the mention of her son, Marcellus, in book 6 apparently caused Augustus' sister Octavia to faint. The poem was unfinished when Virgil died in 19 BC.",
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"plaintext": "According to tradition, Virgil traveled to Greece around 19 BC to revise the Aeneid. After meeting Augustus in Athens and deciding to return home, Virgil caught a fever while visiting a town near Megara. Virgil crossed to Italy by ship, weakened with disease, and died in Brundisium harbour on 21 September 19BC, leaving a wish that the manuscript of the Aeneid was to be burned. Augustus ordered Virgil's literary executors, Lucius Varius Rufus and Plotius Tucca, to disregard that wish, instead ordering the Aeneid to be published with as few editorial changes as possible. As a result, the existing text of the Aeneid may contain faults which Virgil was planning to correct before publication. However, the only obvious imperfections are a few lines of verse that are metrically unfinished (i.e., not a complete line of dactylic hexameter). Other alleged \"imperfections\" are subject to scholarly debate.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid was written in a time of major political and social change in Rome, with the fall of the Republic and the Final War of the Roman Republic having torn through society and many Romans' faith in the \"Greatness of Rome\" severely faltering. However, the new emperor, Augustus Caesar, began to institute a new era of prosperity and peace, specifically through the re-introduction of traditional Roman moral values. The Aeneid was seen as reflecting this aim, by depicting the heroic Aeneas as a man devoted and loyal to his country and its prominence, rather than his own personal gains. In addition, the Aeneid gives mythic legitimization to the rule of Julius Caesar and, by extension, to his adopted son Augustus, by immortalizing the tradition that renamed Aeneas' son, Ascanius (called Ilus from Ilium, meaning Troy), Iulus, thus making him an ancestor of the gens Julia, the family of Julius Caesar, and many other great imperial descendants as part of the prophecy given to him in the Underworld. (The meter shows that the name \"Iulus\" is pronounced as three syllables, not as \"Julus\".)",
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"plaintext": "The perceived deficiency of any account of Aeneas' marriage to Lavinia or his founding of the Roman race led some writers, such as the 15th-century Italian poet Maffeo Vegio (through his Thirteenth Book of the Aeneid widely printed in the Renaissance), Pier Candido Decembrio (whose attempt was never completed), Claudio Salvucci (in his 1994 epic poem The Laviniad), and Ursula K. Le Guin (in her 2008 novel Lavinia) to compose their own supplements.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the polished and complex nature of the Aeneid (legend stating that Virgil wrote only three lines of the poem each day), the number of half-complete lines and the abrupt ending are generally seen as evidence that Virgil died before he could finish the work. Some legends state that Virgil, fearing that he would die before he had properly revised the poem, gave instructions to friends (including the current emperor, Augustus) that the Aeneid should be burned upon his death, owing to its unfinished state and because he had come to dislike one of the sequences in Book VIII, in which Venus and Vulcan made love, for its nonconformity to Roman moral virtues. The friends did not comply with Virgil's wishes and Augustus himself ordered that they be disregarded. After minor modifications, the Aeneid was published. Because it was composed and preserved in writing rather than orally, the text exhibits less variation than other classical epics.",
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"plaintext": "As with other classical Latin poetry, the meter is based on the length of syllables rather than the stress, though the interplay of meter and stress is also important. Virgil also incorporated such poetic devices as alliteration, onomatopoeia, synecdoche, and assonance. Furthermore, he uses personification, metaphor, and simile in his work, usually to add drama and tension to the scene. An example of a simile can be found in book II when Aeneas is compared to a shepherd who stood on the high top of a rock unaware of what is going on around him. It can be seen that just as the shepherd is a protector of his sheep, so too is Aeneas to his people.",
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"plaintext": "As was the rule in classical antiquity, an author's style was seen as an expression of his personality and character. Virgil's Latin has been praised for its evenness, subtlety and dignity.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid, like other classical epics, is written in dactylic hexameters: each line consists of six metrical feet made up of dactyls (one long syllable followed by two short syllables) and spondees (two long syllables). This epic consists of twelve books, and the narrative is broken up into three sections of four books each, respectively addressing Dido; the Trojans' arrival in Italy; and the war with the Latins. Each book has roughly 700–900 lines. The Aeneid comes to an abrupt ending, and scholars have speculated that Virgil died before he could finish the poem.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman ideal of pietas (\"piety, dutiful respect\"), which can be loosely translated from the Latin as a selfless sense of duty toward one's",
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"plaintext": "filial, religious, and societal obligations, was a crux of ancient Roman morality. Throughout the Aeneid, Aeneas serves as the embodiment of",
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"plaintext": "pietas, with the phrase \"pious Aeneas\" occurring 20 times throughout the poem, thereby fulfilling his capacity as the father of the Roman people.",
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"plaintext": "For instance, in Book 2 Aeneas describes how he carried his father Anchises from the burning city of Troy: \"No help/ Or hope of help existed./",
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"plaintext": "So I resigned myself, picked up my father,/ And turned my face toward the mountain range.\" Furthermore, Aeneas ventures into the underworld, thereby fulfilling Anchises'",
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"plaintext": "wishes. His father's gratitude is presented in the text by the following lines: \"Have you at last come, has that loyalty/ Your father counted on conquered the journey?",
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"plaintext": "However, Aeneas' pietas extends beyond his devotion to his father: we also see several examples of his religious fervour. Aeneas is consistently subservient to the gods, even in actions opposed to his own desires, as he responds to one such divine command, \"I sail to Italy not of my own free will.\"",
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"plaintext": "In addition to his religious and familial pietas, Aeneas also displays fervent patriotism and devotion to his people, particularly in a military capacity. For instance, as he and his followers leave Troy, Aeneas swears that he will \"take up/ The combat once again. We shall not all/ Die this day unavenged.\"",
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"plaintext": "Aeneas is a symbol of pietas in all of its forms, serving as a moral paragon to whom a Roman should aspire.",
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"plaintext": "One of the most recurring themes in the Aeneid is that of divine intervention. Throughout the poem, the gods are constantly influencing the main characters and trying to change and impact the outcome, regardless of the fate that they all know will occur. For example, Juno comes down and acts as a phantom Aeneas to drive Turnus away from the real Aeneas and all of his rage from the death of Pallas. Even though Juno knows in the end that Aeneas will triumph over Turnus, she does all she can to delay and avoid this outcome.",
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"plaintext": "Divine intervention occurs multiple times, in Book 4 especially. Aeneas falls in love with Dido, delaying his ultimate fate of traveling to Italy. However, it is actually the gods who inspired the love, as Juno plots:",
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"plaintext": "Dido and the Trojan captain [will come]",
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"plaintext": "To one same cavern. I shall be on hand,",
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"plaintext": "And if I can be certain you are willing,",
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"plaintext": "There I shall marry them and call her his.",
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"plaintext": "A wedding, this will be.",
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"plaintext": "Juno is speaking to Venus, making an agreement and influencing the lives and emotions of both Dido and Aeneas. Later in the same book, Jupiter steps in and restores what is the true fate and path for Aeneas, sending Mercury down to Aeneas' dreams, telling him that he must travel to Italy and leave his new-found lover. As Aeneas later pleads with Dido:",
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"plaintext": "The gods' interpreter, sent by Jove himself –",
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"plaintext": "I swear it by your head and mine – has brought",
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"plaintext": "Commands down through the racing winds!...",
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"plaintext": "I sail for Italy not of my own free will.",
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"plaintext": "Several of the gods try to intervene against the powers of fate, even though they know what the eventual outcome will be. The interventions are really just distractions to continue the conflict and postpone the inevitable. If the gods represent humans, just as the human characters engage in conflicts and power struggles, so too do the gods.",
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"plaintext": "Fate, described as a preordained destiny that men and gods have to follow, is a major theme in the Aeneid. One example is when Aeneas is reminded of his fate through Jupiter and Mercury while he is falling in love with Dido. Mercury urges, \"Think of your expectations of your heir,/ Iulus, to whom the whole Italian realm, the land/ Of Rome, are due.\" Mercury is referring to Aeneas' preordained fate to found Rome, as well as Rome's preordained fate to rule the world:",
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"plaintext": "He was to be ruler of Italy,",
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"plaintext": "Potential empire, armorer of war;",
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"plaintext": "To father men from Teucer's noble blood",
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"plaintext": "And bring the whole world under law's dominion.",
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"plaintext": "It is important to recognize that there is a marked difference between fate and divine intervention, as even though the gods might remind mortals of their eventual fate, the gods themselves are not in control of it. For example, the opening lines of the poem specify that Aeneas \"came to Italy by destiny\", but is also harassed by the separate force of \"baleful Juno in her sleepless rage\". Even though Juno might intervene, Aeneas' fate is set in stone and cannot be changed.",
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"plaintext": "Later in Book 6, when Aeneas visits the underworld, his father Anchises introduces him to the larger fate of the Roman people, as contrasted against his own personal fate to found Rome:",
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"plaintext": "So raptly, everywhere, father and son",
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"plaintext": "Wandered the airy plain and viewed it all.",
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"plaintext": "After Anchises had conducted him",
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"plaintext": "To every region and had fired his love",
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"plaintext": "Of glory in the years to come, he spoke",
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"plaintext": "Of wars that he might fight, of Laurentines,",
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"plaintext": "And of Latinus' city, then of how",
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"plaintext": "He might avoid or bear each toil to come.",
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"plaintext": "From the very beginning of the Aeneid, violence and conflict are used as a means of survival and conquest. Aeneas' voyage is caused by the Trojan War and the destruction of",
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"plaintext": "Troy. Aeneas describes to Dido in Book 2 the massive amount of destruction that occurs after the Greeks sneak into Troy. He recalls that he asks his men to \"defend/ A city",
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"plaintext": "lost in flames. Come, let us die,/ We'll make a rush into the thick of it.\"",
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"plaintext": "This is one of the first examples of how violence begets violence: even though the Trojans know they have lost the battle, they continue to fight for their country.",
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"plaintext": "This violence continues as Aeneas makes his journey. Dido kills herself in an excessively violent way over a pyre in order to end and escape her worldly problem: being heartbroken",
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"plaintext": "over the departure of her \"husband\" Aeneas. Queen Dido's suicide is a double edged sword. While releasing herself from the burden of her pain through violence, her last words",
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"plaintext": "implore her people to view Aeneas' people with hate for all eternity:",
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"plaintext": "This is my last cry, as my last blood flows.",
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"plaintext": "Then, O my Tyrians, besiege with hate",
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"plaintext": "His progeny and all his race to come:",
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"plaintext": "Make this your offering to my dust. No love,",
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"plaintext": "No pact must be between our peoples.",
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"plaintext": "Furthermore, her people, hearing of their queen's death, have only one avenue on which to direct the blame: the already-departed Trojans. Thus, Dido's request of her people",
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"plaintext": "and her people's only recourse for closure align in their mutual hate for Aeneas and his Trojans. In effect, Dido's violent suicide leads to the violent nature of the",
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"plaintext": "later relationship between Carthage and Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Finally, when Aeneas arrives in Latium, conflict inevitably arises. Juno sends Alecto, one of the Furies, to cause Turnus to go against Aeneas. In the ensuing battles, Turnus",
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"plaintext": "kills Pallas, who is supposed to be under Aeneas' protection. This act of violence causes Aeneas to be consumed with fury. Although Turnus asks for mercy in their final encounter,",
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"plaintext": "when Aeneas sees that Turnus has taken Pallas' sword belt, Aeneas proclaims:",
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"plaintext": "You in your plunder, torn from one of mine,",
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"plaintext": "Shall I be robbed of you? This wound will come",
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"plaintext": "From Pallas: Pallas makes this offering",
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"plaintext": "And from your criminal blood exacts his due.",
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"plaintext": "This final act of violence shows how Turnus' violence—the act of killing Pallas—inevitably leads to more violence and his own death.",
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"plaintext": "It is possible that the recurring theme of violence in the Aeneid is a subtle commentary on the bloody violence contemporary readers would have just experienced during the Late Republican",
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"plaintext": "civil wars. The Aeneid potentially explores whether the violence of the civil wars was necessary to establish a lasting peace under Augustus, or whether it would just lead to more violence in the future.",
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"plaintext": "Written during the reign of Augustus, the Aeneid presents the hero Aeneas as a strong and powerful leader. The favourable representation of Aeneas parallels",
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"plaintext": "Augustus in that it portrays his reign in a progressive and admirable light, and allows Augustus to be positively associated with the portrayal of Aeneas.",
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"plaintext": "Although Virgil's patron Maecenas was obviously not Augustus himself, he was still a high figure within Augustus' administration and could have personally",
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"plaintext": "benefitted from representing Aeneas in a positive light.",
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"plaintext": "In the Aeneid, Aeneas is portrayed as the singular hope for the rebirth of the Trojan people. Charged with the preservation of his people by divine authority, Aeneas is symbolic of Augustus' own accomplishments in establishing order after the long period of chaos of the Roman civil wars. Augustus as the light of savior and the last",
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"plaintext": "hope of the Roman people is a parallel to Aeneas as the savior of the Trojans. This parallel functions as propaganda in support of Augustus, as it depicts the Trojan people,",
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"plaintext": "future Romans themselves, as uniting behind a single leader who will lead them out of ruin:",
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"plaintext": "New refugees in a great crowd: men and women",
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"plaintext": "Gathered for exile, young-pitiful people",
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"plaintext": "Coming from every quarter, minds made up,",
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"plaintext": "With their belongings, for whatever lands",
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"plaintext": "I'd lead them to by sea.",
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"plaintext": "Later in Book 6, Aeneas travels to the underworld where he sees his father Anchises, who tells him of his own destiny as well as that of",
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"plaintext": "the Roman people. Anchises describes how Aeneas' descendant Romulus will found the great city of Rome,",
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"plaintext": "which will eventually be ruled by Caesar Augustus:",
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"plaintext": "Turn your two eyes",
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"plaintext": "This way and see this people, your own Romans.",
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"plaintext": "Here is Caesar, and all the line of Iulus,",
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"plaintext": "All who shall one day pass under the dome",
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"plaintext": "Of the great sky: this is the man, this one,",
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"plaintext": "Of whom so often you have heard the promise,",
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"plaintext": "Caesar Augustus, son of the deified,",
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"plaintext": "Who shall bring once again an Age of Gold",
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"plaintext": "To Latium, to the land where Saturn reigned",
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"plaintext": "In early times.",
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"plaintext": "Virgil writes about the fated future of Lavinium, the city that Aeneas will found, which will in turn lead directly to the",
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"plaintext": "golden reign of Augustus. Virgil is using a form of literary propaganda to demonstrate the Augustan",
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"plaintext": "regime's destiny to bring glory and peace to Rome. Rather than use Aeneas indirectly as a positive parallel",
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"plaintext": "to Augustus as in other parts of the poem, Virgil outright praises the emperor in Book 6, referring to Augustus as a harbinger for the glory",
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"plaintext": "of Rome and new levels of prosperity.",
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"plaintext": "The poem abounds with smaller and greater allegories. Two of the debated allegorical sections pertain to the exit from the underworld and to Pallas' belt.",
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"plaintext": "Aeneas' leaving the underworld through the gate of false dreams has been variously interpreted: one suggestion is that the passage simply refers to the time of day at which Aeneas returned to the world of the living; another is that it implies that all of Aeneas' actions in the remainder of the poem are somehow \"false\". In an extension of the latter interpretation, it has been suggested that Virgil is conveying that the history of the world since the foundation of Rome is but a lie. Other scholars claim that Virgil is establishing that the theological implications of the preceding scene (an apparent system of reincarnation) are not to be taken as literal.",
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"plaintext": "The second section in question is",
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"plaintext": "This section has been interpreted to mean that for the entire passage of the poem, Aeneas, who symbolizes pietas (piety or morality), in a moment becomes furor (fury), thus destroying what is essentially the primary theme of the poem itself. Many have argued over these two sections. Some claim that Virgil meant to change them before he died, while others find that the location of the two passages, at the very end of the so-called Volume I (Books 1–6, the Odyssey), and Volume II (Books 7–12, the Iliad), and their short length, which contrasts with the lengthy nature of the poem, are evidence that Virgil placed them purposefully there.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid is a cornerstone of the Western canon, and early (at least by the 2nd century AD) became one of the essential elements of a Latin education, usually required to be memorized. Even after the decline of the Roman Empire, it \"remained central to a Latin education\". In Latin-Christian culture, the Aeneid was one of the canonical texts, subjected to commentary as a philological and educational study, with the most complete commentary having been written by the 4th-century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus. It was widely held to be the pinnacle of Latin literature, much in the same way that the Iliad was seen to be supreme in Greek literature.",
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"plaintext": "The strong influence of the Aeneid has been identified in the development of European vernacular literatures—some English works that show its influence being Beowulf, Layamon's Brut (through the source text Historia Regum Britanniae), The Faerie Queene, and Milton's Paradise Lost. The Italian poet Dante Alighieri was himself profoundly influenced by the Aeneid, so much so that his magnum opus The Divine Comedy, itself widely considered central to the western canon, includes a number of quotations from and allusions to the Aeneid and features the author Virgil as a major character – the guide of Dante through the realms of the Inferno and Purgatorio. Another continental work displaying the influence of the Aeneid is the 16th-century Portuguese epic Os Lusíadas, written by Luís de Camões and dealing with Vasco da Gama's voyage to India.",
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"plaintext": "The importance of Latin education itself was paramount in Western culture: \"from 1600 to 1900, the Latin school was at the center of European education, wherever it was found\"; within that Latin school, Virgil was taught at the advanced level and, in 19th-century England, special editions of Virgil were awarded to students who distinguished themselves. In the United States, Virgil and specifically the Aeneid were taught in the fourth year of a Latin sequence, at least until the 1960s; the current (2011) Advanced Placement curriculum in Latin continues to assign a central position to the poem: \"The AP Latin: Virgil Exam is designed to test the student's ability to read, translate, understand, analyze, and interpret the lines of the Aeneid that appear on the course syllabus in Latin.\"",
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"plaintext": "Many phrases from this poem entered the Latin language, much as passages from Shakespeare and Alexander Pope have entered the English language. One example is from Aeneas' reaction to a painting of the sack of Troy: Sunt lacrimae rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt—\"These are the tears of things, and our mortality cuts to the heart\" (Aeneid I, 462). The influence is also visible in very modern work: Brian Friel's Translations (a play written in the 1980s, set in 19th-century Ireland), makes references to the classics throughout and ends with a passage from the Aeneid:",
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"plaintext": "Urbs antiqua fuit—there was an ancient city which, 'tis said, Juno loved above all the lands. And it was the goddess' aim and cherished hope that here should be the capital of all nations—should the fates perchance allow that. Yet in truth she discovered that a race was springing from Trojan blood to overthrow some day these Tyrian towers—a people late regem belloque superbum—kings of broad realms and proud in war who would come forth for Libya's downfall.",
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"plaintext": "The first full and faithful rendering of the poem in an Anglic language is the Scots translation by Gavin Douglas—his Eneados, completed in 1513, which also included Maffeo Vegio's supplement. Even in the 20th century, Ezra Pound considered this still to be the best Aeneid translation, praising the \"richness and fervour\" of its language and its hallmark fidelity to the original. The English translation by the 17th-century poet John Dryden is another important version. Most classic translations, including both Douglas and Dryden, employ a rhyme scheme; most more modern attempts do not.",
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"plaintext": "Recent English verse translations include those by British Poet Laureate Cecil Day-Lewis (1963), who strove to render Virgil's original hexameter line; Allen Mandelbaum (honoured by a 1973 National Book Award); Library of Congress Poet Laureate Robert Fitzgerald (1981); Stanley Lombardo (2005); Robert Fagles (2006); Sarah Ruden (2008); Barry B. Powell (2015); David Ferry (2017); Len Krisak (2020); and Shadi Bartsch (2021).",
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"plaintext": "There have also been partial translations, such as those by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (Book 2 and Book 4), and Seamus Heaney (Book 6).",
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"plaintext": "One of the first operas based on the story of the Aeneid was the English composer Henry Purcell's Dido and Aeneas (1688). The opera is famous for its aria \"Dido's Lament\" ('When I am laid in earth'), of which the first line of the melody is inscribed on the wall by the door of the Purcell Room, a concert hall in London.",
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"plaintext": "The story of the Aeneid was made into the grand opera Les Troyens (1856–1858) by the French composer Hector Berlioz.",
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"plaintext": "The Aeneid was the basis for the 1962 Italian film The Avenger and the 1971–1972 television serial Eneide.",
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"plaintext": "In the musical Spring Awakening, based on the play of the same title by Frank Wedekind, schoolboys study the Latin text, and the first verse of Book 1 is incorporated into the number \"All That's Known\".",
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"plaintext": "Ursula Le Guin's 2008 novel Lavinia is a free prose retelling of the last six books of the Aeneid narrated by and centered on Aeneas' Latin wife Lavinia, a minor character in the epic poem. It carries the action forward to the crowning of Aeneas' younger son Silvius as king of Latium.",
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"plaintext": "A seventeenth-century popular broadside ballad also appears to recount events from books 1–4 of the Aeneid, focusing mostly on the relationship between Aeneas and Dido. The ballad, \"The Wandering Prince of Troy\", presents many similar elements as Virgil's epic, but alters Dido's final sentiments toward Aeneas, as well as presenting an interesting end for Aeneas himself.",
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"plaintext": "A number of parodies and travesties of the Aeneid have been made.",
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"plaintext": " One of the earliest was written in Italian by Giovanni Batista Lalli in 1635, titled L'Eneide travestita del Signor Gio.",
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"plaintext": " A French parody by Paul Scarron became famous in France in the mid-17th century, and spread rapidly through Europe, accompanying the growing French influence. Its influence was especially strong in Russia.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Cotton's work Scarronides included a travestied Aeneid.",
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"plaintext": " In 1791 the Russian poet N. P. Osipov published ().",
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"plaintext": " In 1798, \"Eneida\"—Ukrainian mock-heroic burlesque poem, was written by Ivan Kotliarevsky. It is considered to be the first literary work published wholly in the modern Ukrainian language. His epic poem was adapted into an animated feature film of the same name, in 1991, by Ukranimafilm.",
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"plaintext": " Brutus of Troy",
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"plaintext": " Franciade",
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"plaintext": " Greek mythology",
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"plaintext": " Gulliver's Travels",
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"plaintext": " Les Troyens",
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"plaintext": " List of literary cycles",
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"plaintext": " Odyssey",
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]
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"plaintext": " Parallels between Virgil's Aeneid and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey",
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"plaintext": " Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 31",
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"plaintext": " Prosody (Latin)",
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"plaintext": " Roman mythology",
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"plaintext": " Sinbad the Sailor",
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"plaintext": " The Voyage of Bran",
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"plaintext": " Buckham, Philip Wentworth; Spence, Joseph; Holdsworth, Edward; Warburton, William; Jortin, John, Miscellanea Virgiliana: In Scriptis Maxime Eruditorum Virorum Varie Dispersa, in Unum Fasciculum Collecta, Cambridge: Printed for W. P. Grant; 1825.",
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{
"plaintext": " Paperback reprint: Vintage Books, 1990.",
"section_idx": 13,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Virgil: The Aeneid (Landmarks of World Literature (Revival)) by K. W. Gransden ",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Virgil's 'Aeneid': Cosmos and Imperium by Philip R. Hardie ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Brooks Otis, Virgil: A Study in Civilized Poetry, Oxford, 1964",
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"plaintext": " Lee Fratantuono, Madness Unchained: A Reading of Virgil's Aeneid, Lexington Books, 2007.",
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"plaintext": " Joseph Reed, Virgil's Gaze, Princeton, 2007.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Kenneth Quinn, Virgil's Aeneid: A Critical Description, London, 1968.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Francis Cairns, Virgil's Augustan Epic, Cambridge, 1989.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gian Biagio Conte, The Poetry of Pathos: Studies in Vergilian Epic, Oxford, 2007.",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Karl Gransden, Virgil's Iliad, Cambridge, 1984.",
"section_idx": 13,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Richard Jenkyns, Virgil's Experience, Oxford, 1998.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Michael Burden, A woman scorned; responses to the Dido myth, London, Faber and Faber, 1998, especially Andrew Pinnock, 'Book IV in plain brown paper wrappers', on the Dido travesties.",
"section_idx": 13,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wolfgang Kofler, Aeneas und Vergil. Untersuchungen zur poetologischen Dimension der Aeneis, Heidelberg 2003.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Eve Adler, Vergil's Empire, Rowman and Littlefield, 2003.",
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"plaintext": " Nurtantio, Yoneko (2014), Le silence dans l'''Énéide, Brussels: EME & InterCommunications, ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " – Latin text, Dryden translation, and T.C. Williams translation (from the Perseus Project)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gutenberg Project: John Dryden translation (1697)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Gutenberg Project: J. W. Mackail translation (1885)",
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"plaintext": " Gutenberg Project: E. F. Taylor translation (1907)",
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"plaintext": " Gutenberg Project: Rolfe Humphries translation (1951)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Fairclough's Loeb Translation (1916) StoicTherapy.com (Complete)",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fairclough's Loeb Translation (1916) Theoi.com (Books 1–6 only)",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Online Library of Liberty Project from Liberty Fund, Inc.: The Aeneid (Dryden translation, New York: P.F. Collier and Son, 1909) (PDF and HTML)",
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"plaintext": " Aeneidos Libri XII Latin text by Publius Vergilius Maro, PDF format",
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},
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"plaintext": " Menu Page The Aeneid in several formats at Project Gutenberg",
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"plaintext": " Latin Text Online",
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"plaintext": " The Thirteenth Book of the Aeneid: a fragment by Pier Candido Decembrio, translated by David Wilson-Okamura",
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{
"plaintext": " Supplement to the twelfth book of the Aeneid by Maffeo Vegio at Latin text and English translation",
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"plaintext": " Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (about 900 images related to the Aeneid)",
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"plaintext": "Commentary on selections from the Latin text at Dickinson College Commentaries",
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"plaintext": " Four talks by scholars on aspects of the Aeneid'': Virgil's relationship to Roman history, the Rome of Caesar Augustus, the challenges of translating Latin poetry, and Purcell's opera Dido and Aeneas, delivered at the Maine Humanities Council's Winter Weekend program.",
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"plaintext": " Notes on the political context of the Aeneid.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Perseus/Tufts: Maurus Servius Honoratus. Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil. (Latin)",
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| [
"Aeneid",
"1st-century_BC_Latin_books",
"Julio-Claudian_dynasty",
"Greece_in_fiction",
"Italy_in_fiction",
"Poems_published_posthumously",
"Poetry_based_on_the_Iliad",
"Poetry_based_on_the_Odyssey",
"Roman_underworld",
"Trojan_War_literature",
"Underworld_in_classical_literature",
"Unfinished_poems",
"Depictions_of_Augustus_in_literature"
]
| 60,220 | 32,410 | 1,369 | 260 | 0 | 0 | Aeneid | epic poem by Vergilius Maro | [
"Aenēis",
"Aeneis",
"Eneid",
"Æneid",
"Verg. A."
]
|
37,323 | 1,101,568,250 | Suetonius | [
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"plaintext": "Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (), commonly referred to as Suetonius ( ; c. AD 69 after AD 122), was a Roman historian who wrote during the early Imperial era of the Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "His most important surviving work is a set of biographies of 12 successive Roman rulers, from Julius Caesar to Domitian, probably entitled De vita Caesarum. Other works by Suetonius concerned the daily life of Rome, politics, oratory, and the lives of famous writers, including poets, historians, and grammarians. A few of these books have partially survived, but many have been lost.",
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"plaintext": "Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus was probably born about AD 69, a date deduced from his remarks describing himself as a \"young man\" 20 years after Nero's death. His place of birth is disputed, but most scholars place it in Hippo Regius, a small north African town in Numidia, in modern-day Algeria. It is certain that Suetonius came from a family of moderate social position, that his father, Suetonius Laetus, was a tribune belonging to the equestrian order (tribunus angusticlavius) in Legio XIII Gemina, and that Suetonius was educated when schools of rhetoric flourished in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Suetonius was a close friend of senator and letter-writer Pliny the Younger. Pliny describes him as \"quiet and studious, a man dedicated to writing.\" Pliny helped him buy a small property and interceded with the Emperor Trajan to grant Suetonius immunities usually granted to a father of three, the ius trium liberorum, because his marriage was childless. Through Pliny, Suetonius came into favour with Trajan and Hadrian.",
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"plaintext": "Suetonius may have served on Pliny's staff when Pliny was Proconsul of Bithynia and Pontus (northern Asia Minor) between 110 and 112. Under Trajan he served as secretary of studies (precise functions are uncertain) and director of Imperial archives. Under Hadrian, he became the Emperor's secretary. But Hadrian later dismissed Suetonius for the latter's alleged affair with the empress Vibia Sabina.",
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"plaintext": "He is mainly remembered as the author of De Vita Caesarum—translated as The Life of the Caesars although a more common English title is The Lives of the Twelve Caesars or simply The Twelve Caesars—his only extant work except for the brief biographies and other fragments noted below. The Twelve Caesars, probably written in Hadrian's time, is a collective biography of the Roman Empire's first leaders, Julius Caesar (the first few chapters are missing), Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. The book was dedicated to his friend Gaius Septicius Clarus, a prefect of the Praetorian Guard in 119. The work tells the tale of each Caesar's life according to a set formula: the descriptions of appearance, omens, family history, quotes, and then a history are given in a consistent order for each Caesar. He recorded the earliest accounts of Julius Caesar's epileptic seizures.",
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"plaintext": "De Illustribus Grammaticis (\"Lives of the Grammarians\"; 20 brief lives, apparently complete)",
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"plaintext": "De Poetis (\"Lives of the Poets\"; the life of Virgil, as well as fragments from the lives of Terence, Horace and Lucan, survive)",
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"plaintext": "The two last works were written in Greek. They apparently survive in part in the form of extracts in later Greek glossaries.",
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"plaintext": "The following list of lost works of Suetonius is taken from the foreword written by Robert Graves in his translation of the Twelve Caesars.",
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{
"plaintext": "Lives of Famous Whores",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Roman Manners and Customs",
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{
"plaintext": "The Roman Year",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Roman Festivals",
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"plaintext": "Roman Dress",
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{
"plaintext": "Greek Games",
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{
"plaintext": "Offices of State",
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{
"plaintext": "On Cicero’s Republic",
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{
"plaintext": "Physical Defects of Mankind",
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{
"plaintext": "Methods of Reckoning Time",
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{
"plaintext": "An Essay on Nature",
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{
"plaintext": "Greek Objurations",
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"plaintext": "Grammatical Problems",
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{
"plaintext": "Critical Signs Used in Books",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The introduction to the Loeb edition of Suetonius, translated by J. C. Rolfe, with an introduction by K. R. Bradley, references the Suda with the following titles:",
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"plaintext": "On Greek games",
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{
"plaintext": "On Roman spectacles and games",
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"plaintext": "On the Roman year",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On critical signs in books",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On Cicero's Republic",
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{
"plaintext": "On names and types of clothes",
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{
"plaintext": "On insults",
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{
"plaintext": "On Rome and its customs and manners",
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{
"plaintext": "The volume adds other titles not testified within the Suda.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On famous courtesans",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On kings",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On the institution of offices",
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{
"plaintext": "On physical defects",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On weather signs",
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},
{
"plaintext": "On names of seas and rivers",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": "On names of winds",
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"plaintext": "Two other titles may also be collections of some of the aforelisted:",
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{
"plaintext": "Pratum (Miscellany)",
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"plaintext": "On various matters",
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"plaintext": " Edwards, Catherine Lives of the Caesars. Oxford World's Classics. (Oxford University Press, 2008). ",
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"plaintext": " Robert Graves (trans.), Suetonius: The Twelve Caesars (Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin Books, Ltd, 1957) ",
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"plaintext": " Donna W. Hurley (trans.), Suetonius: The Caesars (Indianapolis/London: Hackett Publishing Company, 2011).",
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"plaintext": " J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Lives of the Caesars, Volume I (Loeb Classical Library 31, Harvard University Press, 1997).",
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"plaintext": " J.C. Rolfe (trans.), Lives of the Caesars, Volume II (Loeb Classical Library 38, Harvard University Press, 1998).",
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"plaintext": " C. Suetonii Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libros VIII et De grammaticis et rhetoribus librum, ed. Robert A. Kaster (Oxford: 2016).",
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{
"plaintext": " Suetonius on Christians",
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"plaintext": " Barry Baldwin, Suetonius: Biographer of the Caesars. Amsterdam: A. M. Hakkert, 1983.",
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"plaintext": " Gladhill, Bill. “The Emperor's No Clothes: Suetonius and the Dynamics of Corporeal Ecphrasis.” Classical Antiquity, vol. 31, no. 2, 2012, pp.315–348.",
"section_idx": 6,
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{
"plaintext": " Lounsbury, Richard C. The Arts of Suetonius: An Introduction. Frankfurt: Lang, 1987.",
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{
"plaintext": " Mitchell, Jack “Literary Quotation as Literary Performance in Suetonius.” The Classical Journal, vol. 110, no. 3, 2015, pp.333–355",
"section_idx": 6,
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"plaintext": " Newbold, R.F. “Non-Verbal Communication in Suetonius and ‘The Historia Augusta:' Power, Posture and Proxemics.” Acta Classica, vol. 43, 2000, pp.101–118.",
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"plaintext": " Power, Tristan and Roy K. Gibson (ed.), Suetonius, the Biographer: Studies in Roman Lives. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2014",
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"plaintext": " Syme, Ronald. \"The Travels of Suetonius Tranquillus.\" Hermes 109:105–117, 1981. ",
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"plaintext": " Trentin, Lisa. “Deformity in the Roman Imperial Court.” Greece & Rome, vol. 58, no. 2, 2011, pp.195–208. ",
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"plaintext": " Trevor, Luke “Ideology and Humor in Suetonius' ‘Life of Vespasian’ 8.” The Classical World, vol. 103, no. 4, 2010, pp. 511–527.",
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"plaintext": " Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew F. Suetonius: The Scholar and his Caesars. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1983.",
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"plaintext": " Wardle, David. \"Did Suetonius Write in Greek?\" Acta Classica 36:91–103, 1993.",
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"plaintext": " Wardle, David. “Suetonius on Augustus as God and Man.” The Classical Quarterly, vol. 62, no. 1, 2012, pp.307–326.",
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"plaintext": " Suetonius' works at Latin Library (Latin)",
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"plaintext": " Gai Suetoni Tranquilli De vita Caesarum libri III-VI Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection.",
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"plaintext": " Lewis E 195 Vitae XII caesarium (Lives of the twelve caesars), fragment and Book of Hours leaf at OPenn",
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37,325 | 1,106,841,838 | Marcus_Junius_Brutus | [
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"plaintext": "Marcus Junius Brutus (; ; 85 BC – 23 October 42 BC), often referred to simply as Brutus, was a Roman politician, orator, and the most famous of the assassins of Julius Caesar. After being adopted by a relative, he used the name Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, which was retained as his legal name.",
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"plaintext": "Early in his political career, Brutus opposed Pompey, who was responsible for Brutus' father's death. He also was close to Caesar. However, Caesar's attempts to evade accountability in the law courts put him at greater odds with his opponents in the Roman elite and the senate. Brutus eventually came to oppose Caesar and sided with Pompey against Caesar's forces during the ensuing civil war (49–45 BC). Pompey was defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48, after which Brutus surrendered to Caesar, who granted him amnesty.",
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"plaintext": "With Caesar's increasingly monarchical and autocratic behaviour after the civil war, several senators who later called themselves liberatores (Liberators), plotted to assassinate him. Brutus took a leading role in the assassination, which was carried out successfully on the Ides of March (15 March) of 44 BC. In a settlement between the liberatores and the Caesarians, an amnesty was granted to the assassins while Caesar's acts were upheld for two years.",
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"plaintext": "Popular unrest forced Brutus and his brother-in-law, fellow assassin Gaius Cassius Longinus, to leave Rome in April 44. After a complex political realignment, Octavian – Caesar's adoptive son – made himself consul and, with his colleague, passed a law retroactively making Brutus and the other conspirators murderers. This led to a second civil war, in which Mark Antony and Octavian fought the liberatores led by Brutus and Cassius. The Caesarians decisively defeated the outnumbered armies of Brutus and Cassius at the two battles at Philippi in October 42. After the defeat, Brutus committed suicide.",
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"plaintext": "His name has been condemned for betrayal of his friend and benefactor Caesar, and is perhaps only rivalled in this regard by the name of Judas Iscariot (famously in Dante's Inferno). He also has been praised in various narratives, both ancient and modern, as a virtuous and committed republican who fought – however futilely – for freedom and against tyranny.",
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"plaintext": "Marcus Junius Brutus belonged to the illustrious plebeian gens Junia. Its semi-legendary founder was Lucius Junius Brutus, who played a pivotal role during the overthrow of Tarquinius Superbus, the last Roman king, and was afterward one of the two first consuls of the new Roman Republic in 509 BC, taking the opportunity also to have the people swear an oath never to have a king in Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Brutus' homonymous father was tribune of the plebs in 83BC, but he was killed by Pompey in 77 while serving as legate in the rebellion of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. He had married Servilia of the Servilii Caepiones who was the half-sister of Cato the Younger, and later Julius Caesar's mistress. Some ancient sources refer to the possibility of Caesar being Brutus' real father, despite Caesar being only fifteen years old when Brutus was born. Ancient historians were sceptical of this possibility and \"on the whole, scholars have rejected the possibility that Brutus was the love-child of Servilia and Caesar on the grounds of chronology\".",
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"plaintext": "A relative of Brutus, Quintus Servilius Caepio, adopted him posthumously around 59BC, and Brutus was known officially as Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus, though he hardly used his legal name. In 59, when Caesar was consul, Brutus also was implicated by Lucius Vettius in the Vettius affair as a member of a conspiracy plotting to assassinate Pompey in the forum. Vettius was detained for admitting possession of a weapon within the city, and quickly changed this entire story, dropping Brutus' name from his accusations.",
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"plaintext": "Brutus' first appearance in public life was as an assistant to Cato, when the latter was appointed by the senate acting at the bequest of Publius Clodius Pulcher, as governor of Cyprus in 58. According to Plutarch, Brutus was instrumental in assisting the administration of the province (specifically by converting treasure of the former king of the island into usable money); his role in administering the province, however, has \"almost certainly been exaggerated\". ",
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"plaintext": "In 54BC, Brutus served as triumvir monetalis, one of the three men appointed annually for producing coins, even though only another colleague is known: Quintus Pompeius Rufus. Moneyers in Brutus' day frequently issued coins commemorating their ancestors; Pompeius Rufus thus put the portraits of his two grandfathers (the dictator Sulla and Pompeius Rufus) on his denarii. Brutus, like his colleague, designed a denarius with the portraits of his paternal ancestor Lucius Junius Brutus and maternal ancestor Gaius Servilius Ahala, both of whom were widely recognised in the late Republic as defenders of liberty (for, respectively, expelling the kings and killing Spurius Maelius). He also made a second type featuring Libertas, the goddess of liberty, and Lucius Brutus. These coins show Brutus' admiration for the tyrannicides of the early republic, already mentioned by Cicero as early as 59BC. In addition, Brutus' denarii and their message against tyranny participated in the propaganda against Pompey and his ambitions to rule alone or become dictator.",
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"plaintext": "Brutus married Appius Claudius Pulcher's daughter Claudia, likely in 54 during Pulcher's consulship. He was elected as quaestor (and automatically enrolled in the senate) in 53. Brutus then travelled with his father-in-law to Cilicia during the latter's proconsulship in the next year. While in Cilicia, he spent some time as a money-lender, which was discovered two years later when Cicero was appointed proconsul between 51 and 50 BC. Brutus asked Cicero to help collect two debts which Brutus had made: one to Ariobarzanes, the king of Cappadocia, and one to the town of Salamis. Brutus' loan to Ariobarzanes was bundled with a loan also made by Pompey and both received some repayment on the debt.",
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"plaintext": "The loan to Salamis was more complex: officially, the loan was made by two of Brutus' friends, who requested repayment at 48 per cent per annum, which was far in excess of Cicero's previously imposed interest cap of 12 per cent. The loan dated back to 56, shortly after Brutus returned to Rome from Cyprus. Salamis had sent a delegation asking to borrow money, but under the lex Gabinia it was illegal for Romans to lend to provincials in the capital, but Brutus was able to find \"friends\" to loan this money on his behalf, which was approved under his influence in the senate. Because the lex Gabinia also invalidated such contracts, Brutus also had his contract – officially his friends' contract – confirmed by the senate. One of Brutus' friends in whose name the debt was officially issued, Marcus Scaptius, was in Cilicia during Cicero's proconsulship using force to coerce repayment, which Cicero stopped; Cicero, not seeking to endanger his friendship with Brutus, but also disappointed and angry at Brutus' mischaracterisation of the loan and the exorbitant interest rate attached, was persuaded by Scaptius to defer a decision on the loan to the next governor.",
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"plaintext": "In 52, in the aftermath of the death of his uncle-in-law, Publius Clodius Pulcher (brother of his wife's father), he wrote a pamphlet, De Dictatura Pompei (On the Dictatorship of Pompey), opposing demands for Pompey to be made dictator, writing \"it is better to rule no one than to be another man's slave, for one can live honourably without power but to live as a slave is impossible\". He was in this episode more radical than Cato the Younger, who supported Pompey's elevation as sole consul for 52, saying \"any government at all is better than no government\". Soon after Pompey was made sole consul, Pompey passed the lex Pompeia de vi, which targeted Titus Annius Milo, for which Cicero would write a speech pro Milone. Brutus also wrote for Milo, writing (a now lost) pro T Annio Milone, in which he connected Milo's killing of Clodius explicitly to the welfare of the state and possibly also criticising what he saw as Pompey's abuses of power. This speech or pamphlet was very well received and positively viewed by later teachers of rhetoric.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 50s, Brutus was elected as a pontifex, one of the public priests in charge of supervising the calendar and maintaining Rome's peaceful relationship with the gods. It is likely that Caesar supported his election. Caesar had previously invited Brutus, after his quaestorship, to join him as a legate in Gaul, but Brutus declined, instead going with Appius Pulcher to Cilicia, possibly out of loyalty thereto. During the 50s, Brutus also was involved in some major trials, working alongside famous advocates like Cicero and Quintus Hortensius. In 50, he – with Pompey and Hortensius – played a significant role in defending Brutus' father-in-law Appius Claudius from charges of treason and electoral malpractice.",
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"plaintext": "In the political crisis running up to Caesar's Civil War in 49, Brutus' views are mostly unknown. While he did oppose Pompey until 52, Brutus may have simply taken a tactical silence.",
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"plaintext": "When Caesar's Civil War broke out in January 49 BC between Pompey and Caesar, Brutus had a choice whether to support Pompey, whom the senate supported, or to join his mother's lover Caesar, who also promised vengeance for Brutus' father's death. Pompey and his allies fled the city before Caesar's army arrived in March. Brutus decided to support his father's killer, Pompey; this choice may have had mostly to do with Brutus' closest allies – Appius Claudius, Cato, Cicero, etc. – also all joining Pompey. He did not, however, immediately join Pompey, instead travelling to Cilicia as legate for Publius Sestius before joining Pompey in winter 49 or spring 48.",
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"plaintext": "It is not known whether Brutus fought in the ensuing battles at Dyrrhachium and Pharsalus. Plutarch says that Caesar ordered his officers to take Brutus prisoner if he gave himself up voluntarily, but to leave him alone and do him no harm if he persisted in fighting against capture. After the massive Pompeian defeat at Pharsalus on 9 August 48, Brutus fled through marshland to Larissa, where he wrote to Caesar, who welcomed him graciously into his camp. Plutarch also implies that Brutus told Caesar of Pompey's withdrawal plans to Egypt, but this is unlikely, as Brutus was not present when Pompey's decision to go to Egypt was made.",
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"plaintext": "While Caesar followed Pompey to Alexandria in 48–7, Brutus worked to effect a reconciliation between various Pompeians and Caesar. He arrived back in Rome in December 47. Caesar appointed Brutus as governor (likely as legatus pro praetore) for Cisalpine Gaul while he left for Africa in pursuit of Cato and Metellus Scipio. After Cato's suicide following defeat at the battle of Thapsus on 6 April 46, Brutus was one of Cato's eulogisers writing a pamphlet entitled Cato in which he reflected positively both on Cato's life while highlighting Caesar's clementia.",
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"plaintext": "After Caesar's last battle against the republican remnant in March 45, Brutus divorced his wife Claudia in June and promptly remarried his cousin Porcia, Cato's daughter, late in the same month. According to Cicero the marriage caused a semi-scandal as Brutus failed to state a valid reason for his divorce from Claudia other than he wished to marry Porcia. Brutus' reasons for marrying Porcia are unclear, he may have been in love or it could have been a politically motivated marriage to position Brutus as heir to Cato's supporters. The marriage also caused a rift between Brutus and his mother, who was resentful of the affection Brutus had for Porcia.",
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"plaintext": "Brutus also was promised the prestigious urban praetorship for 44 BC and possibly earmarked for the consulship in 41.",
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"plaintext": "There are various different traditions describing the way in which Brutus arrived to the decision to assassinate Caesar. Plutarch, Appian, and Cassius Dio, all writing in the imperial period, focused on \"pressure from [Brutus'] peers and his own philosophical conviction that awakened.... a sense of duty both to this country and to his family name\".",
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"plaintext": "By autumn 45, public opinion of Caesar was starting to sour: Plutarch, Appian, and Dio all reported graffiti glorifying Brutus' ancestor Lucius Junius Brutus, panning Caesar's kingly ambitions, and derogatory comments made to Marcus Junius Brutus in Rome's open-air courts that he was failing to live up to his ancestors. Dio reports this public support came from the people of Rome; Plutarch however has the graffiti created by elites to shame Brutus into action. Regardless of the specific impetus, modern historians believe that at least some portion of popular opinion had turned against Caesar by early 44.",
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"plaintext": "Caesar deposed two plebeian tribunes in late January 44 for removing a crown from one of his statues; this attack on the tribunes undermined one of his main arguments – defending the rights of the tribunes – for going to civil war in 49. In February 44, Caesar thrice rejected a crown from Marcus Antonius to cheering crowds, but later accepted the title dictator perpetuo, which in Latin translated either to dictator for life or as dictator for an undetermined term.",
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"plaintext": "Cicero also wrote letters asking Brutus to reconsider his association with Caesar. Cassius Dio claims that Brutus' wife Porcia spurred Brutus' conspiracy, but evidence is unclear as to the extent of her influence. Gaius Cassius Longinus, also one of the praetors for that year and a former legate of Caesar's, also was involved in the formation of the conspiracy. Plutarch has Brutus approach Cassius at his wife's urging, while Appian and Dio have Cassius approaching Brutus (and in Dio, Cassius does so after opposing further honours for Caesar publicly).",
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"plaintext": "The extent of Caesar's control over the political system also stymied the ambitions of many aristocrats of Brutus' generation: Caesar's dictatorship precluded many of the avenues for success which Romans recognised. The reduction of the senate to a rubber stamp ended political discussion in Caesar's senate; there was no longer any room for anyone to shape policy except by convincing Caesar; political success became a grant of Caesar's rather than something won competitively from the people. The Platonian philosophical tradition, of which Brutus was an active writer and thinker, also emphasised a duty to restore justice and to overthrow tyrants.",
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"plaintext": "Regardless of how the conspiracy was initially formed, Brutus and Cassius, along with Brutus' cousin and close ally of Caesar's, Decimus Junius Brutus, started to recruit to the conspiracy in late February 44. They recruited men including Gaius Trebonius, Publius Servilius Casca, Servius Sulpicius Galba, and others. There was a discussion late in the conspiracy as to whether Antony should be killed, which Brutus forcefully rejected: Plutarch says Brutus thought Antony could be turned to the tyrannicides; Appian says Brutus thought of the optics of purging the Caesarian elite rather than only removing a tyrant.",
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"plaintext": "Various plans were proposed – an ambush on the via sacra, an attack at the elections, or killing at a gladiator match – eventually, however, the conspiracy settled on a senate meeting on the Ides of March. The specific date carried symbolic importance, as consuls until the mid-2nd century BC had assumed their offices on that day (instead of early January). The reasons for choosing the Ides are unclear: Nicolaus of Damascus (writing in the Augustan period) assumed that a senate meeting would isolate Caesar from support; Appian reports on the possibility of other senators coming to the assassins' aid. Both possibilities \"are unlikely\" due to Caesar's expansion of the senate and the low number of conspirators relative to the whole senate body. More likely is Dio's suggestion that a senate meeting would give the conspirators a tactical advantage as, by smuggling weapons, only the conspirators would be armed.",
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"plaintext": "The ancient sources embellish the Ides with omens ignored, soothsayers spurned, and notes to Caesar spilling the conspiracy unread, all contributing \"to the tragedy of Caesar as recorded in the literature and propaganda following his death\". The specific implementation of the conspiracy had Trebonius detain Antony – then serving as co-consul with Caesar – outside the senate house; Caesar was then stabbed to death almost immediately. The specific details of the assassination vary between authors: Nicolaus of Damascus reports some eighty conspirators, Appian only listed fifteen, the number of wounds on Caesar ranges from twenty-three to thirty-five.",
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"plaintext": "Plutarch reports that Caesar yielded to the attack after seeing Brutus' participation; Dio reported that Caesar shouted in Greek kai su teknon (\"You too, child?\"). Suetonius' account, however, also cites Lucius Cornelius Balbus, a friend of Caesar's, as saying that the dictator fell in silence, with the possibility that Caesar spoke as a postscript. As dramatic death quotes were a staple of Roman literature, the historicity of the quote is unclear. The use of kai su, however, \"always has a strongly negative tone in[] other contemporary[] evidence\", indicating the possibility of a curse, per classicists James Russell and Jeffrey Tatum.",
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"plaintext": "Immediately after Caesar's death, senators fled the chaos. None attempted to aid Caesar or to move his body. Cicero reported that Caesar fell at the foot of the statue of Pompey. His body was only moved after night fell, carried home to Caesar's wife Calpurnia. The conspirators travelled to the Capitoline hill; Caesar's deputy in the dictatorship, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, moved a legion of troops from the Tiber Island into the city and surrounded the forum. Suetonius reports that Brutus and Cassius initially planned to seize Caesar's property and revoke his decrees, but stalled out of fear of Lepidus and Antony.",
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"plaintext": "Before Lepidus' troops arrived to the forum, Brutus spoke before the people in a contio. The text of that speech is lost. Dio says the liberatores promoted their support of democracy and liberty and told the people not to expect harm; Appian says the liberatores merely congratulated each other and recommended the recall of Sextus Pompey and the tribunes Caesar had recently deposed. The support of the people was tepid, even though other speeches followed supporting the tyrannicide. Publius Cornelius Dolabella, who was to become consul in a few days on the 18th, decided immediately to assume the consulship illegally, expressed his support of Brutus and Cassius before the people, and joined the liberatores on hill.",
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"plaintext": "Cicero urged the tyrannicides to call a meeting of the senate to gather its support; Brutus however, \"perhaps trusting too much in the character of Antony [or] hoping that he could win round Lepidus\" who was married to one of Brutus' half-sisters, sent a delegation to the Caesarians asking for a negotiated settlement. The Caesarians delayed for a day, moving troops and gathering weapons and supplies for a possible conflict.",
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"plaintext": "After Caesar's death, Dio reports a series of prodigies and miraculous occurrences which are \"self-evidently fantastic\" and likely fictitious. Some of the supposed prodigies did not fact occur, but were actually unrelated to Caesar's death: Cicero's statue was knocked over but only in the next year, Mt Etna in Sicily did erupt but not contemporaneously, a comet was seen in the sky but only months later.",
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"plaintext": "The initial plan from Brutus and Cassius seems to have been to establish a period of calm and then to work towards a general reconciliation. While the Caesarians had troops near the capital at hand, the liberatores were soon to assume control of vast provincial holdings in the east which would provide them within the year of large armies and resources. Seeing that the military situation was initially problematic, the liberatores decided then to ratify Caesar's decrees so that they could hold on to their magistracies and provincial assignments to protect themselves and rebuild the republican front.",
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"plaintext": "Cicero acted as an honest broker and hammered out a compromise solution: general amnesty for the assassins, ratification of Caesar's acts and appointments for the next two years, and guarantees to Caesar's veterans that they would receive their promised land grants. Caesar also was to receive a public funeral. If the settlement had held, there would have been a general resumption of the republic: Decimus would go to Gaul that year and be confirmed as consul in 42, where he would then hold elections for 41. The people celebrated the reconciliation but some of the hard-core Caesarians were convinced that civil war would follow.",
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"plaintext": "Caesar's funeral occurred on 20 March, with a rousing speech by Antony mourning the dictator and energising opposition against the tyrannicides. Various ancient sources report that the crowd set the senate house on fire and started a witch-hunt for the tyrannicides, but these may have been spurious embellishments added by Livy, according to T.P. Wiseman. Contrary to what is reported by Plutarch, the assassins stayed in Rome for a few weeks after the funeral until April 44, indicating some support among the population for the tyrannicides. A person calling himself Marius, claiming he was a descendant of Gaius Marius), started a plan to ambush Brutus and Cassius. Brutus, as urban praetor in charge of the city's courts, was able to get a special dispensation to leave the capital for more than 10 days, and he withdrew to one of his estates in Lanuvium, 20 miles south-east of Rome. This fake Marius, for his threats to the tyrannicides (and to Antony's political base), was executed by being thrown from the Tarpeian Rock in mid- or late April. Dolabella, the other consul, acting on this own initiative, took down an altar and column dedicated to Caesar.",
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"plaintext": "By early May, Brutus was considering exile. Octavian's arrival, along with the fake Marius, caused Antony to lose some of the support of his veterans, he responded by touring Campania – officially to settle Caesar's veterans – but actually to buttress military support. Dolabella at this time was on the side of the liberatores and also was the only consul at Rome; Antony's brother Lucius Antonius helped Octavian to announce publicly that he was to fulfil the conditions of Caesar's will, handing an enormous amount of wealth to the citizenry. Brutus also wrote a number of speeches disseminated to the public defending his actions, emphasising how Caesar had invaded Rome, killed prominent citizens, and suppressed the popular sovereignty of the people.",
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"plaintext": "By mid-May, Antony started on designs against Decimus Brutus' governorship in Cisalpine Gaul. He bypassed the senate and took the matter to the popular assemblies in June an enacted the reassignment of the Gallic province by law. At the same time, he proposed reassigning Brutus and Cassius from their provinces to instead purchase grain in Asia and Sicily. There was a meeting at Brutus' house attended by Cicero, Brutus and Cassius (and wives), and Brutus' mother, in which Cassius announced his intention to go to Syria while Brutus wanted to return to Rome, but ended up going to Greece. His initial plan to go to Rome, however, was to put on games in early July commemorating his ancestor Lucius Junius Brutus and promoting his cause; he instead delegated the games to a friend. Octavian also held games commemorating Caesar late in the month; around this time also, the liberatores started to prepare in earnest for civil war.",
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"plaintext": "==Liberatores''' civil war==",
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"plaintext": "The senate assigned Brutus to Crete (and Cassius to Cyrene) in early August, both small and insignificant provinces with few troops. Later in the month, Brutus left Italy for the east. He was acclaimed in Greece by the younger Romans there and recruited many supporters from the young Roman aristocrats being educated in Athens. He discussed with the governor of Macedonia handing the province over to him; while Antony in Rome allocated the province to his brother Gaius, Brutus travelled north with an army to Macedonia, buoyed by funds collected by two outgoing quaestores at the end of the year.",
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"plaintext": "In January 43, Brutus entered Macedonia and with his army, took Antony's brother Gaius captive. At the same time, the political situation in Rome turned against Antony, as Cicero was delivering his Phillipics. Over the next few months, Brutus spent his time in Greece building strength. In Italy, the senate at Cicero's urging fought against Antony at the battle of Mutina, where both consuls (Hirtius and Pansa) were killed. During this time, the republicans enjoyed the support of the senate, which confirmed Brutus and Cassius' commands in Macedonia and Syria, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Dolabella switched sides in 43, killing Trebonius in Syria and raising an army against Cassius. Brutus decamped for Syria in early May, writing letters to Cicero criticising Cicero's policy to support Octavian against Antony; at the same time, the senate had declared Antony an enemy of the state. In late May, Lepidus (married to Brutus' half-sister) – possibly forced by his own troops – joined Antony against Cicero, Octavian, and the senate, leading Brutus to write to Cicero asking him to protect both his own and Lepidus' family. The next month, Brutus' wife Porcia died.",
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"plaintext": "Cicero's policy of attempting to unify Octavian with the senate against Antony and Lepidus started to fail in May; he requested Brutus to take his forces and march to his aid in Italy in mid-June. It seems that Brutus and Cassius in the east had substantial communications delays and failed to recognise that Antony had not been defeated, contra earlier assurances after Mutina. Over the next few months from June to 19 August, Octavian marched on Rome and forced his election as consul. Shortly afterwards, Octavian and his colleague, Quintus Pedius, passed the lex Pedia making the murder of a dictator retroactively illegal, and convicting Brutus and the assassins in absentia. The new consuls also lifted the senate's decrees against Lepidus and Antony, clearing the way for a general Caesarian rapprochement. Under that law, Decimus was killed in the west some time in autumn, defeating the republican cause in the west; by 27 November 43, the Caesarians had fully settled their differences and passed the lex Titia, forming the Second Triumvirate and instituting a series of brutal proscriptions. The proscriptions claimed many lives, including that of Cicero.",
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"plaintext": "When news of the triumvirate and their proscriptions reached Brutus in the east, he marched across the Hellespont into Macedonia to quell rebellion and conquered a number of cities in Thrace. After meeting Cassius in Smyrna in January 42, both generals also went on a campaign through southern Asia minor sacking cities which had aided their enemies.",
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"plaintext": "Brutus' depiction among certain authors, like Appian, suffered considerably from this eastern campaign: where Brutus marched into cities like Xanthus enslaving their populations and plundering their wealth. Other ancient historians, including Plutarch, take a more apologetic tone, having Brutus \"cry in anguish at the sufferings of his victims\" a common theme used by ancient historians \"to turn an otherwise condemnable action [sacking cities] into something that could be praised or even used as a positive moral example\". The campaign continued with less sacking but more coerced payments; the ancient tradition on this turn also is divided, with Appian seeing eastern willingness to surrender emerging from stories of Xanthus' destruction contra Cassius Dio and Plutarch viewing the later portions of the campaign as emblematic of Brutus' virtues of moderation, justice, and honour.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the campaign in Asia minor, both Brutus and Cassius were tremendously rich. They reconvened at Sardis and marched into Thrace in August 42.",
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"plaintext": "The Caesarians also marched into Greece, evading the naval patrols of Sextus Pompey, , and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus. The liberatores had positioned themselves west of Neapolis with clear lines of communication back to their supplies in the east. Octavian and Antony, leading the Caesarian forces, were not so lucky, as their supply lines were harassed by the superior republican fleets, leading the liberatores to adopt a strategy of attrition.",
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"plaintext": "Octavian and Antony had some 95,000 legionaries with 13,000 horsemen, while Brutus and Cassius had some 85,000 legionnaires and 20,000 cavalry. Flush with cash, the liberatores also had a substantial financial advantage, paying their soldiers in advance of the battle with 1,500 denarii a man and more for officers. Antony moved quickly to force an engagement immediately, building a causeway under cover of darkness into the swamps that anchored the republican left flank; Cassius, commanding the republican left, countered with a wall to cut off Antony from his men and to defend his own flank.",
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"plaintext": "In the ensuing first Battle of Philippi, the start of the battle is unclear. Appian says Antony attacked Cassius whereas Plutarch reports battle was joined more-or-less simultaneously. Brutus' forces defeated Octavian's troops on the republican right flank, sacking Octavian's camp and forcing the young Caesar to withdraw. Cassius' troops fared poorly against Antony's men, forcing Cassius to withdraw to a hill. Two stories then follow: Appian reports that Cassius heard of Brutus' victory and killed himself from shame while \"otherwise our sources preserve a largely unanimous account\" of how one of Cassius' legates failed to convey news of Brutus' victory, leading Cassius to believe that Brutus was defeated and consequently commit suicide.",
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"plaintext": "Following the first battle, Brutus assumed command of Cassius' army with the promise of a substantial cash reward. He also possibly promised his soldiers that he would allow them to plunder Thessalonica and Sparta after victory, as the cities had supported the triumvirs in the conflict. Fearful of defections among his troops and the possibility of Antony cutting his supply lines, Brutus joined battle after attempting for some time to continue the original strategy of starving the enemy out. The resulting second Battle of Philippi was a head-on-head struggle in which the sources report little tactical manoeuvres while reporting heavy casualties, especially among eminent republican families.",
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"plaintext": "After the defeat, Brutus fled into the nearby hills with about four legions. Knowing his army had been defeated and that he would be captured, he committed suicide by falling on his sword. Among his last words were, according to Plutarch, \"By all means must we fly, but with our hands, not our feet\". Brutus reportedly also uttered the well-known verse calling down a curse quoted from Euripides' Medea: \"O Zeus, do not forget who has caused all these woes\". It is, however, unclear whether Brutus was referring to Antony, as claimed by Appian, or otherwise Octavian, as Kathryn Tempest believes. Also according to Plutarch, he praised his friends for not deserting him before encouraging them to save themselves.",
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"plaintext": "Some sources report that Antony, upon discovering Brutus' body, as a show of great respect, ordered Brutus' body to be wrapped in Antony's most expensive purple mantle and cremated with the ashes to be sent to Brutus' mother Servilia. Suetonius, however, reports that Octavian had Brutus' head cut off and planned to have it displayed before a statue of Caesar until it was thrown overboard during a storm in the Adriatic.",
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"plaintext": " 85 BC: Brutus was born to Marcus Junius Brutus and Servilia.",
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"plaintext": " 58 BC: Served as assistant to Cato, governor of Cyprus, which helped him start his political career.",
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"plaintext": " 54 BC: Marriage to Claudia (daughter of Appius Claudius Pulcher).",
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"plaintext": " 53 BC: Quaestorship in Cilicia with Appius Claudius Pulcher as governor.",
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"plaintext": " 52 BC: Brutus opposes Pompey and defends Milo after Clodius' death.",
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"plaintext": " 49 BC: Civil war between Pompey and Caesar starts in January. Brutus serves as legate to Publius Sestius in Cilicia, then joins Pompey in Greece in late 49.",
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"plaintext": " 48 BC: Pompey loses at Pharsalus on 9 August; Brutus was pardoned by Caesar.",
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"plaintext": " 46 BC: Caesar made him governor of Cisalpine Gaul; Caesar defeats Pompeian remnant at Thapsus in April.",
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"plaintext": " 45 BC: Caesar appointed him urban praetor for the next year, 44.",
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"plaintext": " 44 BC: Caesar takes title of dictator perpetuo. Killed Caesar with other liberatores; left Italy in late August for Athens and thence to Macedonia.",
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"plaintext": " 42 BC, Jan: Successfully campaigns in southern Asia minor.",
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"plaintext": " 42 BC, Sep–Oct: Battle with the triumvirs' forces and suicide.",
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"plaintext": "Brutus' historical character has undergone numerous revisions and remains divisive. Dominant views of Brutus vary by time and geography.",
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"plaintext": "In the ancient world, Brutus' legacy was a topic of substantial debate. Starting from his own times and shortly after his death, he was already viewed as having killed Caesar for virtuous reasons rather than envy or hatred. For example, Plutarch, in his Life of Brutus, mentions that Brutus' enemies respected him, recounting that Antony once said that \"Brutus was the only man to have slain Caesar because he was driven by the splendour and nobility of the deed, while the rest conspired against the man because they hated and envied him\".",
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"plaintext": "Even when he was still alive, Brutus' literary output, especially the pamphlets of 52BC against Pompey's dictatorship (De dictatura Pompei) and in support of Milo (Pro T Annio Milone) coloured him as philosophically consistent: \"Brutus had singled himself out as a man who acted upon an ideal code of conduct\". The main charge against him in the ancient world was that of ingratitude, viewing Brutus as ungrateful in taking Caesar's goodwill and support and then killing him. An even more negative historiographical tradition viewed Brutus and his compatriots as criminal murderers.",
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"plaintext": "The divisive views of Brutus in the early Principate had little changed by the reign of Tiberius; the historian Cremutius Cordus was charged with treason for having written a history too friendly to Brutus and Cassius. Around the same time, Valerius Maximus, writing with the support of the imperial regime, believed Brutus' memory suffered from \"irreversible curses\". Of course, that the Julio-Claudio regime would have had a negative view of Brutus is expected: \"admiration of Brutus and Cassius was more sinisterly interpreted as a cry of protest against the imperial system\". Similarly, the Forum of Augustus, which included statues of various republican heroes, omitted men such as Cato Uticensis, Cicero, Brutus, and Cassius. The stoic, Seneca the Younger agreed, arguing that Brutus unjustly feared Caesar, who was a good king, and did not think through the consequences of Caesar's death.",
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"plaintext": "But by the time that Plutarch was actually writing his Life of Brutus, \"the oral and written tradition had been worked over to create a streamlined, and largely positive, narrative of Brutus' motives\". Some high imperial writers also admired his rhetorical skills, especially Pliny the Younger and Tacitus, with the latter writing, \"in my opinion, Brutus alone among them laid bare the convictions of his heart frankly and ingeniously, with neither ill-will nor spite\".",
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"plaintext": "Dante Alighieri's Inferno notably placed Brutus in the lowest circle of Hell for his betrayal of Caesar, where he (along with Cassius and Judas Iscariot) is personally tortured by Satan. Dante's views gave a further theological bent as well: \"Brutus, Dante believed, was resisting God's 'historical design'\" by killing Caesar, a \"quasi-prototype for all contemporary monarchs\".",
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"plaintext": "The moral acceptance of tyrannicide also changed. Thomas Aquinas, in On the government of princes, while accepting that tyrants should be overthrown under certain circumstances, also argued mild tyrants ought to be tolerated out of fear of unintended consequences.",
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"plaintext": "Renaissance writers, however, tended to view him more positively, as \"it was Brutus who came to symbolise the tradition of ancient republicanism through the ages\". Various men in the renaissance and early modern periods were called or adopteed the name Brutus: the pseudonym Stephanus Junius Brutus in 16th century France published a pamphlet Defences against tyrants; the \"British Brutus\" Algernon Sidney was executed for allegedly plotting against Charles II; the \"Florentine Brutus\", Lorenzino de' Medici, killed his cousin Duke Alessandro allegedly to free Florence.",
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"plaintext": "Of course, also in the early modern period is Shakespeare's depiction of Brutus in Julius Caesar, which depicts him \"more of a troubled soul than a public symbol... [and] often sympathetic\".",
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"plaintext": "Views of Brutus as a symbol of republicanism have remained through the modern period. For example, the Anti-Federalist Papers in 1787 were written under the pseudonym \"Brutus\". Similar anti-federalist letters and pamphlets were written by other Roman republican names such as Cato and Poplicola.",
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"plaintext": "Conyers Middleton and Edward Gibbon, writing in the late 18th century, had negative views. Middleton believed Brutus' vacillations in correspondence with Cicero betrayed his claims to philosophical consistency. Gibbon conceived of Brutus' actions in terms of their results: the destruction of the republic, civil war, death, and future tyranny. More teleological views of Brutus' actions are viewed sceptically by historians today: Ronald Syme, for example, pointed out \"to judge Brutus because he failed is simply to judge from the results\".",
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"plaintext": "The influential History of Rome by Theodor Mommsen in the late 19th century \"cast a damning verdict on Brutus\" by ending with Caesar's reforms in 46BC, along with advancing a view that Caesar \"had some sort of solution to the problem of how to deal with Rome's growing empire\" (of which there is no surviving description). Similarly, views of Brutus are also bound up with assessment of the republic: those who believe the republic was not worth saving or in an inevitable decline, views perhaps coloured by hindsight, view him more negatively.",
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"plaintext": "There remains little consensus or finality on Brutus' actions as a whole.",
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"plaintext": " In Jonathan Swift's 1726 satire Gulliver's Travels, Gulliver arrives at the island of Glubbdubdrib and is invited by a sorcerer to visit with several historical figures brought back from the dead. Among them, Caesar and Brutus are evoked, and Caesar confesses that all his glory doesn't equal the glory Brutus gained by murdering him.",
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"plaintext": " In the Masters of Rome novels of Colleen McCullough, Brutus is portrayed as a timid intellectual whose relationship with Caesar is deeply complex. He resents Caesar for breaking his marriage arrangement with Caesar's daughter, Julia, whom Brutus deeply loved so that she could be married instead to Pompey the Great. However, Brutus enjoys Caesar's favor after he receives a pardon for fighting with Republican forces against Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus. In the lead-up to the Ides of March, Cassius and Trebonius use him as a figurehead because of his family connections to the founder of the Republic. He appears in Fortune's Favourites, Caesar's Women, Caesar and The October Horse.",
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"plaintext": " Brutus is an occasional supporting character in Asterix comics, most notably Asterix and Son in which he is the main antagonist. The character appears in the first three live Asterix film adaptations – though briefly in the first two – Asterix and Obelix vs Caesar (played by Didier Cauchy) and Asterix at the Olympic Games. In the latter film, he is portrayed as a comical villain by Belgian actor Benoît Poelvoorde: he is a central character to the film, even though he was not depicted in the original Asterix at the Olympic Games comic book. He is implied in that film to be Julius Caesar's biological son.",
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"plaintext": " In the TV series Rome, Brutus, portrayed by Tobias Menzies, is depicted as a young man torn between what he believes is right, and his loyalty to and love of a man who has been like a father to him. In the series, his personality and motives are somewhat inaccurate, as Brutus is portrayed as an unwilling participant in politics. In the earlier episodes, he is frequently inebriated and easily ruled by emotion. Brutus' relationship to Cato is not mentioned; his three sisters and wife, Porcia, are omitted.",
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"plaintext": " The Hives' song \"B is for Brutus\" contains titular and lyrical references to Junius Brutus.",
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"plaintext": " Red Hot Chili Peppers song \"Even You Brutus?\" from their 2011 album I'm with You makes reference to Brutus and Judas Iscariot.",
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"plaintext": " The video game Brotherhood features a small side story in the form of the \"Scrolls of Romulus\" written by Brutus, which reveals that Caesar was a Templar, and Brutus and the conspirators were members of the Roman Brotherhood of Assassins. At the end of the side quest, the player is able to get Brutus' armour and dagger. Later at Assassin's Creed Origins, Brutus and Cassius make an appearance as Aya's earliest recruits and is the one who give the killing blow to Caesar, though his armour from Brotherhood'' does not make an appearance here.",
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"plaintext": " Junia gens",
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"plaintext": "The Circus Maximus (Latin for \"largest circus\"; Italian: Circo Massimo) is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome, Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and its later Empire. It measured in length and in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became the model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire. The site is now a public park.",
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"plaintext": "The Circus was Rome's largest venue for ludi, public games connected to Roman religious festivals. Ludi were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people (populus Romanus) and gods. Most were held annually or at annual intervals on the Roman calendar. Others might be given to fulfil a religious vow, such as the games in celebration of a triumph. In Roman tradition, the earliest triumphal ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud to Jupiter in the late Regal era for his victory over Pometia.",
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"plaintext": "Ludi ranged in duration and scope from one-day or even half-day events to spectacular multi-venue celebrations held over several days, with religious ceremonies and public feasts, horse and chariot racing, athletics, plays and recitals, beast-hunts and gladiator fights. Some included public executions. The greater ludi (meaning sport or game in Latin) at the Circus began with a flamboyant parade (pompa circensis), much like the triumphal procession, which marked the purpose of the games and introduced the participants.",
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"plaintext": "During the Roman Republic, the aediles organized the games. The most costly and complex of the ludi offered opportunities to assess an aedile's competence, generosity, and fitness for higher office. Some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, \"flute players, scenic artists and dancers\" performed on a temporary stage, probably erected between the two central seating banks. Others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A venatio held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed \"63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants\", with spectators presumably kept safe by a substantial barrier.",
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"plaintext": "As Rome's provinces expanded, existing ludi were embellished and new ludi invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By the late Republic, ludi were held on 57 days of the year; an unknown number of these would have required full use of the Circus. On many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practise on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the nearby Forum Boarium, just outside the starting gate. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus' multiple entrances, were workshops and shops. When no games were being held, the Circus at the time of Catullus (mid-1st century BC) was probably \"a dusty open space with shops and booths ... a colourful crowded disreputable area\" frequented by \"prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers and low-class performing artists.\"",
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"plaintext": "Rome's emperors met the growing popular demand for regular ludi and the need for more specialised venues, as essential obligations of their office and cult. Over the several centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Rome's paramount specialist venue for chariot races. By the late 1st century AD, the Colosseum had been built to host most of the city's gladiator shows and smaller beast-hunts, and most track-athletes competed at the purpose-designed Stadium of Domitian, though long-distance foot races were still held at the Circus. Eventually, 135 days of the year were devoted to ludi.",
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"plaintext": "Even at the height of its development as a chariot-racing circuit, the circus remained the most suitable space in Rome for religious processions on a grand scale, and was the most popular venue for large-scale venationes; in the late 3rd century, the emperor Probus laid on a spectacular Circus show in which beasts were hunted through a veritable forest of trees, on a specially built stage. With the advent of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire, ludi gradually fell out of favour. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, and the last known races there were held by Totila in 549.",
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"plaintext": "The Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia (Vallis Murcia), between Rome's Aventine and Palatine Hills. In Rome's early days, the valley would have been rich agricultural land, prone to flooding from the river Tiber and the stream which divided the valley. The stream was probably bridged at an early date, at the two points where the track had to cross it, and the earliest races would have been held within an agricultural landscape, \"with nothing more than turning posts, banks where spectators could sit, and some shrines and sacred spots\".",
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"plaintext": "In Livy's History of Rome, the first Etruscan king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, built raised, wooden perimeter seating at the Circus for Rome's highest echelons (the equites and patricians), probably midway along the Palatine straight, with an awning against the sun and rain. His grandson, Tarquinius Superbus, added the first seating for citizen-commoners (plebs, or plebeians), either adjacent or on the opposite, Aventine side of the track. Otherwise, the Circus was probably still little more than a trackway through surrounding farmland. By this time, it may have been drained but the wooden stands and seats would have frequently rotted and been rebuilt. The turning posts (metae), each made of three conical stone pillars, may have been the earliest permanent Circus structures; an open drainage canal between the posts would have served as a dividing barrier.",
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"plaintext": "The games' sponsor (Latin editor) usually sat beside the images of attending gods, on a conspicuous, elevated stand (pulvinar) but seats at the track's perimeter offered the best, most dramatic close-ups. In 494 BC (very early in the Republican era) the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus and his descendants were granted rights to a curule chair at the southeastern turn, an excellent viewpoint for the thrills and spills of chariot racing. In the 190sBC, stone track-side seating was built, exclusively for senators.",
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"plaintext": "Permanent wooden starting stalls were built in 329 BC. They were gated, brightly painted, and staggered to equalise the distances from each start place to the central barrier. In theory, they might have accommodated up to 25 four-horse chariots (Quadrigas) abreast but when team-racing was introduced, they were widened, and their number reduced. By the late Republican or early Imperial era, there were twelve stalls. Their divisions were fronted by herms that served as stops for spring-loaded gates, so that twelve light-weight, four-horse or two-horse chariots could be simultaneously released onto the track. The stalls were allocated by lottery, and the various racing teams were identified by their colors. Typically, there were seven laps per race. From at least 174BC, they were counted off using large sculpted eggs. In 33BC, an additional system of large bronze dolphin-shaped lap counters was added, positioned well above the central dividing barrier (euripus) for maximum visibility.",
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"plaintext": "Julius Caesar's development of the Circus, commencing around 50BC, extended the seating tiers to run almost the entire circuit of the track, barring the starting gates and a processional entrance at the semi-circular end. The track measured approximately 621m (2,037ft) in length and 150m (387ft) in breadth. Acanal between the track perimeter and its seating protected spectators and help drain the track. The inner third of the seating formed a trackside cavea. Its front sections along the central straight were reserved for senators, and those immediately behind for equites. The outer tiers, two thirds of the total, were meant for Roman plebs and non-citizens. They were timber-built, with wooden-framed service buildings, shops and entrance-ways beneath. The total number of seats is uncertain, but was probably in the order of 150,000; Pliny the Elder's estimate of 250,000 seating places is unlikely. The wooden bleachers were damaged in a fire of 31BC, either during or after construction.",
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"plaintext": "The fire damage of 31 was probably repaired by Augustus (Caesar's successor and Rome's first emperor). He modestly claimed credit only for an obelisk and pulvinar at the site but both were major projects. Ever since its quarrying, long before Rome existed, the obelisk had been sacred to Egyptian Sun-gods. Augustus had it brought from Heliopolis at enormous expense, and erected midway along the dividing barrier of the Circus. It was Rome's first obelisk, an exotically sacred object and a permanent reminder of Augustus' victory over his Roman foes and their Egyptian allies in the recent civil wars. Thanks to him, Rome had secured both a lasting peace and a new Egyptian Province. The pulvinar was built on monumental scale, a shrine or temple (aedes) raised high above the trackside seats. Sometimes, while games were in progress, Augustus watched from there, alongside the gods. Occasionally, his family would join him there. This is the Circus described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as \"one of the most beautiful and admirable structures in Rome\", with \"entrances and ascents for the spectators at every shop, so that the countless thousands of people may enter and depart without inconvenience.\"",
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"plaintext": "The site remained prone to flooding, probably through the starting gates, until Claudius made improvements there; they probably included an extramural anti-flooding embankment. Fires in the crowded, wooden perimeter workshops and bleachers were a far greater danger. A fire of 36 AD seems to have started in a basket-maker's workshop under the stands, on the Aventine side; the emperor Tiberius compensated various small businesses there for their losses. In AD 64, during Nero's reign, fire broke out at the semi-circular end of the Circus, swept through the stands and shops, and destroyed much of the city. Games and festivals continued at the Circus, which was rebuilt over several years to the same footprint and design.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 1st century AD, the central dividing barrier comprised a series of water basins, or else a single watercourse open in some places and bridged over in others. It offered opportunities for artistic embellishment and decorative swagger, and included the temples and statues of various deities, fountains, and refuges for those assistants involved in more dangerous circus activities, such as beast-hunts and the recovery of casualties during races.",
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"plaintext": "In AD 81 the Senate built a triple arch honoring Titus at the semi-circular end of the Circus, to replace or augment a former processional entrance. The emperor Domitian built a new, multi-storey palace on the Palatine, connected somehow to the Circus; he likely watched the games in autocratic style, from high above and barely visible to those below. Repairs to fire damage during his reign may already have been under way before his assassination.",
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"plaintext": "The risk of further fire-damage, coupled with Domitian's fate, may have prompted Trajan's decision to rebuild the Circus entirely in stone, and provide a new pulvinar in the stands where Rome's emperor could be seen and honoured as part of the Roman community, alongside their gods. Under Trajan, the Circus Maximus found its definitive form, which was unchanged thereafter save for some monumental additions by later emperors, an extensive, planned rebuilding of the starting gate area under Caracalla, and repairs and renewals to existing fabric. Of these, Pliny claims that Trajan's works gained a further 5,000 seats. Some repairs were unforeseen and extensive, such as those carried out in Diocletian's reign, after the collapse of a seating section killed some 13,000 people.",
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"plaintext": "The southeastern turn of the track ran between two shrines which may have predated the Circus' formal development. One, at the outer southeast perimeter, was dedicated to the valley's eponymous goddess Murcia, an obscure deity associated with Venus, the myrtle shrub, a sacred spring, the stream that divided the valley, and the lesser peak of the Aventine Hill. The other was at the southeastern turning-post; where there was an underground shrine to Consus, a minor god of grain-stores, connected to the grain-goddess Ceres and to the underworld. According to Roman tradition, Romulus discovered this shrine shortly after the founding of Rome. He invented the Consualia festival, as a way of gathering his Sabine neighbours at a celebration that included horse-races and drinking. During these distractions, Romulus's men then abducted the Sabine daughters as brides. Thus the famous Roman myth of the Rape of the Sabine women had as its setting the Circus and the Consualia.",
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"plaintext": "In this quasi-legendary era, horse or chariot races would have been held at the Circus site. The track width may have been determined by the distance between Murcia's and Consus' shrines at the southeastern end, and its length by the distance between these two shrines and Hercules' Ara Maxima, supposedly older than Rome itself and sited behind the Circus' starting place. The position of Consus' shrine at the turn of the track recalls the placing of shrines to Roman Neptune's Greek equivalent, Poseidon, in Greek hippodromes. In later developments, the altar of Consus, as one of the Circus' patron deities, was incorporated into the fabric of the south-eastern turning post. When Murcia's stream was partly built over, to form a dividing barrier (the spina or euripus) between the turning posts, her shrine was either retained or rebuilt. In the Late Imperial period, both the southeastern turn and the circus itself were sometimes known as Vallis Murcia. The symbols used to count race-laps also held religious significance; Castor and Pollux, who were born from an egg, were patrons of horses, horsemen, and the equestrian order (equites). Likewise, the later use of dolphin-shaped lap counters reinforced associations between the races, swiftness, and Neptune, as god of earthquakes and horses; the Romans believed dolphins to be the swiftest of all creatures. When the Romans adopted the Phrygian Great Mother as an ancestral deity, a statue of her on lion-back was erected within the circus, probably on the dividing barrier.",
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"plaintext": "Sun and Moon cults were probably represented at the Circus from its earliest phases. Their importance grew with the introduction of Roman cult to Apollo, and the development of Stoic and solar monism as a theological basis for the Roman Imperial cult. In the Imperial era, the Sun-god was divine patron of the Circus and its games. His sacred obelisk towered over the arena, set in the central barrier, close to his temple and the finishing line. The Sun-god was the ultimate, victorious charioteer, driving his four-horse chariot (quadriga) through the heavenly circuit from sunrise to sunset. His partner Luna drove her two-horse chariot (biga); together, they represented the predictable, orderly movement of the cosmos and the circuit of time, which found analogy in the Circus track. Luna's temple, which was probably built long before Apollo's, burned down in the Great Fire of 64 AD and was probably not replaced. Her cult was closely identified with that of Diana, who seems to have been represented in the processions that started Circus games, and with Sol Indiges, usually identified as her brother. After the loss of her temple, her cult may have been transferred to Sol's temple on the dividing barrier, or one beside it; both would have been open to the sky.",
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"plaintext": "Temples to several deities overlooked the Circus; most are now lost. The temples to Ceres and Flora stood close together on the Aventine, more or less opposite the Circus' starting gate, which remained under Hercules' protection. Further southeast along the Aventine was a temple to Luna, the moon goddess. Aventine temples to Venus Obsequens, Mercury and Dis (or perhaps Summanus) stood on the slopes above the southeast turn. On the Palatine hill, opposite to Ceres's temple, stood the temple to Magna Mater and, more or less opposite Luna's temple, one to the sun-god Apollo.",
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"plaintext": "Several festivals, some of uncertain foundation and date, were held at the Circus in historical times. The Consualia, with its semi-mythical establishment by Romulus, and the Cerealia, the major festival of Ceres, were probably older than the earliest historically attested \"Roman Games\" (Ludi Romani) held at the Circus in honour of Jupiter in 366 BC. In the early Imperial era, Ovid describes the opening of Cerealia (mid to late April) with a horse race at the Circus, followed by the nighttime release of foxes into the stadium, their tails ablaze with lighted torches. Some early connection is likely between Ceres as goddess of grain crops and Consus as a god of grain storage and patron of the Circus.",
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"plaintext": "After the 6th century, the Circus fell into disuse and decay. The lower levels, ever prone to flooding, were gradually buried under waterlogged alluvial soil and accumulated debris, so that the original track is now buried 6 meters beneath the modern surface. In the 11th century, the Circus was \"replaced by dwellings rented out by the congregation of Saint-Guy.\" In the 12th century, a watercourse was dug there to drain the soil, and by the 16th century the area was used as a market garden. During the renaissance, the site was one of many used as a convenient quarry for good quality building stone. Many of the Circus's standing structures survived these changes; in 1587, two obelisks were removed from the central barrier by Pope Sixtus V, and one of these was re-sited at the Piazza del Popolo. In 1852 a gas works was built on the site by the Anglo-Italian Gas Society. It remained in situ until 1910 when it was relocated to the edge of Rome. Mid 19th century workings at the circus site uncovered the lower parts of a seating tier and outer portico. Since then, a series of excavations has exposed further sections of the seating, curved turn and central barrier but further exploration has been limited by the scale, depth and waterlogging of the site.",
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"plaintext": "The Circus site now functions as a large park area, in the centre of the city. It is often used for concerts and meetings. On 2 July 2005, the Rome concert of Live 8 was held there. On 14 July 2007, the British rock band Genesis performed a concert before an estimated audience of 500,000 people. This concert was filmed and released on a DVD called When in Rome 2007. The Rolling Stones played there in front of 71,527 people on June 22, 2014 for the Italian date of their 14 On Fire tour. The Circus has also hosted victory celebrations, following the Italian World Cup 2006 victory and the A.S. Roma Serie A victory in 1983 and 2001. In May 2019, a new virtual/augmented reality experience, the Circo Maximo Experience, opened on the site, taking visitors on a journey through the site and its history.",
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"plaintext": " Amphitheatre",
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"plaintext": " Forma Urbis Romae",
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"plaintext": " List of closed stadia by capacity",
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"plaintext": " Hippodrome of Constantinople",
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"plaintext": " James Grout: Circus Maximus, part of the Encyclopædia Romana",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " High-resolution 360° Panoramas and Images of Circus Maximus | Art Atlas",
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"Roman_archaeology",
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| 207,808 | 17,624 | 275 | 141 | 0 | 0 | Circus Maximus | Ancient Roman circus in Rome | []
|
37,329 | 1,094,962,340 | Aldehyde | [
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"plaintext": "In organic chemistry, an aldehyde () is an organic compound containing a functional group with the structure . The functional group itself (without the \"R\" side chain) can be referred to as an aldehyde but can also be classified as a formyl group. Aldehydes are common and play important roles in the technology and biological spheres.",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes feature a carbon center that is connected by a double bond to oxygen and a single bond to hydrogen and single bond to a third substituent, which is carbon or, in the case of formaldehyde, hydrogen. The central carbon is often described as being sp2-hybridized. The aldehyde group is somewhat polar. The C=O bond length is about 120-122 picometers.",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes have properties that are diverse and that depend on the remainder of the molecule. Smaller aldehydes are more soluble in water, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde completely so. The volatile aldehydes have pungent odors.",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes can be identified by spectroscopic methods. Using IR spectroscopy, they display a strong νCO band near 1700cm−1. In their 1H NMR spectra, the formyl hydrogen center absorbs near δH9.5 to 10, which is a distinctive part of the spectrum. This signal shows the characteristic coupling to any protons on the α carbon with a small coupling constant typically less than 3.0Hz. The 13C NMR spectra of aldehydes and ketones gives a suppressed (weak) but distinctive signal at δC190 to 205.",
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"plaintext": " Important aldehydes and related compounds. The aldehyde group (or formyl group) is colored red. From the left: (1) formaldehyde and (2) its trimer 1,3,5-trioxane, (3) acetaldehyde and (4) its enol vinyl alcohol, (5) glucose (pyranose form as α--glucopyranose), (6) the flavorant cinnamaldehyde, (7) the visual pigment retinal, and (8) the vitamin pyridoxal.",
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"plaintext": "Traces of many aldehydes are found in essential oils and often contribute to their favorable odours, e.g. cinnamaldehyde, cilantro, and vanillin. Possibly because of the high reactivity of the formyl group, aldehydes are not common in several of the natural building blocks: amino acids, nucleic acids, lipids. Most sugars, however, are derivatives of aldehydes. These aldoses exist as hemiacetals, a sort of masked form of the parent aldehyde. For example, in aqueous solution only a tiny fraction of glucose exists as the aldehyde.",
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"plaintext": "There are several methods for preparing aldehydes, but the dominant technology is hydroformylation. Illustrative is the generation of butyraldehyde by hydroformylation of propene:",
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"plaintext": "H2 + CO + CH3CH=CH2 → CH3CH2CH2CHO",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes are commonly generated by alcohol oxidation. In industry, formaldehyde is produced on a large scale by oxidation of methanol. Oxygen is the reagent of choice, being \"green\" and cheap. In the laboratory, more specialized oxidizing agents are used, but chromium(VI) reagents are popular. Oxidation can be achieved by heating the alcohol with an acidified solution of potassium dichromate. In this case, excess dichromate will further oxidize the aldehyde to a carboxylic acid, so either the aldehyde is distilled out as it forms (if volatile) or milder reagents such as PCC are used.",
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"plaintext": "[O] + CH3(CH2)9OH → CH3(CH2)8CHO + H2O",
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"plaintext": "Oxidation of primary alcohols to form aldehydes can be achieved under milder, chromium-free conditions by employing methods or reagents such as IBX acid, Dess–Martin periodinane, Swern oxidation, TEMPO, or the Oppenauer oxidation.",
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"plaintext": "Another oxidation route significant in industry is the Wacker process, whereby ethylene is oxidized to acetaldehyde in the presence of copper and palladium catalysts (acetaldehyde is also produced on a large scale by the hydration of acetylene).",
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"plaintext": "On the laboratory scale, α-hydroxy acids are used as precursors to prepare aldehydes via oxidative cleavage.",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes participate in many reactions. From the industrial perspective, important reactions are (a) condensations, e.g., to prepare plasticizers and polyols, and (b) reduction to produce alcohols, especially \"oxo-alcohols\". From the biological perspective, the key reactions involve addition of nucleophiles to the formyl carbon in the formation of imines (oxidative deamination) and hemiacetals (structures of aldose sugars).",
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"plaintext": "Because of resonance stabilization of the conjugate base, an α-hydrogen in an aldehyde is weakly acidic, with a pKa near 17. This acidification is attributed to (i) the electron-withdrawing quality of the formyl center and (ii) the fact that the conjugate base, an enolate anion, delocalizes its negative charge. The formyl proton itself does not readily undergo deprotonation. ",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes (except those without an alpha carbon, or without protons on the alpha carbon, such as formaldehyde and benzaldehyde) can exist in either the keto or the enol tautomer. Keto–enol tautomerism is catalyzed by either acid or base. Usually the enol is the minority tautomer, but it is more reactive. The enolization typically reverses several times per second.",
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"plaintext": "The formyl group can be readily reduced to a primary alcohol (−CH2OH). Typically this conversion is accomplished by catalytic hydrogenation either directly or by transfer hydrogenation. Stoichiometric reductions are also popular, as can be effected with sodium borohydride.",
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"plaintext": "The formyl group readily oxidizes to the corresponding carboxyl group (−COOH). The preferred oxidant in industry is oxygen or air. In the laboratory, popular oxidizing agents include potassium permanganate, nitric acid, chromium(VI) oxide, and chromic acid. The combination of manganese dioxide, cyanide, acetic acid and methanol will convert the aldehyde to a methyl ester.",
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"plaintext": "Another oxidation reaction is the basis of the silver-mirror test. In this test, an aldehyde is treated with Tollens' reagent, which is prepared by adding a drop of sodium hydroxide solution into silver nitrate solution to give a precipitate of silver(I) oxide, and then adding just enough dilute ammonia solution to redissolve the precipitate in aqueous ammonia to produce [Ag(NH3)2]+ complex. This reagent converts aldehydes to carboxylic acids without attacking carbon–carbon double bonds. The name silver-mirror test arises because this reaction produces a precipitate of silver, whose presence can be used to test for the presence of an aldehyde.",
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"plaintext": "A further oxidation reaction involves Fehling's reagent as a test. The Cu2+ complex ions are reduced to a red-brick-coloured Cu2O precipitate.",
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"plaintext": "If the aldehyde cannot form an enolate (e.g., benzaldehyde), addition of strong base induces the Cannizzaro reaction. This reaction results in disproportionation, producing a mixture of alcohol and carboxylic acid.",
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"plaintext": "Nucleophiles add readily to the carbonyl group. In the product, the carbonyl carbon becomes sp3-hybridized, being bonded to the nucleophile, and the oxygen center becomes protonated:",
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"plaintext": " RCHO + Nu− → RCH(Nu)O−",
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"plaintext": " RCH(Nu)O− + H+ → RCH(Nu)OH",
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"plaintext": "In many cases, a water molecule is removed after the addition takes place; in this case, the reaction is classed as an addition–elimination or addition–condensation reaction. There are many variations of nucleophilic addition reactions.",
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"plaintext": "In the acetalisation reaction, under acidic or basic conditions, an alcohol adds to the carbonyl group and a proton is transferred to form a hemiacetal. Under acidic conditions, the hemiacetal and the alcohol can further react to form an acetal and water. Simple hemiacetals are usually unstable, although cyclic ones such as glucose can be stable. Acetals are stable, but revert to the aldehyde in the presence of acid. Aldehydes can react with water to form hydrates, R−CH(OH)2. These diols are stable when strong electron withdrawing groups are present, as in chloral hydrate. The mechanism of formation is identical to hemiacetal formation.",
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"plaintext": "In alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution, a primary or secondary amine adds to the carbonyl group and a proton is transferred from the nitrogen to the oxygen atom to create a carbinolamine. In the case of a primary amine, a water molecule can be eliminated from the carbinolamine intermediate to yield an imine or its trimer, a hexahydrotriazine This reaction is catalyzed by acid. Hydroxylamine (NH2OH) can also add to the carbonyl group. After the elimination of water, this results in an oxime. An ammonia derivative of the form H2NNR2 such as hydrazine (H2NNH2) or 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine can also be the nucleophile and after the elimination of water, resulting in the formation of a hydrazone, which are usually orange crystalline solids. This reaction forms the basis of a test for aldehydes and ketones.",
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"plaintext": "The cyano group in HCN can add to the carbonyl group to form cyanohydrins, R−CH(OH)CN. In this reaction the CN− ion is the nucleophile that attacks the partially positive carbon atom of the carbonyl group. The mechanism involves a pair of electrons from the carbonyl-group double bond transferring to the oxygen atom, leaving it single-bonded to carbon and giving the oxygen atom a negative charge. This intermediate ion rapidly reacts with H+, such as from the HCN molecule, to form the alcohol group of the cyanohydrin.",
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"plaintext": "Organometallic compounds, such as organolithium reagents, Grignard reagents, or acetylides, undergo nucleophilic addition reactions, yielding a substituted alcohol group. Related reactions include organostannane additions, Barbier reactions, and the Nozaki–Hiyama–Kishi reaction.",
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"plaintext": "In the aldol reaction, the metal enolates of ketones, esters, amides, and carboxylic acids add to aldehydes to form β-hydroxycarbonyl compounds (aldols). Acid or base-catalyzed dehydration then leads to α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. The combination of these two steps is known as the aldol condensation.",
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"plaintext": "The Prins reaction occurs when a nucleophilic alkene or alkyne reacts with an aldehyde as electrophile. The product of the Prins reaction varies with reaction conditions and substrates employed.",
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"plaintext": "Aldehydes characteristically form \"addition compounds\" with sodium bisulfite:",
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"plaintext": " RCHO + → ",
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"plaintext": "This reaction is used as a test for aldehydes.",
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"plaintext": "A dialdehyde is an organic chemical compound with two aldehyde groups. The nomenclature of dialdehydes have the ending -dial or sometimes -dialdehyde. Short aliphatic dialdehydes are sometimes named after the diacid from which they can be derived. An example is butanedial, which is also called succinaldehyde (from succinic acid).",
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"plaintext": "Some aldehydes are substrates for aldehyde dehydrogenase enzymes which metabolize aldehydes in the body. There are toxicities associated with some aldehydes that are related to neurodegenerative disease, heart disease, and some types of cancer.",
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"plaintext": " Formaldehyde (methanal)",
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"plaintext": " Acetaldehyde (ethanal)",
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"plaintext": " Propionaldehyde (propanal)",
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"plaintext": " Butyraldehyde (butanal)",
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"plaintext": " Isovaleraldehyde ",
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"plaintext": " Benzaldehyde (phenylmethanal)",
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"plaintext": " Cinnamaldehyde",
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"plaintext": " Vanillin",
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"plaintext": " Tolualdehyde",
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"plaintext": " Furfural",
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"plaintext": " Retinaldehyde",
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"plaintext": "Glycolaldehyde",
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"plaintext": " Glyoxal",
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"plaintext": " Malondialdehyde",
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"plaintext": " Succindialdehyde",
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"plaintext": " Glutaraldehyde",
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"plaintext": " Phthalaldehyde",
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"plaintext": "Of all aldehydes, formaldehyde is produced on the largest scale, about . It is mainly used in the production of resins when combined with urea, melamine, and phenol (e.g., Bakelite). It is a precursor to methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (\"MDI\"), a precursor to polyurethanes. The second main aldehyde is butyraldehyde, of which about are prepared by hydroformylation. It is the principal precursor to 2-ethylhexanol, which is used as a plasticizer. Acetaldehyde once was a dominating product, but production levels have declined to less than because it mainly served as a precursor to acetic acid, which is now prepared by carbonylation of methanol. Many other aldehydes find commercial applications, often as precursors to alcohols, the so-called oxo alcohols, which are used in detergents. Some aldehydes are produced only on a small scale (less than 1000 tons per year) and are used as ingredients in flavours and perfumes such as Chanel No. 5. These include cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives, citral, and lilial.",
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"plaintext": "The common names for aldehydes do not strictly follow official guidelines, such as those recommended by IUPAC, but these rules are useful. IUPAC prescribes the following nomenclature for aldehydes:",
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"plaintext": " Acyclic aliphatic aldehydes are named as derivatives of the longest carbon chain containing the aldehyde group. Thus, HCHO is named as a derivative of methane, and CH3CH2CH2CHO is named as a derivative of butane. The name is formed by changing the suffix -e of the parent alkane to -al, so that HCHO is named methanal, and CH3CH2CH2CHO is named butanal.",
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"plaintext": " In other cases, such as when a -CHO group is attached to a ring, the suffix -carbaldehyde may be used. Thus, C6H11CHO is known as cyclohexanecarbaldehyde. If the presence of another functional group demands the use of a suffix, the aldehyde group is named with the prefix formyl-. This prefix is preferred to methanoyl-.",
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"plaintext": " If the compound is a natural product or a carboxylic acid, the prefix oxo- may be used to indicate which carbon atom is part of the aldehyde group; for example, CHOCH2COOH is named 3-oxopropanoic acid.",
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"plaintext": " If replacing the aldehyde group with a carboxyl group (−COOH) would yield a carboxylic acid with a trivial name, the aldehyde may be named by replacing the suffix -ic acid or -oic acid in this trivial name by -aldehyde.",
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"plaintext": "The word aldehyde was coined by Justus von Liebig as a contraction of the Latin (dehydrogenated alcohol). In the past, aldehydes were sometimes named after the corresponding alcohols, for example, vinous aldehyde for acetaldehyde. (Vinous is from Latin \"wine\", the traditional source of ethanol, cognate with vinyl.)",
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"plaintext": "The term formyl group is derived from the Latin word \"ant\". This word can be recognized in the simplest aldehyde, formaldehyde, and in the simplest carboxylic acid, formic acid.",
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| [
"Aldehydes",
"Functional_groups",
"1830s_neologisms"
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| 101,497 | 13,093 | 1,245 | 195 | 0 | 0 | aldehydes | organic compounds containing a functional group with the structure −CHO, consisting of a carbonyl center (a carbon double-bonded to oxygen) with the carbon atom also bonded to hydrogen and to an R group, which is any generic alkyl or side chain | [
"aldehyde"
]
|
37,332 | 1,106,446,837 | Josiah_Willard_Gibbs | [
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"plaintext": "Josiah Willard Gibbs (; February 11, 1839 – April 28, 1903) was an American scientist who made significant theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous inductive science. Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, he created statistical mechanics (a term that he coined), explaining the laws of thermodynamics as consequences of the statistical properties of ensembles of the possible states of a physical system composed of many particles. Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwell's equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he invented modern vector calculus (independently of the British scientist Oliver Heaviside, who carried out similar work during the same period).",
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"plaintext": "Commentators and biographers have remarked on the contrast between Gibbs's quiet, solitary life in turn of the century New England and the great international impact of his ideas. Though his work was almost entirely theoretical, the practical value of Gibbs's contributions became evident with the development of industrial chemistry during the first half of the 20th century. According to Robert A. Millikan, in pure science, Gibbs \"did for statistical mechanics and thermodynamics what Laplace did for celestial mechanics and Maxwell did for electrodynamics, namely, made his field a well-nigh finished theoretical structure.\"",
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"plaintext": "The elder Gibbs was generally known to his family and colleagues as \"Josiah\", while the son was called \"Willard\". Josiah Gibbs was a linguist and theologian who served as professor of sacred literature at Yale Divinity School from 1824 until his death in 1861. He is chiefly remembered today as the abolitionist who found an interpreter for the African passengers of the ship Amistad, allowing them to testify during the trial that followed their rebellion against being sold as slaves.",
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"plaintext": "Relatively few documents from the period survive and it is difficult to reconstruct the details of Gibbs's early career with precision. In the opinion of biographers, Gibbs's principal mentor and champion, both at Yale and in the Connecticut Academy, was probably the astronomer and mathematician Hubert Anson Newton, a leading authority on meteors, who remained Gibbs's lifelong friend and confidant. After the death of his father in 1861, Gibbs inherited enough money to make him financially independent.",
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"plaintext": "Recurrent pulmonary trouble ailed the young Gibbs and his physicians were concerned that he might be susceptible to tuberculosis, which had killed his mother. He also suffered from astigmatism, whose treatment was then still largely unfamiliar to oculists, so that Gibbs had to diagnose himself and grind his own lenses. Though in later years he used glasses only for reading or other close work, Gibbs's delicate health and imperfect eyesight probably explain why he did not volunteer to fight in the Civil War of 1861–65. He was not conscripted and he remained at Yale for the duration of the war.",
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"plaintext": "In 1863, Gibbs received the first Doctorate of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in engineering granted in the US, for a thesis entitled \"On the Form of the Teeth of Wheels in Spur Gearing\", in which he used geometrical techniques to investigate the optimum design for gears. In 1861, Yale had become the first US university to offer a Ph.D. degree and Gibbs's was only the fifth Ph.D. granted in the US in any subject.",
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"plaintext": "Moving to Berlin, Gibbs attended the lectures taught by mathematicians Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker, as well as by chemist Heinrich Gustav Magnus. In August 1867, Gibbs's sister Julia was married in Berlin to Addison Van Name, who had been Gibbs's classmate at Yale. The newly married couple returned to New Haven, leaving Gibbs and his sister Anna in Germany. In Heidelberg, Gibbs was exposed to the work of physicists Gustav Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz, and chemist Robert Bunsen. At the time, German academics were the leading authorities in the natural sciences, especially chemistry and thermodynamics.",
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"plaintext": "Maxwell included a chapter on Gibbs's work in the next edition of his Theory of Heat, published in 1875. He explained the usefulness of Gibbs's graphical methods in a lecture to the Chemical Society of London and even referred to it in the article on \"Diagrams\" that he wrote for the Encyclopædia Britannica. Prospects of collaboration between him and Gibbs were cut short by Maxwell's early death in 1879, aged 48. The joke later circulated in New Haven that \"only one man lived who could understand Gibbs's papers. That was Maxwell, and now he is dead.\"",
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"plaintext": "From 1882 to 1889, Gibbs wrote five papers on physical optics, in which he investigated birefringence and other optical phenomena and defended Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light against the mechanical theories of Lord Kelvin and others. In his work on optics, just as much as in his work on thermodynamics, Gibbs deliberately avoided speculating about the microscopic structure of matter and purposefully confined his research problems to those that can be solved from broad general principles and experimentally confirmed facts. The methods that he used were highly original and the obtained results showed decisively the correctness of Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs coined the term statistical mechanics and introduced key concepts in the corresponding mathematical description of physical systems, including the notions of chemical potential (1876), and statistical ensemble (1902). Gibbs's derivation of the laws of thermodynamics from the statistical properties of systems consisting of many particles was presented in his highly influential textbook Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics, published in 1902, a year before his death.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's retiring personality and intense focus on his work limited his accessibility to students. His principal protégé was Edwin Bidwell Wilson, who nonetheless explained that \"except in the classroom I saw very little of Gibbs. He had a way, toward the end of the afternoon, of taking a stroll about the streets between his study in the old Sloane Laboratory and his home—a little exercise between work and dinner—and one might occasionally come across him at that time.\" Gibbs did supervise the doctoral thesis on mathematical economics written by Irving Fisher in 1891. After Gibbs's death, Fisher financed the publication of his Collected Works. Another distinguished student was Lee De Forest, later a pioneer of radio technology.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs died in New Haven on April 28, 1903, at the age of 64, the victim of an acute intestinal obstruction. A funeral was conducted two days later at his home on 121High Street, and his body was buried in the nearby Grove Street Cemetery. In May, Yale organized a memorial meeting at the Sloane Laboratory. The eminent British physicist J. J. Thomson was in attendance and delivered a brief address.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs did not produce a substantial personal correspondence and many of his letters were later lost or destroyed. Beyond the technical writings concerning his research, he published only two other pieces: a brief obituary for Rudolf Clausius, one of the founders of the mathematical theory of thermodynamics, and a longer biographical memoir of his mentor at Yale, H. A. Newton. In Edward Bidwell Wilson's view,",
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"plaintext": "He was a careful investor and financial manager, and at his death in 1903 his estate was valued at $100,000 (roughly $ today). For many years, he served as trustee, secretary, and treasurer of his alma mater, the Hopkins School. US President Chester A. Arthur appointed him as one of the commissioners to the National Conference of Electricians, which convened in Philadelphia in September 1884, and Gibbs presided over one of its sessions. A keen and skilled horseman, Gibbs was seen habitually in New Haven driving his sister's carriage. In an obituary published in the American Journal of Science, Gibbs's former student Henry A. Bumstead referred to Gibbs's personal character:",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's papers from the 1870s introduced the idea of expressing the internal energyU of a system in terms of the entropyS, in addition to the usual state-variables of volumeV, pressurep, and temperatureT. He also introduced the concept of the chemical potential of a given chemical species, defined to be the rate of the increase in U associated with the increase in the number N of molecules of that species (at constant entropy and volume). Thus, it was Gibbs who first combined the first and second laws of thermodynamics by expressing the infinitesimal change in the internal energy, dU, of a closed system in the form:",
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"plaintext": "where T is the absolute temperature, p is the pressure, dS is an infinitesimal change in entropy and dV is an infinitesimal change of volume. The last term is the sum, over all the chemical species in a chemical reaction, of the chemical potential, μi, of the ith species, multiplied by the infinitesimal change in the number of moles, dNi of that species. By taking the Legendre transform of this expression, he defined the concepts of enthalpy, H and Gibbs free energy, G.",
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"plaintext": "When the Gibbs free energy for a chemical reaction is negative the reaction will proceed spontaneously. When a chemical system is at equilibrium, the change in Gibbs free energy is zero. An equilibrium constant is simply related to the free energy change when the reactants are in their standard states.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs also obtained what later came to be known as the \"Gibbs–Duhem equation\".",
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"plaintext": "The publication of the paper \"On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances\" (1874–78) is now regarded as a landmark in the development of chemistry. In it, Gibbs developed a rigorous mathematical theory for various transport phenomena, including adsorption, electrochemistry, and the Marangoni effect in fluid mixtures. He also formulated the phase rule",
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"plaintext": "for the number F of variables that may be independently controlled in an equilibrium mixture of C components existing in P phases. Phase rule is very useful in diverse areas, such as metallurgy, mineralogy, and petrology. It can also be applied to various research problems in physical chemistry.",
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"plaintext": "Together with James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann, Gibbs founded \"statistical mechanics\", a term that he coined to identify the branch of theoretical physics that accounts for the observed thermodynamic properties of systems in terms of the statistics of ensembles of all possible physical states of a system composed of many particles. He introduced the concept of \"phase of a mechanical system\". He used the concept to define the microcanonical, canonical, and grand canonical ensembles; all related to the Gibbs measure, thus obtaining a more general formulation of the statistical properties of many-particle systems than Maxwell and Boltzmann had achieved before him.",
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"plaintext": "where is the Boltzmann constant, while the sum is over all possible microstates , with the corresponding probability of the microstate (see Gibbs entropy formula). This same formula would later play a central role in Claude Shannon's information theory and is therefore often seen as the basis of the modern information-theoretical interpretation of thermodynamics.",
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"plaintext": "According to Henri Poincaré, writing in 1904, even though Maxwell and Boltzmann had previously explained the irreversibility of macroscopic physical processes in probabilistic terms, \"the one who has seen it most clearly, in a book too little read because it is a little difficult to read, is Gibbs, in his Elementary Principles of Statistical Mechanics.\" Gibbs's analysis of irreversibility, and his formulation of Boltzmann's H-theorem and of the ergodic hypothesis, were major influences on the mathematical physics of the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "While he was working on vector analysis in the late 1870s, Gibbs discovered that his approach was similar to the one that Grassmann had taken in his \"multiple algebra\". Gibbs then sought to publicize Grassmann's work, stressing that it was both more general and historically prior to Hamilton's quaternionic algebra. To establish priority of Grassmann's ideas, Gibbs convinced Grassmann's heirs to seek the publication in Germany of the essay \"Theorie der Ebbe und Flut\" on tides that Grassmann had submitted in 1840 to the faculty at the University of Berlin, in which he had first introduced the notion of what would later be called a vector space (linear space).",
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"plaintext": "Though Gibbs's research on physical optics is less well known today than his other work, it made a significant contribution to classical electromagnetism by applying Maxwell's equations to the theory of optical processes such as birefringence, dispersion, and optical activity. In that work, Gibbs showed that those processes could be accounted for by Maxwell's equations without any special assumptions about the microscopic structure of matter or about the nature of the medium in which electromagnetic waves were supposed to propagate (the so-called luminiferous ether). Gibbs also stressed that the absence of a longitudinal electromagnetic wave, which is needed to account for the observed properties of light, is automatically guaranteed by Maxwell's equations (by virtue of what is now called their \"gauge invariance\"), whereas in mechanical theories of light, such as Lord Kelvin's, it must be imposed as an ad hoc condition on the properties of the aether.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, Gibbs did receive the major honors then possible for an academic scientist in the US. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1879 and received the 1880 Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for his work on chemical thermodynamics. He was also awarded honorary doctorates by Princeton University and Williams College.",
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"plaintext": "In his autobiography, mathematician Gian-Carlo Rota tells of casually browsing the mathematical stacks of Sterling Library and stumbling on a handwritten mailing list, attached to some of Gibbs's course notes, which listed over two hundred notable scientists of his day, including Poincaré, Boltzmann, David Hilbert, and Ernst Mach. From this, Rota concluded that Gibbs's work was better known among the scientific elite of his day than the published material suggests. Lynde Wheeler reproduces that mailing list in an appendix to his biography of Gibbs. That Gibbs succeeded in interesting his European correspondents in his work is demonstrated by the fact that his monograph \"On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances\" was translated into German (then the leading language for chemistry) by Wilhelm Ostwald in 1892 and into French by Henri Louis Le Châtelier in 1899.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's most immediate and obvious influence was on physical chemistry and statistical mechanics, two disciplines which he greatly helped to found. During Gibbs's lifetime, his phase rule was experimentally validated by Dutch chemist H. W. Bakhuis Roozeboom, who showed how to apply it in a variety of situations, thereby assuring it of widespread use. In industrial chemistry, Gibbs's thermodynamics found many applications during the early 20th century, from electrochemistry to the development of the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia.",
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"plaintext": "When Dutch physicist J. D. van der Waals received the 1910 Nobel Prize \"for his work on the equation of state for gases and liquids\" he acknowledged the great influence of Gibbs's work on that subject. Max Planck received the 1918 Nobel Prize for his work on quantum mechanics, particularly his 1900 paper on Planck's law for quantized black-body radiation. That work was based largely on the thermodynamics of Kirchhoff, Boltzmann, and Gibbs. Planck declared that Gibbs's name \"not only in America but in the whole world will ever be reckoned among the most renowned theoretical physicists of all times.\"",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's work on statistical ensembles, as presented in his 1902 textbook, has had a great impact in both theoretical physics and in pure mathematics. According to mathematical physicist Arthur Wightman,",
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"plaintext": "Initially unaware of Gibbs's contributions in that field, Albert Einstein wrote three papers on statistical mechanics, published between 1902 and 1904. After reading Gibbs's textbook (which was translated into German by Ernst Zermelo in 1905), Einstein declared that Gibbs's treatment was superior to his own and explained that he would not have written those papers if he had known Gibbs's work.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's early papers on the use of graphical methods in thermodynamics reflect a powerfully original understanding of what mathematicians would later call \"convex analysis\", including ideas that, according to Barry Simon, \"lay dormant for about seventy-five years\". Important mathematical concepts based on Gibbs's work on thermodynamics and statistical mechanics include the Gibbs lemma in game theory, the Gibbs inequality in information theory, as well as Gibbs sampling in computational statistics.",
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"plaintext": "The development of vector calculus was Gibbs's other great contribution to mathematics. The publication in 1901 of E. B. Wilson's textbook Vector Analysis, based on Gibbs's lectures at Yale, did much to propagate the use of vectorial methods and notation in both mathematics and theoretical physics, definitively displacing the quaternions that had until then been dominant in the scientific literature.",
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"plaintext": "At Yale, Gibbs was also mentor to Lee De Forest, who went on to invent the triode amplifier and has been called the \"father of radio\". De Forest credited Gibbs's influence for the realization \"that the leaders in electrical development would be those who pursued the higher theory of waves and oscillations and the transmission by these means of intelligence and power.\" Another student of Gibbs who played a significant role in the development of radio technology was Lynde Wheeler.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs also had an indirect influence on mathematical economics. He supervised the thesis of Irving Fisher, who received the first Ph.D. in economics from Yale in 1891. In that work, published in 1892 as Mathematical Investigations in the Theory of Value and Prices, Fisher drew a direct analogy between Gibbsian equilibrium in physical and chemical systems, and the general equilibrium of markets, and he used Gibbs's vectorial notation. Gibbs's protégé Edwin Bidwell Wilson became, in turn, a mentor to leading American economist and Nobel Laureate Paul Samuelson. In 1947, Samuelson published Foundations of Economic Analysis, based on his doctoral dissertation, in which he used as epigraph a remark attributed to Gibbs: \"Mathematics is a language.\" Samuelson later explained that in his understanding of prices his \"debts were not primarily to Pareto or Slutsky, but to the great thermodynamicist, Willard Gibbs of Yale.\"",
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"plaintext": "Mathematician Norbert Wiener cited Gibbs's use of probability in the formulation of statistical mechanics as \"the first great revolution of twentieth century physics\" and as a major influence on his conception of cybernetics. Wiener explained in the preface to his book The Human Use of Human Beings that it was \"devoted to the impact of the Gibbsian point of view on modern life, both through the substantive changes it has made to working science, and through the changes it has made indirectly in our attitude to life in general.\"",
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"plaintext": "When the German physical chemist Walther Nernst visited Yale in 1906 to give the Silliman lecture, he was surprised to find no tangible memorial for Gibbs. Nernst donated his $500 lecture fee to the university to help pay for a suitable monument. This was finally unveiled in 1912, in the form of a bronze bas-relief by sculptor Lee Lawrie, installed in the Sloane Physics Laboratory. In 1910, the American Chemical Society established the Willard Gibbs Award for eminent work in pure or applied chemistry. In 1923, the American Mathematical Society endowed the Josiah Willard Gibbs Lectureship, \"to show the public some idea of the aspects of mathematics and its applications\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1945, Yale University created the J. Willard Gibbs Professorship in Theoretical Chemistry, held until 1973 by Lars Onsager. Onsager, who much like Gibbs, focused on applying new mathematical ideas to problems in physical chemistry, won the 1968 Nobel Prize in chemistry. In addition to establishing the Josiah Willard Gibbs Laboratories and the J. Willard Gibbs Assistant Professorship in Mathematics, Yale has also hosted two symposia dedicated to Gibbs's life and work, one in 1989 and another on the centenary of his death, in 2003. Rutgers University endowed a J. Willard Gibbs Professorship of Thermomechanics, held as of 2014 by Bernard Coleman.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs was elected in 1950 to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans. The oceanographic research ship USNS Josiah Willard Gibbs (T-AGOR-1) was in service with the United States Navy from 1958 to 1971. Gibbs crater, near the eastern limb of the Moon, was named in the scientist's honor in 1964.",
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"plaintext": "Edward Guggenheim introduced the symbol G for the Gibbs free energy in 1933, and this was used also by Dirk ter Haar in 1966. This notation is now universal and is recommended by the IUPAC. In 1960, William Giauque and others suggested the name \"gibbs\" (abbreviated gbs.) for the unit of entropy calorie per kelvin, but this usage did not become common, and the corresponding SI unit joule per kelvin carries no special name.",
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"plaintext": "In 1954, a year before his death, Albert Einstein was asked by an interviewer who were the greatest thinkers that he had known. Einstein replied: \"Lorentz\", adding \"I never met Willard Gibbs; perhaps, had I done so, I might have placed him beside Lorentz.\" Author Bill Bryson in his bestselling popular science book A Short History of Nearly Everything ranks Gibbs as \"perhaps the most brilliant person that most people have never heard of\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1909, the American historian and novelist Henry Adams finished an essay entitled \"The Rule of Phase Applied to History\", in which he sought to apply Gibbs's phase rule and other thermodynamic concepts to a general theory of human history. William James, Henry Bumstead, and others criticized both Adams's tenuous grasp of the scientific concepts that he invoked, as well as the arbitrariness of his application of those concepts as metaphors for the evolution of human thought and society. The essay remained unpublished until it appeared posthumously in 1919, in The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma, edited by Henry Adams's younger brother Brooks.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1930s, feminist poet Muriel Rukeyser became fascinated by Willard Gibbs and wrote a long poem about his life and work (\"Gibbs\", included in the collection A Turning Wind, published in 1939), as well as a book-length biography (Willard Gibbs, 1942). According to Rukeyser:",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, Fortune magazine illustrated a cover story on \"Fundamental Science\" with a representation of the thermodynamic surface that Maxwell had built based on Gibbs's proposal. Rukeyser called this surface a \"statue of water\" and the magazine saw in it \"the abstract creation of a great American scientist that lends itself to the symbolism of contemporary art forms.\" The artwork by Arthur Lidov also included Gibbs's mathematical expression of the phase rule for heterogeneous mixtures, as well as a radar screen, an oscilloscope waveform, Newton's apple, and a small rendition of a three-dimensional phase diagram.",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's nephew, Ralph Gibbs Van Name, a professor of physical chemistry at Yale, was unhappy with Rukeyser's biography, in part because of her lack of scientific training. Van Name had withheld the family papers from her and, after her book was published in 1942 to positive literary but mixed scientific reviews, he tried to encourage Gibbs's former students to produce a more technically oriented biography. Rukeyser's approach to Gibbs was also sharply criticized by Gibbs's former student and protégé Edwin Wilson. With Van Name's and Wilson's encouragement, physicist Lynde Wheeler published a new biography of Gibbs in 1951.",
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"plaintext": "Both Gibbs and Rukeyser's biography of him figure prominently in the poetry collection True North (1997) by Stephanie Strickland. In fiction, Gibbs appears as the mentor to character Kit Traverse in Thomas Pynchon's novel Against the Day (2006). That novel also prominently discusses the birefringence of Iceland spar, an optical phenomenon that Gibbs investigated.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the American Scientists commemorative postage stamp series designed by artist Victor Stabin, depicting Gibbs, John von Neumann, Barbara McClintock, and Richard Feynman. The first day of issue ceremony for the series was held on May 4 at Yale University's Luce Hall and was attended by John Marburger, scientific advisor to the president of the United States, Rick Levin, president of Yale, and family members of the scientists honored, including physician John W. Gibbs, a distant cousin of Willard Gibbs.",
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"plaintext": "Kenneth R. Jolls, a professor of chemical engineering at Iowa State University and an expert on graphical methods in thermodynamics, consulted on the design of the stamp honoring Gibbs. The stamp identifies Gibbs as a \"thermodynamicist\" and features a diagram from the 4th edition of Maxwell's Theory of Heat, published in 1875, which illustrates Gibbs's thermodynamic surface for water. Microprinting on the collar of Gibbs's portrait depicts his original mathematical equation for the change in the energy of a substance in terms of its entropy and the other state variables.",
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"plaintext": " L. P. Wheeler, E. O. Waters and S. W. Dudley (eds.),The Early Work of Willard Gibbs in Applied Mechanics, (New York: Henry Schuman, 1947). . This contains previously unpublished work by Gibbs, from the period between 1863 and 1871.",
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"plaintext": " J. W. Gibbs, \"On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances\", Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 3, 108–248, 343–524, (1874–1878). Reproduced in both The Scientific Papers (1906), pp. 55–353 and The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs (1928), pp.55–353.",
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"plaintext": " E. B. Wilson, Vector Analysis, a text-book for the use of students of Mathematics and Physics, founded upon the Lectures of J. Willard Gibbs, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1929 [1901]).",
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"plaintext": " J. W. Gibbs, Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics, developed with especial reference to the rational foundation of thermodynamics, (New York: Dover Publications, 1960 [1902]).",
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"plaintext": "Gibbs's other papers are included in both:",
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"plaintext": " The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, in two volumes, eds. H. A. Bumstead and R. G. Van Name, (Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow Press, 1993 [1906]). . For scans of the 1906 printing, see vol. I and vol. II.",
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"plaintext": " The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, in two volumes, eds. W. R. Longley and R. G. Van Name, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1957 [1928]). For scans of the 1928 printing, see vol. I and vol. II.",
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"plaintext": " . Reprinted with some additions in both The Scientific Papers, vol. I, pp. xiii–xxviiii (1906) and The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, vol. I, pp.xiii–xxviiii (1928). Also available here .",
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"plaintext": " D. G. Caldi and G. D. Mostow (eds.), Proceedings of the Gibbs Symposium, Yale University, May 15–17, 1989, (American Mathematical Society and American Institute of Physics, 1990).",
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"plaintext": " W. H. Cropper, \"The Greatest Simplicity: Willard Gibbs\", in Great Physicists, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp.106–123. ",
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"plaintext": " M. J. Crowe, The Evolution of the Idea of a Vectorial System, (New York: Dover, 1994 [1967]). ",
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"plaintext": " J. G. Crowther, Famous American Men of Science, (Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1969 [1937]). ",
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"plaintext": " F. G. Donnan and A. E. Hass (eds.), A Commentary on the Scientific Writings of J. Willard Gibbs, in two volumes, (New York: Arno, 1980 [1936]). . Only vol I. is currently available online.",
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"plaintext": " P. Duhem, Josiah-Willard Gibbs à propos de la publication de ses Mémoires scientifiques, (Paris: A. Herman, 1908).",
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"plaintext": " C. S. Hastings, \"Josiah Willard Gibbs\", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 6, 373–393 (1909).",
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"plaintext": " M. J. Klein, \"Gibbs, Josiah Willard\", in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 5, (Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008), pp.386–393.",
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"plaintext": " M. Rukeyser, Willard Gibbs: American Genius, (Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow Press, 1988 [1942]). ",
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"plaintext": " R. J. Seeger, J. Willard Gibbs, American mathematical physicist par excellence, (Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press, 1974). ",
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"plaintext": " L. P. Wheeler, Josiah Willard Gibbs, The History of a Great Mind, (Woodbridge, CT: Ox Bow Press, 1998 [1951]). ",
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"plaintext": " A. S. Wightman, \"Convexity and the notion of equilibrium state in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics\". Published as an introduction to R. B. Israel, Convexity in the Theory of Lattice Gases, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), pp.ix–lxxxv. ",
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"plaintext": " E. B. Wilson, \"Reminiscences of Gibbs by a student and colleague\", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 37, 401–416 (1931).",
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"plaintext": " \"Gibbs\" by Muriel Rukeyser",
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"plaintext": " Reflections on Gibbs: From Statistical Physics to the Amistad by Leo Kadanoff, Prof.",
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"plaintext": "A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric (below-average precipitation), surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and cause harm to the local economy. Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and subsequent wildfires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour.",
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"plaintext": "Drought is a recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world, becoming more extreme and less predictable due to climate change, which dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic and social. Environmental effects include the drying of wetlands, more and larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic consequences include lower agricultural, forests, game and fishing output, higher food-production costs, problems with water supply for the energy sector and disruption of water supplies for municipal economies. Social and health costs include the negative effect on the health of people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crisis. ",
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"plaintext": "Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti), have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. ",
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"plaintext": "The most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama Desert in Chile (400 years). Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as \"disasters\" due to the impact on food availability and the rest of society. Humans have often tried to explain droughts as either a natural disaster, caused by humans, or the result of supernatural forces. ",
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"plaintext": "Droughts are defined in three main ways:",
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"plaintext": " Meteorological drought occurs when there is a prolonged time with less than average precipitation. Meteorological drought usually precedes the other kinds of drought.",
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"plaintext": " Agricultural droughts affect crop production or the ecology of the range. This condition can also arise independently from any change in precipitation levels when either increased irrigation or soil conditions and erosion triggered by poorly planned agricultural endeavors cause a shortfall in water available to the crops. Traditionally, it is caused by an extended period of below average precipitation.",
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"plaintext": " Hydrological drought is brought about when the water reserves available in sources such as aquifers, lakes and reservoirs fall below a locally significant threshold. Hydrological drought tends to show up more slowly because it involves stored water that is used but not replenished. Like an agricultural drought, this can be triggered by more than just a loss of rainfall. For instance, around 2007 Kazakhstan was awarded a large amount of money by the World Bank to restore water that had been diverted to other nations from the Aral Sea under Soviet rule. Similar circumstances also place their largest lake, Balkhash, at risk of completely drying out.",
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"plaintext": "As a drought persists, the conditions surrounding it gradually worsen and its impact on the local population gradually increases.",
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"plaintext": "Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall. Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation over a longer duration. Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Droughts occur mainly in areas where normal levels of rainfall are, in themselves, low. If these factors do not support precipitation volumes sufficiently to reach the surface over a sufficient time, the result is a drought. Drought can be triggered by a high level of reflected sunlight and above average prevalence of high pressure systems, winds carrying continental, rather than oceanic air masses, and ridges of high pressure areas aloft can prevent or restrict the developing of thunderstorm activity or rainfall over one certain region. Once a region is within drought, feedback mechanisms such as local arid air, hot conditions which can promote warm core ridging, and minimal evapotranspiration can worsen drought conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Within the tropics, distinct, wet and dry seasons emerge due to the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone or Monsoon trough. The dry season greatly increases drought occurrence, and is characterized by its low humidity, with watering holes and rivers drying up. Because of the lack of these watering holes, many grazing animals are forced to migrate due to the lack of water in search of more fertile lands. Examples of such animals are zebras, elephants, and wildebeest. Because of the lack of water in the plants, bushfires are common. Since water vapor becomes more energetic with increasing temperature, more water vapor is required to increase relative humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures (or to get the temperature to fall to the dew point). Periods of warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production, increase evaporation and transpiration from plants, and worsen drought conditions.",
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"plaintext": "The El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon plays a significant role in drought formation. ENSO comprises two patterns of temperature anomalies in the central Pacific Ocean, known as La Niña and El Niño. La Niña events are generally associated with drier and hotter conditions and further exacerbation of drought in California and the Southwestern United States, and to some extent the U.S. Southeast. Meteorological scientists have observed that La Niñas have become more frequent over time. ",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, during El Niño events, drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, and Central America. Winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also drier than normal from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Botswana. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of Southeast Asia and Northern Australia, increasing bush fires, worsening haze, and decreasing air quality dramatically. Drier-than-normal conditions are also in general observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales, and eastern Tasmania from June to August. As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, it causes extensive drought in the western Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2014 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3mm of rain falling in the month and temperatures hitting as high as 35°C on 26 February. The years 1968 and 2005 had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4mm of rain fell.",
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"plaintext": "Human activity can directly trigger exacerbating factors such as over farming, excessive irrigation, deforestation, and erosion adversely impact the ability of the land to capture and hold water. In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind. Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. The wind can cause small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region (deflation). Suspended particles within the wind may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation.",
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"plaintext": "Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess. Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.",
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"plaintext": "Global climate change is expected to trigger droughts with a substantial impact on agriculture throughout the world, and especially in developing nations. Along with drought in some areas, flooding and erosion could increase in others. Some proposed climate change mitigation actions that focus on more active techniques, solar radiation management through the use of a space sunshade for one, may also carry with them increased chances of drought.",
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"plaintext": "There is a rise of compound warm-season droughts in Europe that are concurrent with an increase in potential evapotranspiration.",
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"plaintext": "One can divide the effects of droughts and water shortages into three groups: environmental, economic and social (including health).",
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"plaintext": " In the case of environmental effects: lower surface and subterranean water-levels, lower flow-levels (with a decrease below the minimum leading to direct danger for amphibian life), increased pollution of surface water, the drying out of wetlands, more and larger wildfires, higher deflation intensity, loss of biodiversity, worse health of trees and the appearance of pests and dendroid diseases.",
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"plaintext": " Economic losses include lower agricultural, forests, game and fishing output, higher food-production costs, lower energy-production levels in hydro plants, losses caused by depleted water tourism and transport revenue, problems with water supply for the energy sector and for technological processes in metallurgy, mining, the chemical, paper, wood, foodstuff industries etc., disruption of water supplies for municipal economies. ",
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"plaintext": " Social and health costs include the negative effect on the health of people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves), possible limitation of water supplies, increased pollution levels, high food-costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. This explains why droughts and water scarcity operate as a factor which increases the gap between developed and developing countries.",
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"plaintext": "Effects vary according to vulnerability. For example, subsistence farmers are more likely to migrate during drought because they do not have alternative food-sources. Areas with populations that depend on water sources as a major food-source are more vulnerable to famine.",
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"plaintext": "Common environmental and economic consequences of drought include:",
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"plaintext": " Wildfires, such as Australian bushfires and wildfires in the United States, become more common during times of drought and may cause human deaths.",
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"plaintext": " Dust bowls, themselves a sign of erosion, which further erode the landscape",
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"plaintext": " Habitat damage, affecting both terrestrial and aquatic wildlife",
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"plaintext": " Reduced electricity production due to reduced water-flow through hydroelectric dams",
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"plaintext": " Shortages of water for industrial users",
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"plaintext": " Snake migration, which results in snake-bites",
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"plaintext": " Exposure and oxidation of acid sulfate soils due to falling surface- and ground-water levels.",
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"plaintext": " Reduced water quality, because lower water-flows reduce dilution of pollutants and increase contamination of remaining water-sources. ",
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"plaintext": "Famine and hunger – drought provides too little water to support food crops; malnutrition, dehydration and related diseases",
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"plaintext": " War over natural resources, including water and food",
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"plaintext": " Cyanotoxin accumulation within food chains and water supply (some of which are among the most potent toxins known to science) can cause cancer with low exposure over the long term. High levels of microcystin appeared in San Francisco Bay Area salt-water shellfish and fresh-water supplies throughout the state of California in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Water stress affects plant development and quality in a variety of ways: firstly drought can cause poor germination and impaired seedling development. At the same time plant growth relies on cellular division, cell enlargement, and differentiation. Drought stress impairs mitosis and cell elongation via loss of turgor pressure which results in poor growth. Development of leaves is also dependent upon turgor pressure, concentration of nutrients, and carbon assimilates all of which are reduced by drought conditions, thus drought stress lead to a decrease in leaf size and number. Plant height, biomass, leaf size and stem girth has been shown to decrease in maize under water limiting conditions. Crop yield is also negatively effected by drought stress, the reduction in crop yield results from a decrease in photosynthetic rate, changes in leaf development, and altered allocation of resources all due to drought stress. Crop plants exposed to drought stress suffer from reductions in leaf water potential and transpiration rate. Water-use efficiency increases in crops such as wheat while decreasing in others, such as potatoes. ",
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"plaintext": "Plants need water for the uptake of nutrients from the soil, and for the transport of nutrients throughout the plant: drought conditions limit these functions leading to stunted growth. Drought stress also causes a decrease in photosynthetic activity in plants due to the reduction of photosynthetic tissues, stomatal closure, and reduced performance of photosynthetic machinery. This reduction in photosynthetic activity contributes to the reduction in plant growth and yields. Another factor influencing reduced plant growth and yields include the allocation of resources; following drought stress plants will allocate more resources to roots to aid in water uptake increasing root growth and reducing the growth of other plant parts while decreasing yields.",
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"plaintext": "Agriculturally, people can effectively mitigate much of the impact of drought through irrigation and crop rotation. Failure to develop adequate drought mitigation strategies carries a grave human cost in the modern era, exacerbated by ever-increasing population densities. President Roosevelt on April 27, 1935, signed documents creating the Soil Conservation Service (SCS)—now the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). Models of the law were sent to each state where they were enacted. These were the first enduring practical programs to curtail future susceptibility to drought, creating agencies that first began to stress soil conservation measures to protect farm lands today. It was not until the 1950s that there was an importance placed on water conservation was put into the existing laws (NRCS 2014).",
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"plaintext": "Strategies for drought protection, mitigation or relief include:",
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"plaintext": " Dams – many dams and their associated reservoirs supply additional water in times of drought.",
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"plaintext": " Cloud seeding – a form of intentional weather modification to induce rainfall. This remains a hotly debated topic, as the United States National Research Council released a report in 2004 stating that to date, there is still no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of intentional weather modification.",
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"plaintext": " Desalination – use of sea water for irrigation or consumption.",
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"plaintext": " Drought monitoring – Continuous observation of rainfall levels and comparisons with current usage levels can help prevent man-made drought. For instance, analysis of water usage in Yemen has revealed that their water table (underground water level) is put at grave risk by over-use to fertilize their Khat crop. Careful monitoring of moisture levels can also help predict increased risk for wildfires, using such metrics as the Keetch-Byram Drought Index or Palmer Drought Index.",
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"plaintext": " Land use – Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and allow farmers to plant less water-dependent crops in drier years.",
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"plaintext": " Outdoor water-use restriction – Regulating the use of sprinklers, hoses or buckets on outdoor plants, filling pools, and other water-intensive home maintenance tasks. Xeriscaping yards can significantly reduce unnecessary water use by residents of towns and cities.",
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"plaintext": " Rainwater harvesting – Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or other suitable catchments.",
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"plaintext": " Recycled water – Former wastewater (sewage) that has been treated and purified for reuse.",
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"plaintext": " Transvasement – Building canals or redirecting rivers as massive attempts at irrigation in drought-prone areas.",
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"plaintext": "Some large scale droughts in the 21st century included:",
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"plaintext": " The 1997–2009 Millennium Drought in Australia led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a result, many desalination plants were built for the first time (see list).",
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"plaintext": " In 2006, Sichuan Province China experienced its worst drought in modern times with nearly 8 million people and over 7 million cattle facing water shortages.",
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"plaintext": " 12-year drought that was devastating southwest Western Australia, southeast South Australia, Victoria and northern Tasmania was \"very severe and without historical precedent\".",
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"plaintext": " 2015–2018 Cape Town water crisis. This likelihood was tripled by climate change. ",
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"plaintext": "The Darfur conflict in Sudan, also affecting Chad, was fueled by decades of drought; combination of drought, desertification and overpopulation are among the causes of the Darfur conflict, because the Arab Baggara nomads searching for water have to take their livestock further south, to land mainly occupied by non-Arab farming people.",
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"plaintext": "Approximately 2.4billion people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers. India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. Drought in India affecting the Ganges is of particular concern, as it provides drinking water and agricultural irrigation for more than 500million people. The west coast of North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, parts of the Amazon basin experienced the worst drought in 100 years. A 23 July 2006 article reported Woods Hole Research Center results showing that the forest in its present form could survive only three years of drought. Scientists at the Brazilian National Institute of Amazonian Research argue in the article that this drought response, coupled with the effects of deforestation on regional climate, are pushing the rainforest towards a \"tipping point\" where it would irreversibly start to die. It concludes that the rainforest is on the brink of being turned into savanna or desert, with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate. According to the WWF, the combination of climate change and deforestation increases the drying effect of dead trees that fuels forest fires.",
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"plaintext": "By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid lands commonly known as the outback. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia. In June 2008 it became known that an expert panel had warned of long term, maybe irreversible, severe ecological damage for the whole Murray-Darling basin if it did not receive sufficient water by October 2008. Australia could experience more severe droughts and they could become more frequent in the future, a government-commissioned report said on July 6, 2008. Australian environmentalist Tim Flannery, predicted that unless it made drastic changes, Perth in Western Australia could become the world's first ghost metropolis, an abandoned city with no more water to sustain its population. The long Australian Millennial drought broke in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Recurring droughts leading to desertification in East Africa have created grave ecological catastrophes, prompting food shortages in 1984–85, 2006 and 2011. During the 2011 drought, an estimated 50,000 to 150,000 people were reported to have died, though these figures and the extent of the crisis are disputed. In February 2012, the UN announced that the crisis was over due to a scaling up of relief efforts and a bumper harvest. Aid agencies subsequently shifted their emphasis to recovery efforts, including digging irrigation canals and distributing plant seeds.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, a severe drought struck the western Sahel. The Methodist Relief & Development Fund (MRDF) reported that more than 10 million people in the region were at risk of famine due to a month-long heat wave that was hovering over Niger, Mali, Mauritania and Burkina Faso. A fund of about £20,000 was distributed to the drought-hit countries.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as \"disasters\" due to the impact on food availability and the rest of society. Humans have often tried to explain droughts as either a natural disaster, caused by humans, or the result of supernatural forces. It is among the earliest documented climatic events, present in the Epic of Gilgamesh and tied to the Biblical story of Joseph's arrival in and the later Exodus from ancient Egypt. Hunter-gatherer migrations in 9,500 BC Chile have been linked to the phenomenon, as has the exodus of early humans out of Africa and into the rest of the world around 135,000 years ago. Rituals exist to prevent or avert drought, rainmaking could go from dances to scapegoating to human sacrifices. Nowadays, those ancient practices are for the most part relegated to folklore and replaced by more rational water management.",
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"plaintext": "Historical droughts include:",
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"plaintext": "1540 Central Europe, said to be the “worst drought of the millennium” with eleven months without rain and temperatures of 5–7°C above the average of the 20th century",
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"plaintext": " 1900 India killing between 250,000 and 3.25 million.",
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"plaintext": " 1921–22 Soviet Union in which over 5 million perished from starvation due to drought.",
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"plaintext": " 1928–30 Northwest China resulting in over 3 million deaths by famine.",
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"plaintext": " 1936 and 1941 Sichuan Province China resulting in 5 million and 2.5 million deaths respectively.",
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"plaintext": " GIDMaPS Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System, University of California, Irvine",
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"plaintext": " Water scarcity from FAO Water (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations)",
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"plaintext": " Global Real-Time Drought Media Monitoring",
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| 43,059 | 32,558 | 2,300 | 237 | 0 | 0 | drought | extended period when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply | [
"drouth",
"droughts"
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|
37,336 | 1,107,669,283 | Proleptic_Julian_calendar | [
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37,338 | 1,102,238,679 | Soldier | [
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37,340 | 1,099,407,271 | Paul_Lansky | [
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"plaintext": "Paul Lansky (born 1944) is an American composer. He was educated at Manhattan's High School of Music and Art, Queens College and Princeton University, studying with George Perle and Milton Babbitt, among others. He received his Ph.D. in music from Princeton in 1973. His doctoral dissertation consisted of an essay titled \"Affine music\" and a composition of string quartet. Originally intending to pursue a career in performance, during 1965–66 he played the French horn with the Dorian Wind Quintet. He left the group to attend graduate school. From 1969 until his retirement in 2014 he was on the faculty at Princeton University where he retired as the William Shubael Conant Professor of Music. He chaired the Department from 1991–2000. In 2000 he received a lifetime achievement award from the Society for Electro-Acoustic Music in the United States. In 2009–10 he was the inaugural composer in residence with the Alabama Symphony. In 2016 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He has received grants and awards from the Guggenheim Foundation, the Fromm Foundation and the Koussevitsky foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts and Chamber Music America, among others.",
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"plaintext": "Sounds originating from \"real-world\" sources are the predominant focus of Lansky's computer music: traffic, kids in the kitchen, musical instruments, and most of all speech. Electronic synthesis is frequently used but the main sonic resources are transformations of recorded natural sounds. One of his first large pieces, Six Fantasies on a Poem by Thomas Campion (1979) set the stage. It is based on a reading by his wife Hannah MacKay of a famous poem. The piece is not so much a setting of the poem as it is a study of the contours of a live reading of the poem. The work uses a technique known as linear predictive coding, LPC, which was developed in the 1960s by scientists as a data-reduction technique meant to economize on the amount of data needed for digital voice transmission and is used today in some cell phone communication. It allows for the separation of pitch and speed and the pitch contours of the speech can be altered independently of the speed. Each of the six movements explores a different aspect of speech. This led to a series of \"chatter\" pieces, Idle Chatter, etc. that fragment the speech into a percussive rap-like texture. Other projects included folksong settings (Folk Images), a portrait of a woman (Things She Carried), a contemplation of letters and numbers (Alphabet Book), sounds of the highway (Night Traffic, Ride), blues harmonica, electric guitar, piano improvisation and casual conversation. The bulk of his approximately 70 electronic compositions are contained on ten solo CDs (see Discography). While there are a few pieces for electronics and live instruments the bulk of Lansky's pieces are recorded \"tape\" pieces.",
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"plaintext": " Antokoletz, Elliott. 2001. \"Lansky, Paul\". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.",
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37,341 | 1,106,164,345 | Republican | [
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"plaintext": "In the summer of 1930, Pauling made another European trip, during which he learned about gas-phase electron diffraction from Herman Francis Mark. After returning, he built an electron diffraction instrument at Caltech with a student of his, Lawrence Olin Brockway, and used it to study the molecular structure of a large number of chemical substances.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling introduced the concept of electronegativity in 1932. Using the various properties of molecules, such as the energy required to break bonds and the dipole moments of molecules, he established a scale and an associated numerical value for most of the elementsthe Pauling Electronegativity Scalewhich is useful in predicting the nature of bonds between atoms in molecules.",
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"plaintext": "In 1936, Pauling was promoted to Chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Caltech, and to the position of Director of the Gates and Crellin laboratories of Chemistry. He would hold both positions until 1958. Pauling also spent a year in 1948 at the University of Oxford as George Eastman Visiting Professor and Fellow of Balliol.",
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"plaintext": "In the late 1920s, Pauling began publishing papers on the nature of the chemical bond. Between 1937 and 1938, he took a position as George Fischer Baker Non-Resident Lecturer in Chemistry at Cornell University. While at Cornell, he delivered a series of nineteen lectures and completed the bulk of his famous textbook The Nature of the Chemical Bond. It is based primarily on his work in this area that he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 \"for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances\". Pauling's book has been considered \"chemistry's most influential book of this century and its effective bible\". In the 30 years after its first edition was published in 1939, the book was cited more than 16,000 times. Even today, many modern scientific papers and articles in important journals cite this work, more than seventy years after the first publication.",
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"plaintext": "Part of Pauling's work on the nature of the chemical bond led to his introduction of the concept of orbital hybridization. While it is normal to think of the electrons in an atom as being described by orbitals of types such as s and p, it turns out that in describing the bonding in molecules, it is better to construct functions that partake of some of the properties of each. Thus the one 2s and three 2p orbitals in a carbon atom can be (mathematically) 'mixed' or combined to make four equivalent orbitals (called sp3 hybrid orbitals), which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe carbon compounds such as methane, or the 2s orbital may be combined with two of the 2p orbitals to make three equivalent orbitals (called sp hybrid orbitals), with the remaining 2p orbital unhybridized, which would be the appropriate orbitals to describe certain unsaturated carbon compounds such as ethylene. Other hybridization schemes are also found in other types of molecules.",
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"plaintext": "Another area which he explored was the relationship between ionic bonding, where electrons are transferred between atoms, and covalent bonding, where electrons are shared between atoms on an equal basis. Pauling showed that these were merely extremes, and that for most actual cases of bonding, the quantum-mechanical wave function for a polar molecule AB is a combination of wave functions for covalent and ionic molecules. Here Pauling's electronegativity concept is particularly useful; the electronegativity difference between a pair of atoms will be the surest predictor of the degree of ionicity of the bond.",
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"plaintext": "The third of the topics that Pauling attacked under the overall heading of \"the nature of the chemical bond\" was the accounting of the structure of aromatic hydrocarbons, particularly the prototype, benzene. The best description of benzene had been made by the German chemist Friedrich Kekulé. He had treated it as a rapid interconversion between two structures, each with alternating single and double bonds, but with the double bonds of one structure in the locations where the single bonds were in the other. Pauling showed that a proper description based on quantum mechanics was an intermediate structure which was a blend of each. The structure was a superposition of structures rather than a rapid interconversion between them. The name \"resonance\" was later applied to this phenomenon. In a sense, this phenomenon resembles those of hybridization and also polar bonding, both described above, because all three phenomena involve combining more than one electronic structure to achieve an intermediate result.",
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"plaintext": "In 1929, Pauling published five rules which help to predict and explain crystal structures of ionic compounds. ",
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"plaintext": "These rules concern (1) the ratio of cation radius to anion radius, (2) the electrostatic bond strength, (3) the sharing of polyhedron corners, edges and faces, (4) crystals containing different cations, and (5) the rule of parsimony.",
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"plaintext": "In the mid-1930s, Pauling, strongly influenced by the biologically oriented funding priorities of the Rockefeller Foundation's Warren Weaver, decided to strike out into new areas of interest. Although Pauling's early interest had focused almost exclusively on inorganic molecular structures, he had occasionally thought about molecules of biological importance, in part because of Caltech's growing strength in biology. Pauling interacted with such great biologists as Thomas Hunt Morgan, Theodosius Dobzhanski, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant. His early work in this area included studies of the structure of hemoglobin with his student Charles D. Coryell. He demonstrated that the hemoglobin molecule changes structure when it gains or loses an oxygen molecule. As a result of this observation, he decided to conduct a more thorough study of protein structure in general. He returned to his earlier use of X-ray diffraction analysis. But protein structures were far less amenable to this technique than the crystalline minerals of his former work. The best X-ray pictures of proteins in the 1930s had been made by the British crystallographer William Astbury, but when Pauling tried, in 1937, to account for Astbury's observations quantum mechanically, he could not.",
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"plaintext": "It took eleven years for Pauling to explain the problem: his mathematical analysis was correct, but Astbury's pictures were taken in such a way that the protein molecules were tilted from their expected positions. Pauling had formulated a model for the structure of hemoglobin in which atoms were arranged in a helical pattern, and applied this idea to proteins in general.",
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"plaintext": "In 1951, based on the structures of amino acids and peptides and the planar nature of the peptide bond, Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson correctly proposed the alpha helix and beta sheet as the primary structural motifs in protein secondary structure. This work exemplified Pauling's ability to think unconventionally; central to the structure was the unorthodox assumption that one turn of the helix may well contain a non-integer number of amino acid residues; for the alpha helix it is 3.7 amino acid residues per turn.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling then proposed that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was a triple helix; his model contained several basic mistakes, including a proposal of neutral phosphate groups, an idea that conflicted with the acidity of DNA. Sir Lawrence Bragg had been disappointed that Pauling had won the race to find the alpha helix structure of proteins. Bragg's team had made a fundamental error in making their models of protein by not recognizing the planar nature of the peptide bond. When it was learned at the Cavendish Laboratory that Pauling was working on molecular models of the structure of DNA, James Watson and Francis Crick were allowed to make a molecular model of DNA. They later benefited from unpublished data from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin at King's College which showed evidence for a helix and planar base stacking along the helix axis. Early in 1953 Watson and Crick proposed a correct structure for the DNA double helix. Pauling later cited several reasons to explain how he had been misled about the structure of DNA, among them misleading density data and the lack of high quality X-ray diffraction photographs. During the time Pauling was researching the problem, Rosalind Franklin in England was creating the world's best images. They were key to Watson's and Crick's success. Pauling did not see them before devising his mistaken DNA structure, although his assistant Robert Corey did see at least some of them, while taking Pauling's place at a summer 1952 protein conference in England. Pauling had been prevented from attending because his passport was withheld by the State Department on suspicion that he had Communist sympathies. This led to the legend that Pauling missed the structure of DNA because of the politics of the day (this was at the start of the McCarthy period in the United States). Politics did not play a critical role. Not only did Corey see the images at the time, but Pauling himself regained his passport within a few weeks and toured English laboratories well before writing his DNA paper. He had ample opportunity to visit Franklin's lab and see her work, but chose not to.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling also studied enzyme reactions and was among the first to point out that enzymes bring about reactions by stabilizing the transition state of the reaction, a view which is central to understanding their mechanism of action. He was also among the first scientists to postulate that the binding of antibodies to antigens would be due to a complementarity between their structures. Along the same lines, with the physicist turned biologist Max Delbrück, he wrote an early paper arguing that DNA replication was likely to be due to complementarity, rather than similarity, as suggested by a few researchers. This was made clear in the model of the structure of DNA that Watson and Crick discovered.",
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"plaintext": "In November 1949, Pauling, Harvey Itano, S. J. Singer and Ibert Wells published \"Sickle Cell Anemia, a Molecular Disease\" in the journal Science. It was the first proof of a human disease being caused by an abnormal protein, and sickle cell anemia became the first disease understood at the molecular level. (It was not, however, the first demonstration that variant forms of hemoglobin could be distinguished by electrophoresis, which had been shown several years earlier by Maud Menten and collaborators). Using electrophoresis, they demonstrated that individuals with sickle cell disease have a modified form of hemoglobin in their red blood cells, and that individuals with sickle cell trait have both the normal and abnormal forms of hemoglobin. This was the first demonstration causally linking an abnormal protein to a disease, and also the first demonstration that Mendelian inheritance determines the specific physical properties of proteins, not simply their presence or absence – the dawn of molecular genetics.",
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"plaintext": "His success with sickle cell anemia led Pauling to speculate that a number of other diseases, including mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, might result from flawed genetics. As chairman of the Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and director of the Gates and Crellin Chemical Laboratories, he encouraged the hiring of researchers with a chemical-biomedical approach to mental illness, a direction not always popular with established Caltech chemists.",
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"plaintext": "In 1951, Pauling gave a lecture entitled \"Molecular Medicine\". In the late 1950s, he studied the role of enzymes in brain function, believing that mental illness may be partly caused by enzyme dysfunction.",
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"plaintext": "On September 16, 1952, Pauling opened a new research notebook with the words \"I have decided to attack the problem of the structure of nuclei.\" On October 15, 1965, Pauling published his Close-Packed Spheron Model of the atomic nucleus in two well respected journals, Science and the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. For nearly three decades, until his death in 1994, Pauling published numerous papers on his spheron cluster model.",
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"plaintext": "The basic idea behind Pauling's spheron model is that a nucleus can be viewed as a set of \"clusters of nucleons\". The basic nucleon clusters include the deuteron [np], helion [pnp], and triton [npn]. Even–even nuclei are described as being composed of clusters of alpha particles, as has often been done for light nuclei. Pauling attempted to derive the shell structure of nuclei from pure geometrical considerations related to Platonic solids rather than starting from an independent particle model as in the usual shell model. In an interview given in 1990 Pauling commented on his model:",
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"plaintext": "Pauling had been practically apolitical until World War II. At the beginning of the Manhattan Project, Robert Oppenheimer invited him to be in charge of the Chemistry division of the project. However, he declined, not wanting to uproot his family.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling did, however, work on research for the military. He was a principal investigator on 14 OSRD contracts. The National Defense Research Committee called a meeting on October 3, 1940, wanting an instrument that could reliably measure oxygen content in a mixture of gases, so that they could measure oxygen conditions in submarines and airplanes. In response Pauling designed the Pauling oxygen meter, which was developed and manufactured by Arnold O. Beckman, Inc. After the war, Beckman adapted the oxygen analyzers for use in incubators for premature babies.",
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"plaintext": "In 1942, Pauling successfully submitted a proposal on \"The Chemical Treatment of Protein Solutions in the Attempt to Find a Substitute for Human Serum for Transfusions\". His project group, which included J. B. Koepfli and Dan Campbell, developed a possible replacement for human blood plasma in transfusions: polyoxy gelatin (Oxypolygelatin).",
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"plaintext": "Other wartime projects with more direct military applications included work on explosives, rocket propellants and the patent for an armor-piercing shell. In October 1948, Pauling, along with Lee A. DuBridge, William A. Fowler, Max Mason, and Bruce H. Sage, was awarded a Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman. The citation credits him for his \"imaginative mind\", \"brilliant success\", and \"exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services. In 1949, he served as president of the American Chemical Society.",
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"plaintext": "The aftermath of the Manhattan Project and his wife Ava's pacifism changed Pauling's life profoundly, and he became a peace activist.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1945, a \"May-Johnson Bill\" began that would become the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (signed August 1, 1946). In November 1945, Pauling spoke to the Independent Citizens Committee of the Arts, Sciences and Professions (ICCASP) on atomic weapons; shortly after, wife Ava and he accepted membership. On January 21, 1946, the group met to discuss academic freedom, during which Pauling said, \"There is, of course, always a threat to academic freedom – as there is to the other aspects of the freedom and rights of the individual, in the continued attacks which are made on this freedom, these rights, by the selfish, the overly ambitious, the misguided, the unscrupulous, who seek to oppress the great body of mankind in order that they themselves may profit – and we must always be on the alert against this threat, and must fight it with vigor when it becomes dangerous.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1946, he joined the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists, chaired by Albert Einstein. Its mission was to warn the public of the dangers associated with the development of nuclear weapons.",
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"plaintext": "His political activism prompted the US State Department to deny him a passport in 1952, when he was invited to speak at a scientific conference in London. In a speech before the US Senate on June 6 of the same year, Senator Wayne Morse publicly denounced the action of the State Department, and urged the Passport Division to reverse its decision. Pauling and his wife Ava were then issued a \"limited passport\" to attend the aforementioned conference in England. His full passport was restored in 1954, shortly before the ceremony in Stockholm where he received his first Nobel Prize.",
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"plaintext": "Joining Einstein, Bertrand Russell and eight other leading scientists and intellectuals, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto issued July 9, 1955. He also supported the Mainau Declaration of July 15, 1955, signed by 52 Nobel Prize laureates.",
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"plaintext": "In May 1957, working with Washington University in St. Louis professor Barry Commoner, Pauling began to circulate a petition among scientists to stop nuclear testing. On January 15, 1958, Pauling and his wife presented a petition to United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld calling for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons. It was signed by 11,021 scientists representing fifty countries.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1958, Pauling participated in a publicly televised debate with the atomic physicist Edward Teller about the actual probability of fallout causing mutations. Later in 1958, Pauling published No more war!, in which he not only called for an end to the testing of nuclear weapons but also an end to war itself. He proposed that a World Peace Research Organization be set up as part of the United Nations to \"attack the problem of preserving the peace\".",
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"plaintext": "Pauling also supported the work of the St. Louis Citizen's Committee for Nuclear Information (CNI). This group, headed by Barry Commoner, Eric Reiss, M. W. Friedlander and John Fowler, organized a longitudinal study to measure radioactive strontium-90 in the baby teeth of children across North America. The \"Baby Tooth Survey,\" published by Louise Reiss, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass. The Committee for Nuclear Information is frequently credited for its significant contribution to supporting the test ban, as is the ground-breaking research conducted by Reiss and the \"Baby Tooth Survey\".",
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"plaintext": "Many of Pauling's critics, including scientists who appreciated the contributions that he had made in chemistry, disagreed with his political positions and saw him as a naïve spokesman for Soviet communism. In 1960, he was ordered to appear before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee, which termed him \"the number one scientific name in virtually every major activity of the Communist peace offensive in this country\". A headline in Life magazine characterized his 1962 Nobel Prize as \"A Weird Insult from Norway\".",
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"plaintext": "Pauling was a frequent target of the National Review magazine. In an article entitled \"The Collaborators\" in the magazine's July 17, 1962, issue, Pauling was referred to not only as a collaborator, but as a \"fellow traveler\" of proponents of Soviet-style communism. In 1965, Pauling sued the magazine, its publisher William Rusher, and its editor William F. Buckley, Jr for $1 million. He lost both his libel suits and the 1968 appeal.",
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"plaintext": "His peace activism, his frequent travels, and his enthusiastic expansion into chemical-biomedical research all aroused opposition at Caltech. In 1958, the Caltech Board of Trustees demanded that Pauling step down as chairman of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division. Although he had retained tenure as a full professor, Pauling chose to resign from Caltech after he received the Nobel peace prize money. He spent the next three years at the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions (1963–1967). In 1967, he moved to the University of California at San Diego, but remained there only briefly, leaving in 1969 in part because of political tensions with the Reagan-era board of regents. From 1969 to 1974, he accepted a position as Professor of Chemistry at Stanford University.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson's policy of increasing America's involvement in the Vietnam War caused an anti-war movement that the Paulings joined with enthusiasm. Pauling denounced the war as unnecessary and unconstitutional. He made speeches, signed protest letters and communicated personally with the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh, and gave the lengthy written response to President Johnson. His efforts were ignored by the American government.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling was awarded the International Lenin Peace Prize by the USSR in 1970. He continued his peace activism in the following years. He and his wife Ava helped to found the International League of Humanists in 1974. He was president of the scientific advisory board of the World Union for Protection of Life and also one of the signatories of the Dubrovnik-Philadelphia Statement of 1974/1976. Linus Carl Pauling was an honorary president and member of the International Academy of Science, Munich until the end of his life.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling supported a limited form of eugenics by suggesting that human carriers of defective genes be given a compulsory visible mark – such as a forehead tattoo – to discourage potential mates with the same defect, in order to reduce the number of babies with diseases such as sickle cell anemia.",
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"plaintext": "In 1965, Pauling read Niacin Therapy in Psychiatry by Abram Hoffer and theorized vitamins might have important biochemical effects unrelated to their prevention of associated deficiency diseases. In 1968, Pauling published a brief paper in Science entitled \"Orthomolecular psychiatry\", giving a name to the popular but controversial megavitamin therapy movement of the 1970s, and advocating that \"orthomolecular therapy, the provision for the individual person of the optimum concentrations of important normal constituents of the brain, may be the preferred treatment for many mentally ill patients.\" Pauling coined the term \"orthomolecular\" to refer to the practice of varying the concentration of substances normally present in the body to prevent and treat disease. His ideas formed the basis of orthomolecular medicine, which is not generally practiced by conventional medical professionals and has been strongly criticized.",
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"plaintext": "In 1973, with Arthur B. Robinson and another colleague, Pauling founded the Institute of Orthomolecular Medicine in Menlo Park, California, which was soon renamed the Linus Pauling Institute of Science and Medicine. Pauling directed research on vitamin C, but also continued his theoretical work in chemistry and physics until his death. In his last years, he became especially interested in the possible role of vitamin C in preventing atherosclerosis and published three case reports on the use of lysine and vitamin C to relieve angina pectoris. During the 1990s, Pauling put forward a comprehensive plan for the treatment of heart disease using lysine and vitamin C. In 1996, a website was created expounding Pauling's treatment which it referred to as Pauling Therapy. Proponents of Pauling Therapy believe that heart disease can be treated and even cured using only lysine and Vitamin C and without drugs or heart operations.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling's work on vitamin C in his later years generated much controversy. He was first introduced to the concept of high-dose vitamin C by biochemist Irwin Stone in 1966. After becoming convinced of its worth, Pauling took 3grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds. Excited by his own perceived results, he researched the clinical literature and published Vitamin C and the Common Cold in 1970. He began a long clinical collaboration with the British cancer surgeon Ewan Cameron in 1971 on the use of intravenous and oral vitamin C as cancer therapy for terminal patients. Cameron and Pauling wrote many technical papers and a popular book, Cancer and Vitamin C, that discussed their observations. Pauling made vitamin C popular with the public and eventually published two studies of a group of 100 allegedly terminal patients that claimed vitamin C increased survival by as much as four times compared to untreated patients.",
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"plaintext": "A re-evaluation of the claims in 1982 found that the patient groups were not actually comparable, with the vitamin C group being less sick on entry to the study, and judged to be \"terminal\" much earlier than the comparison group. Later clinical trials conducted by the Mayo Clinic also concluded that high-dose (10,000mg) vitamin C was no better than placebo at treating cancer and that there was no benefit to high-dose vitamin C. The failure of the clinical trials to demonstrate any benefit resulted in the conclusion that vitamin C was not effective in treating cancer; the medical establishment concluded that his claims that vitamin C could prevent colds or treat cancer were quackery. Pauling denounced the conclusions of these studies and handling of the final study as \"fraud and deliberate misrepresentation\", and criticized the studies for using oral, rather than intravenous vitamin C (which was the dosing method used for the first ten days of Pauling's original study). Pauling also criticised the Mayo clinic studies because the controls were taking vitamin C during the trial, and because the duration of the treatment with vitamin C was short; Pauling advocated continued high-dose vitamin C for the rest of the cancer patient's life whereas the Mayo clinic patients in the second trial were treated with vitamin C for a median of 2.5 months.",
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"plaintext": "Ultimately the negative findings of the Mayo Clinic studies ended general interest in vitamin C as a treatment for cancer. Despite this, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for treating cancer and the common cold, working with The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential to use vitamin C in the treatment of brain-injured children. He later collaborated with the Canadian physician Abram Hoffer on a micronutrient regime, including high-dose vitamin C, as adjunctive cancer therapy. A 2009 review also noted differences between the studies, such as the Mayo clinic not using intravenous Vitamin C, and suggested further studies into the role of vitamin C when given intravenously. Results from most clinical trials suggest that modest vitamin C supplementation alone or with other nutrients offers no benefit in the prevention of cancer.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17, 1923. The marriage lasted until Ava Pauling's death in 1981. They had four children. Linus Carl Jr. (born 1925) became a psychiatrist; Peter (1931–2003) a crystallographer at University College London; Edward Crellin (1937–1997) a biologist; and Linda Helen (born 1932) married noted Caltech geologist and glaciologist Barclay Kamb.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling was raised as a member of the Lutheran Church, but later joined the Unitarian Universalist Church. Two years before his death, in a published dialogue with Buddhist philosopher Daisaku Ikeda, Pauling publicly declared his atheism.",
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"plaintext": "On January 30, 1960, Pauling and his wife were using a cabin about south of Monterey, California, and he decided to go for a walk on a coastal trail. He got lost and tried to climb the rocky cliff, but reached a large overhanging rock about above the ocean. He decided it was safest to stay there, and meanwhile he was reported missing. He spent a sleepless night on the cliff before being found after almost 24 hours.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling died of prostate cancer on August 19, 1994, at 19:20 at home in Big Sur, California. He was 93 years old. A grave marker for Pauling was placed in Oswego Pioneer Cemetery in Lake Oswego, Oregon by his sister Pauline, but Pauling's ashes, along with those of his wife, were not buried there until 2005.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling's discoveries led to decisive contributions in a diverse array of areas including around 350 publications in the fields of quantum mechanics, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, protein structure, molecular biology, and medicine.",
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"plaintext": "His work on chemical bonding marks him as one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry. The Nature of the Chemical Bond was the standard work for many years, and concepts like hybridization and electronegativity remain part of standard chemistry textbooks. While his Valence bond approach fell short of accounting quantitatively for some of the characteristics of molecules, such as the color of organometallic complexes, and would later be eclipsed by the molecular orbital theory of Robert Mulliken, Valence Bond Theory still competes, in its modern form, with Molecular Orbital Theory and density functional theory (DFT) as a way of describing chemical phenomena. Pauling's work on crystal structure contributed significantly to the prediction and elucidation of the structures of complex minerals and compounds. His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a fundamental foundation for the study of protein structure.",
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"plaintext": "Francis Crick acknowledged Pauling as the \"father of molecular biology\". His discovery of sickle cell anemia as a \"molecular disease\" opened the way toward examining genetically acquired mutations at a molecular level.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling's 1951 publication with Robert B. Corey and H. R. Branson, \"The Structure of Proteins: Two Hydrogen-Bonded Helical Configurations of the Polypeptide Chain,\" was a key early finding in the then newly emerging field of molecular biology. This publication was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the Department of Chemistry, Caltech, in 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Oregon State University completed construction of the $77 million, Linus Pauling Science Center in the late 2000s, now housing the bulk of Oregon State's chemistry classrooms, labs, and instruments.",
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"plaintext": "On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a 41 cent stamp honoring Pauling designed by artist Victor Stabin. His description reads: \"A remarkably versatile scientist, structural chemist Linus Pauling (1901–1994) won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for determining the nature of the chemical bond linking atoms into molecules. His work in establishing the field of molecular biology; his studies of hemoglobin led to the classification of sickle cell anemia as a molecular disease.\" The other scientists on this sheet of stamps included Gerty Cori, biochemist, Edwin Hubble, astronomer, and John Bardeen, physicist.",
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"plaintext": "California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008, that Pauling would be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony took place December 15, 2008. Pauling's son was asked to accept the honor in his place.",
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"plaintext": "By proclamation of Gov. John Kitzhaber in the state of Oregon, February 28 has been named \"Linus Pauling Day\". The Linus Pauling Institute still exists, but moved in 1996 from Palo Alto, California, to Corvallis, Oregon, where it is part of the Linus Pauling Science Center at Oregon State University. The Valley Library Special Collections at Oregon State University contain the Ava Helen and Linus Pauling Papers, including digitized versions of Pauling's forty-six research notebooks.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, Caltech commemorated Linus Pauling with a Symposium and Lectureship. The Pauling Lecture series at Caltech began in 1989 with a lecture by Pauling himself. The Caltech Chemistry Department renamed room 22 of Gates Hall the Linus Pauling Lecture Hall, since Pauling spent so much time there.",
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"plaintext": "Other places named after Pauling include Pauling Street in Foothill Ranch, California; Linus Pauling Drive in Hercules, California; Linus and Ava Helen Pauling Hall at Soka University of America in Aliso Viejo, California; Linus Pauling Middle School in Corvallis, Oregon; and Pauling Field, a small airfield located in Condon, Oregon, where Pauling spent his youth. There is a psychedelic rock band in Houston, Texas, named The Linus Pauling Quartet.",
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"plaintext": "The asteroid 4674 Pauling in the inner asteroid belt, discovered by Eleanor F. Helin, was named after Linus Pauling in 1991, on his 90th birthday.",
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"plaintext": "Linus Torvalds, developer of the Linux kernel, is named after Pauling.",
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"plaintext": "Nobel laureate Peter Agre has said that Linus Pauling inspired him.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory named its distinguished postdoctoral program in his honor, as the Linus Pauling Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.",
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"plaintext": "Pauling received numerous awards and honors during his career, including the following:",
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"plaintext": " 1931 ACS Award in Pure Chemistry",
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"plaintext": " 1931 Irving Langmuir Award, American Chemical Society.",
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"plaintext": " 1940 Alpha Chi Sigma, professional chemistry fraternity.",
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"plaintext": " 1941 Nichols Medal, New York Section, American Chemical Society.",
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"plaintext": " 1946 Willard Gibbs Award, Chicago section of the American Chemical Society.",
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"plaintext": " 1947 Davy Medal, Royal Society.",
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"plaintext": " 1947 T. W. Richards Medal, Northeastern Section of the American Chemical Society.",
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"plaintext": " 1948 Presidential Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman of the United States.",
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"plaintext": " 1948 Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London (ForMemRS)",
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"plaintext": " 1951 Gilbert N. Lewis medal, California section of the American Chemical Society.",
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"plaintext": " 1952 Pasteur Medal, Biochemical Society of France.",
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"plaintext": " 1954 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.",
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"plaintext": " 1955 Addis Medal, National Nephrosis Foundation.",
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"plaintext": " 1955 John Phillips Memorial Award, American College of Physicians.",
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"plaintext": " 1956 Avogadro Medal, Italian Academy of Science.",
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"plaintext": " 1957 Paul Sabatier Medal.",
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"plaintext": " 1957 Pierre Fermat Medal in Mathematics (awarded for only the sixth time in three centuries).",
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"plaintext": " 1957 International Grotius Medal.",
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"plaintext": " 1959 Messenger Lectureship",
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"plaintext": " Greatly revised and expanded in 1947, 1953, and 1970. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1988.",
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"plaintext": " Nakamura, Jeanne, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. \"Catalytic creativity: The case of Linus Pauling.\" American Psychologist 56.4 (2001): 337+.",
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"plaintext": " Strasser, Bruno J. \"A world in one dimension: Linus Pauling, Francis Crick and the central dogma of molecular biology.\" History and philosophy of the life sciences (2006): 491–512 online.",
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"plaintext": " Strasser, Bruno J. \"Linus Pauling's “molecular diseases”: Between history and memory.\" American journal of medical genetics 115.2 (2002): 83–93 online.",
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"plaintext": " Crick, Francis, \"The Impact of Linus Pauling on Molecular Biology\" (transcribed from video at the 1995 Oregon State University symposium)",
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"plaintext": "Initial designs suffered from the potentially catastrophic problem that friction between the shot and black powder during the high acceleration down the gun bore could sometimes cause premature ignition of the powder. Various solutions were tried, with limited if any success. However, in 1852 Colonel Boxer proposed using a diaphragm to separate the bullets from the bursting charge; this proved successful and was adopted the following year. As a buffer to prevent lead shot deforming, a resin was used as a packing material between the shot. A useful side effect of using the resin was that the combustion also gave a visual reference upon the shell bursting, as the resin shattered into a cloud of dust.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1870s William Armstrong provided a design with the bursting charge in the head and the shell wall made of steel and hence much thinner than previous cast-iron shrapnel shell walls. While the thinner shell wall and absence of a central tube allowed the shell to carry far more bullets, it had the disadvantage that the bursting charge separated the bullets from the shell casing by firing the case forward and at the same time slowing the bullets down as they were ejected through the base of the shell casing, rather than increasing their velocity. Britain adopted this solution for several smaller calibres (below 6-inch) but by World War I few if any such shells remained.",
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"plaintext": "The final shrapnel shell design, adopted in the 1880s, bore little similarity to Henry Shrapnel's original design other than its spherical bullets and time fuse. It used a much thinner forged steel shell case with a timer fuse in the nose and a tube running through the centre to convey the ignition flash to a gunpowder bursting charge in the shell base. The use of steel allowed a thinner shell wall, allowing space for many more bullets. It also withstood the force of the powder charge without shattering, so that the bullets were fired forward out of the shell case with increased velocity, much like a shotgun. This design came to be adopted by all countries and was in standard use when World War I began in 1914. During the 1880s, when both the old cast-iron and modern forged-steel shrapnel shell designs were in British service, British ordnance manuals referred to the older cast-iron design as \"Boxer shrapnel\", apparently to differentiate it from the modern steel design.",
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"plaintext": "The maximum possible range, typically beyond , was beyond useful shrapnel combat ranges for normal field guns due to loss of accuracy and the fact that at extreme range the projectiles descended relatively steeply and hence the \"cone\" of bullets covered a relatively small area.",
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"plaintext": "At a more typical combat range of , giving a fairly flat trajectory and hence a long \"beaten zone\" for the bullets, a typical 3-inch or 75-mm field gun shrapnel shell would have a velocity of approximately 900 feet/second. The bursting charge would add a possible 150 feet/second, giving a bullet velocity of 1,050 feet/second. This would give each bullet approximately 418 foot-pounds: seven times the assumed energy required to disable a man.",
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"plaintext": "For larger guns which had lower velocities, correspondingly larger balls were used so that each individual ball carried enough energy to be lethal.",
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"plaintext": "Most engagements using guns in this size range used direct fire at enemy from to distant, at which ranges the residual shell velocity was correspondingly higher, as in the table - at least in the earlier stages of World War 1.",
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"plaintext": "The other factor was the trajectory. The shrapnel bullets were typically lethal for about from normal field guns after bursting and over from heavy field guns. To make maximum use of these distances a flat trajectory and hence high velocity gun was required. The pattern in Europe was that the armies with higher-velocity guns tended to use heavier bullets because they could afford to have fewer bullets per shell.",
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"plaintext": "The important points to note about shrapnel shells and bullets in their final stage of development in World War I are:",
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"plaintext": "They used the property of carrying power, whereby if two projectiles are fired with the same velocity, then the heavier one goes farther. Bullets packed into a heavier carrier shell went farther than they would individually.",
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"plaintext": "The shell body itself was not designed to be lethal: its sole function was to transport the bullets close to the target, and it fell to the ground intact after the bullets were released. A battlefield where a shrapnel barrage had been fired was afterwards typically littered with intact empty shell bodies, fuzes and central tubes. Troops under a shrapnel barrage would attempt to convey any of these intact fuzes they found to their own artillery units, as the time setting on the fuze could be used to calculate the shell's range and hence identify the firing gun's position, allowing it to be targeted in a counter-barrage.",
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"plaintext": "They depended almost entirely on the shell's velocity for their lethality: there was no lateral explosive effect.",
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"plaintext": "A firsthand description of successful British deployment of shrapnel in a defensive barrage during the Third Battle of Ypres, 1917: ... the air is full of yellow spurts of smoke that burst about 30 feet up and shoot towards the earth - just ahead of each of these yellow puffs the earth rises in a lashed-up cloud - shrapnel - and how beautifully placed - long sweeps of it fly along that slope lashing up a good 200 yards of earth at each burst.",
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"plaintext": "During the initial stages of World War I, shrapnel was widely used by all sides as an anti-personnel weapon. It was the only type of shell available for British field guns (13-pounder, 15 pounder and 18-pounder) until October 1914. Shrapnel was effective against troops in the open, particularly massed infantry (advancing or withdrawing). However, the onset of trench warfare from late 1914 led to most armies decreasing their use of shrapnel in favour of high-explosive. Britain continued to use a high percentage of shrapnel shells. New tactical roles included cutting barbed wire and providing \"creeping barrages\" to both screen its own attacking troops and suppressing the enemy defenders to prevent them from shooting at their attackers.",
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"plaintext": "In a creeping barrage fire was 'lifted' from one 'line' to the next as the attackers advanced. These lines were typically apart and the lifts were typically 4 minutes apart. Lifting meant that time fuzes settings had to be changed. The attackers tried to keep as close as possible (as little as 25 yards sometimes) to the bursting shrapnel so as to be on top of the enemy trenches when fire lifted beyond them, and before the enemy could get back to their parapets.",
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"plaintext": "While shrapnel made no impression on trenches and other earthworks, it remained the favoured weapon of the British (at least) to support their infantry assaults by suppressing the enemy infantry and preventing them from manning their trench parapets. This was called 'neutralization' and by the second half of 1915 had become the primary task of artillery supporting an attack. Shrapnel was less hazardous to the assaulting British infantry than high explosives - as long as their own shrapnel burst above or ahead of them, attackers were safe from its effects, whereas high-explosive shells bursting short are potentially lethal within 100 yards or more in any direction. Shrapnel was also useful against counter-attacks, working parties and any other troops in the open.",
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"plaintext": "British Expeditionary Force \"GHQ Artillery Notes No. 5 Wire-cutting\" was issued in June 1916. It prescribed the use of shrapnel for wirecutting, with HE used to scatter the posts and wire when cut. However, there were constraints: the best ranges for 18-pdrs were 1,800–2,400 yards. Shorter ranges meant the flat trajectories might not clear the firers' own parapets, and fuzes could not be set for less than 1,000 yards. The guns had to be overhauled by artificers and carefully calibrated. Furthermore, they needed good platforms with trail and wheels anchored with sandbags, and an observing officer had to monitor the effects on the wire continuously and make any necessary adjustments to range and fuze settings. These instructions were repeated in \"GHQ Artillery Notes No. 3 Artillery in Offensive Operations\", issued in February 1917 with added detail including the amount of ammunition required per yard of wire frontage. The use of shrapnel for wire-cutting was also highlighted in RA \"Training Memoranda No. 2 1939\".",
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"plaintext": "Shrapnel provided a useful \"screening\" effect from the smoke of the black-powder bursting charges when the British used it in \"creeping barrages\".",
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"plaintext": "One of the key factors that contributed to the heavy casualties sustained by the British at the Battle of the Somme was the perceived belief that shrapnel would be effective at cutting the barbed wire entanglements in no man's land (although it has been suggested that the reason for the use of shrapnel as a wire-cutter at the Somme was because Britain lacked the capacity to manufacture enough HE shell). This perception was reinforced by the successful deployment of shrapnel shells against Germany's barbed wire entanglements in the 1915 Battle of Neuve Chapelle, but the Germans thickened their barbed wire strands after that battle. As a result, shrapnel was later only effective in killing enemy personnel; even if the conditions were correct, with the angle of descent being flat to maximise the number of bullets going through the entanglements, the probability of a shrapnel ball hitting a thin line of barbed wire and successfully cutting it was extremely low. The bullets also had limited destructive effect and were stopped by sandbags, so troops behind protection or in bunkers were generally safe. Additionally, steel helmets, including both the German Stahlhelm and the British Brodie helmet, could resist Shrapnel bullets and protect the wearer from head injury:",
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"plaintext": "... suddenly, with a great clanging thud, I was hit on the forehead and knocked flying onto the floor of the trench... a shrapnel bullet had hit my helmet with great violence, without piercing it, but sufficiently hard to dent it. If I had, as had been usual up until a few days previously, been wearing a cap, then the Regiment would have had one more man killed.",
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"plaintext": "A shrapnel shell was more expensive than a high-explosive one and required higher grade steel for the shell body. They were also harder to use correctly because getting the correct fuze running time was critical in order to burst the shell in the right place. This required considerable skill by the observation officer when engaging moving targets.",
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"plaintext": "An added complication was that the actual fuze running time was affected by the meteorological conditions, with the variation in gun muzzle velocity being an added complication. However, the British used fuze indicators at each gun that determined the correct fuze running time (length) corrected for muzzle velocity.",
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"plaintext": "With the advent of relatively insensitive high explosives which could be used as the filling for shells, it was found that the casing of a properly designed high-explosive shell fragmented effectively . For example, the detonation of an average 105mm shell produces several thousand high-velocity (1,000 to 1,500m/s) fragments, a lethal (at very close range) blast overpressure and, if a surface or sub-surface burst, a useful cratering and anti-materiel effect — all in a munition much less complex than the later versions of the shrapnel shell. However, this fragmentation was often lost when shells penetrated soft ground, and because some fragments went in all directions it was a hazard to assaulting troops.",
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"plaintext": "One item of note is the \"universal shell\", a type of field gun shell developed by Krupp of Germany in the early 1900s. This shell could function as either a shrapnel shell or high explosive projectile. The shell had a modified fuze, and, instead of resin as the packing between the shrapnel balls, TNT was used. When a timed fuze was set the shell functioned as a shrapnel round, ejecting the balls and igniting (not detonating) the TNT, giving a visible puff of black smoke. When allowed to impact, the TNT filling would detonate, becoming a high-explosive shell with a very large amount of low-velocity fragmentation and a milder blast. Due to its complexity it was dropped in favour of a simple high-explosive shell.",
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"plaintext": "During World War I the UK also used shrapnel pattern shells to carry \"pots\" instead of \"bullets\". These were incendiary shells with seven pots using a thermite compound.",
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"plaintext": "When World War I began the United States also had what it referred to as the \"Ehrhardt high-explosive shrapnel\" in its inventory. It appears to be similar to the German design, with bullets embedded in TNT rather than resin, together with a quantity of explosive in the shell nose. Douglas Hamilton mentions this shell type in passing, as \"not as common as other types\" in his comprehensive treatises on manufacturing shrapnel and high explosive shells of 1915 and 1916, but gives no manufacturing details. Nor does Ethan Viall in 1917. Hence the US appears to have ceased its manufacture early in the war, presumably based on the experience of other combatants.",
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"plaintext": "A new British streamlined shrapnel shell, Mk 3D, had been developed for BL 60 pounder gun in the early 1930s, containing 760 bullets. There was some use of shrapnel by the British in the campaigns in East and North East Africa at the beginning of the war, where 18-pdr and 4.5-in (114mm) howitzers were used. By World War II shrapnel shells, in the strict sense of the word, fell out of use, the last recorded use of shrapnel being 60 pdr shells fired in Burma in 1943. In 1945 the British conducted successful trials with shrapnel shells fuzed with VT. However, shrapnel was not developed as munitions for any new British artillery models after World War I.",
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"plaintext": "Although not strictly shrapnel, a 1960s weapons project produced splintex shells for 90 and 106mm recoilless rifles and 105mm howitzers where it was called a \"beehive\" round. Unlike the shrapnel shells’ balls, the splintex shells contained flechettes. The result was the 105mm M546 APERS-T (anti-personnel-tracer) round, first used in the Vietnam War in 1966. The shell consisted of approximately 8,000 one-half gram flechettes arranged in five tiers, a time fuze, body shearing detonators, a central flash tube, a smokeless propellant charge with a dye marker contained in the base and a tracer element. The shell functioned as follows: the time fuze fired, the flash traveled down the flash tube, the shearing detonators fired, and the forward body split into four pieces. The body and first four tiers were dispersed by the projectile's spin, the last tier and visual marker by the powder charge itself. The flechettes spread, mainly due to spin, from the point of burst in an ever-widening cone along the projectile's previous trajectory prior to bursting. The round was complex to make, but is a highly effective anti-personnel weapon soldiers reported that after beehive rounds were fired during an overrun attack, many enemy dead had their hands nailed to the wooden stocks of their rifles, and these dead could be dragged to mass graves by the rifle. It is said that the name beehive was given to the munition type due to the noise of the flechettes moving through the air resembling that of a swarm of bees.",
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"plaintext": "Though shrapnel rounds are now rarely used, apart from the beehive munitions, there are other modern rounds, that use, or have used, the shrapnel principle. The DM 111 20mm cannon round used for close range air defense, the flechette-filled 40mm HVCC (40 x 53mm HV grenade), the 35mm cannon (35 × 228mm) AHEAD ammunition (152 x 3.3 g tungsten cylinders), RWM Schweiz 30 × 173mm air-bursting munition, five-inch (127 mm) shotgun projectile (KE-ET) and possibly more. Also, many modern armies have canister shot ammunition for tank and artillery guns, the XM1028 round for the 120mm M256 tank gun being one example (approx 1150 tungsten balls at 1,400m/s).",
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"plaintext": "At least some anti-ballistic missiles (ABMs) use shrapnel-like warheads instead of the more common blast-fragmentation types. As with a blast-frag warhead, the use of this type of warhead does not require a direct body-on-body impact, so greatly reduces tracking and steering accuracy requirements. At a predetermined distance from the incoming re-entry vehicle (RV) the warhead releases, in the case of the ABM warhead by an explosive expulsion charge, an array of mainly rod-like sub-projectiles into the RV's flight path. Unlike a blast-frag warhead, the expulsion charge is only needed to release the sub-projectiles from the main warhead, not to accelerate them to high velocity. The velocity required to penetrate the RV's casing comes from the high terminal velocity of the warhead, similar to the shrapnel shell's principle. The reason for the use of this type of warhead and not a blast-frag is that the fragments produced by a blast-frag warhead cannot guarantee penetration of the RV's casing. By using rod-like sub-projectiles, a much greater thickness of material can be penetrated, greatly increasing the potential for disruption of the incoming RV.",
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"plaintext": "The Starstreak missile uses a similar system, with three metal darts splitting from the missile prior to impact, although in the case of Starstreak these darts are guided.",
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"plaintext": "List of cannon projectiles",
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"plaintext": "Claymore mine",
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"plaintext": " Bethel, HA. 1911. Modern Artillery in the Field - a description of the artillery of the field army, and the principles and methods of its employment. London: Macmillan and Co Limited",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Hogg, OFG. 1970. Artillery: its origin, heyday and decline. London: C. Hurst & Company.",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Keegan, John. The Face of Battle. London: Jonathan Cape, 1976. ",
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"plaintext": " A. MARSHALL, F.I.C. (Chemical Inspector, Indian Ordnance Department), \"The Invention and Development of the Shrapnel Shell\" from Journal of the Royal Artillery, January, 1920",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": " Sheldon, Jack (2007). The German Army on the Somme 1914–1916. Barnsley, South York, UK: Pen & Sword Military. . .",
"section_idx": 11,
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"plaintext": "Douglas T Hamilton, Shrapnel Shell Manufacture. A Comprehensive Treatise. New York: Industrial Press, 1915",
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"plaintext": "Various authors, \"Shrapnel and other war material\" : Reprint of articles in American Machinist New York : McGraw-Hill, 1915",
"section_idx": 12,
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| 750,604 | 6,591 | 569 | 80 | 0 | 0 | Shrapnel shell | anti-personnel artillery shell which carried a large number of individual bullets | []
|
37,346 | 1,104,630,714 | Henry_Shrapnel | [
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"plaintext": "Lieutenant General Henry Shrapnel (3 June 1761 – 13 March 1842) was a British Army officer whose name has entered the English language as the inventor of the shrapnel shell.",
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"plaintext": "In 1784, while a lieutenant in the Royal Artillery, he perfected, with his own resources, an invention of what he called \"spherical case\" ammunition: a hollow cannonball filled with lead shot that burst in mid-air. He successfully demonstrated this in 1787 at Gibraltar. He intended the device as an anti-personnel weapon.",
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"plaintext": "In 1803, the British Army adopted a similar but elongated explosive shell which immediately acquired the inventor's name. It has lent the term \"shrapnel\" to fragmentation from artillery shells and fragmentation in general ever since, long after it was replaced by high explosive rounds. Until the end of World War I, the shells were still manufactured according to his original principles.",
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"plaintext": "Shrapnel served in Flanders, where he was wounded in 1793. He was promoted to major on 1 November 1803 after eight years as a captain. After his invention's success in battle at Fort Nieuw-Amsterdam, Suriname, on 30 April 1804, Shrapnel was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 20 July 1804, less than nine months later.",
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"plaintext": "In 1814, the British Government recognized Shrapnel's contribution by awarding him £1,200 (UK£ in ) a year for life. Bureaucracy however prevented him from receiving the full benefit of this award. He was appointed to the office of Colonel-Commandant, Royal Artillery, on 6 March 1827. He rose to the rank of lieutenant-general on 10 January 1837.",
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"plaintext": "Shrapnel lived at Peartree House, near Peartree Green, Southampton from about 1835 until his death.",
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"plaintext": "Citations",
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37,348 | 1,104,431,297 | Dominus_Iesus | [
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"plaintext": " () is a declaration by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (previously known as the \"Holy Office\"), approved in a plenary meeting of the Congregation and signed by its then prefect, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI), and its then-secretary, Archbishop Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone. The declaration was approved by Pope John Paul II and was published on August 6, 2000.",
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| 1,238,432 | 907 | 42 | 28 | 0 | 0 | Dominus Iesus | Catholic document | []
|
37,349 | 1,106,842,549 | Liberation_theology | [
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"plaintext": "Liberation theology is a Christian theological approach emphasizing the liberation of the oppressed. In certain contexts, it engages socio-economic analyses, with \"social concern for the poor and political liberation for oppressed peoples\". In other contexts, it addresses other forms of inequality, such as race or caste.",
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"plaintext": "Liberation theology is best known in the Latin American context, especially within Catholicism in the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council, where it became the political praxis of theologians such as Gustavo Gutiérrez, Leonardo Boff, and Jesuits Juan Luis Segundo and Jon Sobrino, who popularized the phrase \"preferential option for the poor\". This expression was used first by Jesuit Fr. General Pedro Arrupe in 1968 and soon after the World Synod of Catholic Bishops in 1971 chose as its theme \"Justice in the World\".",
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"plaintext": "The Latin American context also produced Protestant advocates of liberation theology, such as Rubem Alves, José Míguez Bonino, and C. René Padilla, who in the 1970s called for integral mission, emphasizing evangelism and social responsibility.",
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"plaintext": "Theologies of liberation have also developed in other parts of the world such as black theology in the United States and South Africa, Palestinian liberation theology, Dalit theology in India, and Minjung theology in South Korea.",
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"plaintext": "The best-known form of liberation theology is that which developed within the Catholic Church in Latin America in the 1960s, arising principally as a moral reaction to the poverty and social injustice in the region, which Cepal, a leftist think tank, deemed the most unequal in the world. The term was coined in 1971 by the Peruvian priest Gustavo Gutiérrez, who wrote one of the movement's defining books, A Theology of Liberation. Other noted exponents include Leonardo Boff of Brazil, and Jesuits Jon Sobrino of El Salvador and Juan Luis Segundo of Uruguay.",
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"plaintext": "Latin American liberation theology influenced parts of the evangelical movement and Catholic bishops in the United States. Its use of \"Marxist concepts\" led in the mid-1980s to an admonition by the Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (CDF). While stating that \"in itself, the expression 'theology of liberation' is a thoroughly valid term\", the prefect Cardinal Ratzinger rejected certain forms of Latin American liberation theology for focusing on institutionalized or systemic sin and for identifying Catholic Church hierarchy in South America as members of the same privileged class that had long been oppressing indigenous populations from the arrival of Pizarro onward.",
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"plaintext": "More or less at the same time as the initial publications of Latin American liberation theology are also found voices of Black liberation theology and feminist liberation theology. Black theology refers to a theological perspective which originated in some black churches in the United States and later in other parts of the world, which contextualizes Christianity in an attempt to help those of African descent overcome oppression. It especially focuses on the injustices committed against African Americans and black South Africans during American segregation and apartheid, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Black theology seeks to liberate people of colour from multiple forms of political, social, economic, and religious subjugation and views Christian theology as a theology of liberation – \"a rational study of the being of God in the world in light of the existential situation of an oppressed community, relating the forces of liberation to the essence of the Gospel, which is Jesus Christ,\" writes James Hal Cone, one of the original advocates of the perspective. Black theology mixes Christianity with questions of civil rights, particularly as raised by the Black Power movement and the Black Consciousness Movement.",
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"plaintext": "Dalit theology is a branch of Christian theology that emerged among the Dalit caste in the Indian subcontinent in the 1980s. It shares a number of themes with Latin American liberation theology, which arose two decades earlier, including a self-identity as a people undergoing Exodus. Dalit theology sees hope in the \"Nazareth Manifesto\" of Luke 4, where Jesus speaks of preaching \"good news to the poor ... freedom for the prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind\" and of releasing \"the oppressed\".",
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"plaintext": "Palestinian liberation theology is an expression of political theology and a contextual theology that represents an attempt by a number of independently working Palestinian theologians from various denominations—mostly Protestant mainline churches—to articulate the gospel message in such a way as to make that liberating gospel relevant to the perceived needs of their indigenous flocks. As a rule, this articulation involves a condemnation of the State of Israel, a theological underpinning of Palestinian resistance to Israel as well as Palestinian national aspirations, and an intense valorization of Palestinian ethnic and cultural identity as guarantors of a truer grasp of the gospel by virtue of the fact that they are inhabitants of the land of Jesus and the Bible. The principal figure in Palestinian liberation theology is the Anglican cleric Naim Ateek, founder of the Sabeel Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center in Jerusalem.",
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"plaintext": " Catholic Workers Movement",
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"plaintext": " Christian anarchism",
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"plaintext": " Christian libertarianism",
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"plaintext": " Emancipation",
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"plaintext": " Enlightenment (spiritual)",
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"plaintext": " Liberalization",
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"plaintext": " Liberation psychology",
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"plaintext": " Movement of Priests for the Third World in Argentina",
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"plaintext": " Reconciliation theology",
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"plaintext": " Lernoux, Penny, Cry of the people: United States involvement in the rise of fascism, torture, and murder and the persecution of the Catholic Church in Latin America. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1980.",
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"plaintext": " Alves, Rubem, Towards a Theology of Liberation (1968).",
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"plaintext": "De La Torre, Miguel A., Handbook on U.S. Theologies of Liberation (Chalice Press, 2004).",
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"plaintext": " Ratzinger, Joseph Cardinal, \"Liberation Theology\" (preliminary notes to 1984 Instruction)",
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"plaintext": " Gutiérrez, Gustavo, A Theology of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation, Orbis Books, 1988.",
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"plaintext": " Kirylo, James D. Paulo Freire: The Man from Recife. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.",
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"plaintext": " Nash, Ronald, ed. Liberation Theology. First ed. Milford, Mich.: Mott Media, 1984. ",
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"plaintext": " Smith, Christian, The Emergence of Liberation Theology: Radical Religion and the Social Movement Theory, University of Chicago Press, 1991.",
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"plaintext": " Marxism and Missions / Missions et Marxisme, special issue of the journal Social Sciences and Missions , Volume 22/2, 2009",
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"plaintext": " Stefan Silber / José María Vigil (eds.): Liberation Theology in Europe / La Teología de la Liberación en Europa. Voices 40 (2017) 2, November–December, 304 pp., ISSN: 2222-0763 (pdf)",
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"plaintext": " Centre for Liberation Theologies, Faculty of Theology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium",
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"plaintext": " Key Concepts of Revolution Theology",
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|
37,351 | 1,104,995,662 | CERN | [
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"plaintext": "The European Organization for Nuclear Research (), known as CERN (; ; derived from the name ), is a European research organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Established in 1954, the organization is based in a northwest suburb of Geneva on the Franco-Swiss border and has 23 Member states and budget. Israel is the only non-European country granted full membership. CERN is an official United Nations Observer.",
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"plaintext": "The acronym CERN is also used to refer to the laboratory, which in 2019 had 2,660 scientific, technical, and administrative staff members, and hosted about 12,400 users from institutions in more than 70 countries. In 2016 CERN generated 49 petabytes of data.",
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"plaintext": "The convention establishing CERN was ratified on 29 September 1954 by 12 countries in Western Europe. The acronym CERN originally represented the French words for ('European Council for Nuclear Research'), which was a provisional council for building the laboratory, established by 12 European governments in 1952. During these early years, the council worked at the University of Copenhagen under the direction of Niels Bohr before moving to its present site in Geneva. The acronym was retained for the new laboratory after the provisional council was dissolved, even though the name changed to the current ('European Organization for Nuclear Research') in 1954. According to Lew Kowarski, a former director of CERN, when the name was changed, the abbreviation could have become the awkward OERN, and Werner Heisenberg said that this could \"still be CERN even if the name is [not]\".",
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"plaintext": "CERN's first president was Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser. Edoardo Amaldi was the general secretary of CERN at its early stages when operations were still provisional, while the first Director-General (1954) was Felix Bloch.",
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"plaintext": "The laboratory was originally devoted to the study of atomic nuclei, but was soon applied to higher-energy physics, concerned mainly with the study of interactions between subatomic particles. Therefore, the laboratory operated by CERN is commonly referred to as the European laboratory for particle physics (), which better describes the research being performed there.",
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"plaintext": "At the sixth session of the CERN Council, which took place in Paris from 29 June – 1 July 1953, the convention establishing the organization was signed, subject to ratification, by 12 states. The convention was gradually ratified by the 12 founding Member States: Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Yugoslavia.",
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"plaintext": "Several important achievements in particle physics have been made through experiments at CERN. They include:",
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"plaintext": "1973: The discovery of neutral currents in the Gargamelle bubble chamber;",
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"plaintext": "1983: The discovery of W and Z bosons in the UA1 and UA2 experiments;",
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"plaintext": "1989: The determination of the number of light neutrino families at the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) operating on the Z boson peak;",
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"plaintext": "1995: The first creation of antihydrogen atoms in the PS210 experiment;",
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"plaintext": "1999: The discovery of direct CP violation in the NA48 experiment;",
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"plaintext": "2000: The Heavy Ion Programme discovered new state of matter, the Quark Gluon Plasma. ",
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"plaintext": "2010: The isolation of 38 atoms of antihydrogen;",
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"plaintext": "2011: Maintaining antihydrogen for over 15 minutes;",
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"plaintext": "2012: A boson with mass around 125 GeV/c2 consistent with the long-sought Higgs boson.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2011, CERN attracted media attention when the OPERA Collaboration reported the detection of possibly faster-than-light neutrinos. Further tests showed that the results were flawed due to an incorrectly connected GPS synchronization cable.",
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"plaintext": "The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer for the developments that resulted in the discoveries of the W and Z bosons. The 1992 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak \"for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber\". The 2013 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to François Englert and Peter Higgs for the theoretical description of the Higgs mechanism in the year after the Higgs boson was found by CERN experiments.",
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"plaintext": "The World Wide Web began as a CERN project named ENQUIRE, initiated by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and Robert Cailliau in 1990. Berners-Lee and Cailliau were jointly honoured by the Association for Computing Machinery in 1995 for their contributions to the development of the World Wide Web.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the concept of hypertext, the project was intended to facilitate the sharing of information between researchers. The first website was activated in 1991. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone. A copy of the original first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, is still published on the World Wide Web Consortium's website as a historical document.",
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"plaintext": "Prior to the Web's development, CERN had pioneered the introduction of Internet technology, beginning in the early 1980s.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, CERN has become a facility for the development of grid computing, hosting projects including the Enabling Grids for E-sciencE (EGEE) and LHC Computing Grid. It also hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point (CIXP), one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. CERN employs ten times more engineers and technicians than research physicists.",
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"plaintext": "CERN operates a network of seven accelerators and two decelerators, and some additional small accelerators. Each machine in the chain increases the energy of particle beams before delivering them to experiments or to the next more powerful accelerator (the decelerators naturally decrease the energy of particle beams before delivering them to experiments or further accelerators/decelerators). Currently (as of 2022) active machines are the LHC accelerator and:",
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"plaintext": " The LINAC 3 linear accelerator generating low energy particles. It provides heavy ions at 4.2MeV/u for injection into the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR).",
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"plaintext": " The Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) accelerates the ions from the ion linear accelerator LINAC 3, before transferring them to the Proton Synchrotron (PS). This accelerator was commissioned in 2005, after having been reconfigured from the previous Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR).",
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"plaintext": " The Linac4 linear accelerator accelerates negative hydrogen ions to an energy of 160 MeV. The ions are then injected to the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB) where both electrons are then stripped from each of the hydrogen ions and thus only the nucleus containing one proton remains. The protons are then used in experiments or accelerated further in other CERN accelerators. Linac4 serves as the source of all proton beams for CERN experiments.",
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"plaintext": " The Proton Synchrotron Booster increases the energy of particles generated by the proton linear accelerator before they are transferred to the other accelerators.",
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"plaintext": " The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron (PS), built during 1954—1959 and still operating as a feeder to the more powerful SPS and to many of CERN's experiments.",
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"plaintext": " The Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS), a circular accelerator with a diameter of 2 kilometres built in a tunnel, which started operation in 1976. It was designed to deliver an energy of 300GeV and was gradually upgraded to 450GeV. As well as having its own beamlines for fixed-target experiments (currently COMPASS and NA62), it has been operated as a proton–antiproton collider (the SpS collider), and for accelerating high energy electrons and positrons which were injected into the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP). Since 2008, it has been used to inject protons and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).",
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"plaintext": " The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator (ISOLDE), which is used to study unstable nuclei. The radioactive ions are produced by the impact of protons at an energy of 1.0–1.4GeV from the Proton Synchrotron Booster. It was first commissioned in 1967 and was rebuilt with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992.",
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"plaintext": " The Antiproton Decelerator (AD), which reduces the velocity of antiprotons to about 10% of the speed of light for research of antimatter. The AD machine was reconfigured from the previous Antiproton Collector (AC) machine.",
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"plaintext": " The Extra Low Energy Antiproton ring (ELENA), which takes antiprotons from AD and decelerates them into low energies (speeds) for use in antimatter experiments.",
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"plaintext": " The AWAKE experiment, which is a proof-of-principle plasma wakefield accelerator.",
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"plaintext": " The CERN Linear Electron Accelerator for Research (CLEAR) accelerator research and development facility.",
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"plaintext": "Many activities at CERN currently involve operating the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the experiments for it. The LHC represents a large-scale, worldwide scientific cooperation project.",
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"plaintext": "The LHC tunnel is located 100 metres underground, in the region between the Geneva International Airport and the nearby Jura mountains. The majority of its length is on the French side of the border. It uses the 27km circumference circular tunnel previously occupied by the Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which was shut down in November 2000. CERN's existing PS/SPS accelerator complexes are used to pre-accelerate protons and lead ions which are then injected into the LHC.",
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"plaintext": "Eight experiments (CMS, ATLAS, LHCb, MoEDAL, TOTEM, LHCf, FASER and ALICE) are located along the collider; each of them studies particle collisions from a different aspect, and with different technologies. Construction for these experiments required an extraordinary engineering effort. For example, a special crane was rented from Belgium to lower pieces of the CMS detector into its cavern, since each piece weighed nearly 2,000 tons. The first of the approximately 5,000 magnets necessary for construction was lowered down a special shaft at 13:00GMT on 7 March 2005.",
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"plaintext": "The LHC has begun to generate vast quantities of data, which CERN streams to laboratories around the world for distributed processing (making use of a specialized grid infrastructure, the LHC Computing Grid). During April 2005, a trial successfully streamed 600MB/s to seven different sites across the world.",
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"plaintext": "The initial particle beams were injected into the LHC August 2008. The first beam was circulated through the entire LHC on 10 September 2008, but the system failed 10 days later because of a faulty magnet connection, and it was stopped for repairs on 19 September 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The LHC resumed operation on 20 November 2009 by successfully circulating two beams, each with an energy of 3.5teraelectronvolts (TeV). The challenge for the engineers was then to try to line up the two beams so that they smashed into each other. This is like \"firing two needles across the Atlantic and getting them to hit each other\" according to Steve Myers, director for accelerators and technology.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 March 2010, the LHC successfully collided two proton beams with 3.5 TeV of energy per proton, resulting in a 7 TeV collision energy. However, this was just the start of what was needed for the expected discovery of the Higgs boson. When the 7 TeV experimental period ended, the LHC revved to 8 TeV (4 TeV per proton) starting March 2012, and soon began particle collisions at that energy. In July 2012, CERN scientists announced the discovery of a new sub-atomic particle that was later confirmed to be the Higgs boson.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2013, CERN announced that the measurements performed on the newly found particle allowed it to conclude that this is a Higgs boson. In early 2013, the LHC was deactivated for a two-year maintenance period, to strengthen the electrical connections between magnets inside the accelerator and for other upgrades.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 April 2015, after two years of maintenance and consolidation, the LHC restarted for a second run. The first ramp to the record-breaking energy of 6.5 TeV was performed on 10 April 2015. In 2016, the design collision rate was exceeded for the first time. A second two-year period of shutdown begun at the end of 2018.",
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"plaintext": "As of October 2019, the construction is on-going to upgrade the LHC's luminosity in a project called High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC). This project should see the LHC accelerator upgraded by 2026 to an order of magnitude higher luminosity.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the HL-LHC upgrade project, also other CERN accelerators and their subsystems are receiving upgrades. Among other work, the LINAC 2 linear accelerator injector was decommissioned and replaced by a new injector accelerator, the LINAC4.",
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"plaintext": " The original linear accelerator LINAC 1. Operated 1959–1992.",
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"plaintext": " The LINAC 2 linear accelerator injector. Accelerated protons to 50MeV for injection into the Proton Synchrotron Booster (PSB). Operated 1978–2018.",
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"plaintext": " The 600MeV Synchro-Cyclotron (SC) which started operation in 1957 and was shut down in 1991. Was made into a public exhibition in 2012–2013.",
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"plaintext": " The Intersecting Storage Rings (ISR), an early collider built from 1966 to 1971 and operated until 1984.",
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"plaintext": " The Super Proton–Antiproton Synchrotron (SpS), operated 1981–1991. A modification of Super Proton Synchroton (SPS) to operate as a proton-antiproton collider.",
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"plaintext": " The Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP), which operated from 1989 to 2000 and was the largest machine of its kind, housed in a 27km-long circular tunnel which now houses the Large Hadron Collider.",
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"plaintext": " The LEP Pre-Injector (LPI) accelerator complex, consisting of two accelerators, a linear accelerator called LEP Injector Linac (LIL; itself consisting of two back-to-back linear accelerators called LIL V and LIL W) and a circular accelerator called Electron Positron Accumulator (EPA). The purpose of these accelerators was to inject positron and electron beams into the CERN accelerator complex (more precisely, to the Proton Synchrotron), to be delivered to LEP after many stages of acceleration. Operational 1987–2001; after the shutdown of LEP and the completion of experiments that were directly feed by the LPI, the LPI facility was adapted to be used for the CLIC Test Facility 3 (CTF3).",
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"plaintext": " The Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR) was commissioned in 1982. LEAR assembled the first pieces of true antimatter, in 1995, consisting of nine atoms of antihydrogen. It was closed in 1996, and superseded by the Antiproton Decelerator. The LEAR apparatus itself was reconfigured into the Low Energy Ion Ring (LEIR) ion booster.",
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"plaintext": " The Antiproton Accumulator (AA), built 1979–1980, operations ended in 1997 and the machine was dismantled. Stored antiprotons produced by the Proton Synchrotron (PS) for use in other experiments and accelerators (for example the ISR, SpS and LEAR). For later half of its working life operated in tandem with Antiproton Collector (AC), to form the Antiproton Accumulation Complex (AAC).",
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"plaintext": " The Antiproton Collector (AC), built 1986–1987, operations ended in 1997 and the machine was converted into the Antiproton Decelerator (AD), which is the successor machine for Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR). Operated in tandem with Antiproton Accumulator (AA) and the pair formed the Antiproton Accumulation Complex (AAC), whose purpose was to store antiprotons produced by the Proton Synchrotron (PS) for use in other experiments and accelerators, like the Low Energy Antiproton Ring (LEAR) and Super Proton–Antiproton Synchrotron (SpS).",
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"plaintext": " The Compact Linear Collider Test Facility 3 (CTF3), which studied feasibility for the future normal conducting linear collider project (the CLIC collider). In operation 2001–2016. One of its beamlines has been converted, from 2017 on, into the new CERN Linear Electron Accelerator for Research (CLEAR) facility.",
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"plaintext": "CERN, in collaboration with groups worldwide, is investigating two main concepts for future accelerators: A linear electron-positron collider with a new acceleration concept to increase the energy (CLIC) and a larger version of the LHC, a project currently named Future Circular Collider.",
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"plaintext": "The smaller accelerators are on the main Meyrin site (also known as the West Area), which was originally built in Switzerland alongside the French border, but has been extended to span the border since 1965. The French side is under Swiss jurisdiction and there is no obvious border within the site, apart from a line of marker stones.",
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"plaintext": "The SPS and LEP/LHC tunnels are almost entirely outside the main site, and are mostly buried under French farmland and invisible from the surface. However, they have surface sites at various points around them, either as the location of buildings associated with experiments or other facilities needed to operate the colliders such as cryogenic plants and access shafts. The experiments are located at the same underground level as the tunnels at these sites.",
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"plaintext": "Three of these experimental sites are in France, with ATLAS in Switzerland, although some of the ancillary cryogenic and access sites are in Switzerland. The largest of the experimental sites is the Prévessin site, also known as the North Area, which is the target station for non-collider experiments on the SPS accelerator. Other sites are the ones which were used for the UA1, UA2 and the LEP experiments (the latter are used by LHC experiments).",
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"plaintext": "Outside of the LEP and LHC experiments, most are officially named and numbered after the site where they were located. For example, NA32 was an experiment looking at the production of so-called \"charmed\" particles and located at the Prévessin (North Area) site while WA22 used the Big European Bubble Chamber (BEBC) at the Meyrin (West Area) site to examine neutrino interactions. The UA1 and UA2 experiments were considered to be in the Underground Area, i.e. situated underground at sites on the SPS accelerator.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the roads on the CERN Meyrin and Prévessin sites are named after famous physicists, such as Wolfgang Pauli, who pushed for CERN's creation. Other notable names are Richard Feynman, Albert Einstein, and Bohr.",
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"plaintext": "Since its foundation by 12 members in 1954, CERN regularly accepted new members. All new members have remained in the organization continuously since their accession, except Spain and Yugoslavia. Spain first joined CERN in 1961, withdrew in 1969, and rejoined in 1983. Yugoslavia was a founding member of CERN but quit in 1961. Of the 23 members, Israel joined CERN as a full member on 6 January 2014, becoming the first (and currently only) non-European full member.",
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"plaintext": "The budget contributions of member states are computed based on their GDP. ",
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"plaintext": "Associate Members, Candidates:",
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"plaintext": " Turkey signed an association agreement on 12 May 2014 and became an associate member on 6 May 2015.",
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"plaintext": "Pakistan signed an association agreement on 19 December 2014 and became an associate member on 31 July 2015.",
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"plaintext": " Cyprus signed an association agreement on 5 October 2012 and became an associate Member in the pre-stage to membership on 1 April 2016.",
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"plaintext": " Ukraine signed an association agreement on 3 October 2013. The agreement was ratified on 5 October 2016.",
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"plaintext": " India signed an association agreement on 21 November 2016. The agreement was ratified on 16 January 2017.",
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"plaintext": " Slovenia was approved for admission as an Associate Member state in the pre-stage to membership on 16 December 2016. The agreement was ratified on 4 July 2017.",
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"plaintext": " Lithuania was approved for admission as an Associate Member state on 16 June 2017. The association agreement was signed on 27 June 2017 and ratified on 8 January 2018.",
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"plaintext": " Croatia was approved for admission as an Associate Member state on 28 February 2019. The agreement was ratified on 10 October 2019.",
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"plaintext": "Estonia was approved for admission as an Associate Member in the pre-stage to membership state on 19 June 2020. The agreement was ratified on 1 February 2021.",
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"plaintext": "Three countries have observer status:",
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"plaintext": " Japan – since 1995",
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"plaintext": " Russia – since 1993 (suspended as of March 2022 )",
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"plaintext": " United States – since 1997",
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"plaintext": "Also observers are the following international organizations:",
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"plaintext": " UNESCO – since 1954",
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"plaintext": " European Commission – since 1985",
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"plaintext": " JINR – since 2014 (suspended as of March 2022 )",
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"plaintext": "Non-Member States (with dates of Co-operation Agreements) currently involved in CERN programmes are:",
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"plaintext": "CERN also has scientific contacts with the following countries:",
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"plaintext": "International research institutions, such as CERN, can aid in science diplomacy.",
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"plaintext": "A large number of institutes around the world are associated to CERN through current collaboration agreements and/or historical links. The list below contains organizations represented as observers to the CERN Council, organizations to which CERN is an observer and organizations based on the CERN model:",
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"plaintext": " European Molecular Biology Laboratory, organization based on the CERN model",
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"plaintext": "European Space Research Organisation (since 1975 ESA), organization based on the CERN model",
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"plaintext": " European Southern Observatory, organization based on the CERN model ",
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"plaintext": "JINR, observer to CERN Council, CERN is represented in the JINR Council",
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"plaintext": " SESAME, CERN is an observer to the SESAME Council ",
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"plaintext": "The Open Science movement focuses on making scientific research openly accessible and on creating knowledge through open tools and processes. Open access, open data, open source software and hardware, open licenses, digital preservation and reproducible research are primary components of open science and areas in which CERN has been working towards since its formation.",
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"plaintext": "CERN has developed a number of policies and official documents that enable and promote open science, starting with CERN's founding convention in 1953 which indicated that all its results are to be published or made generally available. Since then, CERN published its open access policy in 2014, which ensures that all publications by CERN authors will be published with gold open access and most recently an open data policy that was endorsed by the four main LHC collaborations (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb). The open data policy complements the open access policy, addressing the public release of scientific data collected by LHC experiments after a suitable embargo period. Prior to this open data policy, guidelines for data preservation, access and reuse were implemented by each collaboration individually through their own policies which are updated when necessary. The European Strategy for Particle Physics, a document mandated by the CERN Council that forms the cornerstone of Europe's decision-making for the future of particle physics, was last updated in 2020 and strongly affirmed the organisation's role within the open science landscape by stating: “The particle physics community should work with the relevant authorities to help shape the emerging consensus on open science to be adopted for publicly-funded research, and should then implement a policy of open science for the field”.",
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"plaintext": "Beyond the policy level, CERN has established a variety of services and tools to enable and guide open science at CERN, and in particle physics more generally. On the publishing side, CERN has initiated and operates a global cooperative project, the Sponsoring Consortium for Open Access Publishing in Particle Physics, SCOAP3, to convert scientific articles in high-energy physics to open access. Currently, the SCOAP3 partnership represents 3000+ libraries from 44 countries and 3 intergovernmental organizations who have worked collectively to convert research articles in high-energy physics across 11 leading journals in the discipline to open access.",
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"plaintext": "Public-facing results can be served by various CERN-based services depending on their use case: the CERN Open Data portal, Zenodo, the CERN Document Server, INSPIRE and HEPData are the core services used by the researchers and community at CERN, as well as the wider high-energy physics community for the publication of their documents, data, software, multimedia, etc. CERN's efforts towards preservation and reproducible research are best represented by a suite of services addressing the entire physics analysis lifecycle (such as data, software and computing environment). CERN Analysis Preservation helps researchers to preserve and document the various components of their physics analyses; REANA (Reusable Analyses) enables the instantiating of preserved research data analyses on the cloud.",
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"plaintext": "All of the abovementioned services are built using open source software and strive towards compliance with best effort principles where appropriate and where possible, such as the FAIR principles, the FORCE11 guidelines and Plan S, while at the same time taking into account relevant activities carried out by the European Commission.",
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"plaintext": "Facilities at CERN open to the public include:",
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"plaintext": "The Globe of Science and Innovation, which opened in late 2005 and is used four times a week for special exhibits.",
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"plaintext": "The Microcosm museum on particle physics and CERN history.",
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"plaintext": "CERN also provides daily tours to certain facilities such as the Synchro-cyclotron (CERNs first particle accelerator) and the superconducting magnet workshop.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, a 2-m statue of the Nataraja, the dancing form of the Hindu god Shiva, was unveiled at CERN. The statue, symbolizing Shiva's cosmic dance of creation and destruction, was presented by the Indian government to celebrate the research center's long association with India. A special plaque next to the statue explains the metaphor of Shiva's cosmic dance with quotations from physicist Fritjof Capra:",
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"plaintext": "Hundreds of years ago, Indian artists created visual images of dancing Shivas in a beautiful series of bronzes. In our time, physicists have used the most advanced technology to portray the patterns of the cosmic dance. The metaphor of the cosmic dance thus unifies ancient mythology, religious art and modern physics.",
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"plaintext": "The band Les Horribles Cernettes was founded by women from CERN. The name was chosen so to have the same initials as the LHC.",
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"plaintext": " The science journalist Katherine McAlpine made a rap video called \"Large Hadron Rap\" about CERN's Large Hadron Collider with some of the facility's staff.",
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"plaintext": " Particle Fever, a 2013 documentary, explores CERN throughout the inside and depicts the events surrounding the 2012 discovery of the Higgs Boson.",
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"plaintext": " John Titor, a self-proclaimed time traveler, alleged that CERN would invent time travel in 2001.",
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"plaintext": " CERN is depicted in the visual novel/anime series Steins;Gate as SERN, a shadowy organization that has been researching time travel in order to restructure and control the world.",
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"plaintext": " In Robert J. Sawyer's 1999 science fiction novel Flashforward, as CERN's Large Hadron Collider accelerator is performing a run to search for the Higgs boson the entire human race sees themselves twenty-one years and six months in the future.",
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"plaintext": " In Dan Brown's 2000 mystery-thriller novel Angels & Demons and 2009 film of the same name, a canister of antimatter is stolen from CERN.",
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"plaintext": " CERN is depicted in a 2009 episode of South Park (Season 13, Episode 6), \"Pinewood Derby\". Randy Marsh, the father of one of the main characters, breaks into the \"Hadron Particle Super Collider in Switzerland\" and steals a \"superconducting bending magnet created for use in tests with particle acceleration\" to use in his son Stan's Pinewood Derby racer.",
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"plaintext": "In the 2010 season 3 episode 15 of the TV sitcom The Big Bang Theory, \"The Large Hadron Collision\", Leonard and Raj travel to CERN to attend a conference and see the LHC.",
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"plaintext": "The 2012 student film Decay, which centers on the idea of the Large Hadron Collider transforming people into zombies, was filmed on location in CERN's maintenance tunnels.",
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"plaintext": " The Compact Muon Solenoid at CERN was used as the basis for the Megadeth's Super Collider album cover.",
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"plaintext": " CERN forms part of the back story of the massively multiplayer augmented reality game Ingress, and in the 2018 Japanese anime television series The Animation, based on Niantic's augmented reality mobile game of the same name.",
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"plaintext": " In 2015, Sarah Charley, US communications manager for LHC experiments at CERN with graduate students Jesse Heilman of the University of California, Riverside, and Tom Perry and Laser Seymour Kaplan of the University of Wisconsin, Madison created a parody video based on \"Collide\", a song by American artist Howie Day. The lyrics were changed to be from the perspective of a proton in the Large Hadron Collider. After seeing the parody, Day re-recorded the song with the new lyrics, and released a new version of \"Collide\" in February 2017 with a video created during his visit to CERN.",
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"plaintext": " The emerald city – CERN at 50 by The Economist",
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| 42,944 | 49,471 | 2,143 | 246 | 0 | 0 | CERN | international organization which operates the world's largest particle physics laboratory | [
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|
37,352 | 1,106,004,083 | Claymore_mine | [
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"plaintext": "The Claymore mine is a directional anti-personnel mine developed for the United States Armed Forces. Its inventor, Norman MacLeod, named the mine after a large medieval Scottish sword. Unlike a conventional land mine, the Claymore is command-detonated and directional, meaning it is fired by remote-control and shoots a wide pattern of metal balls into the kill zone. The Claymore can also be victim-activated by booby-trapping it with a tripwire firing system for use in area denial operations.",
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"plaintext": "The Claymore fires steel balls out to about within a 60° arc in front of the device. It is used primarily in ambushes and as an anti-infiltration device against enemy infantry. It is also used against unarmored vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "Many countries have developed and used mines like the Claymore. Examples include former Soviet Union models MON-50, MON-90, MON-100, and MON-200, as well as MRUD (Serbia), MAPED F1 (France), and Mini MS-803 (South Africa).",
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"plaintext": "The M18A1 Claymore mine has a horizontally convex gray-green plastic case (inert training versions are light blue or green with a light blue band). The shape was developed through experimentation to deliver the optimum distribution of fragments at range. The case has the words \"FRONT TOWARD ENEMY\" embossed on the front of the mine. A simple open sight on the top surface allows for aiming the mine. Two pairs of scissor legs attached to the bottom support the mine and allow it to be aimed vertically. On both sides of the sight are fuse wells set at 45 degrees.",
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"plaintext": "Internally the mine contains a layer of C-4 explosive behind a matrix of about seven hundred steel balls set into an epoxy resin.",
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"plaintext": "When the M18A1 is detonated, the explosion drives the matrix forward, out of the mine at a velocity of , at the same time breaking it into individual fragments. The steel balls are projected in a 60° fan-shaped pattern that is high and wide at a range of . The force of the explosion deforms the relatively soft steel balls into a shape similar to a .22 rimfire projectile. These fragments are moderately effective up to a range of , with a hit probability of around 10% on a prone man-sized target. The fragments can travel up to . The optimum effective range is , at which the optimal balance is achieved between lethality and area coverage, with a hit probability of 30% on a man-sized target.",
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"plaintext": "The weapon and all its accessories are carried in an M7 bandolier (\"Claymore bag\"). The mine is detonated as the enemy personnel approaches the killing zone. Controlled detonation may be accomplished by use of either an electrical or non-electrical firing system. When mines are employed in the controlled role, they are treated as individual weapons and are reported in the unit fire plan. They are not reported as mines; however, the emplacing unit must ensure that the mines are removed, detonated, or turned over to a relieving unit. The M4 electric firing wire on a green plastic spool is provided in each bandolier. The M57 firing device (colloquially referred to as the \"clacker\") is included with each mine. An M40 circuit test set is packed in each case of six mines. When the mines are daisy-chained together, one firing device can detonate several mines.",
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"plaintext": "The mine can be detonated by any mechanism that activates the blasting cap. There are field-expedient methods of detonating the mine by tripwire, or by a timer, but these are rarely used.",
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"plaintext": "The development of the M18A1 mine dates back to work done during World War II. The Misznay–Schardin effect was independently discovered during World War II by József Misznay, a Hungarian, and Hubert Schardin, a German. When a sheet of explosive detonates in contact with a heavy backing surface (for example, a metal plate), the resulting blast is primarily directed away from the surface in a single direction. Schardin spent some time developing the discovery as a side-attack anti-tank weapon, but development was incomplete at the end of the war. Schardin also spent time researching a \"trench mine\" that used a directional fragmentation effect.",
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"plaintext": "Following the massed Chinese attacks during the Korean War, Canada and the United States began to develop projects to counter them. Canada fielded a weapon called the \"Phoenix\" landmine, which used the Misznay–Schardin effect to project a spray of steel cubes towards the enemy. The cubes were embedded in of Composition B explosive. It was too large to be a practical infantry weapon and was relatively ineffective, with a maximum effective range of only 20 to 30 yards (about 20 to 30 meters).",
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"plaintext": "Around 1952 Norman MacLeod, at his company the Calord Corporation, began working on a small directional mine for use by infantry. It is not clear if the United States Picatinny Arsenal took the concept from the Canadian weapon and asked Norman MacLeod to develop it, or if he developed the design independently and presented it to them. MacLeod designed a weapon called the T-48; broadly similar to the final M18A1, it lacked a number of the design details that made the M18A1 effective.",
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"plaintext": "Through Picatinny, the United States Army accepted the weapon into service as the M18 Claymore and approximately 10,000 were produced. It was used in small numbers in Vietnam from around 1961. It was not until the improved M18A1 was developed that the Claymore became a widely used weapon.",
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"plaintext": "The M18 was long and high, held in a plastic case with three folding spike legs on the bottom. An electrical blasting cap for triggering the mine was inserted through a small hole in the side. Internally the mine consisted of a layer of of C-3 explosive (the forerunner of C-4 explosive) in front of which was laid an array of steel cubes. In total the mine weighed about , and could be fitted with an optional peep sight for aiming. It lacked the later version's iconic \"FRONT TOWARD ENEMY\" marking. The mine was planted in the ground, using its three sharp legs, and aimed in the direction of enemy approach; at that point, it was fitted with an electrical blasting cap. The mine was triggered from a safe position, preferably to the side and rear. The mine was barely more than a prototype and was not considered a \"reliable casualty producer\"; like the Phoenix it had an effective range of only .",
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"plaintext": "MacLeod applied for a patent for the mine on 18 January 1956 and was granted it in February 1961. The patent was later the subject of a civil court case between MacLeod, the Army, and Aerojet, which further developed the Claymore design. MacLeod's case collapsed when photographs of the German Trenchmine prototype were produced as evidence of prior art.",
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"plaintext": "In 1954 Picatinny Arsenal issued a request for proposals (RFP) to improve the M18 as a more effective weapon. At Aerojet in the early 1950s, Guy C. Throner had independently come up with a design for a Claymore-like mine. He worked with Don Kennedy and the two men submitted a 30-page proposal in response to Picatinny's RFP. They were awarded a $375,000 development contract to improve the Claymore design. The Picatinny criteria for the weapon were as follows:",
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"plaintext": " It must weigh less than ",
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"plaintext": " It must throw enough fragments so that at a range of it achieves a 100 percent strike rate on a target (man sized)",
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"plaintext": " The fragment area must not be more than high and no more than 60 degrees wide",
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"plaintext": " Fragments must have a velocity of per second providing 58 foot-pounds (79 joules) of kinetic energy delivered to the target.",
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"plaintext": "The requirement for kinetic energy was based on the fact that 58-foot pounds is required to deliver a potentially lethal injury. Given the requirements of weight and fragment density, approximately 700 fragments were needed, with the ability to aim the mine with an accuracy of around at the center of the target zone. The team at Aerojet were given access to all previous research into directional mines, including the M18 and the Phoenix, as well as German research. Dr. John Bledsoe led the initial project.",
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"plaintext": "The original M18 mine fell far short of Picatinny's requirements. One of the first improvements was to replace the steel cubes with hardened 52100 alloy ball bearings. These performed poorly for two reasons. Firstly, the hardened steel balls spalled into fragments when hit by the shock of the explosion; the fragments were neither aerodynamic enough nor large enough to perform effectively. Secondly, the blast \"leaked\" between the balls, reducing their velocity.",
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"plaintext": "A second problem was the curvature of the mine. This was determined experimentally by Bledsoe, through a large number of test firings. After Bledsoe left the project to work at the Rheem corporation, William Kincheloe, another engineer, came onto the Claymore project.",
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"plaintext": "Kincheloe immediately suggested using softer steel \"gingle\" balls, which were used in the foundry process. They did not spall from the shock of the explosive, but deformed into a useful aerodynamic shape similar to a .22 rimfire projectile. Using a homemade chronograph, the engineers clocked the balls at . The second change was to use a poured plastic matrix to briefly contain the blast from the explosive, so that more of the blast energy was converted into projectile velocity. After a number of experiments, the engineers settled on Devcon-S steel-filled epoxy to hold the balls in place. With this change, the velocity improved to .",
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"plaintext": "Technical challenges to overcome included developing a case to contain the corrosive C-3 explosive that would be durable enough to withstand months of field handling in wide temperature ranges. Using dyes to test various plastics for leaks, they found a suitable plastic called Durex 1661½, which could be easily molded into a case.",
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"plaintext": "By the spring of 1956, Aerojet had a near-final design. It was awarded a pre-production contract for 1,000 M18A1 Claymores, designated T-48E1 during testing. The initial versions of the mine used two pairs of wire legs produced from number 9 (3mm) wire. Later when production was ramped up, the design was changed to flat steel scissor, folding-type legs.",
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"plaintext": "Early pre-production mines were triggered using a battery pack, which had been used with the M18. This was found to be undesirable for a number of reasons. Bill Kincheloe came up with the idea of using a \"Tiny Tim\" toggle generator, of the type used with a number of Navy rockets. Originally an aluminum box was used to hold the generator. Later a Philadelphia company, Molded Plastic Insulation Company, took over the manufacture of the firing device for the first large-scale production run producing a plastic device.",
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"plaintext": "The sighting for the device was originally intended to be a cheap pentaprism device, which would allow the user to look down from above and see the sight picture. After locating a suitably low-cost device, the engineers found that fumes from either the C-3 explosive or the cement used to glue the sight to the top of the mine corroded the plastic mirrors, rendering them unusable. They adopted simple peep sights, which were later replaced by a knife blade sight.",
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"plaintext": "Testing concluded that the mine was effective out to approximately , being capable of hitting 10% of the attacking force. At , this increased to 30%. The development project completed, the Aerojet team sent the project back to Picatinny. The Arsenal bid it out to various component suppliers. In 1960 it was type standardized as the M18A1. It was first used in Vietnam in the spring or early summer 1966.",
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"plaintext": "Minor modifications were made to the mine during its service. A layer of tinfoil was added between the fragmentation matrix and the explosive. This slightly improves the fragment velocity, and protects the steel fragments from the corrosive explosive. A ferrite choke was added to prevent RF signals and lightning from triggering the mine.",
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"plaintext": "The M68 kit is designed to familiarize personnel with the placement and arming of a real M18 directional mine. It comes with all the components of a real Claymore kit packed in an M7 bandolier. The light blue or black plastic M33 Inert Anti-Personnel Mine is the training and practice version of the M18A1 Claymore. Some inert mines were green with a light blue band. It does not contain an explosive or pyrotechnic filler of any kind. It is packed in a Claymore bag with inert M10 simulated detonator cap wire, an M57 \"clacker\" firing control, and an M40 circuit test kit.",
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"plaintext": "In early 2015, the U.S. Army began testing a smaller version of the Claymore called the Mini-Multi-Purpose Infantry Munition (M-MPIMS). It weighs and has a effective range, similar to the full-size Claymore. At its optimized range of , the fragmentation zone is wide and high, with a minimum of five hits per . It has the surface space of an average smartphone and includes a Picatinny rail for camera, laser, or other attachments. The M-MPIMS is designed to be more controllable than the Claymore with less collateral damage, using an insensitive munitions explosive that is poured rather than packed for more uniform distribution results in more consistent blast pattern. Rear-safety distance has been decreased to and shelf life has been increased to 25 years.",
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"plaintext": "PADMINE is an anti-personnel directional fragmentation mine produced by the United Kingdom, similar to the Claymore in cosmetic design with two swivelling legs, inserted into soft-ground. Its lethality out to 50 metres arrives in the form of 650 steel balls and it is activated by remote control or trip wire.",
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"plaintext": "The M18 directional fragmentation anti-personnel mine, developed by Cardoen of Chile, contains 626 grams of explosives, surrounded by 607 AP fragmentation units providing a 60 degree arc of fire, with a 50-250 metre lethal range.",
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"plaintext": "Italy produces the DAF M6 and DAF M7 directional fragmentation mines, weighing 18 and 10 kilograms respectively, with trip wire or remote control detonation. Their appearance is similar to the Claymore mine.",
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"plaintext": "A number of licensed and unlicensed copies of the mine have been produced.",
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"plaintext": " : C19 Defensive and Support Mine",
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"plaintext": " : M18",
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"plaintext": " : Type 66",
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"plaintext": " : (Fan Charge) VP 88, \"heavier\" VP 84 and VP 2010",
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{
"plaintext": " : IHR-60",
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{
"plaintext": " : VS-DAFM 7",
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{
"plaintext": " : P5 Mk1",
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"plaintext": " : M18A2",
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"plaintext": " : M18 Claymore",
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"plaintext": " : MON-50",
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"plaintext": " : M18A/M18A1 ",
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"plaintext": " : MRUD (Mina Rasprskavajućeg Usmerenog Dejstva)",
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37,353 | 1,107,728,683 | Etruscan_civilization | [
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"plaintext": "The Etruscan civilization () of ancient Italy covered a territory, at its greatest extent, of roughly what is now Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio, as well as what are now the Po Valley, Emilia-Romagna, south-eastern Lombardy, southern Veneto, and western Campania.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest evidence of a culture that is identifiably Etruscan dates from about 900BC. This is the period of the Iron Age Villanovan culture, considered to be the earliest phase of Etruscan civilization, which itself developed from the previous late Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture in the same region. Etruscan civilization endured until it was assimilated into Roman society. Assimilation began in the late 4thcenturyBC as a result of the Roman–Etruscan Wars; it accelerated with the grant of Roman citizenship in 90 BC, and became complete in 27 BC, when the Etruscans' territory was incorporated into the newly established Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "The territorial extent of Etruscan civilization reached its maximum around 750 BC, during the foundational period of the Roman Kingdom. Its culture flourished in three confederacies of cities: that of Etruria (Tuscany, Latium and Umbria), that of the Po Valley with the eastern Alps, and that of Campania. The league in northern Italy is mentioned in Livy. The reduction in Etruscan territory was gradual, but after 500BC, the political balance of power on the Italian peninsula shifted away from the Etruscans in favor of the rising Roman Republic.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known examples of Etruscan writing are inscriptions found in southern Etruria that date to around 700BC. The Etruscans developed a system of writing derived from the Euboean alphabet, which was used in the Magna Graecia (coastal areas located in Southern Italy). The Etruscan language remains only partly understood, making modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. In the Etruscan political system, authority resided in its individual small cities, and probably in its prominent individual families. At the height of Etruscan power, elite Etruscan families grew very rich through trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south, and they filled their large family tombs with imported luxuries.",
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"plaintext": "The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna, which was shortened to Rasna or Raśna (Neo-Etruscan), with both etymologies unknown.",
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"plaintext": "In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as Tyrrhenians (, Tyrrhēnoi, earlier Tyrsēnoi), from which the Romans derived the names Tyrrhēnī, Tyrrhēnia (Etruria), and Mare Tyrrhēnum (Tyrrhenian Sea), prompting some to associate them with the Teresh (one of the Sea Peoples named by the Egyptians).",
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"plaintext": "The ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the Tuscī or Etruscī (singular Tuscus). Their Roman name is the origin of the terms \"Toscana\", which refers to their heartland, and \"Etruria\", which can refer to their wider region. The term Tusci is thought by linguists to have been the Umbrian word for \"Etruscan,\" based an inscription on an ancient bronze tablet from a nearby region. The inscription contains the phrase turskum ... nomen, literally \"the Tuscan name\". Based on a knowledge of Umbrian grammar, linguists can infer that the base form of the word turskum is *Tursci, which would, through metathesis and a word-initial epenthesis, be likely to lead to the form, E-trus-ci.",
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"plaintext": "As for the original meaning of the root, *Turs-, a widely cited hypothesis is that it, like the word Latin turris, means \"tower\", and comes from the Greek word for tower: . On this hypothesis, the Tusci were called the \"people who build towers\" or \"the tower builders\". This proposed etymology is made the more plausible because the Etruscans preferred to build their towns on high precipices reinforced by walls. Alternatively, Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante have speculated that Etruscan houses may have seemed like towers to the simple Latins. The proposed etymology has a long history, Dionysius of Halicarnassus having observed in the first century B. C., \"[T]here is no reason that the Greeks should not have called [the Etruscans] by this name, both from their living in towers and from the name of one of their rulers.\"",
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"plaintext": "Literary and historical texts in the Etruscan language have not survived, and the language itself is only partially understood by modern scholars. This makes modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. These ancient writers differed in their theories about the origin of the Etruscan people. Some suggested they were Pelasgians who had migrated there from Greece. Others maintained that they were indigenous to central Italy and were not from Greece.",
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"plaintext": "The first Greek author to mention the Etruscans, whom the Ancient Greeks called Tyrrhenians, was the 8th-century BC poet Hesiod, in his work, the Theogony. He mentioned them as residing in central Italy alongside the Latins. The 7th-century BC Homeric Hymn to Dionysus referred to them as pirates. Unlike later Greek authors, these authors did not suggest that Etruscans had migrated to Italy from the east, and did not associate them with the Pelasgians.",
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"plaintext": "It was only in the 5th century BC, when the Etruscan civilization had been established for several centuries, that Greek writers started associating the name \"Tyrrhenians\" with the \"Pelasgians\", and even then, some did so in a way that suggests they were meant only as generic, descriptive labels for \"non-Greek\" and \"indigenous ancestors of Greeks\", respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The 5th-century BC historians Thucydides and Herodotus, and the 1st-century BC historian Strabo, did seem to suggest that the Tyrrhenians were originally Pelasgians who migrated to Italy from Lydia by way of the Greek island of Lemnos. They all described Lemnos as having been settled by Pelasgians, whom Thucydides identified as \"belonging to the Tyrrhenians\" (). As Strabo and Herodotus told it, the migration to Lemnos was led by Tyrrhenus / Tyrsenos, the son of Atys (who was king of Lydia). Strabo added that the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros then followed Tyrrhenus to the Italian Peninsula. And, according to the logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos, there was a Pelasgian migration from Thessaly in Greece to the Italian peninsula, as part of which the Pelasgians colonized the area he called Tyrrhenia, and they then came to be called Tyrrhenians.",
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"plaintext": "There is some evidence suggesting a link between the island of Lemnos and the Tyrrhenians. The Lemnos Stele bears inscriptions in a language with strong structural resemblances to the language of the Etruscans. The discovery of these inscriptions in modern times has led to the suggestion of a \"Tyrrhenian language group\" comprising Etruscan, Lemnian, and the Raetic spoken in the Alps.",
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"plaintext": "However, the 1st-century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek living in Rome, dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria and were different from both the Pelasgians and the Lydians. Dionysius noted that the 5th-century historian Xanthus of Lydia, who was originally from Sardis and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians.",
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"plaintext": "The credibility of Dionysius of Halicarnassus is arguably bolstered by the fact that he was the first ancient writer to report the endonym of the Etruscans: Rasenna.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, the 1st-century BC historian Livy, in his Ab Urbe Condita Libri, said that the Rhaetians were Etruscans who had been driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls; and he asserted that the inhabitants of Raetia were of Etruscan origin.",
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"plaintext": "First-century historian Pliny the Elder also put the Etruscans in the context of the Rhaetian people to the north, and wrote in his Natural History (AD79):",
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"plaintext": "The question of Etruscan origins has long been a subject of interest and debate among historians. In modern times, all the evidence gathered so far by prehistoric and protohistoric archaeologists, anthropologists, and etruscologists points to an indigenous origin of the Etruscans. There is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration of the Lydians or Pelasgians into Etruria. Modern etruscologists and archeologists, such as Massimo Pallottino (1947), have shown that early historians’ assumptions and assertions on the subject were groundless. In 2000, the etruscologist Dominique Briquel explained in detail why he believes that ancient Greek historians’ writings on Etruscan origins should not even count as historical documents. He argues that the ancient story of the Etruscans’ 'Lydian origins' was a deliberate, politically motivated fabrication, and that ancient Greeks inferred a connection between the Tyrrhenians and the Pelasgians solely on the basis of certain Greek and local traditions and on the mere fact that there had been trade between the Etruscans and Greeks. He noted that, even if these stories include historical facts suggesting contact, such contact is more plausibly traceable to cultural exchange than to migration.",
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"plaintext": "Several archaeologists who have analyzed Bronze Age and Iron Age remains that were excavated in the territory of historical Etruria have pointed out that no evidence has been found, related either to material culture or to social practices, that can support a migration theory. The most marked and radical change that has been archaeologically attested in the area is the adoption, starting in about the 12th century BC, of the funeral rite of incineration in terracotta urns, which is a Continental European practice, derived from the Urnfield culture; there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from Asia Minor or the Near East.",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years’ archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (13th–11th century BC) to the Iron Age (10th–9th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years. Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous Proto-Villanovan culture, and that the subsequent Iron Age Villanovan culture is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization. It is possible that there were contacts between northern-central Italy and the Mycenaean world at the end of the Bronze Age. However contacts between the inhabitants of Etruria and inhabitants of Greece, Aegean Sea Islands, Asia Minor, and the Near East are attested only centuries later, when Etruscan civilization was already flourishing and Etruscan ethnogenesis was well established. The first of these attested contacts relate to the Greek colonies in Southern Italy and the consequent orientalizing period.",
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"plaintext": "An mtDNA study in 2004, based on Etruscan samples from Veneto, Tuscany, Lazio and Campania, stated that the Etruscans had no significant heterogeneity, and that all mitochondrial lineages observed among the Etruscan samples appear typically European, but only a few haplotypes were shared with modern populations. Allele sharing between the Etruscans and modern populations is highest among Germans (seven haplotypes in common), the Cornish from South West England (five haplotypes in common), the Turks (four haplotypes in common), and the Tuscans (two haplotypes in common).",
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"plaintext": "A couple of mitochondrial DNA studies, published in 2013 in the journals PLOS One and American Journal of Physical Anthropology, based on Etruscan samples from Tuscany and Latium, concluded that the Etruscans were an indigenous population, showing that Etruscans' mtDNA appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe (Germany, Austria, Hungary) and to other Tuscan populations, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan civilization developed locally from the Villanovan culture, as already supported by archaeological evidence and anthropological research, and that genetic links between Tuscany and western Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago during the Neolithic and the \"most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago\", at the time of the migrations of Early European Farmers (EEF) from Anatolia to Europe in the early Neolithic. The ancient Etruscan samples had mitochondrial DNA haplogroups (mtDNA) JT (subclades of J and T) and U5, with a minority of mtDNA H1b. ",
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"plaintext": "In the collective volume Etruscology published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that \"none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia\" and \"there are indications that the evidence of DNA can support the theory that Etruscan people are autochthonous in central Italy\".",
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"plaintext": "A 2019 genetic study published in the journal Science analyzed the remains of eleven Iron Age individuals from the areas around Rome, of which four were Etruscan individuals, one buried in Veio Grotta Gramiccia from the Villanovan era (900-800 BC) and three buried in La Mattonara Necropolis near Civitavecchia from the Orientalizing period (700-600 BC). The study concluded that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the Latins (900–500 BC) from Latium vetus were genetically similar, with genetic differences between the examined Etruscans and Latins found to be insignificant. The Etruscan individuals and contemporary Latins were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of ca. 30% steppe ancestry. Their DNA was a mixture of two-thirds Copper Age ancestry (EEF + WHG; Etruscans ~66–72%, Latins ~62–75%) and one-third Steppe-related ancestry (Etruscans ~27–33%, Latins ~24–37%). The only sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup J-M12 (J2b-L283), found in an individual dated 700-600 BC, and carried exactly the M314 derived allele also found in a Middle Bronze Age Proto-Illyrian individual from Croatia (1631-1531 calBCE). While the four samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups U5a1, H, T2b32, K1a4. Therefore, Etruscans had also Steppe-related ancestry despite speaking a non-Indo-European language.",
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"plaintext": "A 2021 genetic study, published in the journal Science Advances, analyzed the autosomal DNA of 48 Iron Age individuals from Tuscany and Lazio, spanning from 800 to 1 BC, and confirmed that in the Etruscan individuals was present the ancestral component Steppe in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and in the Etruscans' DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans were autochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster, west of modern Italians. The Etruscan cluster is a mixture of WHG, EEF and Steppe ancestry; 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H.",
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"plaintext": "In his book, A Short History of Humanity published in 2021, German geneticist Johannes Krause, co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Jena, concludes that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque, Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan) \"developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution\".",
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"plaintext": "The Etruscan civilization begins with the Villanovan culture, regarded as the oldest phase. The Etruscans themselves dated the origin of the Etruscan nation to a date corresponding to the 11th or 10th century BC. The Villanovan culture emerges with the phenomenon of regionalization from the late Bronze Age culture called \"Proto-Villanovan\", part of the central European Urnfield culture system. In the last Villanovan phase, called the recent phase (about 770–730 BC), the Etruscans established relations of a certain consistency with the first Greek immigrants in southern Italy (in Pithecusa and then in Cuma), so much so as to initially absorb techniques and figurative models and soon more properly cultural models, with the introduction, for example, of writing, of a new way of banqueting, of a heroic funerary ideology, that is, a new aristocratic way of life, such as to profoundly change the physiognomy of Etruscan society. Thus, thanks to the growing number of contacts with the Greeks, the Etruscans entered what is called the Orientalizing phase. In this phase, there was a heavy influence in Greece, most of Italy and some areas of Spain, from the most advanced areas of the eastern Mediterranean and the ancient Near East. Also directly Phoenician, or otherwise Near Eastern, craftsmen, merchants and artists contributed to the spread in southern Europe of Near Eastern cultural and artistic motifs. The last three phases of Etruscan civilization are called, respectively, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic, which roughly correspond to the homonymous phases of the ancient Greek civilization.",
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"plaintext": "Etruscan expansion was focused both to the north beyond the Apennine Mountains and into Campania. Some small towns in the sixth centuryBC disappeared during this time, ostensibly subsumed by greater, more powerful neighbours. However, it is certain that the political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit more aristocratic than, Magna Graecia in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth centuryBC, when Phocaeans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of Sardinia, Spain and Corsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with Carthage, whose interests also collided with the Greeks.",
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"plaintext": "Around 540BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. Though the battle had no clear winner, Carthage managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the 5thcenturyBC, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse, Sicily. A few years later, in 474BC, Syracuse's tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and the area was taken over by Romans and Samnites.",
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"plaintext": "In the 4th centuryBC, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion end its influence over the Po Valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the northern Etruscan provinces. During the Roman–Etruscan Wars, Etruria was conquered by Rome in the 3rd centuryBC.",
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"plaintext": "According to legend, there was a period between 600BC and 500BC in which an alliance was formed among twelve Etruscan settlements, known today as the Etruscan League, Etruscan Federation, or Dodecapolis (in Greek Δωδεκάπολις). According to a legend the Etruscan League of twelve cities was founded by Tarchon and his brother Tyrrhenus. Tarchon lent his name to the city of Tarchna, or Tarquinnii, as it was known by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the Tyrrhenians, the alternative name for the Etruscans. Although there is no consensus on which cities were in the league, the following list may be close to the mark: Arretium, Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, Perusna, Pupluna, Veii, Tarchna, Vetluna, Volterra, Velzna, and Velch. Some modern authors include Rusellae. The league was mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the Greek states. During the later imperial times, when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in the league increased by three. This is noted on many later grave stones from the 2nd centuryBC onwards. According to Livy, the twelve city-states met once a year at the Fanum Voltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to represent the league.",
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"plaintext": "There were two other Etruscan leagues (\"Lega dei popoli\"): that of Campania, the main city of which was Capua, and the Po Valley city-states in northern Italy, which included Bologna, Spina and Adria.",
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"plaintext": "Those who subscribe to a Latin foundation of Rome followed by an Etruscan invasion typically speak of an Etruscan \"influence\" on Roman culture – that is, cultural objects which were adopted by Rome from neighbouring Etruria. The prevailing view is that Rome was founded by Latins who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpretation, Etruscan cultural objects are considered influences rather than part of a heritage. Rome was probably a small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who constructed the first elements of its urban infrastructure such as the drainage system.",
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"plaintext": "The main criterion for deciding whether an object originated at Rome and traveled by influence to the Etruscans, or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date. Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older than Rome. If one finds that a given feature was there first, it cannot have originated at Rome. A second criterion is the opinion of the ancient sources. These would indicate that certain institutions and customs came directly from the Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what was Etruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned up south of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscans spread there after the foundation of Rome, but the settlements are now known to have preceded Rome.",
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"plaintext": "Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills – the steeper the better – and surrounded by thick walls. According to Roman mythology, when Romulus and Remus founded Rome, they did so on the Palatine Hill according to Etruscan ritual; that is, they began with a pomerium or sacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romulus was required to kill Remus when the latter jumped over the wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under Pons Sublicius). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan in the form Ruma-χ meaning 'Roman', a form that mirrors other attested ethnonyms in that language with the same suffix -χ: Velzna-χ '(someone) from Volsinii' and Sveama-χ '(someone) from Sovana'. This in itself, however, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin conclusively. If Tiberius is from θefarie, then Ruma would have been placed on the Thefar (Tiber) river. A heavily discussed topic among scholars is who was the founding population of Rome. In 390BC, the city of Rome was attacked by the Gauls, and as a result may have lost many – though not all – of its earlier records.",
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"plaintext": "Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in the Vicus Tuscus, the \"Etruscan quarter\", and that there was an Etruscan line of kings (albeit ones descended from a Greek, Demaratus of Corinth) that succeeded kings of Latin and Sabine origin. Etruscophile historians would argue that this, together with evidence for institutions, religious elements and other cultural elements, proves that Rome was founded by Etruscans. The true picture is rather more complicated, not least because the Etruscan cities were separate entities which never came together to form a single Etruscan state. Furthermore, there were strong Latin and Italic elements to Roman culture, and later Romans proudly celebrated these multiple, 'multicultural' influences on the city.",
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"plaintext": "Under Romulus and Numa Pompilius, the people were said to have been divided into thirty curiae and three tribes. Few Etruscan words entered Latin, but the names of at least two of the tribes – Ramnes and Luceres – seem to be Etruscan. The last kings may have borne the Etruscan title lucumo, while the regalia were traditionally considered of Etruscan origin – the golden crown, the sceptre, the toga palmata (a special robe), the sella curulis (curule chair), and above all the primary symbol of state power: the fasces. The latter was a bundle of whipping rods surrounding a double-bladed axe, carried by the king's lictors. An example of the fasces are the remains of bronze rods and the axe from a tomb in Etruscan Vetulonia. This allowed archaeologists to identify the depiction of a fasces on the grave stele of Avele Feluske, who is shown as a warrior wielding the fasces. The most telling Etruscan feature is the word populus, which appears as an Etruscan deity, Fufluns.",
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"plaintext": "The historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total monarchy to oligarchic republic (as the Roman Republic) in the 6thcenturyBC.",
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"plaintext": "The government was viewed as being a central authority, ruling over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact, the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears as a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this state power were united by a common religion. Political unity in Etruscan society was the city-state, which was probably the referent of , \"district\". Etruscan texts name quite a number of magistrates, without much of a hint as to their function: The , the , the , the , the , and so on. The people were the mech.",
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"plaintext": "The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the gens at Rome and perhaps even its model. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the centre of the society was the married couple, tusurthir. The Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, the behaviour of some wealthy women is not uniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry has a spiritual explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (among others) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, or symplegma, \"had the power to ward off evil\", as did baring the breast, which was adopted by western culture as an apotropaic device, appearing finally on the figureheads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. It is also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place of women within their society. In both Greece and the Earliest Republican Rome, respectable women were confined to the house and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus, the freedom of women within Etruscan society could have been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability. It is worth noting that a number of Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form \"X son of (father) and (mother)\", indicating the importance of the mother's side of the family.",
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"plaintext": "The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, had a significant military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals, warfare was a considerable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months, raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating piracy as a means of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, prestige, goods, and slaves. It is likely that individuals taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be sacrificed on tombs as an honor to fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrifices made by Achilles for Patrocles.",
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"plaintext": "The range of Etruscan civilization is marked by its cities. They were entirely assimilated by Italic, Celtic, or Roman ethnic groups, but the names survive from inscriptions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic interest in most of the cities of central Italy. Etruscan cities flourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age, marking the farthest extent of Etruscan civilization. They were gradually assimilated first by Italics in the south, then by Celts in the north and finally in Etruria itself by the growing Roman Republic.",
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"plaintext": "That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were founded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the name, usually Italic.",
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"plaintext": "The Etruscan system of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the world of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favour of human affairs. How to understand the will of deities, and how to behave, had been revealed to the Etruscans by two initiators, Tages, a childlike figure born from tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience, and Vegoia, a female figure. Their teachings were kept in a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun; Tivr, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and the ever-popular Fufluns, whose name is related in some way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus, possibly, the god of the people.",
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"plaintext": "Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo-European system: Tin or Tinia, the sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were taken into the Etruscan system: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in art motifs.",
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"plaintext": "Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from the external appearance of Greek architecture. In turn, ancient Roman architecture began with Etruscan styles, and then accepted still further Greek influence. Roman temples show many of the same differences in form to Greek ones that Etruscan temples do, but like the Greeks, use stone, in which they closely copy Greek conventions. The houses of the wealthy were evidently often large and comfortable, but the burial chambers of tombs, often filled with grave-goods, are the nearest approach to them to survive. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs have large rock-cut chambers under a tumulus in large necropoleis, and these, together with some city walls, are the only Etruscan constructions to survive. Etruscan architecture is not generally considered as part of the body of Greco-Roman classical architecture.",
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"plaintext": "Etruscan art was produced by the Etruscan civilization between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly lifesize on sarcophagi or temples), wall-painting and metalworking (especially engraved bronze mirrors). Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was apparently little Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, including Carrara marble, which seems not to have been exploited until the Romans. Most surviving Etruscan art comes from tombs, including all the fresco wall-paintings, a minority of which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects.",
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"plaintext": "Bucchero wares in black were the early and native styles of fine Etruscan pottery. There was also a tradition of elaborate Etruscan vase painting, which sprung from its Greek equivalent; the Etruscans were the main export market for Greek vases. Etruscan temples were heavily decorated with colourfully painted terracotta antefixes and other fittings, which survive in large numbers where the wooden superstructure has vanished. Etruscan art was strongly connected to religion; the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art.",
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"plaintext": "The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and bas-reliefs are different types of pipes, such as the plagiaulos (the pipes of Pan or Syrinx), the alabaster pipe and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the tintinnabulum, tympanum and crotales, and later by stringed instruments like the lyre and kithara.",
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"plaintext": "Etruscans left around 13,000 inscriptions which have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length. Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a Pre–Indo-European and Paleo-European language, and the majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the Tyrsenian language family, which in itself is an isolate family, that is unrelated directly to other known language groups. Since Rix (1998), it is widely accepted that the Tyrsenian family groups Raetic and Lemnian are related to Etruscan.",
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"plaintext": "Etruscan texts, written in a space of seven centuries, use a form of the Greek alphabet due to close contact between the Etruscans and the Greek colonies at Pithecusae and Cumae in the 8thcenturyBC (until it was no longer used, at the beginning of the 1stcenturyAD). Etruscan inscriptions disappeared from Chiusi, Perugia and Arezzo around this time. Only a few fragments survive, religious and especially funeral texts most of which are late (from the 4thcenturyBC). In addition to the original texts that have survived to this day, there are a large number of quotations and allusions from classical authors. In the 1stcenturyBC, Diodorus Siculus wrote that literary culture was one of the great achievements of the Etruscans. Little is known of it and even what is known of their language is due to the repetition of the same few words in the many inscriptions found (by way of the modern epitaphs) contrasted in bilingual or trilingual texts with Latin and Punic. Out of the aforementioned genres, is just one such Volnio (Volnius) cited in classical sources mention. With a few exceptions, such as the Liber Linteus, the only written records in the Etruscan language that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language is written in the Etruscan alphabet, a script related to the early Euboean Greek alphabet. Many thousand inscriptions in Etruscan are known, mostly epitaphs, and a few very short texts have survived, which are mainly religious. Etruscan imaginative literature is evidenced only in references by later Roman authors, but it is evident from their visual art that the Greek myths were well-known.",
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"plaintext": " Bartoloni, Gilda (ed). Introduzione all'Etruscologia (in Italian). Milan: Hoepli, 2012.",
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"plaintext": " Sinclair Bell and Carpino A. Alexandra (eds). A Companion to the Etruscans, Oxford; Chichester; Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2016.",
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"plaintext": " Bonfante, Giuliano and Bonfante Larissa. The Etruscan Language: An Introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002.",
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"plaintext": " Bonfante, Larissa. Out of Etruria: Etruscan Influence North and South. Oxford: B.A.R., 1981.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Bonfante, Larissa. Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986.",
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"plaintext": " Bonfante, Larissa. Etruscan Myths. London: British Museum Press, 2006.",
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},
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"plaintext": " Briquel, Dominique. Les Étrusques, peuple de la différence, series Civilisations U, éditions Armand Colin, Paris, 1993.",
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"plaintext": " Briquel, Dominique. La civilisation étrusque, éditions Fayard, Paris, 1999.",
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},
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"plaintext": " De Grummond, Nancy T. (2014). Ethnicity and the Etruscans. In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp.405–422.",
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"plaintext": " Haynes, Sybille. Etruscan Civilization: A Cultural History. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000.",
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"plaintext": " Izzet, Vedia. The Archaeology of Etruscan Society. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.",
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"plaintext": " Naso, Alessandro (ed). Etruscology, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017.",
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"plaintext": " Pallottino, Massimo. Etruscologia. Milan: Hoepli, 1942 (English ed., The Etruscans. David Ridgway, editor. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975).",
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"plaintext": " Shipley, Lucy. The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations, London: Reaktion Books, 2017.",
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"plaintext": " Smith, C. The Etruscans: a very short introduction , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.",
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"plaintext": " Spivey, Nigel. Etruscan Art. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.",
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"plaintext": " Swaddling, Judith and Philip Perkins. Etruscan by Definition: The Culture, Regional, and Personal Identity of the Etruscans: Papers in Honor of Sybille Haynes. London: British Museum, 2009.",
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"plaintext": " Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (ed). The Etruscan World. London: Routledge, 2013.",
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"plaintext": " Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. The Etruscans. In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp.637–672.",
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"plaintext": " (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Umbria) \"The Cai Cutu Etruscan tomb\" An undisturbed late Etruscan family tomb, reused between the 3rd and 1st century BC, reassembled in the National Archeological Museum of Perugia",
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"plaintext": " Hypogeum of the Volumnis digital media archive (creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership",
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"plaintext": "Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that accompany it and the relationship those words have with the verb itself. Classified by the number of their valency arguments, usually three basic types are distinguished: intransitives, transitives, ditransitives and double transitive verbs. Some verbs have special grammatical uses and hence complements, such as copular verbs (i.e., be); the verb do used for do-support in questioning and negation; and tense or aspect auxiliaries, e.g., be, have or can. In addition, verbs can be non-finite (not inflected for person, number, tense, etc.), such special forms as infinitives, participles or gerunds.",
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"plaintext": "An intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive verbs may be followed by an adverb (a word that addresses how, where, when, and how often) or end a sentence. For example: \"The woman spoke softly.\" \"The athlete ran faster than the official.\" \"The boy wept.\"",
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"plaintext": "Ditransitive verbs (sometimes called Vg verbs after the verb give) precede either two noun phrases or a noun phrase and then a prepositional phrase often led by to or for. For example: \"The players gave their teammates high fives.\" \"The players gave high fives to their teammates.\"",
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"plaintext": "Double transitive verbs (sometimes called Vc verbs after the verb consider) are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase. The second element (noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive) is called a complement, which completes a clause that would not otherwise have the same meaning. For example: \"The young couple considers the neighbors wealthy people.\" \"Some students perceive adults quite inaccurately.\" \"Sarah deemed her project to be the hardest she has ever completed.\"",
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"plaintext": "The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its valency or valence. Verbs can be classified according to their valency:",
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"plaintext": " Avalent (valency = 0): the verb has neither a subject nor an object. Zero valency does not occur in English; in some languages such as Mandarin Chinese, weather verbs like snow(s) take no subject or object.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
21689605,
19359
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
],
[
136,
152
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Intransitive (valency = 1, monovalent): the verb only has a subject. For example: \"he runs\", \"it falls\".",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
43933,
594590
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
],
[
61,
68
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Transitive (valency = 2, divalent): the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example: \"she eats fish\", \"we hunt nothing\".",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
43931,
201457
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
11
],
[
66,
79
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Ditransitive (valency = 3, trivalent): the verb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object. For example: \"He gives her a flower\" or \"She gave John the watch.\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
43936
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "A few English verbs, particularly those concerned with financial transactions, take four arguments, as in \"Pat1 sold Chris2 a lawnmower3 for $204\" or \"Chris1 paid Pat2 $203 for a lawnmower4\".",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Weather verbs often appear to be impersonal (subjectless, or avalent) in null-subject languages like Spanish, where the verb llueve means \"It rains\". In English, French and German, they require a dummy pronoun and therefore formally have a valency of 1. However, as verbs in Spanish incorporate the subject as a TAM suffix, Spanish is not actually a null-subject language, unlike Mandarin (see above). Such verbs in Spanish also have a valency of 1.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
1279732,
1279732,
1086830,
26825,
1481630
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
12
],
[
33,
43
],
[
73,
94
],
[
101,
108
],
[
196,
209
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Intransitive and transitive verbs are the most common, but the impersonal and objective verbs are somewhat different from the norm. In the objective, the verb takes an object but no subject; the nonreferent subject in some uses may be marked in the verb by an incorporated dummy pronoun similar to that used with the English weather verbs. Impersonal verbs in null subject languages take neither subject nor object, as is true of other verbs, but again the verb may show incorporated dummy pronouns despite the lack of subject and object phrases.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
1279732
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
78,
93
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Verbs are often flexible with regard to valency. In non-valency marking languages such as English, a transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive verb can take an object and become transitive. For example, in English the verb move has no grammatical object in he moves (though in this case, the subject itself may be an implied object, also expressible explicitly as in he moves himself); but in he moves the car, the subject and object are distinct and the verb has a different valency. Some verbs in English, however, have historically derived forms that show change of valency in some causative verbs, such as fall-fell-fallen:fell-felled-felled; rise-rose-risen:raise-raised-raised; cost-cost-cost:cost-costed-costed.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "In valency marking languages, valency change is shown by inflecting the verb in order to change the valency. In Kalaw Lagaw Ya of Australia, for example, verbs distinguish valency by argument agreement suffixes and TAM endings:",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [
1015914
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
112,
126
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nui mangema \"He arrived earlier today\" (mangema today past singular subject active intransitive perfective)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Palai mangemanu \"They [dual] arrived earlier today\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Thana mangemainu \"They [plural] arrived earlier today\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Verb structure: manga-i-[number]-TAM \"arrive+active+singular/dual/plural+TAM\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuidh wapi manganu \"He took the fish [to that place] earlier today\" (manganu today past singular object attainative transitive perfective)",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuidh wapi mangamanu \"He took the two fish [to that place] earlier today\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nuidh wapi mangamainu \"He took the [three or more] fish [to that place] earlier today\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Verb structure: manga-Ø-[number]-TAM \"arrive+attainative+singular/dual/plural+TAM\"",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "The verb stem manga- 'to take/come/arrive' at the destination takes the active suffix -i (> mangai-) in the intransitive form, and as a transitive verb the stem is not suffixed. The TAM ending -nu is the general today past attainative perfective, found with all numbers in the perfective except the singular active, where -ma is found.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Valency",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Depending on the language, verbs may express grammatical tense, aspect, or modality. ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Grammatical tense is the use of auxiliary verbs or inflections to convey whether the action or state is before, simultaneous with, or after some reference point. The reference point could be the time of utterance, in which case the verb expresses absolute tense, or it could be a past, present, or future time of reference previously established in the sentence, in which case the verb expresses relative tense.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
51685,
20000187,
37354,
17147832,
17147832
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
33,
47
],
[
52,
62
],
[
197,
214
],
[
249,
263
],
[
398,
412
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Aspect expresses how the action or state occurs through time. Important examples include:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "perfective aspect, in which the action is viewed in its entirety through completion (as in \"I saw the car\")",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
854027
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "imperfective aspect, in which the action is viewed as ongoing; in some languages a verb could express imperfective aspect more narrowly as:",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
854028
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "habitual aspect, in which the action occurs repeatedly (as in \"I used to go there every day\"), or",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "continuous aspect, in which the action occurs without pause; continuous aspect can be further subdivided into",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
651895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "stative aspect, in which the situation is a fixed, unevolving state (as in \"I know French\"), and",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
1201931
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "progressive aspect, in which the situation continuously evolves (as in \"I am running\")",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
651895
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "perfect, which combines elements of both aspect and tense and in which both a prior event and the state resulting from it are expressed (as in \"he has gone there\", i.e. \"he went there and he is still there\")",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
651884
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "discontinuous past, which combines elements of a past event and the implication that the state resulting from it was later reversed (as in \"he did go there\" or \"he has been there\", i.e. \"he went there but has now come back\")",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
49048245
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
0,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Aspect can either be lexical, in which case the aspect is embedded in the verb's meaning (as in \"the sun shines,\" where \"shines\" is lexically stative), or it can be grammatically expressed, as in \"I am running.\"",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
1497328
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
21,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Modality expresses the speaker's attitude toward the action or state given by the verb, especially with regard to degree of necessity, obligation, or permission (\"You must go\", \"You should go\", \"You may go\"), determination or willingness (\"I will do this no matter what\"), degree of probability (\"It must be raining by now\", \"It may be raining\", \"It might be raining\"), or ability (\"I can speak French\"). All languages can express modality with adverbs, but some also use verbal forms as in the given examples. If the verbal expression of modality involves the use of an auxiliary verb, that auxiliary is called a modal verb. If the verbal expression of modality involves inflection, we have the special case of mood; moods include the indicative (as in \"I am there\"), the subjunctive (as in \"I wish I were there\"), and the imperative (\"Be there!\").",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Tense, aspect, and modality",
"target_page_ids": [
37513,
1178384,
23534467,
1625701,
287913,
197864
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
445,
451
],
[
614,
624
],
[
712,
716
],
[
736,
746
],
[
773,
784
],
[
824,
834
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "The voice of a verb expresses whether the subject of the verb is performing the action of the verb or whether the action is being performed on the subject. The two most common voices are the active voice (as in \"I saw the car\") and the passive voice (as in \"The car was seen by me\" or simply \"The car was seen\").",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Voice",
"target_page_ids": [
24687387,
154804,
24826
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
4,
9
],
[
191,
203
],
[
236,
249
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "Most languages have a number of verbal nouns that describe the action of the verb.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Non-finite forms",
"target_page_ids": [
447959
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
32,
43
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": "In the Indo-European languages, verbal adjectives are generally called participles. English has an active participle, also called a present participle; and a passive participle, also called a past participle. The active participle of break is breaking, and the passive participle is broken. Other languages have attributive verb forms with tense and aspect. This is especially common among verb-final languages, where attributive verb phrases act as relative clauses.",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Non-finite forms",
"target_page_ids": [
222745,
154804,
24826,
19263392,
4768880,
507532
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
71,
81
],
[
99,
105
],
[
158,
165
],
[
312,
328
],
[
390,
410
],
[
450,
465
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Linguistics",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
22760983
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Adyghe verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
49505874
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Arabic verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
36170582
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ancient Greek verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
24981166
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
20
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Basque verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12784134
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Bulgarian verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8112790
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chinese verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
321538
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " English verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
436829
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Finnish verb conjugation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
554592
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " French verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2274504
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " German verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
4382287
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Germanic verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
966049
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hebrew verb conjugation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5744936
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
24
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Hungarian verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3868246
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
16
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ilokano verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
7331585
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Irish verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1478402
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Italian verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
28492224
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese godan and ichidan verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2753539
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
33
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Japanese verb conjugations",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
2730652
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
27
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Korean verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
24733310
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Latin verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
18000
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
12
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Persian verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
16993750
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Portuguese verb conjugation",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
30872100
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
28
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Proto-Indo-European verb",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1789960
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
25
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Romance verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
15146789
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Romanian verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
3838702
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sanskrit verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
10433995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sesotho verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
10746235
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Slovene verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
1301653
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spanish verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
538391
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tigrinya verbs",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
6023128
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Auxiliary verb",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
51685
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grammar",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12569
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
8
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grammatical aspect",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12948
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
19
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grammatical mood",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
23534467
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
17
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grammatical tense",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
12947
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Grammatical voice",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
24687387
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Performative utterance",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
646571
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phrasal verb",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
38612815
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Phrase structure rules",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
45068
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Sentence (linguistics)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
870352
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
23
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Syntax",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
26860
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
7
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Tense–aspect–mood",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
28717995
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
18
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Transitivity (grammatical category)",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
8934742
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
36
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Verb argument",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
5594731
],
"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
14
]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Verb framing",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
435080
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " Gideon Goldenberg, \"On Verbal Structure and the Hebrew Verb\", in: idem, Studies in Semitic Linguistics, Jerusalem: Magnes Press 1998, pp.148–196 [English translation; originally published in Hebrew in 1985].",
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"plaintext": "Discovery of gold around Boise valley in 1863, and ongoing warfare prompted the US Military to establish a new Fort Boise, where Boise is located today. The new location was selected because it was near the intersection of the Oregon Trail with a major road connecting the Boise Basin (Idaho City) and the Owyhee (Silver City) mining areas, both of which were booming. On the same year, the United States established Idaho Territory, whose declared boundaries included this region. After a year, with the creation of Montana Territory, Boise was made the territorial capital of a much reduced Idaho in a controversial decision which overturned a district court ruling by a one-vote majority in the territorial supreme court along geographic lines in 1866. The location of was in the middle of the Snake Country, on the lands of Boise Valley Shoshone and Bannock Tribes. There was no treaty and no agreement with any of the native tribes up to this point, and the violent resistance against incursion and settlement onto their territory along the Oregon Trail and at the newly-found gold mines continued unabated. In order to resolve the matter of ownership and sovereignty over land, Caleb Lyon, the 2nd governor of Idaho, negotiated with the Boise Valley Shoshone Tribe, and concluded the \"Treaty of Fort Boise\" on October 10, 1864. This treaty stipulated that the tribe will give up lands to 30 miles on each side of Boise River, land upon which Boise is located, while allowing an equal right to fishing in the river to both the Shoshone and the settlers. The treaty has not been ratified by the US senate to this date, and the tribe hasn't ever received any treaty payments.",
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"plaintext": "At the same time, native warriors around the valley, under the leadership of Howluck also known as \"Bigfoot\" among white settlers, among others, waged an escalating and intensified guerilla campaign of harassment of passerby caravans along the Oregon Trail. The United States Army also escalated and intensified \"punitive expeditions\" against formations of warriors and against civilian communities as well. This marked the start of the \"unofficial\" Snake War in 1866. This war lasted until 1868, and is statistically the deadliest of the Indian Wars in the West in terms of casualties. In the end, 1,762 men were counted as the casualties of this war from both sides.",
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"plaintext": "In 1868, Fort Hall Indian Reservation was established in Southeastern Idaho, about 220 miles upstream, according to the terms of Fort Bridger Treaty. The Boise Valley Shoshone and Bannock Tribes were not party to this treaty. Nevertheless, in April 1869, the United States Military embarked on a campaign of \"Removal, rounding up of natives in the region including in and around Boise, and expelling them with cavalry escort to Fort Hall Indian Reservation. This period is known among the Shoshone and Bannock people as Idaho's Trail of Tears. The forced march to Forth Hall took one month, and out of 500 natives, only 350 made it. Some of the natives managed to escape, and they ran to either Duck Valley or Fort McDermitt in Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "Designed by Alfred B. Mullett, the U.S. Assay Office at 210 Main Street was built in 1871 and today is a National Historic Landmark.",
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"plaintext": "In 1925, with the construction of Chicago-Portland railway line, Boise Union Pacific Depot was established in the city. This train station served passengers until 1997.",
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"plaintext": "While to this day, Boise is on top of unceded indigenous land, and its legal status has not been determined yet, in the spirit of reconciliation between Boise's residents and the native tribes of Boise Valley, on June 8, 2017, Mayor David Bieter has declared the start of the annual \"Return of the Boise Valley People Day\". The Mayor's declaration stated that descendants of Boise Valley indigenous peoples will return to the site of \"Eagle Rock\" on the East End of Boise, a site near the State of Idaho’s Old Penitentiary compound and adjacent to the Idaho Botanical Gardens. In 2019, this declaration was followed up by the official renaming of \"Quarry View Park\" to \"Eagle Rock Park\" with signage also displaying the native Shoshoni name \"Pava Kweena Teppi\", and the \"Castle Rock Reserve\" to \"Chief Eagle Eye Reserve\" with signage also displaying the native Shoshoni name \"Ige Dai Teviwa\". This site has spiritual and traditional importance to the natives of Boise valley, and is home to a Native American burial ground.",
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"plaintext": "Boise is in southwestern Idaho, about east of the Oregon border and north of the Nevada border. The downtown area's elevation is above sea level.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the metropolitan area lies on a broad, flat plain, descending to the west. Mountains rise to the northeast, stretching from the far southeastern tip of the Boise city limits to nearby Eagle. These mountains are known to locals as the Boise foothills and are sometimes described as the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. About southwest of Boise, and about southwest of Nampa, the Owyhee Mountains lie entirely in neighboring Owyhee County.",
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"plaintext": "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is water. The city is drained by the Boise River and is considered part of the Treasure Valley.",
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"plaintext": "Boise occupies an area of , according to the United States Census Bureau. Neighborhoods of Boise include the Bench, the North End, West Boise and Downtown. In January 2014, the Boise Police Department (BPD) partnered with the folksonomic neighborhood blogging site Nextdoor, the first city in the Northwest and the 137th city in the U.S. to do so. Since the app, which enables the city's police, fire, and parks departments to post to self-selected, highly localized areas, first became available in October 2011, 101 neighborhoods and sections of neighborhoods have joined.",
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"plaintext": "Downtown Boise is Boise's cultural center and home to many small businesses as well as a growing number of high-rises. While downtown Boise lacks a major retail/dining focus like Seattle and Portland, the area has a variety of shops and growing option for dining choices. Centrally, 8th Street contains a pedestrian zone with sidewalk cafes and restaurants. The neighborhood has many local restaurants, bars and boutiques and supports a vibrant nightlife. The area contains the Basque Block, which gives visitors a chance to learn about and enjoy Boise's Basque heritage. Downtown Boise's main attractions include the Idaho State Capitol, the classic Egyptian Theatre on the corner of Capitol Boulevard and Main Street, the Boise Art Museum on Capitol in front of Julia Davis Park, and Zoo Boise on the grounds of Julia Davis Park.",
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"plaintext": "Boise's economy was threatened in the late 1990s by commercial development at locations away from the downtown center, such as Boise Towne Square Mall and at shopping centers near new housing developments.",
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"plaintext": "Cultural events in Downtown Boise include Alive after Five and First Thursday.",
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"plaintext": "To the south of downtown Boise is Boise State University and its surrounding environs. The area is dominated by residential neighborhoods and businesses catering to the student population. The unique blue playing field at the 37,000-seat Albertsons Stadium on the BSU campus, home to the Boise State Broncos football team, is a major city landmark. The campus is also home to the Benjamin Victor Gallery and Studio. Other cultural and sports centers in the area include the Velma V. Morrison Center for the Performing Arts and ExtraMile Arena. Broadway Avenue to the east and south of the BSU campus features many college-themed bars and restaurants.",
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"plaintext": "The North End, generally defined as the part of Boise north of State Street, contains many of the city's older homes. It is known for its tree-lined drives such as Harrison Boulevard, and for its quiet neighborhoods near the downtown area. Downtown Boise is visible from Camel's Back Park. On 13th Street, Hyde Park is home to restaurants and other businesses. The North End also hosts events such as the annual Hyde Park Street Fair. In 2008, the American Planning Association designated Boise's North End one of 10 Great Neighborhoods.",
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"plaintext": "The Boise Highlands is just north of the North End. Its location is generally defined as north of Hill Road and east of Bogus Basin Road. Its neighborhood is mostly filled with homes constructed in the 1970s, as well as a golf course/country club known as Crane Creek.",
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"plaintext": "Southwest Boise contains sparsely populated neighborhoods built from the 1960s to the early 1980s. Many include acre-sized plots and the occasional farmhouse and pasture. In the 1980s, growth in the area was stunted to prevent urban sprawl. Since this has been lifted, there has been widespread growth of new homes and neighborhoods. The area lies near Interstate 84, theaters, shopping, the airport, golf and the Boise Bench area.",
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"plaintext": "Northwest Boise lies against the Boise Foothills to the north, State Street to the south, the city of Eagle to the west, and downtown Boise to the east. It contains a mix of old and new neighborhoods, including Lakeharbor, which features the private Silver Lake, a reclaimed quarry. Northwest Boise has some pockets of older homes with a similar aesthetic to the North End. Downtown is minutes away, as is Veteran's Memorial Park and easy access to the Boise Greenbelt. Across the river sits the Boise Bench and to the west are the bedroom communities of Eagle, Star, and Middleton.",
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"plaintext": "Warm Springs is centered on the tree-lined Warm Springs Avenue and contains some of Boise's largest and most expensive homes (many of which were erected by wealthy miners and businessmen around the turn of the 20th century; Victorian styles feature prominently). The area gets its name from the natural hot springs that flow from Boise's fault line and warm many of the area's homes. The Natotorium public swim center is here.",
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"plaintext": "The far-east end of Warm Springs was once known as Barber Town, featuring a hotel with hot springs nestled into the foothills. It now has some new residential developments, with easy access to Highway 21, which leads to the south-central Idaho mountains, the Boise River, the Boise Foothills, Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, and the Idaho Shakespeare Festival.",
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"plaintext": "Southeast Boise ranges from Boise State University to Micron Technology between Federal Way and the Boise River. Its oldest neighborhood, Original South Boise, was platted in 1890, and accordingly has variegated housing (assiduously maintained by zoning); it consists of 33 blocks bordered by W Beacon St., S Boise Ave., and S Broadway Ave., and hence is a triangular neighborhood immediately adjoining BSU. The rest of Southeast Boise was developed over the decades, largely by a variety of suburban-style homes.",
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"plaintext": "Columbia Village subdivision and the older Oregon Trail Heights were the first major planned communities in Southeast Boise with an elementary and middle school all within walking distance from all homes. The subdivision is at the intersections of Interstate 84, Idaho 21, and Federal Way (former U.S. Highway), which are all major arteries to get anywhere in Boise. The subdivision, a baseball complex, and swimming pools were developed around the Simplot Sports complex. The fields are built over an old landfill and dump, and the fields and gravel parking lot allow radon gases to escape through the ground. The most recent planned community is the Bown Crossing, which has easy access to the Boise Greenbelt.",
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"plaintext": "On August 25, 2008, at about 7:00pm, a fire started near Amity and Holcomb during a major windstorm. It destroyed ten houses and damaged nine. One person died in the fire.",
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"plaintext": "The Bench, generally bounded by Federal Way to the east, Cole Road to the west and Garden City to the north, sits on an elevation approximately higher than downtown Boise to its northeast. Orchard Street is a major north–south thoroughfare in the neighborhood. The Bench is so named because of this sudden rise, giving the appearance of a step, or bench. The Bench (or Benches, there are three actual benches in the Boise Valley) was created as an ancient shoreline to the old river channel. The Bench is home to the Boise Union Pacific Depot. Like the North End, the Bench has older residential areas such as the Central Rim, Morris Hill, and Depot Bench neighborhoods. Due south of the Bench is the Boise Airport.",
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"plaintext": "West Boise is home to Boise Towne Square Mall, the largest in the state, as well as many restaurants, strip malls, and residential developments ranging from new subdivisions to apartment complexes. The Ada County jail and Hewlett Packard's printing division are also here. It is relatively the flattest section of Boise, with sweeping views of the Boise Front. West Boise also borders the city of Meridian.",
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"plaintext": "Boise has a semi-arid continental climate (Köppen climate classification BSk), with four distinct seasons. Boise experiences hot and dry summers with highs reaching nine days in a typical year and on 55 days. Yet because of the aridity, average diurnal temperature variation exceeds in the height of summer. Winters are moderately cold, with a December average of , and lows falling to or below on around one night per year, with some winters having several such readings and most having none at all. Snowfall averages , but typically falls in bouts of or less. Spring and fall are mild. Extremes have ranged from on January 16, 1888, to on July 12, 1898 and July 19, 1960; temperatures have reached and as recently as December 22, 1990, and August 10, 2018, respectively. Precipitation is usually infrequent and light, especially so during the summer months. It averages approximately annually.",
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"plaintext": "Tornadoes are rare in Ada County and the Boise area. Since 1950, only twelve tornadoes have been documented within the county, and four of those were during the same storm on August 3, 2000, which is also the most recent date a tornado was documented in the area. None of the tornadoes have been ranked higher than an F1 on the Fujita scale, and no injuries or fatalities were ever documented.",
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"plaintext": "As of the 2020 census, there were 235,684 people residing in the city. 49.8% of population were female persons, 19.9% of persons were under 18 years of age, and 14.6% of persons were 65 years of age and older.",
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"plaintext": "The city's racial composition was 88% White, 9.0% Hispanic or Latino, 3.1% Asian, 1.6% Black or African American, 0.7% American Indian or Alaska Native, .02% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, and 4.3% Two or more races. 82.6% identified as White alone, not Hispanic or Latino.",
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"plaintext": "There were 94,449 households with 2.38 persons per household, and 82.5% of persons lived in the same house as they had the previous year. 10.0% of households used a spoken language other than English at home.",
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"plaintext": "As of the census of 2010, there were 205,671 people, 85,704 households, and 50,647 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 92,700 housing units at an average density of . The city's racial makeup was 89.0% White, 1.5% African American, 0.7% Native American, 3.2% Asian, 0.2% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 7.1% of the population.",
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"plaintext": "There were 85,704 households, of which 29.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44% were married couples living together, 10% had a woman householder with no husband present, 4.5% had a man householder with no wife present, and 41% were non-families. 31% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 3.",
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"plaintext": "The median age in the city was 35. 23% of residents were under the age of 18; 11% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29% were from 25 to 44; 26% were from 45 to 64; and 11% were 65 years of age or older. The city's gender makeup was 49% men and 51% women.",
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"plaintext": "Boise is the headquarters for several major companies, such as Boise Cascade LLC, Albertsons, J.R. Simplot Company, Lamb Weston, Idaho Pacific Lumber Company, Idaho Timber, WinCo Foods, Bodybuilding.com, and Clearwater Analytics. Other major industries are headquartered in Boise or have large manufacturing facilities present. The state government is one of the city's largest employers.",
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"plaintext": "The area's largest private, locally based, publicly traded employer is Micron Technology. Others include IDACORP, Inc., the parent company of Idaho Power, Idaho Bancorp, Boise, Inc., American Ecology Corp., and PCS Edventures.com Inc.",
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"plaintext": "Technology investment and the high-tech industry have become increasingly important to the city, with businesses including Hewlett Packard, Cradlepoint, Healthwise, Bodybuilding.com, ClickBank, Crutial.com, and MarkMonitor. The call center industry is also a major source of employment. There are over 20 call centers in the city employing more than 7,000 people, including WDSGlobal, Electronic Data Systems, Teleperformance, DirecTV, Taos, and T-Mobile.",
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"plaintext": "Varney Air Lines, founded by Walter Varney in 1926, was formed in Boise, though headquartered at Pasco, Washington due to its more attractive prospects and increased economic support in Washington. The original airmail contract was from Pasco to Elko, Nevada, with stops in Boise in both directions. Varney Air Lines is the original predecessor company of present-day United Airlines, which still serves the city at the newly renovated and upgraded Boise Airport.",
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"plaintext": "According to Boise Valley Economic Partnership, the top private employers in the city are:",
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"plaintext": " Note: this list only includes companies who have given the Idaho Department of Labor permission to release their employment numbers.",
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"plaintext": "Boise is a regional hub for jazz, theater, and indie music. The Gene Harris Jazz Festival is hosted in Boise each spring. Several theater groups operate in the city, including the Idaho Shakespeare Festival, Boise Little Theatre, Boise Contemporary Theater, and ComedySportz Boise, amongst others. The Treefort Music Fest in late March features emerging bands, as well as many other artistic endeavors, and has perforce \"morphed from quirky music festival to consuming community event,\" and the HomeGrown Theatre is notable for continuing the avant garde satirical tradition of puppetry for millennials. The renovated Egyptian Theatre hosts national and regional music acts, comedians, and special film screenings.",
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"plaintext": "Idaho's ethnic Basque community is one of the largest in the United States, on the order of nearly 7,000 people in 2000, many of whom live in Boise. A large Basque festival known as Jaialdi is held once every five years (next in 2025). Downtown Boise features a vibrant section known as the \"Basque Block\". Boise's former mayor, David H. Bieter, is of Basque descent. Boise is also a sister region of the Basque communities.",
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"plaintext": "Boise also has a thriving performing arts community. The Boise Philharmonic, now in its 49th season, under the leadership of Music Director and Conductor Eric Garcia continues to grow musically, and introduces excellent guest artists and composers year after year. The dance community is represented by the resurgent Ballet Idaho under artistic director Peter Anastos, and the nationally known and critically acclaimed Trey McIntyre Project also make their home in Boise. All of these perform at the Velma V. Morrison Center for the Performing Arts, on the Boise State University campus. The Morrison Center also hosts local and national fine arts performances. Rounding out the classical performing arts is Opera Idaho, under the direction of Mark Junkert, which brings grand Opera to various venues throughout the Treasure Valley.",
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"plaintext": "The Boise City Department of Arts and History was created in 2008 with the goal of promoting the arts, culture, and history of the city among its residents and visitors. Since 1978 Boise had a public arts commission like many cities to promote public art and education. The Arts Commission provided expert advice on public art installations to the city and private groups, as well as to develop many educational programs within the city promoting the arts. In 2008 the city and the Arts Commission made the decision to introduce history into the scope of the art commission and rename this new commission the Boise City Department of Arts and History.",
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"plaintext": "The Boise City Department of Arts and History oversees several ongoing projects and programs related to art, culture, and history, and a number of short-term projects at any given time. Ongoing projects include maintenance of a public art collection valued at over $3million, creation and maintenance of city historical and art walks and tours, maintenance of a city historical research collection, artists in residence, and the Fettuccine Forum.",
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"plaintext": "According to a 2012 study performed by Americans for the Arts, arts, both public and private, in Boise is a forty-eight million dollar per year industry. The same study also cited the arts in and around Boise as a supplier of jobs for about 1600 people and producer of roughly $4.4million in revenue to state and local government.",
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"plaintext": "The Boise Centre on the Grove is an convention center that hosts a variety of events, including international, national, and regional conventions, conferences, banquets, and consumer shows. It is in the heart of downtown Boise and borders the Grove Plaza, which hosts many outdoor functions throughout the year including the New Year's Eve celebration, the Idaho Potato Drop hosted by the Idaho New Year's Commission. The Morrison-Knudsen Nature Center, located next to Municipal Park, features a streamwalk with wildlife experiences just east of downtown.",
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"plaintext": "Boise has diverse and vibrant religious communities. The Jewish community is served by two synagogues: the Chabad Jewish Center, and the reform Ahavath Beth Israel Temple (completed 1896, is the nation's oldest continually used temple west of the Mississippi). The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints dedicated a temple there in 1984. The Catholic Diocese of Boise includes the entire state and is seated at St. John's Cathedral, completed in 1921. The Boise Hare Krishna Temple opened in August 1999, and the Vietnamese Linh Tuu-temple opened in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Boise (along with Valley and Boise Counties) hosted the 2009 Special Olympics World Winter Games. More than 2,500 athletes from over 85 countries participated.",
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"plaintext": "In 1972, John Waters set the final scene of his film Pink Flamingos in Boise.",
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"plaintext": "Boise offers numerous recreational opportunities, including extensive hiking and biking in the foothills to the immediate north of downtown. Much of this trail network is part of Hull's Gulch and can be accessed by 8th street. An extensive urban trail system called the Boise River Greenbelt runs along the river and through Pierce Park. The Boise River is a common destination for fishing, swimming and rafting.",
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"plaintext": "In Julia Davis Park is Zoo Boise, which has over 200 animals representing over 80 species from around the world. An Africa exhibit, completed in 2008, is the most recent addition. Boise is also home to the Idaho Aquarium.",
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"plaintext": "The Bogus Basin ski area opened in 1942 and hosts multiple winter activities, primarily alpine skiing and snowboarding, but also cross-country skiing and snow tubing. \"Bogus\" is from the city limits (less than an hour drive from downtown) on a twisty paved road which climbs 3400 vertical feet (1036m) through sagebrush and forest.",
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"plaintext": "The World Center for Birds of Prey, just outside city, is a key part of the re-establishment of the peregrine falcon and its subsequent removal from the endangered species list. The center is breeding the rare California condor, among many other rare and endangered species.",
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"plaintext": "Publications such as Forbes, Fortune and Sunset have cited the city for its quality of life. An article published by Forbes in 2018 named Boise the fastest-growing city in America. Its population of around 220,000 grew 3.08% in 2017, as well as employment by 30.58%.",
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"plaintext": "The cornerstone mall in Boise, Boise Towne Square Mall, is also a major shopping attraction for Boise, Nampa, Caldwell, and surrounding areas. The mall received upgrades and added several new retailers in 1998 and 2006. Home prices, a proxy for wealth, increased 11.58%--number four in the U.S.",
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"plaintext": "The state's largest giant sequoia can be found near St. Luke's Hospital.",
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"plaintext": "Professional sports teams in Boise include the Boise Hawks of the independent baseball Pioneer League, the Idaho Steelheads of the ECHL (minor league hockey). The Treasure Valley Spartans (semi-pro football) of the (Rocky Mountain Football League) operated from 2009 to 2012. An arenafootball2 franchise, the Boise Burn, began play in 2007 but is now defunct.",
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"plaintext": "Boise is home to an all-female, DIY, flat track roller derby league, the Treasure Valley Rollergirls, which beginning on Labor Day Weekend 2010 hosted an international, two-day, double elimination tournament, the first Spudtown Knockdown, featuring eight teams from throughout the American West and Canada.",
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"plaintext": "The Boise State University campus is home to Albertsons Stadium, a 36,800-seat outdoor football stadium known for its blue playing surface, currently FieldTurf, and ExtraMile Arena, a 12,000-seat basketball and entertainment venue which opened in 1982 as the BSU Pavilion. Boise State University is known primarily for the recent successes of its football team.",
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"plaintext": "The Famous Idaho Potato Bowl football game (formerly known as the Humanitarian Bowl and the MPC Computers Bowl) is held in late December each year, and pairs a team from the Mountain West Conference with a Mid-American Conference team.",
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"plaintext": "In 1864, John Ward became the first law enforcement Marshal in the newly formed city of Boise. The Boise Police Department was inaugurated in 1903; at the time it consisted of a chief of police, a police sergeant, and seven police officers. Today the Boise City Police Department (BPD) employs just over 400 people, with 325 allocated positions for sworn officers and 82 civilians.",
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"plaintext": "For 2020, Boise Police reported 4 incidences of murder, 147 incidences of rapes, 210 incidences of sexual assault, 56 incidences of robberies, 380 incidences of aggravated assault, 1465 incidences of assault/battery, 479 incidences of burglary, 3164 incidences of theft, 292 incidences of motor vehicle theft, and 35 incidences of robbery. Total crimes have decreased overall between 2016 to 2020. Over the same time, incidences of rape and sexual assault have trended upwards while assault/battery, burglary, theft, and vandalism have trended downwards.",
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"plaintext": "Violent crimes dropped from 775 incidences in 2006 to 586 in 2007, but murders increased from 2004 to 2007. In 2007, there were 3,211 crimes per 100,000 residents. Despite population growth, violent crime has remained much the same as of 2013, with 600 incidents of violent crime in that year.",
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"plaintext": "The Boise School District includes 31 elementary schools, eight junior high schools, five high schools, and two specialty schools. Part of the West Ada School District is within the Boise city limits, and the city is therefore home to six public high schools: Boise, Borah, Capital, Timberline, the alternative Frank Church, and the West Ada School district's Centennial. Boise's private schools include the Catholic Bishop Kelly, Foothills School of Arts and Sciences, the International Baccalaureate-accredited Riverstone International School, and the only student-led school in the country One Stone.",
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"plaintext": "Post-secondary educational options in Boise include Boise State University (BSU) and a wide range of technical schools. The University of Idaho (UI) and Idaho State University (ISU) each maintain a satellite campus in Boise. As of 2014, the city has two law school programs. The Concordia University School of Law opened in 2012, and the University of Idaho College of Law now hosts second and third year students at its Boise campus. Boise is home to Boise Bible College, an undergraduate degree-granting college that exists to train leaders for churches as well as missionaries for the world.",
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"plaintext": "The major Interstate serving Boise is I-84, which connects Boise with Portland, Oregon, and Salt Lake City, Utah. In addition, residents in the Boise area are served with Interstate 184 (locally known as \"The Connector\"), a nearly stretch of freeway connecting I-84 with the downtown Boise area. Highway 55 branches outward northeast. There is a network of bike paths, such as the Boise River Greenbelt, throughout the city and surrounding region. Among US cities, Boise has the seventh highest amount of bicycle commuters per capita with 3.9% of commuters riding to work.",
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"plaintext": "Public transportation includes a series of bus lines operated by ValleyRide. In addition, the Downtown Circulator, a proposed streetcar system, is in its planning stage. The construction of the underground public transportation hub (UPT Hub) in Boise in the parking lot site near the intersection of W Main Street and N 8th Street was completed in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Commercial air service is provided at the Boise Airport. The terminal was recently renovated to accommodate the growing number of passengers flying in and out of Boise. It is served by Allegiant Air, Alaska Airlines, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Frontier Airlines, Southwest Airlines, and United Airlines. The airport's east end is home to the National Interagency Fire Center. The Gowen Field Air National Guard Base occupies the south side of the field.",
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"plaintext": "The Seattle–Chicago Amtrak Pioneer passenger train stopped at Boise Union Pacific Depot from June 7, 1977, until May 10, 1997, when it was discontinued. A short line railroad (Boise Valley Railroad) serves industries in Boise, connecting with the Union Pacific Railroad in Nampa.",
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"plaintext": " Guernica, Basque Country, Spain",
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"plaintext": " List of parks in Boise",
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"plaintext": " Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection Elma MacGibbons reminiscences of her travels in the United States starting in 1898, which were mainly in Oregon and Washington. Includes chapter \"Boise, the capital of Idaho\".",
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"plaintext": " Roger Weston: The Recruiter. Novel with sequences in Boise and Sun Valley Idaho.",
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"plaintext": " Boise Convention and Visitors Bureau",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston is located at the confluence of the Snake River and Clearwater River, upstream and southeast of the Lower Granite Dam. dams (and their locks) on the Snake and Columbia River, Lewiston is reachable by some ocean-going vessels. of Lewiston (Idaho's only seaport) has the distinction of being the farthest inland port east of the West Coast. The Lewiston-Nez Perce County Airport serves the city by air.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston was founded in 1861 in the wake of a gold rush which began the previous year near Pierce, northeast of Lewiston. The city was incorporated by the Washington Territorial Legislature in January 1863. In March 1863, Lewiston became the first capital of the newly created Idaho Territory. Its stint as seat of the new territory's government was short-lived, as a resolution to have the capital moved south to Boise was passed by the Idaho Territorial Legislature on December 7, 1864.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston's main industries are agriculture, paper, and timber products, and light manufacturing. Ammunition manufacturing maintains a very important and growing presence in Lewiston, being the headquarters of ammunition makers CCI and Speer Bullet. The city is the primary regional transportation, retail, health care, and entertainment center of the surrounding area and serves as a recreation destination for the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston is home to Lewis–Clark State College, a public undergraduate college. Community activities in Lewiston include the Dogwood Festival, Hot August Nights, and the Lewiston Roundup.",
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"plaintext": "The Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) have inhabited the area for thousands of years. ",
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"plaintext": "The first people of European ancestry to visit the Lewiston area were members of the David Thompson expedition of 1803. Thompson was looking to establish fur trading posts for the Hudson's Bay Company of British North America (now Canada). Thompson established the first white settlement in Idaho, MacKenzie's Post. But it soon failed as the local Nez Perce tribe's men considered beaver trapping to be women's work, the tribe was migratory and apparently women thought they already had enough to do. This was followed by the Lewis and Clark Expedition in October 1805. At the future townsite, they encountered settlements of the native NezPerce, and they returned to the valley on their eastward trip from the Pacific in the spring of1806.",
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"plaintext": "The town is believed to have been named after Meriwether Lewis and after Victor Trevitt's hometown of Lewiston, Maine, but people do not know that was the reason Trevitt shouted the idea out. He simply stated the \"Journal of Lewis and Clark\" talked about being in the valley. The town was founded in 1861, in the wake of a gold rush which began the previous year near Pierce, northeast of Lewiston leading to the Nez Perce War and the removal of Nez Perce. The first newspaper in present-day Idaho, The Golden Age, began publication in the city of Lewiston, Washington Territory in 1862, and was joined by the present (and only) newspaper, the Lewiston Morning Tribune in September 1892. In March 1863 Lewiston became the capital of the newly created Idaho Territory. Thomas J. Beall, one of the first three white settlers in Lewiston, wrote many of the Lewiston Tribunes first articles, and continued to do so until his death at the age of 89.",
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"plaintext": "The city's stint as a seat of the new territory's government was short-lived. As the gold rush quieted in northern Idaho, it heated up in a new mineral rush in southwestern Idaho, centered in Idaho City, which became the largest city in the Northwest in the mid-1860s. A resolution in late 1864 to have the capital moved from Lewiston to Boise was passed by the Idaho Territorial Legislature on December 7, six weeks before the territorial legislature's session legally began, and after litigation, on a split decision decided by one vote on the territorial supreme court on geographic lines.",
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"plaintext": "Boise became the capital in 1866; the move was very unpopular in northern Idaho and in violation of a court order. So, the territorial governor, Caleb Lyon and the territorial secretary, secretly took the territorial seal, archives, and treasury, and fled from Lewiston. Lyon went down river to Portland, Oregon, a trip marked by the alleged theft of the treasury from his steamship cabin. The territorial secretary departed southward for Boise to avoid the public outrage that was sure to erupt.",
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"plaintext": "North Idahoans were somewhat placated in 1889 when the University of Idaho was awarded to nearby Moscow, north, and began instruction in 1892. Lewiston State Normal School, now Lewis-Clark State College, was established in 1893, as was another normal school or teacher education college, now defunct, in the south at Albion. These were the state's first three institutions of higher education. Lewiston was the site of the first public school in Idaho, in 1862. In December 1880, the district was the first to be chartered by the Legislature and thus carries the designation of Lewiston Independent School District #1. (Boise was second, opening school doors in 1865.)",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston is located at the confluence of the Snake and Clearwater rivers. Immediately west of Lewiston is the smaller twin city of Clarkston, Washington. The north-flowing Snake River departs Hells Canyon and forms the state boundary with Washington, while west-flowing Clearwater River defines the northern border of the city. At their confluence at the city's northwest corner, the lower Snake River turns west into Washington, and after passing four dams, empties into the Columbia River at Burbank.",
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"plaintext": " northwest of the city is the Lower Granite Dam, the last and upper-most of the four dams on the lower Snake River, the largest tributary of the Columbia River. It was completed in 1975, and raised the river level back to Lewiston, effectively making it the eastern end of the new reservoir, Lower Granite Lake. Because of these dams (and their locks), Lewiston is navigable by some ocean-going vessels. At upstream of the Pacific Ocean (at the mouth of the Columbia River, adjacent to Astoria, Oregon), the Port of Lewiston has the distinction of being the most inland seaport east of the and Idaho's only seaport. Barges of timber products, grain, and other goods are shipped via the Snake-Columbia system to the Pacific. The first barge went to Portland; it was loaded with wheat and departed Lewiston on August 9, 1975.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston's main industries are agriculture, the paper and timber products from the mill owned and operated by the Clearwater Paper Corporation (until December 2008, a part of the Potlatch Corporation), and light manufacturing.",
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"plaintext": "Along much of the Snake River is a system of levees to protect against flooding; most are maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.",
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"plaintext": "According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.",
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"plaintext": "Downtown Lewiston, at elevations between and , is only slightly higher in elevation than the river, about , which was lower prior to the completion of the Lower Granite Dam. Away from downtown the terrain gains elevation quickly, as the steep riverbank highway of U.S. 95 north of Lewiston ascends to .",
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"plaintext": "The lowest point in the state of Idaho is located on the Snake River in Lewiston, where it meets the Clearwater and flows west into Washington. The populated areas in Idaho with the lowest elevations are along (or near) the Clearwater River, from Lowell at to Lewiston.",
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"plaintext": "The heavily residential southern half of the city is referred to as \"The Orchards\". This area is much higher in elevation than downtown, at about , and is named for the fruit orchards that previously covered the area. Formerly unincorporated, it was annexed which nearly doubled the city's population and doubled the area of the city. There is little sign of any orchards today, although there is a wide proliferation of fruit trees in the backyards of many residences in this area of town. The Lewiston-Nez Perce County Airport is located on the western edge of the Orchards plateau at above sea level, with Bryden Canyon Road providing westbound access via the Southway Bridge into Clarkston.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston experiences a semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk) with occasionally cold, but short, winters, mostly influenced by mild Pacific air, and hot, dry summers. The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in December to in July; the temperature reaches on 7.7 afternoons, on 42 afternoons, and does not rise above freezing on 14 afternoons annually. Precipitation averages annually, including an average seasonal snowfall of .",
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"plaintext": "At 195days, the growing season is relatively long, with the average window for freezing temperatures being October 23 thru April 10. The plant hardiness zone are 7 and 8 with temperatures below being rare. Extreme temperatures range from on December 13, 1919 to on July 27, 1939. Tornadoes are very rare with only three tornadoes being reported in Nez Perce County since 1950, and the only significant tornado was an F2 in Lapwai on May 8, 1962.",
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"plaintext": "As of the census of 2010, there were 31,894 people, 13,324 households, and 8,201 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 14,057 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 93.9% White, 0.3% African American, 1.7% Native American, 0.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.7% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.8% of the population.",
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"plaintext": "There were 13,324 households, of which 27.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% were married couples living together, 10.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 38.4% were non-families. 30.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.87.",
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"plaintext": "The median age in the city was 39.9 years. 21.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.8% were from 25 to 44; 25.6% were from 45 to 64; and 18.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.2% male and 50.8% female.",
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"plaintext": "As of the census of 2000, there were 30,905 people, 12,795 households, and 8,278 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,873.0 people per square mile (723.2/km2). There were 13,394 housing units at an average density of 811.8 per square mile (313.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 95.14% White, 0.30% African American, 1.59% Native American, 0.76% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.51% from other races, and 1.61% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.91% of the population.",
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"plaintext": "There were 12,795 households, out of which 28.7% included children under the age of 18, 51.3% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.3% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.0% were a single person living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.88.",
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"plaintext": "In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.3% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 17.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.1 males.",
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"plaintext": "The median income for a household in the city was $36,606, and the median income for a family was $45,410. Males had a median income of $35,121 versus $22,805 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,091. About 8.4% of families and 12.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.2% of those under age 18 and 6.5% of those aged 65 or over.",
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"plaintext": " 1864 census: 359 (247 men, 58 women, 54 children)",
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"plaintext": " 1863 census: 414 (306 men, 59 women, 49 children)",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston's economy has historically been driven by agriculture and manufacturing activity. Lewiston's location at the confluence of the Snake River and Clearwater River made it a natural distribution point due to its seaport.",
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"plaintext": "The Port of Lewiston is Idaho's only seaport and is navigable for barges which transport grain, fuel, legumes, paper, lumber and other goods up and down the Columbia River.",
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"plaintext": "Paper product manufacturer, Clearwater Paper is the largest employer in the manufacturing sector; its pulp and paper mill began operations in late 1950. Ammunition manufacturing maintains an important and growing presence in Lewiston. Ammunition maker CCI, and Speer Bullet (both now brands of Vista Outdoor) are headquartered in Lewiston and Howell Munitions & Technology has a plant in the city as well. Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, based in Pullman, has a manufacturing facility in Lewiston.",
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"plaintext": "As the metropolitan hub of the Lewis-Clark Valley, Lewiston is the primary regional transportation, retail, health care, wholesale and professional services, and entertainment center. In 2017, the Lewiston, ID–Clarkston, WA metropolitan area had a gross metropolitan product of $2.5 billion. With the presence of Lewis–Clark State College, it is also a center for education and workforce training.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston's economy is slowly diversifying, which has helped keep the economy stable. Lewiston serves as a recreation destination for the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.",
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"plaintext": "In springtime Lewiston hosts the Dogwood Festival. This celebration is named for the abundant dogwood trees that are in fragrant bloom during the festival. During and shortly after the festival these pink blossoms blow through yards and streets like drifts of snow. The festival also hosts the \"Show and Shine\" classic car show alongside the other attractions.",
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"plaintext": "During late summer, \"Hot August Nights\" takes place. This celebration includes concerts by popular 1950s to 1980s musicians, such as .38 Special, Eddie Money, and Loverboy. There's also a show and shine for collectible cars, followed by a night parade along Main Street. During the fall, a number of cottonwood trees release cotton-like clouds of seeds that blow through the air and streets, blanketing them with a snow-like cover.",
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"plaintext": "The town has a large Christmas festival that includes a number of lighted displays in the downtown area. At the site of what was originally the Johann D.C. Thiessen mansion and ranch, now Locomotive Park, so named because of the retired locomotive Steam Engine92 and Camas Prairie RR Caboose on display in the middle, large trees and pathways are decorated with lights from Thanksgiving to New Year's. These events are sponsored by the Chamber of Commerce, and the displays involved are typically quite impressive and often attract many visitors.",
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"plaintext": "During the Christmas and Easter seasons, the Lewiston Jaycees have two large lighted displays on the Lewiston Hill (technically, the Washington side, and specifically, in Whitman County, above Clarkston in Washington state), visible from nearly everywhere in the valley. The display consists of long strings of ordinary light bulbs, arranged in the shape of a star (Christmas) and a cross (Easter). The same strings of lights are used in both displays, which, when lit, are left burning 24hours a day through each season.",
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"plaintext": "Every year, with cooperation from the city, Lewis-Clark State College hosts the Avista NAIAWorld Series for college baseball in May, and the Lewiston Round Up rodeo in September. The Lewiston Round Up is a member of the Big4 or Big Money4 (along with Pendleton Round-Up, Walla Walla Fair and Rodeo, and Ellensburg Rodeo) and a top50 PRCA rodeo.",
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"plaintext": "Lewiston had a popular Northwest League professional baseball franchise from 1952 through 1974. The Lewis-Clark Broncs were affiliated with various major league parent clubs, including the Philadelphia Phillies, Kansas City Athletics, St. Louis Cardinals, Baltimore Orioles, and Oakland Athletics (or A's). A roster check in 1967 showed that 40% of the players and coaches of the Kansas City Athletics had been in Lewiston at one time or another. Reggie Jackson was perhaps the most famous Lewiston Bronc of all-time; Mr.October played twelve games for Lewiston at age 20 in 1966. The Broncs' rosters included Rick Monday, manager John McNamara, Vearl (\"Snag\") Moore, Thorton (\"Kip\") Kipper, Antonio Perez, Ron Koepper, Delmer Owen, Dick Green, Bud Swan, Bert Campaneris, John Israel, Dave Duncan, Al Heist, and as a player, later coach-manager Robert (\"Gabby\") Williams. After years of financial losses, the team was shut down in Lewiston in January 1975, and resurfaced in June in southwestern Idaho as the Boise A's for ",
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"plaintext": "– U.S. 12",
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"plaintext": "Mueller, Gene (1980) Lewiston: From packtrains and tent saloons to highways and brick stores : a century of progress, 1861-1962 OCLC 890507211",
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"plaintext": "The Predator air vehicle and sensors are controlled from the ground control station (GCS) via a C-band line-of-sight data link or a Ku-band satellite data link for beyond-line-of-sight operations. During flight operations the crew in the GCS is a pilot and two sensor operators. The aircraft is equipped with the AN/AAS-52 Multi-spectral Targeting System, a color nose camera (generally used by the pilot for flight control), a variable aperture day-TV camera, and a variable aperture thermographic camera (for low light/night). Previously, Predators were equipped with a synthetic aperture radar for looking through smoke, clouds or haze, but lack of use validated its removal to reduce weight and conserve fuel. The cameras produce full motion video and the synthetic aperture radar produced still frame radar images. There is sufficient bandwidth on the datalink for two video sources to be used together, but only one video source from the sensor ball can be used due to design limitations. Either the daylight variable aperture or the infrared electro-optical sensor may be operated simultaneously with the synthetic aperture radar, if equipped.",
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"plaintext": "All later Predators are equipped with a laser designator that allows the pilot to identify targets for other aircraft and even provide the laser guidance for manned aircraft. This laser is also the designator for the AGM-114 Hellfire that are carried on the MQ-1.",
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"plaintext": "Each Predator air vehicle can be disassembled into six modules and loaded into a container nicknamed \"the coffin\". This enables all system components and support equipment to be rapidly deployed worldwide. The largest component is the ground control station (GCS) which is designed to roll into a C-130 Hercules. The Predator primary satellite link consists of a 6.1-meter (20-ft) satellite dish with associated support equipment. The satellite link provides communications between the GCS and the aircraft when it is beyond line-of-sight and links to networks that disseminate secondary intelligence. The RQ-1A system needs 1,500 by 40meters (5,000 by 125ft) of hard surface runway with clear line-of-sight to each end from the GCS to the air vehicles. Initially, all components needed to be located on the same airfield.",
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"plaintext": ", the U.S. Air Force used a concept called \"Remote-Split Operations\" where the satellite datalink is placed in a different location and is connected to the GCS through fiber optic cabling. This allows Predators to be launched and recovered by a small \"Launch and Recovery Element\" and then handed off to a \"Mission Control Element\" for the rest of the flight. This allows a smaller number of troops to be deployed to a forward location, and consolidates control of the different flights in one location.",
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"plaintext": "The improvements in the MQ-1B production version include an ARC-210 radio, an APX-100 IFF/SIF with mode 4, a glycol-weeping \"wet wings\" de-icing system, upgraded turbo-charged engine, fuel injection, longer wings, dual alternators as well as other improvements.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 May 2006, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a certificate of authorization which will allow the M/RQ-1 and M/RQ-9 aircraft to be used within U.S. civilian airspace to search for survivors of disasters. Requests had been made in 2005 for the aircraft to be used in search and rescue operations following Hurricane Katrina, but because there was no FAA authorization in place at the time, the assets were not used. The Predator's infrared camera with digitally enhanced zoom has the capability of identifying the infrared signature of a human body from an altitude of 3km (10,000ft), making the aircraft an ideal search and rescue tool.",
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"plaintext": "The longest declassified Predator flight lasted for 40hours, 5minutes. The total flight time reached 1 million hours in April 2010, according to General Atomics Aeronautical Systems Inc.",
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"plaintext": "The USAF BIG SAFARI program office managed the Predator program and was directed on 21 June 2000 to explore armament options. This led to reinforced wings with munitions storage pylons, as well as a laser designator. The RQ-1 conducted its first firing of a Hellfire anti-tank missile on 16 February 2001 over a bombing range near Indian Springs Air Force Station north of Las Vegas, Nevada, with an inert AGM-114C successfully striking a tank target. Then on 21 February 2001 the Predator fired three Hellfire missiles, scoring hits on a stationary tank with all three missiles. Following the February tests, phase two involved more complex tests to hunt for simulated moving targets from greater altitudes with the more advanced AGM-114K version. The armed Predators were put into service with the designation MQ-1A. The Predator gives little warning of attack because it is relatively quiet and the Hellfire is supersonic, so it strikes before it is heard by the target.",
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"plaintext": "In the winter of 2000–2001, after seeing the results of Predator reconnaissance in Afghanistan, Cofer Black, head of the CIA's Counterterrorist Center (CTC), became a vocal advocate of arming the Predator with missiles to target Osama bin Laden in country. He believed that CIA pressure and practical interest were causing the USAF's armed Predator program to be significantly accelerated. Black, and \"Richard\", who was in charge of the CTC's Bin Laden Issue Station, continued to press during 2001 for a Predator armed with Hellfire missiles.",
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"plaintext": "Further weapons tests occurred between 22 May and 7 June 2001, with mixed results. While missile accuracy was excellent, there were some problems with missile fuzing. In the first week of June, in the Nevada desert, a Hellfire missile was successfully launched on a replica of bin Laden's Afghanistan Tarnak residence. A missile launched from a Predator exploded inside one of the replica's rooms; it was concluded that any people in the room would have been killed. However, the armed Predator was not deployed before the September 11 attacks. ",
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"plaintext": "The USAF also investigated using the Predator to drop battlefield ground sensors and to carry and deploy the \"Finder\" mini-UAV.",
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"plaintext": "Two unarmed versions, known as the General Atomics ALTUS were built, ALTUS I for the Naval Postgraduate School and ALTUS II for the NASA ERAST Project in 1997 and 1996, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "Based on the MQ-1 Predator, the General Atomics MQ-1C Gray Eagle was developed for the U.S. Army.",
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"plaintext": "The USAF ordered a total of 259 Predators, and due to retirements and crashes the number in Air Force operation was reduced to 154 as of May 2014. Budget proposals planned to retire the Predator fleet between FY 2015 and 2017 in favor of the larger MQ-9 Reaper, which has greater payload and range. The Predators were to be stored at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base or given to other agencies willing to take them. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection showed interest, but already had higher-performance Reapers and were burdened with operating costs. The U.S. Coast Guard also showed interest in land-based UAV surveillance. Foreign sales were also an option, but the MQ-1 is subject to limitations of the Missile Technology Control Regime because it can be armed; export markets are also limited by the existence of the Reaper. Given the Predator's pending phase-out and its size, weight, and power limitations, the Air Force decided not to pursue upgrades to make it more effective in contested environments, and determined its only use in defended airspace would be as a decoy to draw fire away from other aircraft. Due to airborne surveillance needs after the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) invaded Iraq, the Predator's retirement was delayed to 2018. MQ-1s will probably be placed in non-recoverable storage at the Boneyard and not sold to allies, although antenna, ground control stations, and other components may be salvaged for continued use on other airframes.",
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"plaintext": "General Atomics completed the final RQ-1 ordered by Italy by October 2015, marking the end of Predator A production after two decades. The last Predator for the USAF was completed in 2011; later Predator aircraft were built on the Predator XP assembly line.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Air Force announced plans to retire the MQ-1 on 9 March 2018. The Predator was officially retired from USAF service in March 2018.",
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"plaintext": "As of March 2009, the U.S. Air Force had 195 MQ-1 Predators and 28 MQ-9 Reapers in operation. Predators and Reapers fired missiles 244 times in Iraq and Afghanistan in 2007 and 2008. A report in March 2009 indicated that U.S. Air Force had lost 70 Predators in air crashes during its operational history. Fifty-five were lost to equipment failure, operator error, or weather. Five were shot down in Bosnia, Kosovo, Syria and Iraq. Eleven more were lost to operational accidents on combat missions. In 2012, the Predator, Reaper and Global Hawk were described as \"the most accident-prone aircraft in the Air Force fleet.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 3 March 2011, the U.S. Air Force took delivery of its last MQ-1 Predator in a ceremony at General Atomics' flight operations facility. Since its first flight in July 1994, the MQ-1 series accumulated over 1,000,000 flight hours and maintained a fleet fully mission capable rate over 90 percent.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 October 2013, the U.S. Air Force's fleets of MQ-1 Predators and MQ-9 Reaper remotely piloted aircraft reached 2,000,000 flight hours. The RPA program began in the mid-1990s, taking 16 years for them to reach 1 million flight hours. The 2 million hour mark was reached just two and a half years after that.",
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"plaintext": "On 9 March 2018, the U.S. Air Force officially retired the MQ-1 Predator from operational service. The aircraft was first operationally deployed in 1995 and in 2011 the last of 268 Predators were delivered to the service, of which just over 100 were still in service by the start of 2018. While the Predator was phased out by the Air Force in favor of the heavier and more capable MQ-9 Reaper, the Predator continues to serve in the MQ-1C Gray Eagle derivative for the U.S. Army as well as with several foreign nations.",
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"plaintext": "During the initial ACTD phase, the United States Army led the evaluation program, but in April 1996, the Secretary of Defense selected the U.S. Air Force as the operating service for the RQ-1A Predator system. The 3d Special Operations Squadron at Cannon Air Force Base, 11th, 15th, 17th, and 18th Reconnaissance Squadrons, Creech Air Force Base, Nevada, and the Air National Guard's 163d Reconnaissance Wing at March Air Reserve Base, California, currently operate the MQ-1.",
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"plaintext": "In 2005, the U.S. Department of Defense recommended retiring Ellington Field's 147th Fighter Wing's F-16 Fighting Falcon fighter jets (a total of 15 aircraft), which was approved by the Base Realignment and Closure committee. They will be replaced with 12 MQ-1 Predator UAVs, and the new unit should be fully equipped and outfitted by 2009. The wing's combat support arm will remain intact. The 272d Engineering Installation Squadron, an Air National Guard unit currently located off-base, will move into Ellington Field in its place.",
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"plaintext": "The 3d Special Operations Squadron is currently the largest Predator squadron in the United States Air Force.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. Customs and Border Protection was reported in 2013 to be operating 10 Predators and to have requested 14 more.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 June 2009, the United States Air Force announced that it was creating a new MQ-1 squadron at Whiteman Air Force Base that would become operational by February 2011. In September 2011, the U.S. Air National Guard announced that despite current plans for budget cuts, they will continue to operate the Air Force's combat UAVs, including MQ-1B.",
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"plaintext": "On 28 August 2013, a Predator belonging to the 163d Reconnaissance Wing was flying at 18,000 to 20,000feet over the Rim Fire in California providing infrared video of lurking fires, after receiving emergency approvals. Rules limit the Predator behavior; it must be accompanied by a manned aircraft, and its camera must only be active above the fire.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2013, the Air Force Special Operations Command tested the ability to rapidly deploy Predator aircraft. Two MQ-1s were loaded into a Boeing C-17 Globemaster III in a cradle system that also carried a control terminal, maintenance tent, and the crew. The test was to prove the UAVs could be deployed and set up at an expeditionary base within four hours of landing. In a recent undisclosed deployment, airmen set up a portable hangar in a tent and a wooden taxiway to operate MQ-1s for a six-week period.",
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"plaintext": "The first overseas deployment took place in the Balkans, from July to November 1995, under the name Nomad Vigil. Operations were based in Gjader, Albania. Four disassembled Predators were flown into Gjadër airbase in a C-130 Hercules. The UAVs were assembled and flown first by civilian contract personnel. The U.S. deployed more than 70 military intelligence personnel. Intelligence collection missions began in July 1995. One of the Predators was lost over Bosnia on 11 August 1995; a second was deliberately destroyed on 14 August after suffering an engine failure over Bosnia, which may have been caused by hostile ground fire. The wreckage of the first Predator was handed over to Russia, according to Serb sources. Its original 60-day stay was extended to 120 days. The following spring, in March 1996, the system was redeployed to the Balkans area and operated out of Taszar, Hungary.",
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"plaintext": "Several others were destroyed in the course of Operation Noble Anvil, the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia:",
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"plaintext": " One aircraft (serial 95-3017) was lost on 18 April 1999, following fuel system problems and icing.",
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"plaintext": " A second aircraft (serial 95-3019) was lost on 13 May, when it was shot down by a Serbian Strela-1M surface-to-air missile over the village of Biba. A Serbian TV crew videotaped this incident.",
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"plaintext": " A third aircraft (serial number 95-3021) crashed on 20 May near the town of Talinovci, and Serbian news reported that this, too, was the result of anti-aircraft fire.",
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"plaintext": "In 2000, a joint CIA-DoD effort was agreed to locate Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan. Dubbed \"Afghan Eyes\", it involved a projected 60-day trial run of Predators over the country. The first experimental flight was held on 7 September 2000. White House security chief Richard A. Clarke was impressed by the resulting video footage; he hoped that the drones might eventually be used to target Bin Laden with cruise missiles or armed aircraft. Clarke's enthusiasm was matched by that of Cofer Black, head of the CIA's Counterterrorist Center (CTC), and Charles Allen, in charge of the CIA's intelligence-collection operations. The three men backed an immediate trial run of reconnaissance flights. Ten out of the ensuing 15 Predator missions over Afghanistan were rated successful. On at least two flights, a Predator spotted a tall man in white robes at bin Laden's Tarnak Farm compound outside Kandahar; the figure was subsequently deemed to be \"probably bin Laden\". By October 2000, deteriorating weather conditions made it difficult for the Predator to fly from its base in Uzbekistan, and the flights were suspended.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 February 2001 at Nellis Air Force Base, a Predator successfully fired three Hellfire AGM-114C missiles into a target. The newly armed Predators were given the designation of MQ-1A. In the first week of June 2001, a Hellfire missile was successfully launched on a replica of bin Laden's Afghanistan Tarnak residence built at a Nevada testing site. A missile launched from a Predator exploded inside one of the replica's rooms; it was concluded that any people in the room would have been killed. On 4 September 2001 (after the Bush cabinet approved a Qaeda/Taliban plan), CIA chief Tenet ordered the agency to resume reconnaissance flights. The Predators were now weapons-capable, but didn't carry missiles because the host country (presumably Uzbekistan) hadn't granted permission.",
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"plaintext": "Subsequent to 9/11, approval was quickly granted to ship the missiles, and the Predator aircraft and missiles reached their overseas location on 16 September 2001. The first mission was flown over Kabul and Kandahar on 18 September without carrying weapons. Subsequent host nation approval was granted on 7 October and the first armed mission was flown on the same day.",
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"plaintext": " In February 2002, armed Predators are thought to have been used to destroy a sport utility vehicle belonging to suspected Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Omar and mistakenly killed Afghan scrap metal collectors near Zhawar Kili because one of them resembled Osama bin Laden.",
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"plaintext": " On 4 March 2002, a CIA-operated Predator fired a Hellfire missile into a reinforced Taliban machine gun bunker that had pinned down an Army Ranger team whose CH-47 Chinook had crashed on the top of Takur Ghar Mountain in Afghanistan. Previous attempts by flights of F-15 and F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft were unable to destroy the bunker. This action took place during what has become known as the \"Battle of Roberts Ridge\", a part of Operation Anaconda. This appears to be the first use of such a weapon in a close air support role.",
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"plaintext": " On 6 April 2011, 2 US soldiers were killed in Afghanistan when the Predator had its first friendly fire incident. This occurred when observers in Indiana did not relay their doubts about the target to the operators at Creech Air Force Base in Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "On 5 May 2013, an MQ-1 Predator surpassed 20,000 flight hours over Afghanistan by a single Predator. Predator P107 achieved the milestone while flying a 21-hour combat mission; P107 was first delivered in October 2004.",
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"plaintext": "On July 31 2022, Ayman Al-Zawahiri was killed in a U.S. drone strike in Kabul, Afghanistan. With the use of a U.S. predator drone, it delivered 2 AGM-114 hellfire missiles to target. No other casualties were reported. ",
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"plaintext": "From at least 2003 until 2011, the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency has allegedly been operating the drones out of Shamsi airfield in Pakistan to attack militants in Pakistan's Federally Administered Tribal Areas. During this period, the MQ-1 Predator fitted with Hellfire missiles was successfully used to kill a number of prominent al Qaeda operatives.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 January 2006, 18 civilians were unintentionally killed by the Predator. According to Pakistani authorities, the U.S. strike was based on faulty intelligence.",
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"plaintext": "An Iraqi MiG-25 shot down a Predator performing reconnaissance over the no fly zone in Iraq on 23 December 2002. This was the first time in history a conventional aircraft and a drone had engaged each other in combat. Predators had been armed with AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles, and were purportedly being used to \"bait\" Iraqi fighters, then run. However, Predators are slower than MIG-25s and the service ceiling is nearly lower, making the \"run\" segment of any \"bait and run\" mission a difficult task. In this incident, the Predator did not run (or could not run fast enough), but instead fired one of its Stingers. The Stinger's heat-seeker became \"distracted\" by the MiG's missile and missed the MiG. The Predator was hit by the MiG's missile and destroyed. Another two Predators had been shot down earlier by Iraqi SAMs.",
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"plaintext": "During the initial phases of the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, a number of older Predators were stripped down and used as decoys to entice Iraqi air defenses to expose themselves by firing. From July 2005 to June 2006, the 15th Reconnaissance Squadron participated in more than 242 separate raids, engaged 132 troops in contact-force protection actions, fired 59 Hellfire missiles; surveyed 18,490 targets, escorted four convoys, and flew 2,073 sorties for more than 33,833 flying hours.",
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"plaintext": "Iraqi insurgents intercepted video feeds, which were not encrypted, using a $26 piece of Russian software named SkyGrabber. The encryption for the ROVER feeds was removed for performance reasons. Work to secure the data feeds was to be completed by 2014.",
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"plaintext": "On 27 June 2014, the Pentagon confirmed that a number of armed Predators had been sent to Iraq along with U.S. Special Forces following advances by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The Predators were flying 30 to 40 missions a day in and around Baghdad with government permission, and intelligence was shared with Iraqi forces. On 8 August 2014, an MQ-1 Predator fired a missile at a militant mortar position. From the beginning of Operation Inherent Resolve to January 2016, five UASF Predators were lost; four crashed from technical failures in Iraq, one in June 2015, two in October 2015, and one in January 2016.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 November 2002, a Hellfire missile was fired at a car in Yemen, killing Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harethi, an al-Qaeda leader thought to be responsible for the USS Cole bombing. It was the first direct U.S. strike in the War on Terrorism outside Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "In 2004, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's (ABC-TV) international affairs program Foreign Correspondent investigated this targeted killing and the involvement of the then U.S. Ambassador as part of a special report titled \"The Yemen Option\". The report also examined the evolving tactics and countermeasures in dealing with Al Qaeda inspired attacks.",
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"plaintext": "On 30 September 2011, a Hellfire fired from an American UAV killed Anwar al-Awlaki, an American-citizen cleric and Al Qaeda leader, in Yemen. Also killed was Samir Khan, an American born in Saudi Arabia, who was editor of al-Qaeda's English-language webzine, Inspire.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 February 2017, a United Arab Emiates UAV MQ-1B was shot down by Houthi anti aircraft missile over Marib province.",
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"plaintext": "On 23 March 2019, Houthis announced the shot down a US MQ-1 drone over Saana, Yemen. Later displaying images of the wreckage.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 May 2019, a United Arab Emirates MQ-1 Predator was shot down by Houthi fire during a night flight in Saana, Houthi fighters used an air-to-air missile (R-27T or R-73) with a modified land operator device.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 February 2022, Houthi forces shot down a UAEAF MQ-1 drone of the Saudi led Coalition in Al-Jawf province. Publishing footage of the drone wreck and photos.",
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"plaintext": "U.S. Air Force MQ-1B Predators have been involved in reconnaissance and strike sorties in Operation Unified Protector. An MQ-1B fired its first Hellfire missile in the conflict on 23 April 2011, striking a BM-21 Grad. There are also some suggestions that a Predator was involved in the final attack against Gaddafi.",
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"plaintext": "Predators returned to Libya in 2012, after the attack that killed the US Ambassador in Benghazi. MQ-9 Reapers were also deployed.",
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"plaintext": "On 25 June 2011, US Predator drones attacked an Al-Shabaab (militant group) training camp south of Kismayo. Ibrahim al-Afghani, a senior al Shabaab leader was rumored to be killed in the strike.",
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"plaintext": "Four Al-Shabaab fighters, including a Kenyan, were killed in a drone strike late February 2012.",
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},
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"plaintext": "On 1 November 2012, two Iranian Sukhoi Su-25 attack aircraft engaged an unarmed Predator conducting routine surveillance over the Persian Gulf just before 05:00 EST. The Su-25s made two passes at the drone firing their 30mm cannon; the Predator was not hit and returned to base. The incident was not revealed publicly until 8 November. The U.S. stated that the Predator was over international waters, away from Iran and never entered its airspace. Iran states that the drone entered Iran's airspace and that its aircraft fired warning shots to drive it away.",
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"plaintext": "On 12 March 2013, an Iranian F-4 Phantom pursued an MQ-1 flying over the Persian Gulf. The unarmed reconnoitering Predator was approached by the F-4, coming within 16miles of the UAV. Two U.S. fighters were escorting the Predator and verbally warned the jet, which made the Iranian F-4 break off. All American aircraft remained over international waters. An earlier statement by the Pentagon that the escorting planes fired a flare to warn the Iranian jet was later amended. The Air Force later revealed that the American jet that forced the Iranian F-4 to break off was an F-22 Raptor.",
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"plaintext": "India has inducted two American Predator drones — Sea Guardian, an unarmed version of the deadly Predator series — into the Navy on lease under the emergency procurement in the backdrop of the tensions with China in Ladakh. The Drones have has been leased by US Firm General Atomics, for a year for surveillance in the Indian Ocean Region. The Drones are under the full operational control of the Indian Navy and it will have exclusive access to all the information that the drone will capture.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "The only role of the American firm is to ensure the availability of the two drones based on the contract signed. Recently Indian Navy has shown its further interest to acquire additional Predator Drones to the US.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "Armed MQ-1 are used in Operation Inherent Resolve against IS over Syria and Iraq. On 17 March 2015, a US MQ-1 was shot down by a Syrian government S-125 SAM battery when it overflew the Port of Latakia, a region not involved in the international military operation.",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 New York Times article claimed that U.S. forces used a Predator drone to try and kill Indonesian terrorist Umar Patek in the Philippines in 2006. The Philippines' military denied this action took place, however. It was reported that a drone was responsible for killing al-Qaeda operative Zulkifli bin Hir on Jolo island on 2 February 2012. The strike reportedly killed 15 Abu Sayyaf operatives. The Philippines stated the strike was executed by manned North American / Rockwell OV-10 Bronco aircraft with assistance from the U.S.",
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"plaintext": "The Predator has also been used by the Italian Air Force. A contract for 6 version A Predators (later upgraded to A+) was signed in July 2002 and delivery begun in December 2004. It was used in these missions:",
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"plaintext": " Iraq, Tallil: from January 2005 to November 2006 for \"Antica Babilonia\" mission (1.600 hours flew)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
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"plaintext": " Afghanistan, Herat: from June 2007 to January 2014 (beginning with Predator A, then A+ and finally replaced by MQ-9 Reaper). Flew 6.000 hours in 750 missions only from June 2007 to May 2011.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Djibouti: 2 x Predator A+, since 6 August 2014 for support Atalanta EU mission – counter piracy – and for EUTM mission in Somalia (first mission flew 9 August 2014; detachment of about 70 Italian air force airmen )",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "Two civil-registered unarmed MQ-1s have been operated by the Office of the National Security Advisor in the Philippines since 2006.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The Predator has been licensed for sale to Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and UAE.",
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"section_name": "Operational history",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "RQ-1 series",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-1A: Pre-production designation for the Predator system – four aircraft, Ground Control Station (GCS), and Predator Primary Satellite Link (PPSL).",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-1K: Pre-production designation for individual airframe.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-1B: Production designation for the Predator UAV system.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-1L: Production designation for individual airframe.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "MQ-1 series",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " The M designation differentiates Predator airframes capable of carrying and deploying ordnance.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " MQ-1A Predator: Early airframes capable of carrying ordnance (AGM-114 Hellfire ATGM or AIM-92 Stinger). Nose-mounted AN/ZPQ-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar removed.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
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},
{
"plaintext": " MQ-1B Predator: Later airframes capable of carrying ordnance. Modified antenna fit, including introduction of spine-mounted VHF fin. Enlarged dorsal and ventral air intakes for Rotax engine.",
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"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " MQ-1B Block 10 / 15: Current production aircraft include updated avionics, datalinks, and countermeasures, modified v-tail planes to avoid damage from ordnance deployment, upgraded AN/AAS-52 Multi-Spectral Targeting System, wing deicing equipment, secondary daylight and infrared cameras in the nose for pilot visual in case of main sensor malfunction, and a 3ft (0.91m) wing extension from each wingtip. Some older MQ-1A aircraft have been partially retrofitted with some Block 10 / 15 features, primarily avionics and the modified tail planes.",
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"section_name": "Variants",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": "Predator XP Export variant of the Predator designed specifically to be unable to carry weapons to allow for wider exportation opportunities. Markets for it are expected in the Middle East and Latin America. First flight on 27 June 2014. Features winglets with an endurance of 35 hours and a service ceiling of . Is equipped with the Lynx synthetic aperture radar, may contain laser rangefinder and laser designator for target illumination for other aircraft.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
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"plaintext": "MQ-1C",
"section_idx": 3,
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},
{
"plaintext": "The U.S. Army selected the MQ-1C Warrior as the winner of the Extended-Range Multi-Purpose UAV competition August 2005. The aircraft became operational in 2009 as the MQ-1C Gray Eagle.",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "Variants",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " MQ-1B 03-33120 is preserved at the American Air Museum in Britain at IWM Duxford, and is the first UAV to be displayed at Duxford. The MQ-1B in question was formerly operated by the 432nd Wing of Creech Air Force Base.",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Aircraft on display",
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},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-1K 95-3013 \"Tail 13\" is displayed at Goodfellow Air Force Base in San Angelo, Texas. Tail 13 was formerly deployed in support of Operation Allied Force; it is noted for having been presumed lost on a mission due to loss of communications only to reappear at its base six hours later, allowing its crew to recover it.",
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"section_name": "Aircraft on display",
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"plaintext": " Italian Air Force",
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " 32° Stormo (32nd Wing) Armando Boetto—Foggia, Amendola Air Force Base",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 28° Gruppo (28th Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " 61° Gruppo (61st Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Squadron)",
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"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Turkish Air Force The Turkish Air Force has 6 MQ-1 Predators on order via the USA's Foreign Military Sales mechanism. The Turkish Air Force also operates 3 MQ-1 Predator systems on lease from the US as a stop gap measure as of 2011. The leased MQ-1s are under Turkish command (UAV Base Group Command) but operated by a joint Turkish-US unit.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
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},
{
"plaintext": " United Arab Emirates Air Force signed a US$197 million deal in February 2013 for an unspecified number of Predators, XP version, marking its first sale. One system of four aircraft is planned to begin delivery in mid-2016. General Atomics stated on 16 February 2017 that it finished deliveries, declining comment on the number delivered.",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Royal Moroccan Air Force received four Predator A aircraft.",
"section_idx": 5,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " U.S. Customs and Border Protection",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Central Intelligence Agency",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " Special Operations Group in Langley, VA",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Operators",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Parts of this article are taken from the MQ-1 PREDATOR fact sheet.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " This article contains material that originally came from the web article Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Greg Goebel, which exists in the public domain.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " General Atomics Predator page",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " MQ-1B Predator US Air Force Fact Sheet",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " MQ-1 Predator page on armyrecognition.com",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Predator page and UAV Sensor page on defense-update.com",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " How the Predator Works – Howstuffworks.com",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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]
]
},
{
"plaintext": " British Daily Telegraph article – 'In Las Vegas a pilot pulls the trigger. In Iraq a Predator fires its missile'",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Accident report from 20 March 2006 MQ-1L crash",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Missile strike emphasizes Al-Qaida",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
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| 198,024 | 51,425 | 444 | 236 | 0 | 0 | Predator | family of unmanned aerial vehicles | [
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"Q1",
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|
37,371 | 1,069,997,876 | Fiestas_Patrias_(Mexico) | [
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"plaintext": "Fiestas Patrias () in Mexico originated in the 19th century and are observed today as five public holidays.",
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"plaintext": "This day () commemorates the Constitution of 1917, promulgated after the Mexican Revolution on February 5. Article 74 of the Mexican federal labor law (Ley Federal del Trabajo) provides that the first Monday of February (regardless of the date) will be an official holiday in Mexico marking this occasion. This was a modification of the law made in 2005, effective since 2006; before that, it was celebrated on February 5 regardless of the day of the week in which the date occurred.",
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"plaintext": "This day () commemorates President Benito Juárez's birthday on March 21, 1806. Juárez is popularly regarded as Mexico's greatest president, who instituted the separation of Church and State in the La Reforma (Liberal Reform in Mexico). Juárez is recognized as a hero across the Americas for his resistance to European recolonization. Article 74 of the Mexican labor law (Ley Federal del Trabajo) provides that the third Monday of March (regardless the date) will be an official holiday in Mexico. As with Constitution Day, the holiday was originally celebrated every year on the same date (March 21), but the federal labor law was modified in 2005 so the holiday is always celebrated on a Monday.",
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"plaintext": "Día del Trabajo () commemorates the Mexican workers' union movements on May 1 specifically, the 1906 Cananea, Sonora, and the 1907 Río Blanco, Veracruz, labor unrest and repression.",
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"plaintext": "Labor Day in Mexico traces its origins to the 1886 Haymarket massacre in Chicago, but the first Labor Day in Mexico was when 20,000 workers marched against President Victoriano Huerta demanding fair working conditions in 1913. In 1923, President Álvaro Obregón declared May 1 the Día del Trabajo en México, but the day was officially established by Plutarco Elías Calles in 1925.",
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"plaintext": "Grito de Dolores (on the evening of September 15) and Aniversario de la Independencia (September 16) commemorate Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's Grito de Dolores on September 16, 1810, in the village of Dolores, near Guanajuato. Hidalgo called for the end of Spanish rule in Mexico. On October 18, 1825, the Republic of Mexico officially declared September 16 its national Independence Day (Dia de la Independencia).",
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"plaintext": "Mexican Independence day, also referred to as Dieciséis de septiembre, is celebrated from the evening of September 15 with a re-creation of the Grito de Dolores by all executive office-holders (from the President of the Republic down to municipal presidents) and lasts through the night.",
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"plaintext": "This day commemorates the Mexican Revolution which started on November 20, 1910 when Francisco I. Madero planned an uprising against dictator Porfirio Díaz's 31-year-long iron rule. Article 74 of the Mexican labor law (Ley Federal del Trabajo) provides that the third Monday of November (regardless the date) will be an official holiday in Mexico. This was a modification of the law made in 2005, effective since 2006; before then, it was November 20 regardless of the day, and all schools gave extended holidays if the day was a Tuesday or Thursday. Although November 20 is the official day, the uprising started on different days in different parts of the country.",
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"plaintext": "Cinco de mayo is not Mexico's \"Independence Day\", but rather commemorates an initial victory of Mexican forces over French forces in the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to Independence Day, described above, Cinco de mayo is observed mostly at a local level (Puebla State) and is a minor Bank Holiday in the rest of Mexico. Many labor unions have negotiated to have the day off, however, since its proximity to Labor Day (May 1) often allows an extended five-day weekend or two consecutive three-day weekends.",
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"plaintext": " Flag flying days in Mexico",
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| 2,438,476 | 703 | 18 | 27 | 0 | 0 | Fiestas Patrias | Mexican national holiday | []
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37,373 | 1,102,505,629 | Paradise_Lost | [
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"plaintext": "Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English poet John Milton (1608–1674). The first version, published in 1667, consists of ten books with over ten thousand lines of verse. A second edition followed in 1674, arranged into twelve books (in the manner of Virgil's Aeneid) with minor revisions throughout. It is considered to be Milton's masterpiece, and it helped solidify his reputation as one of the greatest English poets of all time. The poem concerns the biblical story of the Fall of Man: the temptation of Adam and Eve by the fallen angel Satan and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden.",
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"plaintext": "In his introduction to the Penguin edition of Paradise Lost, the Milton scholar John Leonard notes, \"John Milton was nearly sixty when he published Paradise Lost in 1667. The biographer John Aubrey (1626–1697) tells us that the poem was begun in about 1658 and finished in about 1663. However, parts were almost certainly written earlier, and its roots lie in Milton's earliest youth.\" Leonard speculates that the English Civil War interrupted Milton's earliest attempts to start his \"epic [poem] that would encompass all space and time.\"",
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"plaintext": "Leonard also notes that Milton \"did not at first plan to write a biblical epic.\" Since epics were typically written about heroic kings and queens (and with pagan gods), Milton originally envisioned his epic to be based on a legendary Saxon or British king like the legend of King Arthur.",
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"plaintext": "Having gone blind in 1652, Milton wrote Paradise Lost entirely through dictation with the help of amanuenses and friends. He also wrote the epic poem while he was often ill, suffering from gout, and despite suffering emotionally after the early death of his second wife, Katherine Woodcock, in 1658, and the death of their infant daughter.",
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"plaintext": "At several points in the poem, an Angelic War over Heaven is recounted from different perspectives. Satan's rebellion follows the epic convention of large-scale warfare. The battles between the faithful angels and Satan's forces take place over three days. At the final battle, the Son of God single-handedly defeats the entire legion of angelic rebels and banishes them from Heaven. Following this purge, God creates the World, culminating in his creation of Adam and Eve. While God gave Adam and Eve total freedom and power to rule over all creation, he gave them one explicit command: not to eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil on penalty of death.",
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"plaintext": "The story of Adam and Eve's temptation and fall is a fundamentally different, new kind of epic: a domestic one. Adam and Eve are presented as having a romantic and sexual relationship while still being without sin. They have passions and distinct personalities. Satan, disguised in the form of a serpent, successfully tempts Eve to eat from the Tree by preying on her vanity and tricking her with rhetoric. Adam, learning that Eve has sinned, knowingly commits the same sin. He declares to Eve that since she was made from his flesh, they are bound to one another – if she dies, he must also die. In this manner, Milton portrays Adam as a heroic figure, but also as a greater sinner than Eve, as he is aware that what he is doing is wrong.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, Satan returns triumphantly to Hell, amid the praise of his fellow fallen angels. He tells them about how their scheme worked and Mankind has fallen, giving them complete dominion over Paradise. As he finishes his speech, however, the fallen angels around him become hideous snakes, and soon enough, Satan himself turns into a snake, deprived of limbs and unable to talk. Thus, they share the same punishment, as they shared the same guilt.",
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"plaintext": "Eve appeals to Adam for reconciliation of their actions. Her encouragement enables them to approach God, and sue for grace, bowing on supplicant knee, to receive forgiveness. In a vision shown to him by the Archangel Michael, Adam witnesses everything that will happen to Mankind until the Great Flood. Adam is very upset by this vision of the future, so Michael also tells him about Mankind's potential redemption from original sin through Jesus Christ (whom Michael calls \"King Messiah\").",
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"plaintext": "Adam and Eve are cast out of Eden, and Michael says that Adam may find \"a paradise within thee, happier far.\" Adam and Eve now have a more distant relationship with God, who is omnipresent but invisible (unlike the tangible Father in the Garden of Eden).",
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"plaintext": "Satan, formerly called Lucifer, is the first major character introduced in the poem. He is a tragic figure who famously declares: \"Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven\" (1.263). Following his vain rebellion against God he is cast out from Heaven and condemned to Hell. The rebellion stems from Satan's pride and envy (5.660ff.).",
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"plaintext": "Opinions on the character are often sharply divided. Milton presents Satan as the origin of all evil, but readers have historically struggled with accepting this interpretation. Romanticist critics in particular, among them William Blake, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and William Hazlitt, are known for reading Satan as the \"true hero\" of Paradise Lost. Other critics, such as C. S. Lewis and Charles Williams, both of whom were devout Christians, argued against reading Satan as a sympathetic, heroic figure. John Carey argues that this conflict cannot be solved, because the character of Satan exists in more modes and greater depth than the other characters of Paradise Lost; in this way, Milton has created an ambivalent character, and any \"pro-Satan\" or \"anti-Satan\" argument is by its nature discarding half the evidence. Satan's ambivalence, Carey says, is \"a precondition of the poem's success - a major factor in the attention it has aroused.\"",
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"plaintext": "Adam is the first human created by God. Adam requests a companion from God: God approves his request then creates Eve. God appoints Adam and Eve to rule over all the creatures of the world and to reside in the Garden of Eden.",
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"plaintext": "Adam is more gregarious than Eve and yearns for her company. He is completely infatuated with her. Raphael advises him to \"take heed lest Passion sway / Thy Judgment\" (5.635–636). But Adam's great love for Eve contributes to his disobedience to God.",
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"plaintext": "Unlike the biblical Adam, before Milton's Adam leaves Paradise he is given a glimpse of the future of mankind by the Archangel Michael, which includes stories from the Old and New Testaments.",
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"plaintext": "Nonetheless, Adam later explains this to Raphael as Eve's But Adam's judgment is not always sound. And Eve is beautiful.",
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"plaintext": "Though Eve does love Adam she may feel suffocated by his constant presence. Eve feels the need to be on her own and explore her individuality. In Book 9 she convinces Adam to separate for a time to work in different parts of the Garden. In her solitude she is deceived by Satan. Satan in the serpent leads Eve to the forbidden tree then persuades her that he has eaten of its fruit and gained knowledge and that she should do the same. She is not easily persuaded to eat, but is hungry in body and in mind.",
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"plaintext": "The Son of God is the spirit who will become incarnate as Jesus Christ, though he is never named explicitly because he has not yet entered human form. Milton believed in a subordinationist doctrine of Christology that regarded the Son as secondary to the Father and as God's \"great Vice-regent\" (5.609).",
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"plaintext": " Milton's God in Paradise Lost refers to the Son as \"My word, my wisdom, and effectual might\" (3.170). The poem is not explicitly anti-trinitarian, but it is consistent with Milton's convictions. The Son is the ultimate hero of the epic and is infinitely powerful—he single-handedly defeats Satan and his followers and drives them into Hell. After their fall, the Son of God tells Adam and Eve about God's judgment. Before their fall the Father foretells their \"Treason\" (3.207) and that Man The Father then asks whether there \"Dwels in all Heaven charitie so deare?\" (3.216) And the Son volunteers himself.",
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"plaintext": "In the final book a vision of Salvation through the Son is revealed to Adam by Michael. The name Jesus of Nazareth, and the details of Jesus' story are not depicted in the poem, though they are alluded to. Michael explains that \"Joshua, whom the Gentiles Jesus call,\" prefigures the Son of God, \"his name and office bearing\" to \"quell / The adversarie Serpent, and bring back [...] long wander[e]d man / Safe to eternal Paradise of rest.\"",
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"plaintext": "God the Father is the creator of Heaven, Hell, the world, of everyone and everything there is, through the agency of His Son. Milton presents God as all-powerful and all-knowing, as an infinitely great being who cannot be overthrown by even the great army of angels Satan incites against him. Milton portrays God as often conversing about his plans and his motives for his actions with the Son of God. The poem shows God creating the world in the way Milton believed it was done, that is, God created Heaven, Earth, Hell, and all the creatures that inhabit these separate planes from part of Himself, not out of nothing. Thus, according to Milton, the ultimate authority of God over all things that happen derives from his being the \"author\" of all creation. Satan tries to justify his rebellion by denying this aspect of God and claiming self-creation, but he admits to himself the truth otherwise, and that God \"deserved no such return / From me, whom He created what I was.\"",
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"plaintext": "Milton first presented Adam and Eve in Book IV with impartiality. The relationship between Adam and Eve is one of \"mutual dependence, not a relation of domination or hierarchy.\" While the author placed Adam above Eve in his intellectual knowledge and, in turn, his relation to God, he granted Eve the benefit of knowledge through experience. Hermine Van Nuis clarifies, that although there was stringency specified for the roles of male and female, Adam and Eve unreservedly accept their designated roles. Rather than viewing these roles as forced upon them, each uses their assignment as an asset in their relationship with each other. These distinctions can be interpreted as Milton's view on the importance of mutuality between husband and wife.",
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"plaintext": "When examining the relationship between Adam and Eve, some critics apply either an Adam-centered or Eve-centered view of hierarchy and importance to God. David Mikics argues, by contrast, these positions \"overstate the independence of the characters' stances, and therefore miss the way in which Adam and Eve are entwined with each other.\" Milton's narrative depicts a relationship where the husband and wife (here, Adam and Eve) depend on each other and, through each other's differences, thrive.",
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"plaintext": "Still, there are several instances where Adam communicates directly with God while Eve must go through Adam to God; thus, some have described Adam as her guide.",
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"plaintext": "Although Milton does not directly mention divorce, critics posit theories on Milton's view of divorce based upon their inferences from the poem and from his tracts on divorce written earlier in his life. Other works by Milton suggest he viewed marriage as an entity separate from the church. Discussing Paradise Lost, Biberman entertains the idea that \"marriage is a contract made by both the man and the woman.\" These ideas imply Milton may have favored that both man and woman have equal access to marriage and to divorce.",
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"plaintext": "Milton's 17th-century contemporaries by and large criticised his ideas and considered him as a radical, mostly because of his Calvinist views on politics and religion. One of Milton's most controversial arguments centred on his concept of what is idolatrous, which subject is deeply embedded in Paradise Lost.",
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"plaintext": "Milton's first criticism of idolatry focused on the constructing of temples and other buildings to serve as places of worship. In Book XI of Paradise Lost, Adam tries to atone for his sins by offering to build altars to worship God. In response, the angel Michael explains that Adam does not need to build physical objects to experience the presence of God. Joseph Lyle points to this example, explaining \"When Milton objects to architecture, it is not a quality inherent in buildings themselves he finds offensive, but rather their tendency to act as convenient loci to which idolatry, over time, will inevitably adhere.\" Even if the idea is pure in nature, Milton thought it would unavoidably lead to idolatry simply because of the nature of humans. That is, instead of directing their thoughts towards God, humans will turn to erected objects and falsely invest their faith there. While Adam attempts to build an altar to God, critics note Eve is similarly guilty of idolatry, but in a different manner. Harding believes Eve's narcissism and obsession with herself constitutes idolatry. Specifically, Harding claims that \"... under the serpent's influence, Eve's idolatry and self-deification foreshadow the errors into which her 'Sons' will stray.\" Much like Adam, Eve falsely places her faith in herself, the Tree of Knowledge, and to some extent the Serpent, all of which do not compare to the ideal nature of God.",
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"plaintext": "Milton made his views on idolatry more explicit with the creation of Pandæmonium and his allusion to Solomon's temple. In the beginning of Paradise Lost and throughout the poem, there are several references to the rise and eventual fall of Solomon's temple. Critics elucidate that \"Solomon's temple provides an explicit demonstration of how an artefact moves from its genesis in devotional practice to an idolatrous end.\" This example, out of the many presented, distinctly conveys Milton's views on the dangers of idolatry. Even if one builds a structure in the name of God, the best of intentions can become immoral in idolatry. The majority of these similarities revolve around a structural likeness, but as Lyle explains, they play a greater role. By linking Saint Peter's Basilica and the Pantheon to Pandemonium—an ideally false structure—the two famous buildings take on a false meaning. This comparison best represents Milton's Protestant views, as it rejects both the purely Catholic perspective and the Pagan perspective.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to rejecting Catholicism, Milton revolted against the idea of a monarch ruling by divine right. He saw the practice as idolatrous. Barbara Lewalski concludes that the theme of idolatry in Paradise Lost \"is an exaggerated version of the idolatry Milton had long associated with the Stuart ideology of divine kingship.\" In the opinion of Milton, any object, human or non-human, that receives special attention befitting of God, is considered idolatrous.",
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"plaintext": "Although Satan's army inevitably loses the war against God, Satan achieves a position of power and begins his reign in Hell with his band of loyal followers, composed of fallen angels, which is described to be a \"third of heaven.\" Similar to Milton's republican sentiments of overthrowing the King of England for both better representation and parliamentary power, Satan argues that his shared rebellion with the fallen angels is an effort to \"explain the hypocrisy of God,\" and in doing so, they will be treated with the respect and acknowledgement that they deserve. As Wayne Rebhorn argues, \"Satan insists that he and his fellow revolutionaries held their places by right and even leading him to claim that they were self-created and self-sustained\" and thus Satan's position in the rebellion is much like that of his own real world creator.",
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"plaintext": "Milton scholar John Leonard interpreted the \"impious war\" between Heaven and Hell as civil war:",
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"plaintext": "Paradise Lost is, among other things, a poem about civil war. Satan raises 'impious war in Heav'n' (i 43) by leading a third of the angels in revolt against God. The term 'impious war' implies that civil war is impious. But Milton applauded the English people for having the courage to depose and execute King Charles I. In his poem, however, he takes the side of 'Heav'n's awful Monarch' (iv 960). Critics have long wrestled with the question of why an antimonarchist and defender of regicide should have chosen a subject that obliged him to defend monarchical authority.",
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"plaintext": "The editors at the Poetry Foundation argue that Milton's criticism of the English monarchy was being directed specifically at the Stuart monarchy and not at the monarchy system in general.",
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"plaintext": "In a similar vein, C.S. Lewis argued that there was no contradiction in Milton's position in the poem since \"Milton believed that God was his 'natural superior' and that Charles Stuart was not.\"",
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"plaintext": "C. S. Lewis interpreted the poem as a genuine Christian morality tale. Other critics, like William Empson, view it as a more ambiguous work, with Milton's complex characterization of Satan playing a large part in that perceived ambiguity. Empson argued that \"Milton deserves credit for making God wicked, since the God of Christianity is 'a wicked God.'\" Leonard places Empson's interpretation \"in the [Romantic interpretive] tradition of William Blake and Percy Bysshe Shelley.\"",
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"plaintext": "Empson's view is complex. John Leonard points out that \"Empson never denies that Satan's plan is wicked. What he does deny is that God is innocent of its wickedness: 'Milton steadily drives home that the inmost counsel of God was the Fortunate Fall of man; however wicked Satan's plan may be, it is God's plan too [since God in Paradise Lost is depicted as being both omniscient and omnipotent].'\" Leonard calls Empson's view \"a powerful argument\"; he notes that this interpretation was challenged by Dennis Danielson in his book Milton's Good God (1982).",
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"plaintext": "Milton used a number of acrostics in the poem. In Book 9, a verse describing the serpent which tempted Eve to eat the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden spells out \"SATAN\" (9.510), while elsewhere in the same book, Milton spells out \"FFAALL\" and \"FALL\" (9.333). Respectively, these probably represent the double fall of humanity embodied in Adam and Eve, as well as Satan's fall from Heaven.",
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"plaintext": "Blank verse was not much used in the non-dramatic poetry of the 17th century until Paradise Lost, in which Milton used it with much license and tremendous skill. Milton used the flexibility of blank verse, and its capacity to support syntactic complexity, to the utmost. Milton also wrote Paradise Regained and parts of Samson Agonistes in blank verse.",
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"plaintext": "Although Milton was not the first to use blank verse, his use of it was very influential and he became known for the style. When Miltonic verse became popular, Samuel Johnson mocked Milton for inspiring bad blank verse, but he recognized that Milton's verse style was very influential. Poets such as Alexander Pope, whose final, incomplete work was intended to be written in the form, and John Keats, who complained that he relied too heavily on Milton, adopted and picked up various aspects of his poetry. In particular, Miltonic blank verse became the standard for those attempting to write English epics for centuries following the publication of Paradise Lost and his later poetry. The poet Robert Bridges analyzed his versification in the monograph Milton's Prosody.",
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"plaintext": "The writer and critic Samuel Johnson wrote that Paradise Lost shows off \"[Milton's] peculiar power to astonish\" and that \"[Milton] seems to have been well acquainted with his own genius, and to know what it was that Nature had bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon others: the power of displaying the vast, illuminating the splendid, enforcing the awful, darkening the gloomy, and aggravating the dreadful.\"",
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"plaintext": "William Blake famously wrote in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell: \"The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true Poet and of the Devil's party without knowing it.\" This quotation succinctly represents the way in which some 18th- and 19th-century English Romantic poets viewed Milton.",
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"plaintext": "Tobias Gregory wrote that Milton was \"the most theologically learned among early modern epic poets. He was, moreover, a theologian of great independence of mind, and one who developed his talents within a society where the problem of divine justice was debated with particular intensity.\" Gregory says that Milton is able to establish divine action and his divine characters in a superior way to other Renaissance epic poets, including Ludovico Ariosto or Tasso.",
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"plaintext": "In Paradise Lost Milton also ignores the traditional epic format of a plot based on a mortal conflict between opposing armies with deities watching over and occasionally interfering with the action. Instead, both divinity and mortal are involved in a conflict that, while momentarily ending in tragedy, offers a future salvation. In both Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, Milton incorporates aspects of Lucan's epic model, the epic from the view of the defeated. Although he does not accept the model completely within Paradise Regained, he incorporates the \"anti-Virgilian, anti-imperial epic tradition of Lucan\". Milton goes further than Lucan in this belief and \"Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained carry further, too, the movement toward and valorization of romance that Lucan's tradition had begun, to the point where Milton's poems effectively create their own new genre\".",
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"plaintext": "The first illustrations to accompany the text of Paradise Lost were added to the fourth edition of 1688, with one engraving prefacing each book, of which up to eight of the twelve were by Sir John Baptist Medina, one by Bernard Lens II, and perhaps up to four (including Books I and XII, perhaps the most memorable) by another hand. The engraver was Michael Burghers (given as 'Burgesse' in some sources). By 1730 the same images had been re-engraved on a smaller scale by Paul Fourdrinier.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the most notable illustrators of Paradise Lost included William Blake, Gustave Doré, and Henry Fuseli. However, the epic's illustrators also include John Martin, Edward Francis Burney, Richard Westall, Francis Hayman, and many others.",
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"plaintext": "Outside of book illustrations, the epic has also inspired other visual works by well-known painters like Salvador Dalí who executed a set of ten colour engravings in 1974. Milton's achievement in writing Paradise Lost while blind (he dictated to helpers) inspired loosely biographical paintings by both Fuseli and Eugène Delacroix.",
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"plaintext": " John Milton: A Short Introduction (2002 ed., paperback by Roy C. Flannagan, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, ; 2008 ed., ebook by Roy Flannagan, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, )",
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"plaintext": " Al-Akhras, Sharihan; Green, Mandy (2017). Satanic whispers: Milton’s Iblis and the “Great Sultan”. The Seventeenth Century, 32:1, pp.31–50. DOI: 10.1080/0268117X.2016.1252279.",
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"plaintext": " Patrides, C. A. The Age of Milton: Backgrounds to Seventeenth-century Literature (Manchester University, 1980) ISBN 0-7190-0770-4",
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"plaintext": "The Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk is a high-altitude, remotely-piloted surveillance aircraft of the 1990s–2020s. It was initially designed by Ryan Aeronautical (now part of Northrop Grumman), and known as Tier II+ during development. The RQ-4 provides a broad overview and systematic surveillance using high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) sensors with long loiter times over target areas. It can survey as much as of terrain per day, an area the size of South Korea or Iceland.",
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"plaintext": "The Global Hawk is operated by the United States Air Force (USAF). It is used as a high-altitude long endurance (HALE) platform covering the spectrum of intelligence collection capability to support forces in worldwide military operations. According to the USAF, the superior surveillance capabilities of the aircraft allow more precise weapons targeting and better protection of friendly forces.",
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"plaintext": "Cost overruns led to the original plan to acquire 63 aircraft being cut to 45, and to a 2013 proposal to mothball the 21 Block 30 signals intelligence variants. The initial flyaway cost of each of the first 10 aircraft was US$10 million in 1994. By 2001, this had risen to US$60.9 million, and then to $131.4 million (flyaway cost) in 2013. The U.S. Navy has developed the Global Hawk into the MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance platform. As of 2022, the U.S. Air Force plans to retire its Global Hawks in 2027.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1990s, the Air Force was developing uncrewed aerial intelligence platforms. One of them was the stealthy Lockheed Martin RQ-3 Dark Star, another one was the Global Hawk. Due to budget cuts, only one of the programs could survive. It was decided to proceed with the Global Hawk for its range and payload rather than go with the stealth Dark Star.",
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"plaintext": "The Global Hawk took its first flight on 28 February 1998. The first seven aircraft were built under the Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration (ACTD) program, sponsored by DARPA, in order to evaluate the design and demonstrate its capabilities. Demand for the RQ-4's abilities was high in the Middle East; thus, the prototype aircraft were actively operated by the USAF in the War in Afghanistan. In an unusual move, the aircraft entered initial low-rate production while still in engineering and manufacturing development. Nine production Block 10 aircraft, sometimes referred to as RQ-4A, were produced; of these, two were sold to the US Navy and an additional two were deployed to Iraq to support operations there. The final Block 10 aircraft was delivered on 26 June 2006.",
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"plaintext": "To increase the aircraft's capabilities, the airframe was redesigned, with the nose section and wings being stretched. The modified aircraft, designated RQ-4B Block 20, can carry up to 3,000lb (1,360kg) of internal payload. These changes were introduced with the first Block 20 aircraft, the 17th Global Hawk produced, which was rolled out in a ceremony on 25 August 2006. First flight of the Block 20 from the USAF Plant 42 in Palmdale, California to Edwards Air Force Base took place on 1 March 2007. Developmental testing of Block 20 took place in 2008.",
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"plaintext": "The United States Navy took delivery of two of the Block 10 aircraft to evaluate their maritime surveillance capabilities, designated N-1 (BuNo 166509) and N-2 (BuNo 166510). The initial navalised example was tested at Edwards Air Force Base briefly, before moving to Naval Air Station Patuxent River in March 2006 for the Global Hawk Maritime Demonstration (GHMD) program, operated by Navy squadron VX-20.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2006, the GHMD aircraft flew in the Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC exercise) for the first time. Although it was in the vicinity of Hawaii, the aircraft was operated from NBVC Point Mugu, requiring flights of approximately each way to the area. Four flights were performed, resulting in over 24 hours of persistent maritime surveillance coordinated with the aircraft carrier and amphibious warfare ship . For the GHMD program, the Global Hawk was tasked with maintaining maritime situational awareness, contact tracking, and imagery support of exercise operations. Images were transmitted to NAS Patuxent River for processing and then forwarded to the fleet off Hawaii.",
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"plaintext": "Northrop Grumman entered a RQ-4B variant in the US Navy's Broad Area Maritime Surveillance (BAMS) UAV competition. On 22 April 2008, it was announced that Northrop Grumman's RQ-4N had won and that the Navy had awarded a US$1.16 billion contract. In September 2010, the RQ-4N was officially designated the MQ-4C.",
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"plaintext": "The Navy MQ-4C differs from the Air Force RQ-4 mainly in its wing. While the Global Hawk remains at high altitude to conduct surveillance, the Triton climbs to to see a wide area and can drop to to get further identification of a target. The Triton's wings are specially designed to take the stresses of rapidly decreasing altitude. Though similar in appearance to the Global Hawk's wings, the Triton's internal wing structure is much stronger and has additional features including anti-icing capabilities and impact and lightning strike protection.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 June 2022, the Navy brought its last deployed RQ-4A BAMS-D back from the Middle East, ending what started as a six-month experiment but turned into a 13-year deployment. The Navy had acquired five Block 10 RQ-4As and since 2009 at least one had been kept on rotation in the Persian Gulf region. The aircraft accrued over 42,500 flight hours in 2,069 missions; one was lost in an accident and another was shot down by Iran. The BAMS-D was replaced in Navy service with the MQ-4C.",
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"plaintext": "Development cost overruns placed the Global Hawk at risk of cancellation. In mid-2006, per-unit costs were 25% over baseline estimates, caused by both the need to correct design deficiencies as well as to increase its capabilities. This caused concern over a possible congressional termination of the program if its national security benefits could not be justified. However, in June 2006, the program was restructured. Completion of an operational assessment report by the USAF was delayed from 2005 to 2007 due to manufacturing and development delays. The operational assessment report was released in March 2007 and production of the 54 air vehicles planned was extended by two years to 2015.",
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"plaintext": "In February 2011, the USAF reduced its planned purchase of RQ-4 Block 40 aircraft from 22 to 11 in order to cut costs. In June 2011, the U.S. Defense Department's Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) found the RQ-4B \"not operationally effective\" due to reliability issues. In June 2011, the Global Hawk was certified by the Secretary of Defense as critical to national security following a breach of the Nunn-McCurdy Amendment; the Secretary stated: \"The Global Hawk is essential to national security; there are no alternatives to Global Hawk which provide acceptable capability at less cost; Global Hawk costs $220M less per year than the Lockheed U-2 to operate on a comparable mission; the U-2 cannot simultaneously carry the same sensors as the Global Hawk; and if funding must be reduced, Global Hawk has a higher priority over other programs.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 26 January 2012, the Pentagon announced plans to end Global Hawk Block 30 procurement as the type was found to be more expensive to operate and with less capable sensors than the existing U-2. Plans to increase procurement of the Block 40 variant were also announced. The Air Force's fiscal year 2013 budget request said it had resolved to divest itself of the Block 30 variant; however, the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013 mandated operations of the Block 30 fleet through the end of 2014. The USAF plans to procure 45 RQ-4B Global Hawks as of 2013. Before retiring in 2014, ACC commander, General Mike Hostage said of the U-2's replacement by the drone that \"The combatant commanders are going to suffer for eight years and the best they’re going to get is 90 percent\".",
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"plaintext": "During 2010–2013, costs of flying the RQ-4 fell by more than 50%. In 2010, the cost per flight hour was $40,600, with contractor logistic support making up $25,000 per flight hour of this figure. By mid-2013, cost per flight hour dropped to $18,900, contractor logistic support having dropped to $11,000 per flight hour. This was in part due to higher usage, spreading logistics and support costs over a higher number of flight hours.",
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"plaintext": "In July 2022, the US Air Force announced that it plans to retire the Global Hawk in 2027.",
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"plaintext": "The German Air Force (Luftwaffe) ordered a variant of the RQ-4B, to be equipped with a customized sensor suite, designated \"EuroHawk\". The aircraft was based on the RQ-4B Block 20/30/40 and was to be equipped with an EADS-built signals intelligence (SIGINT) package; it was intended to fulfill Germany's requirement to replace their aging Dassault-Breguet Atlantique electronic surveillance aircraft of the Marineflieger (German Naval Air Arm). The EADS sensor package is composed of six wing-mounted pods; reportedly these sensor pods could potentially be used on other platforms, including crewed aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "The EuroHawk was officially rolled out on 8 October 2009 and its first flight took place on 29 June 2010. It underwent several months of flight testing at Edwards Air Force Base. On 21 July 2011, the first EuroHawk arrived in Manching, Germany; after which it was scheduled to receive its SIGINT sensor package and undergo further testing and pilot training until the first quarter of 2012. The Luftwaffe planned to station the type with Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 51 (\"Reconnaissance wing 51\"). In 2011 the German Ministry of Defence was aware of difficulties with the certification for use within the European airspace. During flight trials, problems with the EuroHawk's flight control system were found; the German certification process was also complicated by Northrop Grumman refusing to share technical data on the aircraft with which to perform evaluations.",
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"plaintext": "On 13 May 2013, German media reported that the EuroHawk would not be certifiable under ICAO rules without an anti-collision system; thus preventing any operations within European airspace or the airspace of any ICAO member. The additional cost of certification was reported to be more than €600 million (US$780 million). On 15 May 2013, the German government announced the immediate termination of the program, attributing the cancellation to the certification issue. Reportedly, the additional cost to develop the EuroHawk to the standards needed for certification may not have guaranteed final approval for certification.",
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"plaintext": "German defense minister Thomas de Maizière stated EuroHawk was \"very important\" for Germany in 2012, then referred to the project as being \"a horror without end\" in his 2013 statement to the Bundestag. The total cost of the project before it was canceled was €562 million. Northrop Grumman and EADS have described reports of flight control problems and high costs for certification as \"inaccurate\"; they have stated their intention to provide an affordable plan to complete the first EuroHawk's flight testing and produce the remaining four aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "On 8 August 2013, the EuroHawk set an endurance record by flying continuously in European airspace for 25.3 hours, reaching an altitude of . It was the longest flight by an unrefueled UAS weighing more than in European skies. On 5 October 2014, German Minister of Defence Ursula von der Leyen was reportedly considering reactivating the EuroHawk program to test its reconnaissance abilities over a long period at altitudes of up to . Attempting to test the recon system on Airbus aircraft and an Israeli drone as alternate platforms had proven unsuccessful.",
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"plaintext": "The Bundeswehr would use it to detect, decrypt, and potentially interfere with enemy communications signals. If tests prove successful, a carrier would be purchased, likely \"similar\" to the U.S. Global Hawk. Germany is considering installing the EuroHawk's SIGINT payloads onto the U.S. Navy MQ-4C Triton Global Hawk derivative, as the electronic and communications intelligence sensors would be more difficult to place on other substitute aircraft. It already has icing and lightning-strike protection, and was built with certification over civilian airspace in mind, meeting the STANAG 4671 requirements that had ended the EuroHawk program.",
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"plaintext": "As of March 2021, Germany plans to put the single RQ-4E aircraft on display in the Bundeswehr Military History Museum by 2022.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2014, President Obama signed a budget that included a $10 million study on adapting the U-2's superior sensors for the RQ-4. In April 2015, Northrop Grumman reportedly installed the U-2's Optical Bar Camera (OBC) and Senior Year Electro-Optical Reconnaissance System (SYERS-2B/C) sensors onto the RQ-4 using a Universal Payload Adapter (UPA). Successful testing indicated that all RQ-4s could be similarly retrofitted.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 July 2015, Northrop Grumman and the USAF signed an agreement to demonstrate an RQ-4B fitted with the U-2's OBC and SYERS-2C sensors. Two Global Hawks are to be fitted with the UPA, involving the installation of 17 payload adapter fixtures and a new payload bay cover, as well as software and mission system changes for each sensor. The UPA can support of sensors and will create a canoe-shaped sensor bay on the fuselage's underside.",
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"plaintext": "Northrop Grumman also expects to receive a contract to integrate the UTC Aerospace Systems MS-177 multispectral sensor used on the Northrop Grumman E-8C JSTARS onto the RQ-4. The MS-177 will replace the SYERS-2 and includes modernized optronics and a gimbaled rotation device to increase field of view by 20 percent. The RQ-4B flew with the SYERS-2 on 18 February 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Raytheon developed the AN/ALR-89 self-protection suite consisting of the AN/AVR-3 laser warning receiver, AN/APR-49 radar warning receiver, and jamming system, along with the ALE-50 towed decoy for the Global Hawk.",
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"plaintext": "The Global Hawk UAV system comprises the RQ-4 air vehicle, which is outfitted with various equipment such as sensor packages and communication systems; and a ground element consisting of a Launch and Recovery Element (LRE), and a Mission Control Element (MCE) with ground communications equipment. Each RQ-4 air vehicle is powered by an Allison Rolls-Royce AE3007H turbofan engine with thrust, and carries a payload of . The fuselage uses aluminum, semi-monocoque construction with a V-tail; the wings are made of composite materials.",
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"plaintext": "There have been several iterations of the Global Hawk with different features and capabilities. The first version to be used operationally was the RQ-4A Block 10, which performed imagery intelligence (IMINT) with a payload of a synthetic aperture radar (SAR) with electro-optical (EO) and infrared (IR) sensors. Seven A-model Block 10s were delivered and all were retired by 2011. The RQ-4B Block 20 was the first of the B-model Global Hawks, which has a greater payload and employs upgraded SAR and EO/IR sensors. Four Block 20s were converted into communications relays with the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) payload.",
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"plaintext": "The RQ-4B Block 30 is capable of multi-intelligence (multi-INT) collecting with SAR and EO/IR sensors along with the Airborne Signals Intelligence Payload (ASIP), a wide-spectrum SIGINT sensor. The RQ-4B Block 40 is equipped with the multi-platform radar technology insertion program (MP-RTIP) active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, which provides SAR and moving target indication (MTI) data for wide-area surveillance of stationary and moving targets.",
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"plaintext": "Since the RQ-4 is capable of conducting sorties lasting up to 30 hours long, scheduled maintenance has to be performed sooner than on other aircraft with less endurance. However, since it flies at higher altitudes than normal aircraft, it experiences less wear during flight.",
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"plaintext": "Raytheon's Integrated Sensor Suite (ISS) consists of the following sensors:",
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"plaintext": " a synthetic aperture radar (SAR)",
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"plaintext": " electro-optical (EO)",
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"plaintext": " thermographic camera (IR)",
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"plaintext": "Either the EO or the IR sensors can operate simultaneously with the SAR. Each sensor provides wide area search imagery and a high-resolution spot mode. The SAR has a ground moving target indicator (GMTI) mode, which can provide a text message providing the moving target's position and velocity. Both SAR and EO/IR imagery are transmitted from the aircraft to the MCE as individual frames, and reassembled during ground processing. An onboard inertial navigation system, supplemented by Global Positioning System updates, comprises the navigational suite.",
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"plaintext": "The Global Hawk is capable of operating autonomously and \"untethered\". A military satellite system (X Band Satellite Communication) is used for sending data from the aircraft to the MCE. The common data link can also be used for direct down link of imagery when the UAV is within line-of-sight of compatible ground stations. For dense flight areas the autonomous navigation is switched off and the RQ-4 is remote controlled via the satellite link by pilots on the ground who are supplied with the same instrument data and who carry the same responsibilities as pilots in crewed planes.",
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"plaintext": "The ground segment consists of a Mission Control Element (MCE) and Launch and Recovery Element (LRE), provided by Raytheon. The MCE is used for mission planning, command and control, and image processing and dissemination; an LRE for controlling launch and recovery; and associated ground support equipment. The LRE provides precision Differential GPS corrections for navigational accuracy during takeoff and landings, while precision coded GPS supplemented with an inertial navigation system is used during mission execution. By having separable elements in the ground segment, the MCE and the LRE can operate in geographically separate locations, and the MCE can be deployed with the supported command's primary exploitation site. Both ground segments are contained in military shelters with external antennas for line-of-sight and satellite communications with the air vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "The Global Hawk carries the Hughes Integrated Surveillance & Reconnaissance (HISAR) sensor system. HISAR is a lower-cost derivative of the ASARS-2 package that Hughes developed for the U-2. It is also fitted to the US Army's de Havilland Canada RC-7B Airborne Reconnaissance Low Multifunction (ARLM) crewed aircraft, and is being sold on the international market. HISAR integrates a SAR-MTI system, along with an optical and a thermography imager.",
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"plaintext": "All three sensors are controlled and their outputs filtered by a common processor and transmitted in real time at up to 50 Mbit/s to a ground station. The SAR-MTI system operates in the X band in various operational modes; such as the wide-area MTI mode with a radius of , combined SAR-MTI strip mode provides resolution over wide sections, and a SAR spot mode providing resolution over .",
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"plaintext": "In July 2006, the USAF began testing the Global Hawk Block 30 upgrades in the Benefield Anechoic Facility at Edwards AFB. Upgrades include the Advanced Signals Intelligence Payload, an extremely sensitive SIGINT processor. and a specialist AESA radar system, the Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program, or MP-RTIP. In 2010, Northrop disclosed the sensor capabilities of the new Block 40 aircraft, including the MP-RTIP radar, emphasising surveillance over reconnaissance.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 April 2014, a Block 40 Global Hawk completed the first Maritime Modes program risk-reduction flight to enhance the Air Force's maritime surveillance capabilities. Maritime Modes is made up of a Maritime Moving Target Indicator and a Maritime Inverse synthetic aperture radar (MISAR) that function together to provide ISR information on vessels traveling on the water's surface. During the 11.5-hour flight off of the California coast, the MISAR collected data on over 100 items of interest. Maritime Modes is planned to be integrated with the RQ-4B's existing MP-RTIP radar to detect and produce synthetic aperture radar imagery of ground vehicles.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2015, Northrop Grumman selected the Garmin International GSX 70 weather radar to be installed on Air Force Global Hawks. The GSX 70 is designed to provide operators with real-time weather information, offering horizontal scan angles of up to 120 degrees for better visibility into the strength and intensity of convective activity and a vertical scanning mode to analyze storm tops, gradients, and cell buildup activity. It also has a Turbulence Detection feature to identify turbulence in air containing precipitation and other airborne particulates and Ground Clutter Suppression that removes ground returns from the display so operators can focus on weather. Installation is expected to begin in early 2016. Installation of weather radars on the Global Hawk fleet completed in late 2019.",
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"plaintext": "The visible and infrared imagers share the same gimballed sensor package, and use common optics, providing a telescopic close-up capability. It can be optionally fitted with an auxiliary SIGINT package.",
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"plaintext": "Following the September 11th attacks, the normal acquisition process was bypassed almost immediately and early developmental Global Hawk models were employed in overseas contingency operations beginning in November 2001. Global Hawk ACTD prototypes were used in the War in Afghanistan and in the Iraq War. Since April 2010, they fly the Northern Route, from Beale Air Force Base over Canada to South-East Asia and back, reducing flight time and improving maintenance. While their data-collection capabilities have been praised, the program lost three prototype aircraft to accidents, more than one quarter of the aircraft used in the wars.",
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"plaintext": "The crashes were reported to be due to \"technical failures or poor maintenance\", with a failure rate per hour flown over 100 times higher than the F-16 fighter. Northrop Grumman stated that it was unfair to compare the failure rates of a mature design to that of a prototype aircraft. In June 2012, a media report described the Global Hawk, the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator and the MQ-9 Reapers \"...the most accident-prone aircraft in the Air Force fleet.\" On 11 February 2010, the Global Hawks deployed in the Central Command AOR accrued 30,000 combat hours and 1,500 plus sorties.",
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"plaintext": "Initial operational capability was declared for the RQ-4 Block 30 in August 2011. The USAF did not plan to keep the RQ-4B Block 30 in service past 2014 due to the U-2 and other platforms being less expensive in the role. Congress sought to keep it in service until December 2016. The USAF had 18 RQ-4 Block 30s by the time of the passage of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013, which directed a further three RQ-4s to be procured as part of Lot 11. The USAF felt that additional aircraft were \"excess to need\" and likely become backup or attrition reserve models.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the potential retirement of the Block 30 fleet due to low reliability, low mission readiness, and high costs, the USAF released a pre-solicitation notice in September 2013 for Lot 12 aircraft. In planning the USAF's FY 2015 budget, the Pentagon reversed its previous decision, shifting $3 billion from the U-2 to the RQ-4 Block 30, which had become more competitive with the U-2 due to increased flying hours. Factors such as cost per flight hour (CPFH), information gathering rates, mission readiness, adverse weather operational capability, distance to targets, and onboard power still favored the U-2.",
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"plaintext": "After the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, RQ-4s flew 300 hours over the affected areas in Japan. There were also plans to survey the No. 4 reactor at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant.",
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"plaintext": "By November 2012, Northrop Grumman had delivered 37 Global Hawks to the USAF. In March 2014, 42 Global Hawks are in use around the world, with 32 in use by the USAF.",
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"plaintext": "The USAF stated that U-2 pilot and altitude advantages allow better functionality in the stormy weather and airspace restrictions of the East Asia region and its altitude and sensor advantages allow it to see further into hostile territory. In October 2013, the U.S. secured basing rights to deploy RQ-4s from Japan, the first time that basing rights for the type had been secured in Northeast Asia. RQ-4s are stationed at Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, but bad weather often curtailed flights. Basing in Japan as opposed to Guam enhances spying capabilities against North Korea by eliminating range as a factor.",
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"plaintext": "Two RQ-4s moved from Anderson AFB to Misawa Air Base in mid-2014 in the type's first deployment to Japan. They were speculated to have focused on maritime patrol missions. The two RQ-4s successfully performed their missions from Misawa AB during a six-month deployment, with none cancelled due to poor weather. It was the first time that they had operated out of a civil-military airport, sharing airspace and runways with commercial aircraft safely without additional restrictions, usually taking off and landing during quieter periods of air traffic. Officials only stated that they had operated at \"various places around the Pacific.\"",
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"plaintext": "On 19 September 2013, the RQ-4 Block 40 Global Hawk conducted its first wartime flight from Grand Forks Air Force Base.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2013, an USAF RQ-4 deployed to the Philippines after Typhoon Haiyan to assist in relief efforts. It flew from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam to relay imagery of afflicted areas to response personnel and ground commanders.",
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"plaintext": "In planning for the FY 2015 budget, the U-2 was to be retired in favor of the RQ-4, made possible by reductions of RQ-4 operating costs and would be the first time an uncrewed aircraft would completely replace a crewed aircraft. The U-2 will continue to fly through 2018 without replacement.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2014, a U.S. Global Hawk conducted a surveillance mission over Nigeria as part of the search for the kidnapped Nigerian schoolgirls. The Global Hawk joined MC-12 crewed aircraft in the search.",
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"plaintext": "The Global Hawk was used in Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR) against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). The aircraft provided real-time imagery and signals intelligence to identify friendly and enemy forces, do long-term target development, and track enemy equipment movement, enabling combatant commanders to act on better information and make key decisions. The BACN version allowed ground troops to contact aircraft when they were in need of assistance, such as close air support.",
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"plaintext": "On 11 November 2015, an EQ-4 became the first Global Hawk aircraft to reach 500 sorties. All three EQ-4s in operation supported OIR. Upon landing, maintainers could complete ground maintenance and make the aircraft mission ready again within five hours. Missions could last up to 30 hours, with each aircraft getting a \"day off\" in between combat flights. On 1 April 2017, the EQ-4 program completed 1,000 continuous sorties, without incurring a single maintenance cancellation, while supporting OIR.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 April 2016, it was reported that a USAF Global Hawk had completed its third flight over Germany under an initiative (the European Reassurance Initiative) to reassure NATO members concerned over Russian involvement in the conflict in Ukraine. Germany opened its airspace for up to five Global Hawk flights a month until the middle of October 2016. The Naval Air Station Sigonella, Sicily-based Global Hawk flies over Italian and French airspace and an air corridor through Germany with its sensors switched off on its way to its area of operations over the Baltic Sea.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, the USAF decided to begin the process of training enlisted airmen to fly the RQ-4 due to a shortage of pilots and an increased demand for the Global Hawk's capabilities. The RQ-4 is currently the only aircraft enlisted pilots are flying.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 August 2018, a Global Hawk, assigned to 12th Reconnaissance Squadron, took off from Beale AFB, California, and landed at Eielson Air Force Base, Alaska for Red Flag – Alaska. This was the first time an RQ-4 had landed in Alaska during a simulated combat training exercise.",
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"plaintext": "On 21 April 2021, a Global Hawk was reported to have made a reconnaissance flight in an airspace off the coast of southern Crimea which Russia had temporarily closed up to from Sevastopol to Feodosiya, issuing a relevant NOTAM. The Global Hawk reportedly departed from Naval Air Station Sigonella on Sicily.",
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"plaintext": "On 22 February 2022, a Global Hawk was reported to have made a reconnaissance flight over Southeastern Ukraine coinciding with a NOTAM order by Ukrainian government and increased Russian military activity. The Global Hawk departed from Naval Air Station Sigonella on Sicily.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 April 2001, a Global Hawk flew non-stop from Edwards AFB to RAAF Base Edinburgh in Australia, making history by being the first pilotless aircraft to cross the Pacific Ocean. The flight took 22 hours, and set a world record for absolute distance flown by a UAV, .",
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"plaintext": "On 22 March 2008, a Global Hawk set the endurance record for full-scale, operational uncrewed aircraft UAVs by flying for 33.1 hours at altitudes up to 60,000feet over Edwards AFB.",
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"plaintext": "From its first flight in 1998 to 9 September 2013, the combined Global Hawk fleet flew 100,000 hours. 88 percent of flights were conducted by USAF RQ-4s, while the remaining hours were flown by NASA Global Hawks, the EuroHawk, the Navy BAMS demonstrator, and the MQ-4C Triton. Approximately 75 percent of flights were in combat zones; RQ-4s flew in operations over Afghanistan, Iraq, and Libya; and supported disaster response efforts in Haiti, Japan, and California.",
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"plaintext": "From 10 to 16 September 2014, the RQ-4 fleet flew a total of 781 hours, the most hours flown by the type during a single week. 87 percent of flights were made by USAF RQ-4s, with the rest flown by the Navy BAMS-D and NASA hurricane research aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "The longest Global Hawk combat sortie lasted 32.5 hours.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 June 2019, a U.S. Navy BAMS-D RQ-4A flying over the Persian Gulf near the Strait of Hormuz was shot down by a 3rd Khordad surface-to-air missile fired from near Garuk, Iran. Iranian Foreign Minister Javad Zarif said that the drone had been in Iranian airspace, while the United States maintained that the drone was in international airspace 18 nautical miles (34 km) away from Iran.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2007, two Global Hawks were transferred from the USAF to NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards AFB. Initial research activities beginning in the second quarter of 2009 supported NASA's high-altitude, long-duration Earth science missions. The two Global Hawks were the first and sixth aircraft built under the original DARPA Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration program, and were made available to NASA when the Air Force had no further need for them. Northrop Grumman is an operational partner with NASA and will use the aircraft to demonstrate new technologies and to develop new markets for the aircraft, including possible civilian uses.",
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"plaintext": "It was reported in the March 2010 issue of Scientific American that NASA's Global Hawks were to begin scientific missions that month, and had been undergoing tests in late 2009. Initial science applications included measurements of the ozone layer and cross-Pacific transport of air pollutants and aerosols. The author of the Scientific American article speculates that it could be used for Antarctic exploration while being based in Chile. In August–September 2010, one of the two Global Hawks was loaned for NASA's GRIP (Genesis and Rapid Intensification Program) mission.",
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"plaintext": "Its long-term on station capabilities and long range made it a suitable aircraft for monitoring the development of Atlantic basin hurricanes. It was modified to equip weather sensors including Ku-band radar, lightning sensors and dropsondes. It successfully flew into Hurricane Earl off the United States East Coast on 2 September 2010.",
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"plaintext": "In 2009, NATO announced that it expected to have a fleet of up to eight Global Hawks by 2012 to be equipped with MP-RTIP radar systems. NATO had budgeted US$1.4 billion (€1 billion) for the project, and a letter of intent was signed. NATO signed a contract for five Block 40 Global Hawks in May 2012. 12 NATO members are participating in the purchase. On 10 January 2014, Estonia revealed it wanted to participate in NATO Global Hawk usage. In July 2017, the USAF assigned the Mission Designation Series (MDS) of RQ-4D to the NATO AGS air vehicle.",
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"plaintext": "The first RQ-4D aircraft arrived at Sigonella Air Base on 21 November 2019. At that time, all five aircraft were undergoing developmental test flights. Initial operational capability was expected in the first half of 2020.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2018, Italy certified five of the drones for use in Sigonella, Sicily in 2020. However, by 23 December 2019, there were regulatory issues for the Global Hawks concerning shared space between Germany and Italy. German government officials criticized the new drones for their lack of technology to avoid collisions with other aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011, South Korea's Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) expressed interest in acquiring at least four RQ-4Bs to increase intelligence capabilities following the exchange of the Wartime Operational Control from the U.S. to the Republic of Korea. Officials debated on the topic of the Global Hawks and domestic UAV programs. In September 2011, the US and South Korea discussed aircraft deployments near its land border to view North Korea and the North Korea–China border.",
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"plaintext": "In January 2012, DAPA announced that it would not proceed with a purchase due to a price rise from US$442M to US$899M, and that other platforms such as the AeroVironment Global Observer or the Boeing Phantom Eye were being investigated. However, in December 2012, South Korea notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale of 4 RQ-4 Block 30 (I) Global Hawks with the Enhanced Integrated Sensor Suite (EISS) at an estimated cost of $1.2 billion. On 5 July 2013, the Korean National Assembly advised the government to re-evaluate the RQ-4 purchase, again citing high costs.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 December 2014, Northrop Grumman was awarded a $657 million contract by South Korea for four RQ-4B Block 30 Global Hawks. The first RQ-4 arrived on 23 December 2019 at a base near Sacheon. The second arrived on 19 April 2020, and the third by June. The fourth and final Global Hawk was delivered in September 2020.",
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"plaintext": "On 24 August 2013, Japan announced that the Japan Air Self-Defense Force planned to operate one Global Hawk jointly with the U.S. by 2015. On 21 November 2014, the Japanese Ministry of Defense officially decided to procure the Global Hawk, which beat out the General Atomics Guardian ER; Japan has also been interested in the purchase of three aircraft. The first Japanese Global Hawk landed at Misawa Air Base on 12 March 2022.",
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"plaintext": "Australia considered the purchase of a number of Global Hawks for maritime and land surveillance. The Global Hawk was to be assessed against the General Atomics MQ-9 Mariner in trials in 2007. The Global Hawk aircraft would have operated in conjunction with crewed Boeing P-8 Poseidon aircraft, as a replacement of aging Lockheed AP-3C Orion aircraft. In the end, the Australian government decided not to proceed and canceled the order. In 2012, a procurement effort for seven UAVs by 2019 was initiated. In May 2013 the Australian government confirmed its interest in acquiring the MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance variant.",
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"plaintext": "Canada has also been a potential customer, looking at the Global Hawk for maritime and land surveillance as either a replacement for its fleet of Lockheed CP-140 Aurora patrol aircraft or to supplement crewed patrols of remote Arctic and maritime environments, before withdrawing from the joint effort in August 2011. Spain has a similar requirement, and has existing contacts with Northrop Grumman.",
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"plaintext": "The New Zealand Defence Force is studying the Global Hawk, which has the range to conduct surveillance in the Southern Ocean around Antarctica, and in the Pacific Islands. The acquisition process has not moved beyond an expression of interest.",
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"plaintext": "The Indian Navy has expressed interest in acquiring six to eight MQ-4C Maritime Surveillance Unmanned Aircraft Systems.",
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"plaintext": "In September 2018, Transport Canada was looking into buying a former German Air Force EuroHawk for surveillance missions in the Arctic. The EuroHawk cannot currently fly and has no equipment inside such as GPS and navigation tools.",
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"plaintext": "RQ-4A Initial production version for the USAF, 16 built.",
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"plaintext": "RQ-4B Improved version with increased payload, wingspan increased to and length increased to . Due to the increased size and payload the range is reduced to .",
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{
"plaintext": "RQ-4D Phoenix",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " NATO Alliance Ground Surveillance (AGS).",
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},
{
"plaintext": "RQ-4E Euro Hawk",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": " Version for the Bundeswehr based on RQ-4B and equipped with an EADS reconnaissance payload for SIGINT. Germany canceled its order in May 2013; it received one of five Euro Hawks originally ordered.",
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"plaintext": " Equipped with the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) system.",
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"plaintext": " 13th Reconnaissance Squadron – Beale Air Force Base, California",
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"plaintext": " 380th Expeditionary Operations Group – Al Dhafra AB, United Arab Emirates since early 2002",
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"plaintext": " RQ-4B (Block 30), RQ-4B (Block 40), EQ-4B (BACN), RQ-4A (BAMS-D)",
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{
"plaintext": " NASA",
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"plaintext": " Dryden Flight Research Center",
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"plaintext": " 29 March 1999: USAF RQ-4A 95-2002 crashed at China Lake Naval Weapons Center.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 30 Dec 2001: USAF RQ-4A 98-2005 crashed while returning to al-Dhafra Air Base, UAE.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 10 Jul 2002: USAF RQ-4A 98-2004 crashed near Shamsi AB, Pakistan due to engine failure.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " 21 August 2011: USAF EQ-4B crashed southeast of Jalalabad, Afghanistan.",
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},
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"plaintext": " 11 June 2012: USN RQ-4A assigned to the Navy's BAMS program crashed near Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland, US.",
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"plaintext": " 21 June 2017: USAF RQ-4B crashed near Lone Pine, California, US.",
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"plaintext": " 26 June 2018: USAF RQ-4B crashed into the sea off Naval Station Rota, Spain.",
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},
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"plaintext": " August 2021: USAF RQ-4B crashed near Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, US.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " This article contains material that originally came from the web article Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Greg Goebel, which is public domain.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-4 Global Hawk U.S. Air Force fact sheet",
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},
{
"plaintext": " \"RQ-4A Global Hawk (Tier II+ HAE UAV)\". Federation of American Scientists",
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},
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"plaintext": " \"Global Hawk RQ-4A-B High Altitude Long Endurance UAV\". Defense Update",
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"plaintext": " Raytheon product page on the Global Hawk Integrated Sensor Suite",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Luftwaffe Euro Hawk page, Bundeswehr Euro Hawk page",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Results of Global Hawk accident investigation board ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " RQ-4 Global Hawk profile on Air Attack",
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| 162,066 | 51,031 | 238 | 212 | 0 | 0 | Northrop Grumman RQ-4 Global Hawk | unmanned surveillance aircraft | [
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|
37,376 | 1,078,507,081 | AAI_RQ-2_Pioneer | [
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"plaintext": "The AAI RQ-2 Pioneer is an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that had been used by the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Army, and deployed at sea and on land from 1986 until 2007. Initially tested aboard USS Iowa, the RQ-2 Pioneer was placed aboard s to provide gunnery spotting, its mission evolving into reconnaissance and surveillance, primarily for amphibious forces.",
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"plaintext": "It was developed jointly by AAI Corporation and Israel Aircraft Industries. The program grew out of successful testing and field operation of the Tadiran Mastiff UAV by the American and Israeli militaries.",
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"plaintext": "Essentially, the Pioneer is an upgraded IAI Scout which was re-engined to accommodate a greater payload by request of the US Navy. To accomplish this, the original \"Limbach\" two-cylinder two-stroke engine was replaced with a Fichtel & Sachs two-cylinder two-stroke. The Limbach motor used a 71cm propeller from Propeller Engineering and Duplicating, Inc. of San Clemente, California. The newer, more powerful Fichtel & Sachs motor was outfitted with a 74cm propeller (which spins in the opposite direction) from the Sensenich Propeller Manufacturing Company of Lancaster, Pennsylvania.",
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"plaintext": "Launched by rocket assist (shipboard), by catapult, or from a runway, the Pioneer recovers into a net (shipboard) or with arresting gear after flying up to five hours with a payload. It flies day or night missions with a gimbaled EO/IR sensor, relaying analog video in real time via a C-band line-of-sight (LOS) data link. Since 1991, Pioneer has flown reconnaissance missions during the Persian Gulf, Somalia (UNOSOM II), Bosnia, Kosovo and Iraq conflicts. In 2005, the Navy operated two Pioneer systems (one for training) and the Marines operated two, each with five or more aircraft. It is also operated by Israel and the Republic of Singapore Air Force. In 2007 Pioneer was retired by the US Navy and was replaced by the Shadow UAV.",
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"plaintext": "Internationally, Pioneer drones are perhaps most remembered for their role in the 1991 Gulf War, when a Pioneer launched by the observed Iraqi troops on Failaka Island surrendering shortly after s attack on their trenchlines. When navy officials offered to transfer a Pioneer to the Smithsonian Institution, curators at the National Air and Space Museum specifically asked for the UAV that Iraqi troops surrendered to during the Gulf War.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1991 Gulf War, the US Army operated a UAV Platoon from Ft. Huachuca, Arizona. The UAV Platoon conducted flight surveillance and target acquisition missions from KKMC and later, the unit pushed north (Operation Sand Hawk) where US Army combat engineers built a metal runway for the aircraft to launch and recover.",
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"plaintext": "The \"R\" is the Department of Defense designation for reconnaissance; \"Q\" means unmanned aircraft system. The \"2\" refers to its being the second of a series of purpose-built unmanned reconnaissance aircraft systems.",
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"plaintext": " Primary Function: Artillery Targeting and Acquisition, Control of Close Air Support, Reconnaissance and Surveillance, Battle Damage Assessment, Search and Rescue, Psychological Operations",
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"plaintext": " VC-6 \"Firebees\": Naval Station Norfolk (decommissioned)",
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"plaintext": " Training Air Wing 6 UAV Detachment: Naval Air Station Whiting Field (decommissioned)",
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"plaintext": " VMU-1 'Watchdogs': Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, California",
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"plaintext": " VMU-2 'Night Owls': MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina",
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"plaintext": "US ARMY, Ft. Huachuca, AZ., UAV Platoon deployed Jan. 1991-May 1991.",
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"plaintext": " IAI/AAI RQ-2 Pioneer",
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]
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"plaintext": "The IAI RQ-5 Hunter unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) was originally intended to serve as the United States Army's Short Range UAV system for division and corps commanders. It took off and landed (using arresting gear) on runways. It used a gimbaled EO/IR sensor to relay its video in real time via a second airborne Hunter over a C-band line-of-sight data link. The RQ-5 is based on the Hunter UAV that was developed by Israel Aerospace Industries.",
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"plaintext": "System acquisition and training started in 1994 but production was cancelled in 1996 due to concerns over program mismanagement. Seven low rate initial production (LRIP) systems of eight aircraft each were acquired, four of which remained in service: one for training and three for doctrine development, exercise, and contingency support. Hunter was to be replaced by the RQ-7 Shadow, but instead of being replaced, the Army kept both systems in operation because the Hunter had significantly larger payload, range, and time-on-station capabilities than the Shadow.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, A Company, 15th Military Intelligence Battalion (Aerial Exploitation) out of Fort Hood, TX was the first Army field unit equipped with the Hunter. A Company conducted multiple successful training rotations to the National Training Center. Then in March 1999, they were deployed to the Republic of Macedonia in support of NATO operations in Kosovo where one was shot down by a Yugoslav Mil Mi-8 Side 7.62mm Machine Gun. During the 7 month operation, the Hunter was flown for over 4,000 hours. Significant operational success in Kosovo led to resumption of production and technical improvements. Hunter was used in Iraq and other military operations since then. The system was also armed with the Viper Strike munitions.",
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"plaintext": "The Army's Unmanned Aircraft Systems Training Battalion at Fort Huachuca, AZ trained soldiers and civilians in the operation and maintenance of the Hunter UAV.",
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"plaintext": "On 14 March 2014, an RQ-5 was reported downed by a Crimean self-defense unit over Russian occupied Ukrainian territory, although Russia did not substantiate the claim and the Pentagon denies it operated such a vehicle over Crimea.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 December 2015, the Hunter flew its final flight in Army service at Fort Hood. Since entering service in 1995, the aircraft had been deployed to the Balkans, Iraq, and Afghanistan. It was deployed to the Balkans four times between 1999 and 2002, accumulating 6,400 flight hours, and was the first Army UAS to cross into Iraq in 2003, proving itself for the first time in contingency operations as an intelligence asset to commanders at all levels and flying more hours than any other NATO reconnaissance platform. One capability unique to the Hunter was its relay mode that allowed one aircraft to control another at extended ranges or over terrain obstacles. By the end of Operation New Dawn in 2011, Hunters had flown more than 110,000 hours, its battlefield success clearly showing the value of UASs in combat operations as a direct result. While Army operators transitioned to the larger and more capable General Atomics MQ-1C Gray Eagle, the Hunter is being transferred to government-owned, contractor-operated units supporting operations overseas.",
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37,379 | 1,105,767,418 | Relative_density | [
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"plaintext": "Relative density, or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material. Specific gravity for liquids is nearly always measured with respect to water at its densest (at ); for gases, the reference is air at room temperature (). The term \"relative density\" (often abbreviated r.d. or RD) is often preferred in scientific usage, whereas the term \"specific gravity\" is deprecated. ",
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"plaintext": "If a substance's relative density is less than 1 then it is less dense than the reference; if greater than 1 then it is denser than the reference. If the relative density is exactly 1 then the densities are equal; that is, equal volumes of the two substances have the same mass. If the reference material is water, then a substance with a relative density (or specific gravity) less than 1 will float in water. For example, an ice cube, with a relative density of about 0.91, will float. A substance with a relative density greater than 1 will sink. ",
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"plaintext": "Temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the reference. Pressure is nearly always 1 atm (101.325 kPa). Where it is not, it is more usual to specify the density directly. Temperatures for both sample and reference vary from industry to industry. In British brewing practice, the specific gravity, as specified above, is multiplied by 1000. Specific gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of obtaining information about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as brines, must weight (syrups, juices, honeys, brewers wort, must, etc.) and acids.",
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"plaintext": "Relative density () or specific gravity () is a dimensionless quantity, as it is the ratio of either densities or weights",
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"plaintext": "where is relative density, is the density of the substance being measured, and is the density of the reference. (By convention , the Greek letter rho, denotes density.)",
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"plaintext": "The reference material can be indicated using subscripts: which means \"the relative density of substance with respect to reference\". If the reference is not explicitly stated then it is normally assumed to be water at 4°C (or, more precisely, 3.98°C, which is the temperature at which water reaches its maximum density). In SI units, the density of water is (approximately) 1000kg/m3 or 1g/cm3, which makes relative density calculations particularly convenient: the density of the object only needs to be divided by 1000 or 1, depending on the units.",
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"plaintext": "The relative density of gases is often measured with respect to dry air at a temperature of 20°C and a pressure of 101.325 kPa absolute, which has a density of 1.205kg/m3. Relative density with respect to air can be obtained by",
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"plaintext": "where is the molar mass and the approximately equal sign is used because equality pertains only if 1 mol of the gas and 1mol of air occupy the same volume at a given temperature and pressure, i.e., they are both ideal gases. Ideal behaviour is usually only seen at very low pressure. For example, one mol of an ideal gas occupies 22.414 L at 0°C and 1 atmosphere whereas carbon dioxide has a molar volume of 22.259 L under those same conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Those with SG greater than 1 are denser than water and will, disregarding surface tension effects, sink in it. Those with an SG less than 1 are less dense than water and will float on it. In scientific work, the relationship of mass to volume is usually expressed directly in terms of the density (mass per unit volume) of the substance under study. It is in industry where specific gravity finds wide application, often for historical reasons.",
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"plaintext": "True specific gravity of a liquid can be expressed mathematically as:",
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"plaintext": "where is the density of the sample and is the density of water.",
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"plaintext": "The apparent specific gravity is simply the ratio of the weights of equal volumes of sample and water in air:",
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"plaintext": "where represents the weight of the sample measured in air and the weight of an equal volume of water measured in air.",
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"plaintext": "It can be shown that true specific gravity can be computed from different properties:",
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"plaintext": "where g is the local acceleration due to gravity, V is the volume of the sample and of water (the same for both), ρsample is the density of the sample, ρH2O is the density of water, WV represents a weight obtained in vacuum, is the mass of the sample and is the mass of an equal volume of water.",
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"plaintext": "The density of water varies with temperature and pressure as does the density of the sample. So it is necessary to specify the temperatures and pressures at which the densities or weights were determined. It is nearly always the case that measurements are made at 1 nominal atmosphere (101.325kPa ± variations from changing weather patterns). But as specific gravity usually refers to highly incompressible aqueous solutions or other incompressible substances (such as petroleum products), variations in density caused by pressure are usually neglected at least where apparent specific gravity is being measured. For true (in vacuo) specific gravity calculations, air pressure must be considered (see below). Temperatures are specified by the notation (Ts/Tr), with Ts representing the temperature at which the sample's density was determined and Tr the temperature at which the reference (water) density is specified. For example, SG (20°C/4°C) would be understood to mean that the density of the sample was determined at 20°C and of the water at 4°C. Taking into account different sample and reference temperatures, we note that, while SGH2O = (20°C/20°C), it is also the case that SGH2O = = (20°C/4°C). Here, temperature is being specified using the current ITS-90 scale and the densities used here and in the rest of this article are based on that scale. On the previous IPTS-68 scale, the densities at 20°C and 4°C are and respectively, resulting in an SG (20°C/4°C) value for water of .",
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"plaintext": "As the principal use of specific gravity measurements in industry is determination of the concentrations of substances in aqueous solutions and as these are found in tables of SG versus concentration, it is extremely important that the analyst enter the table with the correct form of specific gravity. For example, in the brewing industry, the Plato table lists sucrose concentration by weight against true SG, and was originally (20°C/4°C) i.e. based on measurements of the density of sucrose solutions made at laboratory temperature (20°C) but referenced to the density of water at 4°C which is very close to the temperature at which water has its maximum density, ρH2O equal to 999.972kg/m3 in SI units ( in cgs units or 62.43lb/cuft in United States customary units). The ASBC table in use today in North America, while it is derived from the original Plato table is for apparent specific gravity measurements at (20°C/20°C) on the IPTS-68 scale where the density of water is . In the sugar, soft drink, honey, fruit juice and related industries, sucrose concentration by weight is taken from a table prepared by A. Brix, which uses SG (17.5°C/17.5°C). As a final example, the British SG units are based on reference and sample temperatures of 60°F and are thus (15.56°C/15.56°C).",
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"plaintext": "Given the specific gravity of a substance, its actual density can be calculated by rearranging the above formula:",
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"plaintext": "Occasionally a reference substance other than water is specified (for example, air), in which case specific gravity means density relative to that reference.",
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"plaintext": "See Density for a table of the measured densities of water at various temperatures.",
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"plaintext": "The density of substances varies with temperature and pressure so that it is necessary to specify the temperatures and pressures at which the densities or masses were determined. It is nearly always the case that measurements are made at nominally 1 atmosphere (101.325kPa ignoring the variations caused by changing weather patterns) but as relative density usually refers to highly incompressible aqueous solutions or other incompressible substances (such as petroleum products) variations in density caused by pressure are usually neglected at least where apparent relative density is being measured. For true (in vacuo) relative density calculations air pressure must be considered (see below). Temperatures are specified by the notation (Ts/Tr) with Ts representing the temperature at which the sample's density was determined and Tr the temperature at which the reference (water) density is specified. For example, SG (20°C/4°C) would be understood to mean that the density of the sample was determined at 20°C and of the water at 4°C. Taking into account different sample and reference temperatures we note that while SGH2O = 1.000000 (20°C/20°C) it is also the case that RDH2O = = 0.998363 (20°C/4°C). Here temperature is being specified using the current ITS-90 scale and the densities used here and in the rest of this article are based on that scale. On the previous IPTS-68 scale the densities at 20°C and 4°C are, respectively, 0.9982071 and 0.9999720 resulting in an RD (20°C/4°C) value for water of 0.9982343.",
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"plaintext": "The temperatures of the two materials may be explicitly stated in the density symbols; for example:",
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"plaintext": "relative density: 8.15; or specific gravity: 2.432",
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"plaintext": "where the superscript indicates the temperature at which the density of the material is measured, and the subscript indicates the temperature of the reference substance to which it is compared.",
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"plaintext": "Relative density can also help to quantify the buoyancy of a substance in a fluid or gas, or determine the density of an unknown substance from the known density of another. Relative density is often used by geologists and mineralogists to help determine the mineral content of a rock or other sample. Gemologists use it as an aid in the identification of gemstones. Water is preferred as the reference because measurements are then easy to carry out in the field (see below for examples of measurement methods).",
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"plaintext": "As the principal use of relative density measurements in industry is determination of the concentrations of substances in aqueous solutions and these are found in tables of RD vs concentration it is extremely important that the analyst enter the table with the correct form of relative density. For example, in the brewing industry, the Plato table, which lists sucrose concentration by mass against true RD, were originally (20°C/4°C) that is based on measurements of the density of sucrose solutions made at laboratory temperature (20°C) but referenced to the density of water at 4°C which is very close to the temperature at which water has its maximum density of ρ() equal to 0.999972g/cm3 (or 62.43lb·ft−3). The ASBC table in use today in North America, while it is derived from the original Plato table is for apparent relative density measurements at (20°C/20°C) on the IPTS-68 scale where the density of water is 0.9982071g/cm3. In the sugar, soft drink, honey, fruit juice and related industries sucrose concentration by mass is taken from this work which uses SG (17.5°C/17.5°C). As a final example, the British RD units are based on reference and sample temperatures of 60°F and are thus (15.56°C/15.56°C).",
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"plaintext": "Relative density can be calculated directly by measuring the density of a sample and dividing it by the (known) density of the reference substance. The density of the sample is simply its mass divided by its volume. Although mass is easy to measure, the volume of an irregularly shaped sample can be more difficult to ascertain. One method is to put the sample in a water-filled graduated cylinder and read off how much water it displaces. Alternatively the container can be filled to the brim, the sample immersed, and the volume of overflow measured. The surface tension of the water may keep a significant amount of water from overflowing, which is especially problematic for small samples. For this reason it is desirable to use a water container with as small a mouth as possible.",
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"plaintext": "For each substance, the density, ρ, is given by",
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"plaintext": "When these densities are divided, references to the spring constant, gravity and cross-sectional area simply cancel, leaving",
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"plaintext": "Relative density is more easily and perhaps more accurately measured without measuring volume. Using a spring scale, the sample is weighed first in air and then in water. Relative density (with respect to water) can then be calculated using the following formula:",
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"plaintext": "where",
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"plaintext": "Wair is the weight of the sample in air (measured in newtons, pounds-force or some other unit of force)",
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"plaintext": "Wwater is the weight of the sample in water (measured in the same units).",
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"plaintext": "This technique cannot easily be used to measure relative densities less than one, because the sample will then float. Wwater becomes a negative quantity, representing the force needed to keep the sample underwater.",
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"plaintext": "Another practical method uses three measurements. The sample is weighed dry. Then a container filled to the brim with water is weighed, and weighed again with the sample immersed, after the displaced water has overflowed and been removed. Subtracting the last reading from the sum of the first two readings gives the weight of the displaced water. The relative density result is the dry sample weight divided by that of the displaced water. This method allows the use of scales which cannot handle a suspended sample. A sample less dense than water can also be handled, but it has to be held down, and the error introduced by the fixing material must be considered.",
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"plaintext": "The relative density of a liquid can be measured using a hydrometer. This consists of a bulb attached to a stalk of constant cross-sectional area, as shown in the adjacent diagram.",
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"plaintext": "First the hydrometer is floated in the reference liquid (shown in light blue), and the displacement (the level of the liquid on the stalk) is marked (blue line). The reference could be any liquid, but in practice it is usually water.",
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"plaintext": "The hydrometer is then floated in a liquid of unknown density (shown in green). The change in displacement, Δx, is noted. In the example depicted, the hydrometer has dropped slightly in the green liquid; hence its density is lower than that of the reference liquid. It is necessary that the hydrometer floats in both liquids.",
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"plaintext": "The application of simple physical principles allows the relative density of the unknown liquid to be calculated from the change in displacement. (In practice the stalk of the hydrometer is pre-marked with graduations to facilitate this measurement.)",
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"plaintext": "In the explanation that follows,",
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"plaintext": "ρref is the known density (mass per unit volume) of the reference liquid (typically water).",
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"plaintext": "RDnew/ref is the relative density of the new liquid with respect to the reference.",
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"plaintext": "V is the volume of reference liquid displaced, i.e. the red volume in the diagram.",
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"plaintext": "m is the mass of the entire hydrometer.",
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"plaintext": "g is the local gravitational constant.",
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"plaintext": "Δx is the change in displacement. In accordance with the way in which hydrometers are usually graduated, Δx is here taken to be negative if the displacement line rises on the stalk of the hydrometer, and positive if it falls. In the example depicted, Δx is negative.",
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"plaintext": "A is the cross sectional area of the shaft.",
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"plaintext": "Since the floating hydrometer is in static equilibrium, the downward gravitational force acting upon it must exactly balance the upward buoyancy force. The gravitational force acting on the hydrometer is simply its weight, mg. From the Archimedes buoyancy principle, the buoyancy force acting on the hydrometer is equal to the weight of liquid displaced. This weight is equal to the mass of liquid displaced multiplied by g, which in the case of the reference liquid is ρrefVg. Setting these equal, we have",
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"plaintext": "or just",
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"plaintext": "Exactly the same equation applies when the hydrometer is floating in the liquid being measured, except that the new volume is (see note above about the sign of Δx). Thus,",
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"plaintext": "Combining () and () yields",
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"plaintext": "But from () we have . Substituting into () gives",
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"plaintext": "This equation allows the relative density to be calculated from the change in displacement, the known density of the reference liquid, and the known properties of the hydrometer. If Δx is small then, as a first-order approximation of the geometric series equation () can be written as:",
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"plaintext": "This shows that, for small Δx, changes in displacement are approximately proportional to changes in relative density.",
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"plaintext": "A pycnometer (from Greek: πυκνός () meaning \"dense\"), also called pyknometer or specific gravity bottle, is a device used to determine the density of a liquid. A pycnometer is usually made of glass, with a close-fitting ground glass stopper with a capillary tube through it, so that air bubbles may escape from the apparatus. This device enables a liquid's density to be measured accurately by reference to an appropriate working fluid, such as water or mercury, using an analytical balance.",
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"plaintext": "If the flask is weighed empty, full of water, and full of a liquid whose relative density is desired, the relative density of the liquid can easily be calculated. The particle density of a powder, to which the usual method of weighing cannot be applied, can also be determined with a pycnometer. The powder is added to the pycnometer, which is then weighed, giving the weight of the powder sample. The pycnometer is then filled with a liquid of known density, in which the powder is completely insoluble. The weight of the displaced liquid can then be determined, and hence the relative density of the powder.",
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"plaintext": "A gas pycnometer, the gas-based manifestation of a pycnometer, compares the change in pressure caused by a measured change in a closed volume containing a reference (usually a steel sphere of known volume) with the change in pressure caused by the sample under the same conditions. The difference in change of pressure represents the volume of the sample as compared to the reference sphere, and is usually used for solid particulates that may dissolve in the liquid medium of the pycnometer design described above, or for porous materials into which the liquid would not fully penetrate.",
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"plaintext": "When a pycnometer is filled to a specific, but not necessarily accurately known volume, V and is placed upon a balance, it will exert a force",
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"plaintext": "where mb is the mass of the bottle and g the gravitational acceleration at the location at which the measurements are being made. ρa is the density of the air at the ambient pressure and ρb is the density of the material of which the bottle is made (usually glass) so that the second term is the mass of air displaced by the glass of the bottle whose weight, by Archimedes Principle must be subtracted. The bottle is filled with air but as that air displaces an equal amount of air the weight of that air is canceled by the weight of the air displaced. Now we fill the bottle with the reference fluid e.g. pure water. The force exerted on the pan of the balance becomes:",
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"plaintext": "If we subtract the force measured on the empty bottle from this (or tare the balance before making the water measurement) we obtain.",
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"plaintext": "where the subscript n indicated that this force is net of the force of the empty bottle. The bottle is now emptied, thoroughly dried and refilled with the sample. The force, net of the empty bottle, is now:",
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"plaintext": "where ρs is the density of the sample. The ratio of the sample and water forces is:",
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"plaintext": "This is called the apparent relative density, denoted by subscript A, because it is what we would obtain if we took the ratio of net weighings in air from an analytical balance or used a hydrometer (the stem displaces air). Note that the result does not depend on the calibration of the balance. The only requirement on it is that it read linearly with force. Nor does RDA depend on the actual volume of the pycnometer.",
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"plaintext": "Further manipulation and finally substitution of RDV, the true relative density (the subscript V is used because this is often referred to as the relative density ), for ρs/ρw gives the relationship between apparent and true relative density:",
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"plaintext": "In the usual case we will have measured weights and want the true relative density. This is found from",
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"plaintext": "Since the density of dry air at 101.325kPa at 20°C is 0.001205g/cm3 and that of water is 0.998203g/cm3 we see that the difference between true and apparent relative densities for a substance with relative density (20°C/20°C) of about 1.100 would be 0.000120. Where the relative density of the sample is close to that of water (for example dilute ethanol solutions) the correction is even smaller.",
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"plaintext": "The pycnometer is used in ISO standard: ISO 1183-1:2004, ISO 1014–1985 and ASTM standard: ASTM D854.",
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"plaintext": "Types",
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"plaintext": " Gay-Lussac, pear shaped, with perforated stopper, adjusted, capacity 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mL",
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"plaintext": " as above, with ground-in thermometer, adjusted, side tube with cap",
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"plaintext": " Hubbard, for bitumen and heavy crude oils, cylindrical type, ASTM D 70, 24 mL",
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"plaintext": " as above, conical type, ASTM D 115 and D 234, 25 mL",
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"plaintext": " Boot, with vacuum jacket and thermometer, capacity 5, 10, 25 and 50 mL",
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"plaintext": "Hydrostatic Pressure-based Instruments: This technology relies upon Pascal's Principle which states that the pressure difference between two points within a vertical column of fluid is dependent upon the vertical distance between the two points, the density of the fluid and the gravitational force. This technology is often used for tank gaging applications as a convenient means of liquid level and density measure.",
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"plaintext": "Vibrating Element Transducers: This type of instrument requires a vibrating element to be placed in contact with the fluid of interest. The resonant frequency of the element is measured and is related to the density of the fluid by a characterization that is dependent upon the design of the element. In modern laboratories precise measurements of relative density are made using oscillating U-tube meters. These are capable of measurement to 5 to 6 places beyond the decimal point and are used in the brewing, distilling, pharmaceutical, petroleum and other industries. The instruments measure the actual mass of fluid contained in a fixed volume at temperatures between 0 and 80°C but as they are microprocessor based can calculate apparent or true relative density and contain tables relating these to the strengths of common acids, sugar solutions, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Ultrasonic Transducer: Ultrasonic waves are passed from a source, through the fluid of interest, and into a detector which measures the acoustic spectroscopy of the waves. Fluid properties such as density and viscosity can be inferred from the spectrum.",
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"plaintext": "Radiation-based Gauge: Radiation is passed from a source, through the fluid of interest, and into a scintillation detector, or counter. As the fluid density increases, the detected radiation \"counts\" will decrease. The source is typically the radioactive isotope caesium-137, with a half-life of about 30 years. A key advantage for this technology is that the instrument is not required to be in contact with the fluid—typically the source and detector are mounted on the outside of tanks or piping.",
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"plaintext": "Buoyant Force Transducer: the buoyancy force produced by a float in a homogeneous liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid that is displaced by the float. Since buoyancy force is linear with respect to the density of the liquid within which the float is submerged, the measure of the buoyancy force yields a measure of the density of the liquid. One commercially available unit claims the instrument is capable of measuring relative density with an accuracy of ± 0.005 RD units. The submersible probe head contains a mathematically characterized spring-float system. When the head is immersed vertically in the liquid, the float moves vertically and the position of the float controls the position of a permanent magnet whose displacement is sensed by a concentric array of Hall-effect linear displacement sensors. The output signals of the sensors are mixed in a dedicated electronics module that provides a single output voltage whose magnitude is a direct linear measure of the quantity to be measured.",
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"plaintext": "The relative density a measure of the current void ratio in relation to the maximum and minimum void rations, and applied effective stress control the mechanical behavior of cohesionless soil. Relative density is defined by ",
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"plaintext": "in which , and are the maximum, minimum and actual void rations.",
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"plaintext": "Substances with a relative density of 1 are neutrally buoyant, those with RD greater than one are denser than water, and so (ignoring surface tension effects) will sink in it, and those with an RD of less than one are less dense than water, and so will float.",
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"plaintext": "Example:",
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"plaintext": "Helium gas has a density of 0.164g/L; it is 0.139 times as dense as air, which has a density of 1.18g/L.",
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"plaintext": "Urine normally has a specific gravity between 1.003 and 1.030. The Urine Specific Gravity diagnostic test is used to evaluate renal concentration ability for assessment of the urinary system. Low concentration may indicate diabetes insipidus, while high concentration may indicate albuminuria or glycosuria.",
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"plaintext": "Blood normally has a specific gravity of approximately 1.060.",
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"plaintext": "Vodka 80° proof (40% v/v) has a specific gravity of 0.9498.",
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"plaintext": "Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Wiley, B.R. Munson, D.F. Young & T.H. Okishi",
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"plaintext": "Introduction to Fluid Mechanics Fourth Edition, Wiley, SI Version, R.W. Fox & A.T. McDonald",
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"plaintext": "Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, International Edition, Y.A. Cengel & M.A. Boles",
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"plaintext": "Specific Gravity Weights Of Materials",
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| [
"Density",
"Physical_quantities",
"Ratios"
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| 11,027,905 | 17,208 | 705 | 96 | 0 | 0 | relative density | ratio of the density (mass per volume) of a substance to the density of a given reference material | [
"specific gravity",
"relative mass density"
]
|
37,381 | 1,106,229,646 | D'Urville_Island | [
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"plaintext": "D'Urville Island (), Māori name ('red heavens look to the south'), is an island in the Marlborough Sounds along the northern coast of the South Island of New Zealand. It was named after the French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville. With an area of approximately , it is the eighth-largest island of New Zealand, and has around 52 permanent residents. The local authority is the Marlborough District Council.",
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"plaintext": "The official name of the island is Rangitoto ki te Tonga / D'Urville Island, with the Māori language name, associated with Kupe, meaning \"Red Heavens Look to the South\". The island was a traditional source of argillite (pakohe), used in the production of stone tools such as adzes during the Archaic period (1300–1500). From the 1600s until the early 1800s, the island was a part of the rohe of Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri. In the present day, the island is within the rohe of Ngāti Koata and Ngāti Kuia. ",
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"plaintext": "The island has a convoluted coastline, as is frequently found with islands formed from peaks between sea-drowned valleys. It extends for some northeast/southwest, and is a little over wide at its widest point. The eastern coast of the island is relatively smooth, marked mainly by the small D'Urville Peninsula, some halfway along its length. In contrast, the west coast is marked by three large inlets: Port Hardy in the north, Greville Harbour in the centre, and Manuhakapakapa in the south. Numerous smaller islands lie off the coast, notably Stephens Island, which lies off D'Urville's northernmost point, Cape Stephens. The island's highest point, Takapōtaka / Attempt Hill () lies close to the centre of the island, due east of Greville Harbour. Most of the island's residents live close to the more sheltered east coast, with the localities of Patuki and Mukahanga being close to the northern tip of the island.",
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"plaintext": "The island is separated from the mainland by the dangerous French Pass, known to Māori as Te Aumiti, through which water passes at up to at each tide. Several vortices occur near this passage. d'Urville investigated the passage for several days in 1827, and damaged his ship passing through it.",
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"plaintext": "There is roughly 6,000ha of public conservation land on D'urville Island, this is mainly through the centre of the island. The conservation land consists of regenerating farmland, coastal broadleaf, and beech forest.",
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"plaintext": "D'Urville Island is free of possums, feral goats, ship rats, Norway rats and, weasels making it important ecologically Red Deer and feral pigs are present on the Island and a permit can be obtained from the New Zealand Department of Conservation to hunt on the public conservation land.",
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"plaintext": "Stoats on the island has caused the local extinction of the little spotted kiwi, South Island kākā and yellow eyed kakariki. D'Urville Island Stoat Eradication Charitable Trust started in 2003 to attempt remove stoats from the island. A large scale stoat eradication programme was funded for the Island but after issues with land access the funding was withdrawn",
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"plaintext": "A small Department of Conservation maintained airstrip is located at Moawhitu, Greville Harbour. Pelorus Air has flights to D'Urville Island from Picton, Wellington and Paraparaumu.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, Motueka based Abel Tasman Sea Shuttles hosted a number of charity cruises around D'Urville Island in conjunction with the Rotary Club of Motueka.",
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"plaintext": "Driftwood Eco Tours take small group tours to D'Urville Island. The tours focus on the heritage and ecology of the island, meeting with local residents to learn about the island's unique features. Driftwood Eco Tours donate each year to 'DISECT' (D'Urville Island Stoat Eradication Trust).",
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"plaintext": " d'Urvilles Forgotten Island",
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| 21,639,978 | 347 | 60 | 42 | 0 | 0 | D'Urville Island | Wikimedia disambiguation page | []
|
37,386 | 1,106,585,699 | R.U.R. | [
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"plaintext": "R.U.R. is a 1920 science-fiction play by the Czech writer Karel Čapek. \"R.U.R.\" stands for (Rossum's Universal Robots, a phrase that has been used as a subtitle in English versions). The play had its world premiere on 2 January 1921 in Hradec Králové; it introduced the word \"robot\" to the English language and to science fiction as a whole. R.U.R. soon became influential after its publication. By 1923 it had been translated into thirty languages. R.U.R. was successful in its time in Europe and North America. Čapek later took a different approach to the same theme in his 1936 novel War with the Newts, in which non-humans become a servant-class in human society.",
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"plaintext": "The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people, called roboti (robots), whom humans have created from synthetic organic matter. (As living creatures of artificial flesh and blood rather than machinery, the play's concept of robots diverges from the idea of \"robots\" as inorganic. Later terminology would call them androids.) Robots may be mistaken for humans and can think for themselves. Initially happy to work for humans, the robots revolt and cause the extinction of the human race.",
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"plaintext": "Parentheses indicate names which vary according to translation. On the meaning of the names, see Ivan Klíma, Karel Čapek: Life and Work, 2002, p. 82.",
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"plaintext": " Harry Domin (Domain): General Manager, R.U.R.",
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"plaintext": " Fabry: Chief Engineer, R.U.R.",
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"plaintext": " Dr. Gall: Head of the Physiological Department, R.U.R.",
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"plaintext": " Dr. Hellman (Hallemeier): Psychologist-in-Chief",
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"plaintext": " Jacob Berman (Busman): Managing Director, R.U.R.",
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"plaintext": " Alquist: Clerk of the Works, R.U.R.",
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"plaintext": " Helena Glory: President of the Humanity League, daughter of President Glory",
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"plaintext": " Emma (Nana): Helena's maid",
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"plaintext": " Marius, a robot",
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"plaintext": " Sulla, a robotess",
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"plaintext": " Radius, a robot",
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"plaintext": " Primus, a robot",
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"plaintext": " Helena, a robotess",
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"plaintext": " Daemon (Damon), a robot",
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"plaintext": "Helena, the daughter of the president of a major industrial power, arrives at the island factory of Rossum's Universal Robots. Here, she meets Domin, the General Manager of R.U.R., who relates to her the history of the company. Rossum had come to the island in 1920 to study marine biology. In 1932, Rossum had invented a substance like organic matter, though with a different chemical composition. He argued with his nephew about their motivations for creating artificial life. While the elder wanted to create animals to prove or disprove the existence of God, his nephew only wanted to become rich. Young Rossum finally locked away his uncle in a lab to play with the monstrosities he had created and created thousands of robots. By the time the play takes place (circa the year 2000), robots are cheap and available all over the world. They have become essential for industry.",
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"plaintext": "After meeting the heads of R.U.R., Helena reveals that she is a representative of the League of Humanity, an organization that wishes to liberate the robots. The managers of the factory find this absurd. They see robots as appliances. Helena asks that the robots be paid, but according to R.U.R. management, the robots do not \"like\" anything.",
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"plaintext": "Eventually Helena is convinced that the League of Humanity is a waste of money, but still argues robots have a \"soul\". Later, Domin confesses that he loves Helena and forces her into an engagement.",
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"plaintext": "Ten years have passed. Helena and her nurse Nana discuss current events, the decline in human births in particular. Helena and Domin reminisce about the day they met and summarize the last ten years of world history, which has been shaped by the new worldwide robot-based economy. Helena meets Dr. Gall's new experiment, Radius. Dr. Gall describes his experimental robotess, also named Helena. Both are more advanced, fully-featured robots. In secret, Helena burns the formula required to create robots. The revolt of the robots reaches Rossum's island as the act ends.",
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"plaintext": "The characters sense that the very universality of the robots presents a danger. Echoing the story of the Tower of Babel, the characters discuss whether creating national robots who were unable to communicate beyond their languages would have been a good idea. As robot forces lay siege to the factory, Helena reveals she has burned the formula necessary to make new robots. The characters lament the end of humanity and defend their actions, despite the fact that their imminent deaths are a direct result of their choices. Busman is killed while attempting to negotiate a peace with the robots. The robots storm the factory and kill all the humans except for Alquist, the company's chief engineer. The robots spare him because they recognize that \"he works with his hands like the robots.\"",
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"plaintext": "Years have passed. Alquist, who still lives, attempts to recreate the formula that Helena destroyed. He is a mechanical engineer, though, with insufficient knowledge of biochemistry, so he has made little progress. The robot government has searched for surviving humans to help Alquist and found none alive. Officials from the robot government beg him to complete the formula, even if it means he will have to kill and dissect other robots for it. Alquist yields. He will kill and dissect robots, thus completing the circle of violence begun in Act Two. Alquist is disgusted. Robot Primus and Helena develop human feelings and fall in love. Playing a hunch, Alquist threatens to dissect Primus and then Helena; each begs him to take him- or herself and spare the other. Alquist now realizes that Primus and Helena are the new Adam and Eve, and gives charge of the world to them.",
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"plaintext": "The robots described in Čapek's play are not robots in the popularly understood sense of an automaton. They are not mechanical devices, but rather artificial",
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"plaintext": "biological organisms that may be mistaken for humans. A comic scene at the beginning of the play shows Helena arguing with her future husband, Harry Domin, because she cannot believe his secretary is a robotess:",
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"plaintext": "His robots resemble more modern conceptions of man-made life forms, such as the Replicants in Blade Runner, the \"hosts\" in the Westworld TV series and the humanoid Cylons in the re-imagined Battlestar Galactica, but in Čapek's time there was no conception of modern genetic engineering (DNA's role in heredity was not confirmed until 1952). There are descriptions of kneading-troughs for robot skin, great vats for liver and brains, and a factory for producing bones. Nerve fibers, arteries, and intestines are spun on factory bobbins, while the robots themselves are assembled like automobiles. Čapek's robots are living biological beings, but they are still assembled, as opposed to grown or born.",
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"plaintext": "One critic has described Čapek's robots as epitomizing \"the traumatic transformation of modern society by the First World War and the Fordist assembly line.\"",
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"plaintext": "The play introduced the word robot, which displaced older words such as \"automaton\" or \"android\" in languages around the world. In an article in Lidové noviny, Karel Čapek named his brother Josef as the true inventor of the word. In Czech, robota means forced labour of the kind that serfs had to perform on their masters' lands and is derived from rab, meaning \"slave\".",
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"plaintext": "The name Rossum is an allusion to the Czech word rozum, meaning \"reason\", \"wisdom\", \"intellect\" or \"common sense\". It has been suggested that the allusion might be preserved by translating \"Rossum\" as \"Reason\" but only the Majer/Porter version translates the word as \"Reason\".",
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"plaintext": "The work was published in Prague by Aventinum in 1920, after being postponed, and, premiered at the city's National Theatre on 25 January 1921, although an amateur group had by then already presented a production.",
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"plaintext": "The American première was at the Garrick Theatre in New York City in October 1922, where it ran for 184 performances, a production in which Spencer Tracy and Pat O'Brien played robots in their Broadway debuts. Helena was portrayed by Kentuckian actress and antiwar activist Mary Crane Hone in her Broadway debut.",
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"plaintext": "R.U.R. was translated from Czech into English by Paul Selver and adapted for the stage in English by Nigel Playfair in 1923. Selver's translation abridged the play and eliminated a character, a robot named \"Damon\". In April 1923 Basil Dean produced R.U.R. for the Reandean Company at St Martin's Theatre, London.",
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"plaintext": "It also played in Chicago and Los Angeles during 1923. In the late 1930s, the play was staged in the U.S. by the Federal Theatre Project's Marionette Theatre in New York.",
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"plaintext": "In 1989, a new, unabridged translation by Claudia Novack-Jones restored the elements of the play eliminated by Selver. Another unabridged translation was produced by Peter Majer and Cathy Porter for Methuen Drama in 1999.",
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"plaintext": "Reviewing the New York production of R.U.R., The Forum magazine described the play as \"thought-provoking\" and \"a highly original thriller\". John Clute has lauded R.U.R. as \"a play of exorbitant wit and almost demonic energy\" and lists the play as one of the \"classic titles\" of inter-war science fiction. Luciano Floridi has described the play thus: \"Philosophically rich and controversial, R.U.R. was unanimously acknowledged as a masterpiece from its first appearance, and has become a classic of technologically dystopian literature.\" Jarka M. Burien called R.U.R. a \"theatrically effective, prototypal sci-fi melodrama\".",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, Isaac Asimov, author of the Robot series of books and creator of the Three Laws of Robotics, stated: \"Capek's play is, in my own opinion, a terribly bad one, but it is immortal for that one word. It contributed the word 'robot' not only to English, but through English, to all the languages in which science fiction is now written.\" In fact, Asimov's \"Laws of Robotics\" are specifically and explicitly designed to prevent the kind of situation depicted in R.U.R. – since Asimov's Robots are created with a built-in total inhibition against harming human beings or disobeying them.",
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"plaintext": " On 11 February 1938, a 35-minute adaptation of a section of the play was broadcast on BBC Television—the first piece of television science-fiction ever to be broadcast. Some low quality stills have survived, although no recordings of the production are known to exist. and in 1948, another television adaptation—this time of the entire play, running to 90 minutes—was screened by the BBC with Radius played by Patrick Troughton, who was later the second actor to play The Doctor in Doctor Who.",
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"plaintext": " BBC Radio has broadcast a number of productions, including a 1927 2LO London version, a 1933 BBC Regional Programme version, a 1941 BBC Home Service version, and a 1946 BBC Home Service version,. BBC Radio 3 dramatised the play again in 1989, and this version has been released commercially. A light-hearted 2-part musical adaptation was broadcast on April 3rd and 10th 2022 on BBC Radio 4, with story by Robert Hudson and music by Susannah Pearse; the second episode continues the story after all humans have been killed and the robots now have emotions.",
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"plaintext": " In August 2010, Portuguese multi-media artist Leonel Moura's R.U.R.: The Birth of the Robot, inspired by the Čapek play, was performed at Itaú Cultural in São Paulo, Brazil. It utilized actual robots on stage interacting with the human actors.",
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"plaintext": " An electro-rock musical, Save The Robots is based on R.U.R., featuring the music of the New York City pop-punk art-rock band Hagatha. This version with book and adaptation by E. Ether, music by Rob Susman, and lyrics by Clark Render wa an official selection of the 2014 New York Musical Theatre Festival season.",
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"plaintext": " On 26 November 2015 The RUR-Play: Prologue, the world's first version of R.U.R. with robots appearing in all the roles, was presented during the robot performance festival of Cafe Neu Romance at the gallery of the National Library of Technology in Prague. The concept and initiative for the play came from Christian Gjørret, leader of \"Vive Les Robots!\" who, on 29 January 2012, during a meeting with Steven Canvin of LEGO Group, presented the proposal to Lego, that supported the piece with the LEGO MINDSTORMS robotic kit. The robots were built and programmed by students from the R.U.R team from Gymnázium Jeseník. The play was directed by Filip Worm and the team was led by Roman Chasák, both teachers from the Gymnázium Jeseník.",
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"plaintext": " Eric, a robot constructed in Britain in 1928 for public appearances, bore the letters \"R.U.R.\" across its chest.",
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"plaintext": " The 1935 Soviet film Loss of Sensation, though based on the 1929 novel Iron Riot, has a similar concept to R.U.R., and all the robots in the film prominently display the name \"R.U.R.\"",
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"plaintext": " In the American science fiction television series Dollhouse, the antagonist corporation, Rossum Corp., is named after the play.",
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"plaintext": " In the Star Trek episode \"Requiem for Methuselah\", the android's name is Rayna Kapec (an anagram, though not a homophone, of Capek, Čapek without its háček).",
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"plaintext": " In the two-part The Animated Series episode \"Heart of Steel\", the scientist that created the HARDAC machine is named Karl Rossum. HARDAC created mechanical replicants to replace existing humans, with the ultimate goal of replacing all humans. One of the robots is seen driving a car with \"RUR\" as the license plate number.",
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"plaintext": " In the 1977 Doctor Who serial \"The Robots of Death\", the robot servants turn on their human masters under the influence of an individual named Taren Capel.",
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"plaintext": " In the 1978 Norwegian TV series Blindpassasjer, Rossum is the name of a planet ruled by robots.",
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"plaintext": " In the 1995 science fiction series The Outer Limits, in the remake of the \"I, Robot\" episode from the original 1964 series, the business where the robot Adam Link is built is named \"Rossum Hall Robotics\".",
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"plaintext": " The 1999 Blake's 7 radio play The Syndeton Experiment included a character named Dr. Rossum who turned humans into robots.",
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"plaintext": " In the \"Fear of a Bot Planet\" episode of the animated science fiction TV series Futurama, the Planet Express crew is ordered to make a delivery on a planet called \"Chapek 9\", which is inhabited solely by robots.",
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"plaintext": " In Howard Chaykin's Time² graphic novels, Rossum's Universal Robots is a powerful corporation and maker of robots.",
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"plaintext": " In Adventures in the Forbidden Zone, when Wolff wakes Chalmers, she has been reading a copy of R.U.R. in her bed. This presages the fact that she is later revealed to be a gynoid.",
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"plaintext": " In the 2016 video game Mankind Divided, R.U.R. is performed in an underground theater in a dystopian Prague by an \"augmented\" (cyborg) woman who believes herself to be the robot Helena.",
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"plaintext": " In the 2018 British alternative history drama Agatha and the Truth of Murder, Agatha is seen reading R.U.R. to her daughter Rosalind as a bedtime story.",
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"plaintext": " In the 2021 movie Mother/Android, the play R.U.R. of Karel %C4%8Capek comes up. In the movie, Arthur, an AI programmer , who survived because he knows how they think: Roboti are artificial creatures with living flesh and bone components, such as the modern Android is, they look like us, they talk like us. It is a common mistake to take a modern roboti as a human. At first, they seem happy to serve men. In the end, a roboti rebellion leads to the extinction of human life. This play introduced the word Robot into the human language. It ends with our extinction. We knew it the moment we gave it a name.",
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"plaintext": " AI takeover",
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"plaintext": " The Steam Man of the Prairies (1868), an early American depiction of a \"mechanical man\"",
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"plaintext": " Tik-Tok, L. Frank Baum's earlier depiction (1907) of a similar entity",
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"plaintext": " Become Human (2018), a narrative video game built around a rebellion by androids who become sentient.",
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"plaintext": "Informational notes",
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"plaintext": "Citations",
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"plaintext": " R.U.R. in Czech from Project Gutenberg",
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"plaintext": " Audio extracts from the SCI-FI-LONDON adaptation",
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"plaintext": " Karel Čapek bio.",
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"plaintext": " Online facsimile version of the 1920 first edition in Czech.",
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| 1,164,094 | 6,903 | 145 | 97 | 0 | 0 | R.U.R. | 1920s play introducing the word robot | [
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"plaintext": "The Reedy Creek Improvement District (RCID) is the governing jurisdiction and special taxing district for the land of Walt Disney World Resort. It includes within the outer limits of Orange and Osceola counties in Florida. It acts with the same authority and responsibility as a county government. It includes the cities of Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, and unincorporated RCID land.",
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"plaintext": "The district was created in 1967 after the Florida Government passed the Reedy Creek Improvement Act. The law was pushed for by Walt Disney and his namesake media company both before and after Disney's death in 1966, during the planning stages of Walt Disney World.",
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"plaintext": "Because of incidents that occurred over many years, the district has been criticized for acting in the interests of Disney instead of the public. The district has the authority of a governmental body, but is not subjected to the constraints of a governmental body. A major selling point in lobbying the Florida Government to establish the district was Walt Disney's proposal of the \"Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow\" (EPCOT), a real planned community intended to serve as a testbed for new city-living innovations. The company however eventually decided to abandon Walt Disney's concepts for the experimental city, primarily only building a resort similar to its other parks.",
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"plaintext": "In April 2022, the Florida Legislature passed a law abolishing the RCID along with special districts formed prior to November 5, 1968. Some members of the Florida Legislature as well as political commentators claimed the action was retaliation stemming from Disney's opposition to the controversial Parental Rights in Education Act, known as the \"Don't Say Gay\" bill by its critics. The law takes effect in June 2023, at which time the RCID would be dissolved; however, it is unclear what will happen to the $1billion in bond liabilities held by the RCID.",
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"plaintext": "After the success of Disneyland in California, Walt Disney began planning a second park on the East Coast. He disliked the businesses that had sprung up around Disneyland, and wanted control of a much larger area of land for the new project. He flew over the Orlando-area site, and many other potential sites, in November 1963. Seeing the well-developed network of roads, including the planned Interstate 4 and Florida's Turnpike, with McCoy Air Force Base (later Orlando International Airport) to the east, he selected a centrally located site near Bay Lake. He used multiple shell companies to buy up land, at very low prices, that eventually became the district. These company names are listed on the upper story windows of what is now the Main Street USA section of Walt Disney World, including Compass East Corporation; Latin-American Development and Management Corporation; Ayefour Corporation (named for nearby I-4); Tomahawk Properties, Incorporated; Reedy Creek Ranch, Incorporated; and Bay Lake Properties, Incorporated.",
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"plaintext": "On March 11, 1966, these landowners, all fully owned subsidiaries of what is now The Walt Disney Company, petitioned the Circuit Court of the Ninth Judicial Circuit, which served Orange County, Florida, for the creation of the Reedy Creek Drainage District under Chapter 298 of the Florida Statutes. After a period during which some minor landowners within the boundaries opted out, the Drainage District was incorporated on May 13, 1966, as a public corporation. Among the powers of a Drainage District were the power to condemn and acquire property outside its boundaries \"for the public use\". It used this power at least once to obtain land for Canal C-1 (Bonnet Creek) through land that is now being developed as the Bonnet Creek Resort, a non-Disney resort.",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney knew that his plans for the land would be easier to carry out with more independence. Among his ideas for his Florida project was his proposed EPCOT, the Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow, which was to be a futuristic planned city (and which was also known as Progress City). He envisioned a real working city with both commercial and residential areas, but one that also continued to showcase and test new ideas and concepts for urban living. Therefore, the Disney company petitioned the Florida State Legislature for the creation of the Reedy Creek Improvement District, which would have almost total autonomy within its borders. Residents of Orange and Osceola counties did not need to pay any taxes unless they were residents of the district. Services like land use regulation and planning, building codes, surface water control, drainage, waste treatment, utilities, roads, bridges, fire protection, emergency medical services, and environmental services were overseen by the district. The only areas where the district had to submit to the county and state would be property taxes and elevator inspections. The planned EPCOT city was also emphasized in this lobbying effort.",
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"plaintext": "On May 12, 1967, Governor Claude R. Kirk Jr. signed the Reedy Creek Improvement Act, adding the following Florida statutes to implement Disney's plans:",
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"plaintext": " Chapter 67-764 created the Reedy Creek Improvement District;",
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"plaintext": " Chapter 67-1104 established the City of Bay Lake; and",
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"plaintext": " Chapter 67-1965 established the City of Reedy Creek (later renamed as the City of Lake Buena Vista around 1970.)",
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"plaintext": "According to a press conference held in Winter Park, Florida on February 2, 1967 by Disney Vice President Donn Tatum, the Improvement District and Cities were created to serve \"the needs of those residing there\", because the company needed its own government to \"clarify the District's authority to [provide services] within the District's limits\", and because of the public nature of the planned development. The original city boundaries did not cover the whole Improvement District; they may have been intended as the areas where communities would be built for residential use.",
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"plaintext": "In 1993, the land that eventually became the Disney-controlled town of Celebration, Florida—which was built with many of Walt Disney's original ideas that had since evolved into a form of New Urbanism—was deannexed from Bay Lake and the District. This was done to keep its residents from having power over Disney by providing for separate administration of the areas. Celebration lies on unincorporated land within Osceola County, with a thin strip of still-incorporated land separating it from the rest of the county. This strip of land contains canals and other land used by the District.",
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"plaintext": "The Reedy Creek Improvement Act was held by the Supreme Court of Florida not to violate any provision of the Constitution of Florida. As the law, in part, declares that the District is exempt from all state land use regulation laws \"now or hereafter enacted,\" the Attorney General of Florida has issued an opinion stating that this includes state requirements for developments of regional impact (DRIs).",
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"plaintext": "After Walt Disney died in 1966, the Disney company board decided that it did not want to be in the business of running a city, and abandoned many of his ideas for Progress City. The planned residential areas were never built. Most notably, Richard Foglesong argues in his book, Married to the Mouse: Walt Disney World and Orlando, that Disney has abused its powers by remaining in complete control of the District.",
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"plaintext": "In January 1990, the RCID was granted a $57-million allocation of tax-free state bonds over an agency with plans for a low-income housing development and all additional government applicants in a six-county region, as the state distributed the bond proceeds on a first-come order. Disney was criticized for the move, with a Republican gubernatorial candidate filing a lawsuit to stop the RCID from using the funds. Also, one state legislator moved to limit the RCID's ability to apply for the program.",
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"plaintext": "On March 30, 2022, State Representative Spencer Roach tweeted that Florida legislators had met twice within the past week to discuss the possibility of repealing the Reedy Creek Improvement Act and stripping Disney of its \"special privileges\" in the state. Roach and Florida governor Ron DeSantis later criticized Disney for the \"special perks\" the company enjoyed through use of the RCID. Roach said there had been previous attempts to eliminate the district. A bill analysis and fiscal impact statement for the bill was created on April 19, 2022 by Senator Jennifer Bradley. However, this analysis was unable to determine the impact the bill would have on either the residents served by the special district, or the local governments that would absorb the district's debts.",
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"plaintext": "On April 20, 2022, the Florida Senate passed Senate Bill 4C (SB 4C) with a 23–16 vote that would abolish the special taxing district. If it became law, the bill would dissolve any independent special district in Florida established prior to November 5, 1968, including the RCID; the dissolution would take effect June 1, 2023. On April 21, 2022, the bill was passed by the Florida House by a 70–38 vote. DeSantis signed the bill into law the following day. Some members of the Florida Legislature as well as political commentators said the bill was likely retaliation for Disney announcing its opposition to the Parental Rights in Education Act, dubbed by critics as the \"Don't Say Gay bill\". Representative Dotie Joseph dubbed SB 4C \"un-American\" adding that it was \"[p]unishing a company for daring to speak against a governor's radical-right political agenda\".",
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"plaintext": "On May 16, 2022, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis said that he is looking into making the government take control of the special district but promised that local and state tax payers would not be paying for Reedy Creek's outstanding debt.",
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"plaintext": "The bill was passed after two days of discussions and without a fiscal impact analysis. This led to debates about the bill's effects on taxes and bond debt. Randy Fine, the Republican House sponsor of the bill, claimed without providing evidence that the tax revenue would instead go to local governments and that taxpayers would save money.",
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"plaintext": "Disney already pays property taxes to Orange and Osceola counties. The bill would not increase these counties' revenues but would force both counties to increase services within the former jurisdiction of the RCID. A tax collector for Orange County claimed the RCID's abolition would increase costs for taxpayers. Florida Senate Democratic member Gary Farmer also highlighted concerns that the dissolution would transfer over $1billion in bond liabilities to all Florida taxpayers.",
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"plaintext": "Analysts expected legal challenges to the dissolution. One argument was that because the law targeted Disney in retaliation for a political position, it violated the company's free speech rights under the First Amendment to the United States Constitution.",
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"plaintext": "Another argument is that the dissolution violates the contract the state of Florida made with bondholders not to alter or limit the powers of the district until all bonds were paid off, making the dissolution unconstitutional under the Contract Clause. Under Florida law, when a special district government, like the Reedy Creek Improvement District, is dissolved, the dissolution transfers \"title to all property owned by the preexisting special district government to the local general-purpose government, which shall also assume all indebtedness of the preexisting special district.\" In 1866, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that \"once a local government issues a bond based on an authorized taxing power, the state is contract-bound and cannot eliminate the taxing power supporting the bond\".",
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"plaintext": "Reedy Creek is a natural waterway whose flow, drainage, and destination have been altered over the years by human development. It begins west of the Bay Lake city limits and the Magic Kingdom, and then meanders south through Disney property, passing between Disney's Animal Kingdom and Blizzard Beach. It crosses Interstate 4 and exits Disney property west of Celebration and runs mostly through undeveloped territory east of Haines City. It empties into Lake Russell, and continues flowing southward into Cypress Lake, which is connected to the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes.",
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"plaintext": "A five-member Board of Supervisors governs the District, elected by the landowners of the District. These members, senior employees of The Walt Disney Company, each own undeveloped lots of land within the District, the only land in the District not technically controlled by Disney or used for public road purposes. The only residents of the District, also Disney employees or their immediate family members, live in two small communities, one in each city. In the 2000 U.S. Census, Bay Lake had 23 residents, all in the community on the north shore of Bay Lake, and Lake Buena Vista had 16 residents, all in the community about a mile north of Disney Springs. These residents elect the officials of the cities, but since they do not actually own any land, they do not have any power in electing the District Board of Supervisors.",
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"plaintext": "The District headquarters are in a building in Lake Buena Vista, east of Disney Springs. The District runs the following services, primarily serving Disney:",
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"plaintext": " Law enforcement – Officers from Orange County, Osceola County and the Florida Highway Patrol are contracted to police the district. In addition, the Walt Disney Company employs about 800 security staff in their Disney Safety and Security division. While Disney security maintains a fleet of private security Chevrolet Equinoxes equipped with flashing amber and green lights, flares, traffic cones, and chalk commonly used by police officers, arrests and citations are issued by the Florida Highway Patrol along with the Orange County and Osceola County sheriffs deputies.Disney security personnel are involved with traffic control and may only issue personnel violation notices to Disney and RCID employees, not the general public. Security vans previously had red lightbars, but after public scrutiny following the death of Robb Sipkema, were changed to amber to fall in line with Florida State Statutes.",
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"plaintext": " Environmental protection: Many pieces of land have been donated to the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation and the South Florida Water Management District as conservation easements, and the District collects data and ensures that large portions remain in their natural wetland state.",
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"plaintext": " Building codes and land-use planning – The \"EPCOT Building Codes\" were implemented to provide the sort of flexibility that the innovative community of EPCOT would require. The provisions contained therein, although rumored to be exceptionally stringent, have in fact never been far and above those of the Standard Building Code or the Florida Building Code (FBC) that is currently in force in the rest of Florida. In fact, since the inception of the International Building Code (IBC) in 2000, the EPCOT Building Code defers much of its design parameters to the IBC-based FBC, and many of the reference standards contained therein. Particularly with regard to wind design, today's standards are better than the ones that previously existed, and today's RCID buildings are built to withstand winds. Hurricane Charley (2004) reached maximum sustained winds estimated at the nearby Orlando International Airport but winds were lower on RCID property. Although the codes are ostensibly updated on a three-year cycle, the most recent and currently used version of the EPCOT Building Codes is the 2018 version.",
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"plaintext": "The Reedy Creek Fire Department (RCFD) was created in 1968 to provide fire suppression for RCID. Today, RCFD provides fire suppression, emergency medical services, 911 communications, fire inspections, technical rescue services, and hazardous materials mitigation. EMS makes up approximately 85 percent of the call volume, with RCFD providing both Advanced Life Support and Basic Life Support.",
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"plaintext": "RCFD currently staffs four fire stations located throughout the district with 138 personnel across three shifts. They also maintain a staff of 86 administrative and support personnel including EMS team members (primarily located in each of the four Walt Disney World theme parks), 911 communicators, and fire inspectors among others. There are four engines, two-tower trucks, one squad unit, eight rescue ambulances and several special units.",
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"plaintext": " Richard Foglesong (2001), Married to the Mouse: Walt Disney World and Orlando, Yale University Press, , ",
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"plaintext": " Aaron H. Goldberg (2021), \"Buying Disney's World: The Story of How Florida Swampland Became Walt Disney World\", Quaker Scribe, ",
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"plaintext": "The Walt Disney World Resort, also called Walt Disney World or simply Disney World, is an entertainment resort complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, United States, near the cities of Orlando and Kissimmee. Opened on October 1, 1971, the resort is operated by Disney Parks, Experiences and Products, a division of The Walt Disney Company. The property covers nearly , of which half has been used. The resort comprises four theme parks (Magic Kingdom, Epcot, Disney's Hollywood Studios, and Disney's Animal Kingdom), two water parks (Disney's Blizzard Beach and Disney's Typhoon Lagoon), 31 themed resort hotels, nine non-Disney hotels, several golf courses, a camping resort, and other entertainment venues, including the outdoor shopping center Disney Springs.",
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"plaintext": "Designed to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955, the complex was developed by Walt Disney in the 1960s. \"The Florida Project\", as it was known, was intended to present a distinct vision with its own diverse set of attractions. Walt Disney's original plans also called for the inclusion of an \"Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow\" (EPCOT), a planned community intended to serve as a testbed for new city-living innovations. Walt Disney died on December 15, 1966, during the initial planning of the complex. After his death, the company wrestled with the idea of whether to bring the Disney World project to fruition; however, Walt's older brother, Roy O. Disney, came out of retirement to make sure Walt's biggest dream was realized. Construction started in 1967, with the company instead building a resort similar to Disneyland, abandoning the experimental concepts for a planned community. Upon opening, Roy insisted the name of the entire complex be changed from Disney World to Walt Disney World, as a final tribute to his brother, ensuring that people would remember that the project was Walt's dream.",
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"plaintext": "The Magic Kingdom was the first theme park to open in the complex, in 1971, followed by Epcot (1982), Disney's Hollywood Studios (1989), and Disney's Animal Kingdom (1998). In 2018, Walt Disney World was the most visited vacation resort in the world, with an average annual attendance of more than 58 million. The resort is the flagship destination of Disney's worldwide corporate enterprise and has become a popular staple in American culture. , Walt Disney World was chosen to host the NBA Bubble for play of the 2019–20 season of the National Basketball Association to resume at the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex. Walt Disney World is also covered by an FAA prohibited airspace zone that restricts all airspace activities without approval from the Federal government of the United States, including usage of drones; this level of protection is otherwise only offered to American critical infrastructure (like the Pantex nuclear weapons plant), military bases, the Washington, DC Metropolitan Area Special Flight Rules Area, official presidential travels, and Camp David.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, Disney World laid off 6,500 employees and only operated at 25% capacity after reopening during the COVID-19 pandemic.",
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"plaintext": "During the planning stages of Disney World, Walt Disney and his namesake company successfully lobbied the Florida government to establish the Reedy Creek Improvement District in 1967, giving the Walt Disney Company a self-special-purpose government in the area around the property. On April 22, 2022, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed a bill into law to officially strip Disney of this longtime self-governing status by June 2023.",
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"plaintext": "In 1959, Walt Disney Productions began looking for land to house a second resort to supplement Disneyland in Anaheim, California, which had opened in 1955. Market surveys at the time revealed that only 5% of Disneyland's visitors came from east of the Mississippi River, where 75% of the population of the United States lived. Additionally, Walt Disney disliked the businesses that had sprung up around Disneyland and wanted more control over a larger area of land in the next project.",
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"plaintext": "A variety of sites were considered for the project including: Niagara Falls, St. Louis and Aspen, Colorado along with several others in Florida. In the end it was decided that a location in Florida would be the location with Orlando and Ocala being the two front runners.",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney took a flight over a potential site in Orlando—one of many—in November 1963. After witnessing the well-developed network of roads and taking the planned construction of both Interstate 4 and Florida's Turnpike into account, with McCoy Air Force Base (later Orlando International Airport) to the east, Disney selected a centrally located site near Bay Lake. The development was referred to in-house as \"The Florida Project\". To avoid a burst of land speculation, Walt Disney Productions used various dummy corporations to acquire of land. In May 1965, some of these major land transactions were recorded a few miles southwest of Orlando in Osceola County. In addition, two large tracts totaling $1.5million were sold, and smaller tracts of flatlands and cattle pastures were purchased by exotically named companies, such as the \"Ayefour Corporation\", \"Latin-American Development and Management Corporation\", and the \"Reedy Creek Ranch Corporation\". Some are now memorialized on a window above Main Street, U.S.A. in the Magic Kingdom. The smaller parcels of land acquired were called \"outs\". They were lots platted in 1912 by the Munger Land Company and sold to investors. Most of the owners in the 1960s were happy to get rid of the land, which was mostly swamp at the time. Another issue was the mineral rights to the land, which were owned by Tufts University. Without the transfer of these rights, Tufts could come in at any time and demand the removal of buildings to obtain minerals. Eventually, Disney's team negotiated a deal with Tufts to buy the mineral rights for $15,000.",
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"plaintext": "Working strictly in secrecy, real estate agents unaware of their client's identity began making offers to landowners in April 1964, in parts of southwest Orange and northwest Osceola counties. The agents were careful not to reveal the extent of their intentions, and they were able to negotiate numerous land contracts with some landowners, including large tracts of land for as little as $100 an acre. With the understanding that the recording of the first deeds would trigger intense public scrutiny, Disney delayed the filing of paperwork until a large portion of the land was under contract.",
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"plaintext": "Early rumors and speculation about the land purchases assumed possible development by NASA in support of the nearby Kennedy Space Center, as well as references to other famous investors, such as Ford, the Rockefellers, and Howard Hughes. An Orlando Sentinel news article published weeks later, on May 20, 1965, acknowledged a popular rumor that Disney was building an \"East Coast\" version of Disneyland. However, the publication denied its accuracy based on an earlier interview with Disney at Kennedy Space Center, in which he claimed a $50million investment was in the works for Disneyland, and that he had no interest in building a new park. In October 1965, editor Emily Bavar from the Sentinel visited Disneyland during the park's 10th-anniversary celebration. In an interview with Disney, she asked him if he was behind recent land purchases in Central Florida. Bavar later described that Disney \"looked like I had thrown a bucket of water in his face\", before denying the story. His reaction, combined with other research obtained during her Anaheim visit, led Bavar to author a story on October 21, 1965, where she predicted that Disney was building a second theme park in Florida. Three days later, after gathering more information from various sources, the Sentinel published another article headlined, \"We Say: 'Mystery Industry' Is Disney\".",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney had originally planned to publicly reveal Disney World on November 15, 1965, but in light of the Sentinel story, Disney asked Florida Governor Haydon Burns to confirm the story on October 25. His announcement called the new theme park \"the greatest attraction in the history of Florida\". The official reveal was kept on the previously planned November 15 date, and Disney joined Burns in Orlando for the event.",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney died from circulatory collapse caused by smoking related lung cancer on December 15, 1966, before his vision was realized. His brother and business partner, Roy O. Disney, postponed his retirement to oversee construction of the resort's first phase.",
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"plaintext": "On February 2, 1967, Roy O. Disney held a press conference at the Park Theatres in Winter Park, Florida. The role of EPCOT was emphasized in the film that was played. After the film, it was explained that for Disney World, including EPCOT, to succeed, a special district would have to be formed: the Reedy Creek Improvement District with two cities inside it, Bay Lake and Reedy Creek, now Lake Buena Vista. In addition to the standard powers of an incorporated city, which include issuance of tax-free bonds, the district would have immunity from any current or future county or state land-use laws. The only areas where the district had to submit to the county and state would be property taxes and elevator inspections. The legislation forming the district and the two cities, one of which was the Reedy Creek Improvement Act, was signed into law by Florida Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr. on May 12, 1967. The Supreme Court of Florida then ruled in 1968 that the district was allowed to issue tax-exempt bonds for public projects within the district, despite the sole beneficiary being Walt Disney Productions.",
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"plaintext": "The district soon began construction of drainage canals, and Disney built the first roads and the Magic Kingdom. The Contemporary Resort Hotel and the Polynesian Village Resort were also completed in time for the park's opening on October 1, 1971. The Palm and Magnolia golf courses near the Magic Kingdom had opened a few weeks before, while Fort Wilderness opened one month later. Twenty-four days after the park opened, Roy O. Disney dedicated the property and declared that it would be known as \"Walt Disney World\", in his brother's honor. In his own words: \"Everyone has heard of Ford cars. But have they all heard of Henry Ford, who started it all? Walt Disney World is in memory of the man who started it all, so people will know his name as long as Walt Disney World is here.\" After the dedication, Roy Disney asked Walt's widow, Lillian, what she thought of Walt Disney World. According to biographer Bob Thomas, she responded, \"I think Walt would have approved.\" Roy Disney died at age 78 on December 20, 1971, less than three months after the property opened.",
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"plaintext": "Admission prices in 1971 were $3.50 for adults, $2.50 for juniors under age 18, and one dollar for children under twelve.",
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"plaintext": "Much of Walt Disney's plans for his Progress City concept were abandoned after his death and after the company board decided that it did not want to be in the business of running a city. The concept evolved into the resort's second theme park, EPCOT Center, which opened in 1982 (renamed EPCOT in 1996). While still emulating Walt Disney's original idea of showcasing new technology, the park is closer to a world's fair than a \"community of tomorrow\". One of EPCOT's main attractions is the \"World Showcase\", which highlights 11 countries across the globe. Some of the urban planning concepts from the original idea of EPCOT would instead be integrated into the community of Celebration, Florida, much later. The resort's third theme park, Disney-MGM Studios (renamed Disney's Hollywood Studios in 2008), opened in 1989 and is inspired by show business.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1990s, the resort was seeking permits for expansion. There was considerable environmentalist push-back, and the resort was convinced to engage in mitigation banking. In an agreement with The Nature Conservancy and the state of Florida, Disney purchased of land, adjacent to the park for the purpose of rehabilitating wetland ecosystems. The Disney Wilderness Preserve was established in April 1993, and the land was subsequently transferred to The Nature Conservancy. The Walt Disney Company provided additional funds for landscape restoration and wildlife monitoring.",
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"plaintext": "On January 21, 2016, the resort's management structure was changed, with general managers within a theme park being in charge of an area or land, instead of on a functional basis, as previously configured. Theme parks have already had a vice-president overseeing them. Disney Springs and Disney Sports were also affected. Now hotel general managers manage a single hotel instead of some managing multiple hotels.",
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"plaintext": "On October 18, 2017, it was announced that resort visitors could bring pet dogs to Disney's Yacht Club Resort, Disney's Port Orleans Resort – Riverside, Disney's Art of Animation Resort, and Disney's Fort Wilderness Resort & Campground.",
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"plaintext": "On July 11, 2020, Disney World officially reopened, beginning operations at 25% capacity at the Magic Kingdom and Disney's Animal Kingdom, as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Florida. Four days later, Epcot and Disney's Hollywood Studios for operation at 25% capacity to the public. Masks were required at all times (including outdoors, on attractions, and while taking photos), all guests were required to have their temperature taken upon entry, plexiglass was installed on various attractions and transportation offerings, and shows that drew large crowds, such as parades and nighttime shows including Fantasmic! and Happily Ever After were not offered.",
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"plaintext": "In November 2020, the resort increased the guest capacity to 35% at all four theme parks, and on May 13, 2021, CEO Bob Chapek announced a further increase of capacity, effective immediately; however, he did not say to what capacity level it would be raised. By mid-June 2021, temperature checks and mask mandates (except while on Disney transportation) had been lifted. In late July 2021, mask mandates were reinstated for all attractions and indoor areas in light of new guidance issued by the Centers for Disease Control as the delta variant drove a significant increase in local cases. These reinstated mandates were lifted in February 2022. In April 2022, following a court decision ending the federal mask mandate for public transportation, the mask mandates on Disney transportation were lifted.",
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"plaintext": "Starting on October 1, 2021, the resort is honoring its 50th anniversary with \"The World's Most Magical Celebration\".",
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"plaintext": "Disney's Magical Express, a complimentary transportation and luggage service offered to Walt Disney Resort guests that began in 2005, ended in January 2022. In August 2021, the Walt Disney Company announced that FastPass+, which had been free since its introduction in 1999, would be retired and replaced with Genie+, a system costing guests $15 per day with the option of adding \"Lightning Lane,\" which will be used for top-tier attractions, for an additional charge.",
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"plaintext": "On April 22, 2022, the self-governing status which the Walt Disney Company had in the area around Disney World for more than 50 years came to an end after Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed into law legislation requiring the area to come under the legal jurisdiction of the state of Florida. The new law would also officially abolish The Reedy Creek Improvement District which the Walt Disney Company has used to run the area since May 1967, when former Florida Governor Claude Kirk signed into law legislation which granted the company special status. The law goes into effect in June of 2023.",
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"plaintext": "The resort has a number of expansion projects planned or ongoing, including:",
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"plaintext": " TRON Lightcycle Run at Magic Kingdom",
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"plaintext": " Enhancements at Epcot continue, including a walkthrough attraction Journey of Water, inspired by Moana (2016 film), and a newly designed central spine which will include a statue of Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse. The Play! Pavilion was also announced to be coming to Epcot, using to building formerly occupied by Wonders of Life.",
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"plaintext": " Flamingo Crossings, a shopping complex similar to Disney Springs, currently opening in phases.",
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"plaintext": "The Florida resort is not within Orlando city limits but is southwest of Downtown Orlando. Much of the resort is in southwestern Orange County, with the remainder in adjacent Osceola County. The property includes the cities of Lake Buena Vista and Bay Lake which are governed by the Reedy Creek Improvement District. The site is accessible from Central Florida's Interstate 4 via Exits 62B (World Drive), 64B (US 192 West), 65B (Osceola Parkway West), 67B (SR 536 West), and 68 (SR 535 North), Exit 6 on SR 417 South, the Central Florida GreeneWay and Exit 8 on SR 429, the Western Beltway. At its founding, the resort occupied approximately . Portions of the property have since been sold or de-annexed, including land now occupied by the Disney-built community of Celebration. By 2014, the resort occupied nearly . The company acquired nearly 3,000 additional acres, in separate transactions, between December 2018 and April 2020. ",
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"plaintext": " Magic Kingdom, opened October 1, 1971",
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"plaintext": " Epcot, opened October 1, 1982",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Hollywood Studios, opened May 1, 1989",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Animal Kingdom, opened April 22, 1998",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Typhoon Lagoon, opened June 1, 1989",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Blizzard Beach, opened April 1, 1995",
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"plaintext": " Multiple resorts across Disney property offer a variety of spa treatments including Disney's Grand Floridian and Disney's Coronado Springs Resort",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Boardwalk, located outside of their Boardwalk Inn, functions as an entertainment, dining, and shopping district.",
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"plaintext": " Epcot has annual festivals that run for limited amounts of time throughout the year like the Epcot Flower and Garden Festival, Epcot Festival of the Arts, and the Epcot Food and Wine Festival",
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"plaintext": " Disney does special ticketed events throughout the year including the Mickey's Not So Scary Halloween Party, which usually runs late August through October, and Mickey's Very Merry Christmas Party",
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"plaintext": " Disney Springs, opened March 22, 1975 (Previously known as Lake Buena Vista Shopping Village, Disney Village Marketplace, and Downtown Disney)",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Wedding Pavilion, opened July 15, 1995",
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"plaintext": " ESPN Wide World of Sports, opened March 28, 1997",
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"plaintext": "Disney's property includes four golf courses. The three 18-hole golf courses are Disney's Palm (4.5 stars), Disney's Magnolia (4 stars), and Disney's Lake Buena Vista (4 stars). There is also a nine-hole walking course (no electric carts allowed) called Oak Trail, designed for young golfers. The Magnolia and Palm courses played home to the PGA Tour's Children's Miracle Network Hospitals Classic. Arnold Palmer Golf Management manages the Disney golf courses.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, there are two themed miniature golf complexes, each with two courses, Fantasia Gardens and Winter Summerland. The two courses at Fantasia Gardens are Fantasia Garden and Fantasia Fairways. The Garden course is a traditional miniature-style course based on the \"Fantasia\" movies with musical holes, water fountains and characters. Fantasia Fairways is a traditional golf course on miniature scale having water hazards and sand traps.",
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"plaintext": "The two courses at Winter Summerland are Summer and Winter, both themed around Santa. Summer is the more challenging of the two 18-hole courses.",
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"plaintext": " Discovery Island – an island in Bay Lake that was home to many species of animals and birds. It opened on April 8, 1974, and closed on April 8, 1999.",
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"plaintext": " Disney's River Country – the first water park at the Walt Disney World Resort. It opened on June 20, 1976, and closed on November 2, 2001.",
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"plaintext": " Walt Disney World Speedway – a racetrack at Walt Disney World and included the Richard Petty Driving Experience. It opened November 28, 1995, and closed on August 9, 2015.",
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"plaintext": " DisneyQuest – an indoor interactive theme park that featured many arcade games and virtual attractions. It opened June 19, 1998 as part of an unsuccessful attempt to launch a chain of similar theme parks. It closed on July 2, 2017, to be replaced by the NBA Experience.",
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"plaintext": " La Nouba by Cirque du Soleil – opened December 23, 1998, and closed after December 31, 2017.",
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"plaintext": "Of the thirty-four resorts and hotels on the Walt Disney World property, 28 are owned and operated by Walt Disney Parks, Experiences and Consumer Products. These are classified into four categories—Deluxe, Moderate, Value, and Disney Vacation Club Villas—and are located in one of five resort areas: the Magic Kingdom, Epcot, Wide World of Sports, Animal Kingdom, or Disney Springs resort areas. There is also the Other Select Deluxe Resorts category used to describe two resorts in the Epcot Resorts Area that carry Walt Disney World branding but are managed by a third party.",
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"plaintext": "While all of the Deluxe resort hotels have achieved an AAA Four Diamond rating, Disney's Grand Floridian Resort & Spa is considered the highest-tier flagship luxury resort on the Walt Disney World Resort complex.",
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"plaintext": " The Golf Resort – Became The Disney Inn, and later became Shades of Green.",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Village Resort – Became the Villas at Disney Institute and then Disney's Saratoga Springs Resort & Spa. The \"Tree House\" Villas were decommissioned for a time because they were not accessible to disabled guests. Until early 2008, they were used for International Program Cast Member housing. In February 2008, Disney submitted plans to the South Florida Water Management District to replace the 60 existing villas with 60 new villas. The Treehouse Villas opened during the summer of 2009.",
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"plaintext": " Celebration – a town designed and built by Disney, now managed by a resident-run association.",
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"plaintext": " Lake Buena Vista – Disney originally intended this area to become a complete community with multiple residences, shopping, and offices, but transformed the original homes into hotel lodging in the 1970s, which were demolished in the early 2000s to build Disney's Saratoga Springs Resort & Spa",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Asian Resort",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Persian Resort",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Venetian Resort",
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"plaintext": " Disney's Mediterranean Resort",
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"plaintext": " Fort Wilderness Junction",
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"plaintext": "Guests with a Disney Resort reservation (excluding the Walt Disney World Swan and Dolphin) that arrive at Orlando International Airport can be transported to their resort from the airport using the complimentary Disney's Magical Express service, which is operated by Mears Destination Services. Guests can also have their bags picked up and transported to their resort for them through a contract with BAGS Incorporated on participating airlines. Many resorts feature Airline Check-in counters for guests returning to the airport. Here their bags will be checked all the way through to their final destination and they can also have boarding passes printed for them. Current participating airlines are Delta, United, American, JetBlue, Southwest and Alaska Airlines. It was announced in early January 2021, that Disney would be ending the service on January 1, 2022, citing a shift in consumer demand for more flexibility in transportation options.",
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"plaintext": "In the first year of opening, the park attracted 10,712,991 visitors. In 2018, the resort's four theme parks all ranked in the top 9 on the list of the 25 most visited theme parks in the world: (1st) Magic Kingdom—20,859,000 visitors; (6th) Disney's Animal Kingdom—13,750,000 visitors; (7th) Epcot—12,444,000 visitors; and (9th) Disney's Hollywood Studios—11,258,000 visitors. By October 2020, maximum Disney World attendance was still allowed to only remain at 25% capacity due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A recent study found that reducing Magic Kingdom park capacity to 25% would result in a 54.1% reduction in annual attendance. This capacity limit causes less annual revenue, and may lower the number of visitors to the Orlando region.",
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"plaintext": "The Walt Disney World Resort is serviced by Disney Transport, a complimentary mass transportation system allowing guest access across the property. The fare-free system utilizes buses, monorails, gondola lifts, watercraft, and parking lot trams.",
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"plaintext": "The Walt Disney World Monorail System provides free transportation at Walt Disney World; guests can board the monorail and travel between the Magic Kingdom and Epcot, including select on-property resorts such as The Grand Floridian and The Polynesian Village. The system operates on three routes that interconnect at the Transportation and Ticket Center (TTC), adjacent to the Magic Kingdom's parking lot. Disney Transport owns a fleet of Disney-operated buses on the property, that is also complimentary for guests.",
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"plaintext": "A gondola lift system, dubbed Disney Skyliner, opened in 2019. The system's three lines connect Disney's Hollywood Studios and Epcot with four resort hotels.",
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"plaintext": "Disney Transport also operates a fleet of watercraft, ranging in size from water taxis, up to the ferries that connect the Magic Kingdom to the Transportation and Ticket Center. Disney Transport is also responsible for maintaining the fleet of parking lot trams that are used for shuttling visitors between the various theme park parking lots and their respective main entrances.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to its free transportation methods, in conjunction with Lyft, Walt Disney World also offers a vehicle for hire service for a fee. The Minnie Van Service are Chevy Traverses dressed in a Minnie Mouse red-and-white polka dot design that can accommodate up to six people and have two carseats available to anyone that is within the Walt Disney World Resort limits. Cast members can install the car seats. Some of the unique advantages that the Minnie Van Service offers over a normal ride share is the ability to be dropped off in the Magic Kingdom bus loop (instead of at the TTC like the other ride shares) and being able to ride to any point in Fort Wilderness.",
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"plaintext": "Upon arriving at the park, there are several lots that can be used to park vehicles. At the theme parks, which include Animal Kingdom, Magic Kingdom, Epcot and Hollywood Studios, there is a single lot used. Guests are able to access each of these four parks when their vehicle is left in one of these lot. Guests have the choice to buy a pass for either standard parking or preferred parking. Preferred parking can be purchased for a higher cost, however, it allows guests to park their vehicle closer to the park entrance. Trams are available to guests at no cost. They provide transportation from the parking lot to the main entrance. Parking areas are also available to those with disabilities. These designated parking lots allow for guests with disabilities to park a shorter distance from the park entrances to minimize any traveling that is necessary. Additionally, guests are given the option of valet parking at an extra cost. ",
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"plaintext": "When the Magic Kingdom opened in 1971, the site employed about 5,500 \"cast members\". In 2020, Walt Disney World employs more than 77,000 cast members. The largest single-site employer in the United States, Walt Disney World has more than 3,000 job classifications with a total 2019 payroll of over $3 billion. The resort also sponsors and operates the Walt Disney World College Program, an internship program that offers American college students (CPs) the opportunity to live in Flamingo Crossings Village, a Disney-owned apartment complex, and work at the resort, and thereby provides much of the theme park and resort \"front line\" cast members. There is also the Walt Disney World International College Program, an internship program that offers international college students (ICPs) from all over the world the same opportunity. In September 2020, the Walt Disney Company began laying off 6,500 Walt Disney World employees.",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney World requires an estimated of electricity annually, costing the company nearly $100 million in annual energy consumption. In addition to relying primarily on fossil fuels and nuclear energy from the state's power grid, Walt Disney World has two solar energy facilities on property; a Mickey Mouse-shaped solar panel farm near Epcot, and a facility near Disney's Animal Kingdom. The larger facility produces enough solar energy to provide electricity to two of the resort's theme parks. The sites are operated by Duke Energy and the Reedy Creek Improvement District, respectively.",
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"plaintext": "The entire Disney Transport bus fleet uses R50 renewable diesel fuel, obtained from used cooking oil and non-consumable food waste from the resort.",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney World's corporate culture uses jargon based on theatrical terminology. For example, park visitors are always \"guests\", employees are called \"cast members\", rides are \"attractions\" or \"experiences\", cast members costumed as famous Disney characters in a way that does not cover their faces are known as \"face characters\", jobs are \"roles\", and public and nonpublic areas are respectively labeled \"onstage\" and \"backstage\".",
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"plaintext": "Disney's security personnel are generally dressed in typical security guard uniforms, though some of the personnel are dressed as tourists in plain clothes. Since September 11, 2001, uniformed security has been stationed outside each Disney park in Florida to search guests' bags as they enter the parks. Starting April 3, 2017, bag checkpoints have been placed at Magic Kingdom's resort monorail entryways and the Transportation and Ticket Center's ferry entry points prior to embarkation as well as the walkway from Disney's Contemporary Resort. Guests arriving at the Transportation and Ticket Center by tram or tour bus will be screened at the former tram boarding areas. Guests arriving by Disney Resort hotel bus or Minnie Van have their own bag check just outside the bus stops. Guests arriving via Magic Kingdom Resort boat launch are bag checked on the arrival dock outside Magic Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "The land where Walt Disney World resides is part of the Reedy Creek Improvement District (RCID), a governing jurisdiction created on May 1967 by the State of Florida at the request of Disney. RCID provides 911 services, fire, environmental protection, building code enforcement, utilities and road maintenance, but does not provide law enforcement services. The approximately 800 security staff are instead considered employees of the Walt Disney Company. Arrests and citations are issued by the Florida Highway Patrol along with the Orange County and Osceola County sheriffs deputies who patrol the roads. Disney security does maintain a fleet of security vans equipped with flares, traffic cones, and chalk commonly used by police officers. These security personnel are charged with traffic control by the RCID and may only issue personnel violation notices to Disney and RCID employees, not the general public.",
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"plaintext": "Despite the appearance of the uniformed security personnel, they are not considered a legal law enforcement agency. Disney and the Reedy Creek Improvement District were sued for access to Disney Security records by Bob and Kathy Sipkema following the death of their son at the resort in 1994. The court characterized Disney security as a \"night watchman\" service, not a law enforcement agency, meaning it is not subject to Florida's open records laws. An appeals court later upheld the lower court's ruling.",
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"plaintext": "In late 2015, Disney confirmed the addition of randomized secondary screenings and dogs trained to detect body-worn explosives within parks, in addition to metal detectors at entrances. It has also increased the number of uniformed security personnel at Walt Disney World and Disneyland properties.",
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"plaintext": "Disney Security personnel in Florida have investigated traffic accidents and issued accident reports. The forms used by Disney Security may be confused with official, government forms by some.",
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"plaintext": "The Orange County Sheriff maintains an office on Disney property, but this is primarily to process guests accused of shoplifting by Disney security personnel.",
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"plaintext": "Although the scattering of ashes on Disney property is illegal, The Wall Street Journal reported in October 2018 that Walt Disney World parks were becoming a popular spot for families to scatter the ashes of loved ones, with the Haunted Mansion at Magic Kingdom being the favorite location. The practice is unlawful and prohibited on Disney property, and anyone spreading cremated remains is escorted from the park.",
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"plaintext": "On April 22, 2022, the Walt Disney Company's self-governing authority of all the area surrounding Walt Disney World came to an end after Florida Governor Ron DeSantis signed into law legislation requiring Walt Disney World's Reedy Creek Improvement District to come under the legal jurisdiction of the state of Florida in June 2023.",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney World has had nine unscheduled closures:",
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"plaintext": " September 15, 1999, due to Hurricane Floyd",
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"plaintext": " September 11, 2001, after the September 11, 2001 attacks",
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"plaintext": " August 13, 2004, due to Hurricane Charley",
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"plaintext": " September 4–5, 2004, due to Hurricane Frances",
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"plaintext": " September 26, 2004, due to Hurricane Jeanne",
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"plaintext": " October 25, 2005, in the morning, due to Hurricane Wilma.",
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"plaintext": " October 7, 2016, due to Hurricane Matthew",
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"plaintext": " September 10–11, 2017, due to Hurricane Irma",
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"plaintext": " September 3, 2019, for about half the day (with the exception of Epcot and Disney Springs), due to Hurricane Dorian",
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"plaintext": " March 15 – July 11, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. (excluding Disney Springs, which reopened on May 19, 2020)",
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"plaintext": "Like its sister resort, parks at the resort may close early to accommodate various special events, such as special press events, tour groups, VIP groups, and private parties. It is common for a corporation to rent entire parks for the evening. In such cases, special passes are issued which are valid for admission to all rides and attractions. At the ticket booths and on published schedules, the guests are notified of the early closures. Then, cast members announce that the parks are closing, sometime before the private event starts, and clear the parks of guests who do not have the special passes.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2020, it was revealed that full capacity attendance was still not permitted, following the COVID-19 closure which occurred earlier in the year. In July 2021, Disney World announced that all its staff workers in the US would have to be fully vaccinated against COVID-19 to return to work. It also announced that those who are unvaccinated would have a period of time to get their shots and aimed to return to full capacity for people who are immunized.",
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"plaintext": " Jeff Vahle – president ",
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"plaintext": " Maribeth Bisienere – senior vice president, resorts, transportation, and premium services",
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"plaintext": " Alison Armor – vice president, transportation operations",
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"plaintext": " Mahmud Dhanani – vice president, resorts",
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"plaintext": " Rosalyn Durant – senior vice president, Disney Springs, ESPN Wide World of Sports and water parks",
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"plaintext": " Matt Simon – vice president, Disney Springs",
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"plaintext": " Jim MacPhee – senior vice president, operations",
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"plaintext": " Sarah Riles – vice president, Disney's Animal Kingdom",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney World's Operations division is undergoing changes to management. This is the reason for there being two senior vice presidents of operations listed, as well as the vice-presidents below them possibly being outdated.",
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"plaintext": " Disney College Program",
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"plaintext": " List of Disney attractions that were never built",
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"plaintext": "The raven paradox, also known as Hempel's paradox, Hempel's ravens, or rarely the paradox of indoor ornithology, is a paradox arising from the question of what constitutes evidence for the truth of a statement. Observing objects that are neither black nor ravens may formally increase the likelihood that all ravens are black even though, intuitively, these observations are unrelated.",
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"plaintext": "This problem was proposed by the logician Carl Gustav Hempel in the 1940s to illustrate a contradiction between inductive logic and intuition.",
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"plaintext": "Hempel describes the paradox in terms of the hypothesis:",
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"plaintext": " (1) All ravens are black. In the form of an implication, this can be expressed as: If something is a raven, then it is black.",
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"plaintext": "Via contraposition, this statement is equivalent to:",
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"plaintext": " (2) If something is not black, then it is not a raven.",
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"plaintext": "In all circumstances where (2) is true, (1) is also true—and likewise, in all circumstances where (2) is false (i.e., if a world is imagined in which something that was not black, yet was a raven, existed), (1) is also false.",
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"plaintext": "Given a general statement such as all ravens are black, a form of the same statement that refers to a specific observable instance of the general class would typically be considered to constitute evidence for that general statement. For example,",
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"plaintext": " (3) My pet raven is black.",
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"plaintext": "is evidence supporting the hypothesis that all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "The paradox arises when this same process is applied to statement (2). On sighting a green apple, one can observe:",
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"plaintext": " (4) This green apple is not black, and it is not a raven.",
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"plaintext": "By the same reasoning, this statement is evidence that (2) if something is not black then it is not a raven. But since (as above) this statement is logically equivalent to (1) all ravens are black, it follows that the sight of a green apple is evidence supporting the notion that all ravens are black. This conclusion seems paradoxical because it implies that information has been gained about ravens by looking at an apple.",
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"plaintext": "Nicod's criterion says that only observations of ravens should affect one's view as to whether all ravens are black. Observing more instances of black ravens should support the view, observing white or coloured ravens should contradict it, and observations of non-ravens should not have any influence.",
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"plaintext": "Hempel's equivalence condition states that when a proposition, X, provides evidence in favor of another proposition Y, then X also provides evidence in favor of any proposition that is logically equivalent to Y.",
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"plaintext": "Realistically, the set of ravens is finite. The set of non-black things is either infinite or beyond human enumeration. To confirm the statement 'All ravens are black', it would be necessary to observe all ravens. This is difficult but possible. To confirm the statement 'All non-black things are non-ravens', it would be necessary to examine all non-black things. This is not possible. Observing a black raven could be considered a finite amount of confirmatory evidence, but observing a non-black non-raven would be an infinitesimal amount of evidence.",
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"plaintext": "The paradox shows that Nicod's criterion and Hempel's equivalence condition are not mutually consistent. A resolution to the paradox must reject at least one out of:",
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"plaintext": " negative instances having no influence (!PC),",
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"plaintext": " equivalence condition (EC), or,",
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"plaintext": " validation by positive instances (NC).",
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"plaintext": "A satisfactory resolution should also explain why there naively appears to be a paradox. Solutions that accept the paradoxical conclusion can do this by presenting a proposition that we intuitively know to be false but that is easily confused with (PC), while solutions that reject (EC) or (NC) should present a proposition that we intuitively know to be true but that is easily confused with (EC) or (NC).",
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"plaintext": "Although this conclusion of the paradox seems counter-intuitive, some approaches accept that observations of (coloured) non-ravens can in fact constitute valid evidence in support for hypotheses about (the universal blackness of) ravens.",
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"plaintext": "Hempel himself accepted the paradoxical conclusion, arguing that the reason the result appears paradoxical is that we possess prior information without which the observation of a non-black non-raven would indeed provide evidence that all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "He illustrates this with the example of the generalization \"All sodium salts burn yellow,\" and asks us to consider the observation that occurs when somebody holds a piece of pure ice in a colorless flame that does not turn yellow:",
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"plaintext": "One of the most popular proposed resolutions is to accept the conclusion that the observation of a green apple provides evidence that all ravens are black but to argue that the amount of confirmation provided is very small, due to the large discrepancy between the number of ravens and the number of non-black objects. According to this resolution, the conclusion appears paradoxical because we intuitively estimate the amount of evidence provided by the observation of a green apple to be zero, when it is in fact non-zero but extremely small.",
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"plaintext": "I. J. Good's presentation of this argument in 1960 is perhaps the best known, and variations of the argument have been popular ever since, although it had been presented in 1958 and early forms of the argument appeared as early as 1940.",
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"plaintext": "Good's argument involves calculating the weight of evidence provided by the observation of a black raven or a white shoe in favor of the hypothesis that all the ravens in a collection of objects are black. The weight of evidence is the logarithm of the Bayes factor, which in this case is simply the factor by which the odds of the hypothesis changes when the observation is made. The argument goes as follows:",
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"plaintext": "... suppose that there are objects that might be seen at any moment, of which are ravens and are black, and that the objects each have probability of being seen. Let be the hypothesis that there are non-black ravens, and suppose that the hypotheses are initially equiprobable. Then, if we happen to see a black raven, the Bayes factor in favour of is",
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"plaintext": "i.e. about 2 if the number of ravens in existence is known to be large. But the factor if we see a white shoe is only",
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"plaintext": "and this exceeds unity by only about if is large compared to . Thus the weight of evidence provided by the sight of a white shoe is positive, but is small if the number of ravens is known to be small compared to the number of non-black objects.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the proponents of this resolution and variants of it have been advocates of Bayesian probability, and it is now commonly called the Bayesian Solution, although, as Chihara observes, \"there is no such thing as the Bayesian solution. There are many different 'solutions' that Bayesians have put forward using Bayesian techniques.\" Noteworthy approaches using Bayesian techniques (some of which accept !PC and instead reject NC) include Earman, Eells, Gibson, Hosiasson-Lindenbaum, Howson and Urbach,<ref>Howson, Urbach, 1993 Scientific Reasoning: The Bayesian Approach, Open Court Publishing Company</ref> Mackie, and Hintikka, who claims that his approach is \"more Bayesian than the so-called 'Bayesian solution' of the same paradox\". Bayesian approaches that make use of Carnap's theory of inductive inference include Humburg, Maher, and Fitelson & Hawthorne. Vranas introduced the term \"Standard Bayesian Solution\" to avoid confusion.",
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"plaintext": "Maher accepts the paradoxical conclusion, and refines it:",
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"plaintext": "To reach (ii), he appeals to Carnap's theory of inductive probability, which is (from the Bayesian point of view) a way of assigning prior probabilities that naturally implements induction. According to Carnap's theory, the posterior probability, , that an object, , will have a predicate, , after the evidence has been observed, is:",
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"plaintext": "where is the initial probability that has the predicate ; is the number of objects that have been examined (according to the available evidence ); is the number of examined objects that turned out to have the predicate , and is a constant that measures resistance to generalization.",
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"plaintext": "If is close to zero, will be very close to one after a single observation of an object that turned out to have the predicate , while if is much larger than , will be very close to regardless of the fraction of observed objects that had the predicate .",
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"plaintext": "Using this Carnapian approach, Maher identifies a proposition we intuitively (and correctly) know is false, but easily confuse with the paradoxical conclusion. The proposition in question is that observing non-ravens tells us about the color of ravens. While this is intuitively false and is also false according to Carnap's theory of induction, observing non-ravens (according to that same theory) causes us to reduce our estimate of the total number of ravens, and thereby reduces the estimated number of possible counterexamples to the rule that all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "Hence, from the Bayesian-Carnapian point of view, the observation of a non-raven does not tell us anything about the color of ravens, but it tells us about the prevalence of ravens, and supports \"All ravens are black\" by reducing our estimate of the number of ravens that might not be black.",
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"plaintext": "Much of the discussion of the paradox in general and the Bayesian approach in particular has centred on the relevance of background knowledge. Surprisingly, Maher shows that, for a large class of possible configurations of background knowledge, the observation of a non-black non-raven provides exactly the same amount of confirmation as the observation of a black raven. The configurations of background knowledge that he considers are those that are provided by a sample proposition, namely a proposition that is a conjunction of atomic propositions, each of which ascribes a single predicate to a single individual, with no two atomic propositions involving the same individual. Thus, a proposition of the form \"A is a black raven and B is a white shoe\" can be considered a sample proposition by taking \"black raven\" and \"white shoe\" to be predicates.",
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"plaintext": "Maher's proof appears to contradict the result of the Bayesian argument, which was that the observation of a non-black non-raven provides much less evidence than the observation of a black raven. The reason is that the background knowledge that Good and others use can not be expressed in the form of a sample proposition – in particular, variants of the standard Bayesian approach often suppose (as Good did in the argument quoted above) that the total numbers of ravens, non-black objects and/or the total number of objects, are known quantities. Maher comments that, \"The reason we think there are more non-black things than ravens is because that has been true of the things we have observed to date. Evidence of this kind can be represented by a sample proposition. But ... given any sample proposition as background evidence, a non-black non-raven confirms A just as strongly as a black raven does ... Thus my analysis suggests that this response to the paradox [i.e. the Standard Bayesian one] cannot be correct.\"",
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"plaintext": "Fitelson & Hawthorne examined the conditions under which the observation of a non-black non-raven provides less evidence than the observation of a black raven. They show that, if is an object selected at random, is the proposition that the object is black, and is the proposition that the object is a raven, then the condition:",
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"plaintext": "is sufficient for the observation of a non-black non-raven to provide less evidence than the observation of a black raven. Here, a line over a proposition indicates the logical negation of that proposition.",
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"plaintext": "This condition does not tell us how large the difference in the evidence provided is, but a later calculation in the same paper shows that the weight of evidence provided by a black raven exceeds that provided by a non-black non-raven by about . This is equal to the amount of additional information (in bits, if the base of the logarithm is 2) that is provided when a raven of unknown color is discovered to be black, given the hypothesis that not all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "Fitelson & Hawthorne explain that:",
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"plaintext": "Under normal circumstances, may be somewhere around 0.9 or 0.95; so is somewhere around 1.11 or 1.05. Thus, it may appear that a single instance of a black raven does not yield much more support than would a non-black non-raven. However, under plausible conditions it can be shown that a sequence of instances (i.e. of n black ravens, as compared to n non-black non-ravens) yields a ratio of likelihood ratios on the order of , which blows up significantly for large .",
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"plaintext": "The authors point out that their analysis is completely consistent with the supposition that a non-black non-raven provides an extremely small amount of evidence although they do not attempt to prove it; they merely calculate the difference between the amount of evidence that a black raven provides and the amount of evidence that a non-black non-raven provides.",
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"plaintext": "Some approaches for resolving the paradox focus on the inductive step. They dispute whether observation of a particular instance (such as one black raven) is the kind of evidence that necessarily increases confidence in the general hypothesis (such as that ravens are always black).",
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"plaintext": "Good gives an example of background knowledge with respect to which the observation of a black raven decreases the probability that all ravens are black:",
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"plaintext": "Suppose that we know we are in one or other of two worlds, and the hypothesis, H, under consideration is that all the ravens in our world are black. We know in advance that in one world there are a hundred black ravens, no non-black ravens, and a million other birds; and that in the other world there are a thousand black ravens, one white raven, and a million other birds. A bird is selected equiprobably at random from all the birds in our world. It turns out to be a black raven. This is strong evidence ... that we are in the second world, wherein not all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "Good concludes that the white shoe is a \"red herring\": Sometimes even a black raven can constitute evidence against the hypothesis that all ravens are black, so the fact that the observation of a white shoe can support it is not surprising and not worth attention. Nicod's criterion is false, according to Good, and so the paradoxical conclusion does not follow.",
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"plaintext": "Hempel rejected this as a solution to the paradox, insisting that the proposition 'c is a raven and is black' must be considered \"by itself and without reference to any other information\", and pointing out that it \"... was emphasized in section 5.2(b) of my article in Mind ... that the very appearance of paradoxicality in cases like that of the white shoe results in part from a failure to observe this maxim.\"",
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"plaintext": "The question that then arises is whether the paradox is to be understood in the context of absolutely no background information (as Hempel suggests), or in the context of the background information that we actually possess regarding ravens and black objects, or with regard to all possible configurations of background information.",
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"plaintext": "Good had shown that, for some configurations of background knowledge, Nicod's criterion is false (provided that we are willing to equate \"inductively support\" with \"increase the probability of\" – see below). The possibility remained that, with respect to our actual configuration of knowledge, which is very different from Good's example, Nicod's criterion might still be true and so we could still reach the paradoxical conclusion. Hempel, on the other hand, insists our background knowledge itself is the red herring, and that we should consider induction with respect to a condition of perfect ignorance.",
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"plaintext": "In his proposed resolution, Maher implicitly made use of the fact that the proposition \"All ravens are black\" is highly probable when it is highly probable that there are no ravens. Good had used this fact before to respond to Hempel's insistence that Nicod's criterion was to be understood to hold in the absence of background information:",
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"plaintext": "...imagine an infinitely intelligent newborn baby having built-in neural circuits enabling him to deal with formal logic, English syntax, and subjective probability. He might now argue, after defining a raven in detail, that it is extremely unlikely that there are any ravens, and therefore it is extremely likely that all ravens are black, that is, that is true. 'On the other hand', he goes on to argue, 'if there are ravens, then there is a reasonable chance that they are of a variety of colours. Therefore, if I were to discover that even a black raven exists I would consider to be less probable than it was initially.'",
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"plaintext": "This, according to Good, is as close as one can reasonably expect to get to a condition of perfect ignorance, and it appears that Nicod's condition is still false. Maher made Good's argument more precise by using Carnap's theory of induction to formalize the notion that if there is one raven, then it is likely that there are many.",
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"plaintext": "Maher's argument considers a universe of exactly two objects, each of which is very unlikely to be a raven (a one in a thousand chance) and reasonably unlikely to be black (a one in ten chance). Using Carnap's formula for induction, he finds that the probability that all ravens are black decreases from 0.9985 to 0.8995 when it is discovered that one of the two objects is a black raven.",
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"plaintext": "Maher concludes that not only is the paradoxical conclusion true, but that Nicod's criterion is false in the absence of background knowledge (except for the knowledge that the number of objects in the universe is two and that ravens are less likely than black things).",
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"plaintext": "Quine argued that the solution to the paradox lies in the recognition that certain predicates, which he called natural kinds, have a distinguished status with respect to induction. This can be illustrated with Nelson Goodman's example of the predicate grue. An object is grue if it is blue before (say) and green afterwards. Clearly, we expect objects that were blue before to remain blue afterwards, but we do not expect the objects that were found to be grue before to be blue after , since after they would be green. Quine's explanation is that \"blue\" is a natural kind; a privileged predicate we can use for induction, while \"grue\" is not a natural kind and using induction with it leads to error.",
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"plaintext": "This suggests a resolution to the paradox – Nicod's criterion is true for natural kinds, such as \"blue\" and \"black\", but is false for artificially contrived predicates, such as \"grue\" or \"non-raven\". The paradox arises, according to this resolution, because we implicitly interpret Nicod's criterion as applying to all predicates when in fact it only applies to natural kinds.",
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"plaintext": "Another approach, which favours specific predicates over others, was taken by Hintikka. Hintikka was motivated to find a Bayesian approach to the paradox that did not make use of knowledge about the relative frequencies of ravens and black things. Arguments concerning relative frequencies, he contends, cannot always account for the perceived irrelevance of evidence consisting of observations of objects of type A for the purposes of learning about objects of type not-A.",
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"plaintext": "His argument can be illustrated by rephrasing the paradox using predicates other than \"raven\" and \"black\". For example, \"All men",
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"plaintext": "are tall\" is equivalent to \"All short people are women\", and so observing that a randomly selected person is a short woman should provide evidence that all men are tall. Despite the fact that we lack background knowledge to indicate that there are dramatically fewer men than short people, we still find ourselves inclined to reject the conclusion. Hintikka's example is: \"... a generalization like 'no material bodies are infinitely divisible' seems to be completely unaffected by questions concerning immaterial entities, independently of what one thinks of the relative frequencies of material and immaterial entities in one's universe of discourse.\"",
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"plaintext": "His solution is to introduce an order into the set of predicates. When the logical system is equipped with this order, it is possible to restrict the scope of a generalization such as \"All ravens are black\" so that it applies to ravens only and not to non-black things, since the order privileges ravens over non-black things. As he puts it:",
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"plaintext": "\"If we are justified in assuming that the scope of the generalization 'All ravens are black' can be restricted to ravens, then this means that we have some outside information which we can rely on concerning the factual situation. The paradox arises from the fact that this information, which colors our spontaneous view of the situation, is not incorporated in the usual treatments of the inductive situation.\"",
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"plaintext": "Some approaches for the resolution of the paradox reject Hempel's equivalence condition. That is, they may not consider evidence supporting the statement all non-black objects are non-ravens to necessarily support logically-equivalent statements such as all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "Scheffler and Goodman took an approach to the paradox that incorporates Karl Popper's view that scientific hypotheses are never really confirmed, only falsified.",
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"plaintext": "The approach begins by noting that the observation of a black raven does not prove that \"All ravens are black\" but it falsifies the contrary hypothesis, \"No ravens are black\". A non-black non-raven, on the other hand, is consistent with both \"All ravens are black\" and with \"No ravens are black\". As the authors put it:",
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"plaintext": "... the statement that all ravens are black is not merely satisfied by evidence of a black raven but is favored by such evidence, since a black raven disconfirms the contrary statement that all ravens are not black, i.e. satisfies its denial. A black raven, in other words, satisfies the hypothesis that all ravens are black rather than not: it thus selectively confirms that all ravens are black.",
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"plaintext": "Selective confirmation violates the equivalence condition since a black raven selectively confirms \"All ravens are black\" but not \"All non-black things are non-ravens\".",
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"plaintext": "Scheffler and Goodman's concept of selective confirmation is an example of an interpretation of \"provides evidence in favor of...\" which does not coincide with \"increase the probability of...\" This must be a general feature of all resolutions that reject the equivalence condition, since logically equivalent propositions must always have the same probability.",
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"plaintext": "It is impossible for the observation of a black raven to increase the probability of the proposition \"All ravens are black\" without causing exactly the same change to the probability that \"All non-black things are non-ravens\". If an observation inductively supports the former but not the latter, then \"inductively support\" must refer to something other than changes in the probabilities of propositions. A possible loophole is to interpret \"All\" as \"Nearly all\" – \"Nearly all ravens are black\" is not equivalent to \"Nearly all non-black things are non-ravens\", and these propositions can have very different probabilities.",
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"plaintext": "This raises the broader question of the relation of probability theory to inductive reasoning. Karl Popper argued that probability theory alone cannot account for induction. His argument involves splitting a hypothesis, , into a part that is deductively entailed by the evidence, , and another part. This can be done in two ways.",
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"plaintext": "First, consider the splitting:",
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"plaintext": "where , and are probabilistically independent: and so on. The condition that is necessary for such a splitting of H and E to be possible is , that is, that is probabilistically supported by .",
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"plaintext": "Popper's observation is that the part, , of that receives support from actually follows deductively from , while the part of that does not follow deductively from receives no support at all from – that is, .",
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"plaintext": "Second, the splitting:",
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"plaintext": "separates into , which as Popper says, \"is the logically strongest part of (or of the content of ) that follows [deductively] from \", and , which, he says, \"contains all of that goes beyond \". He continues:",
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"plaintext": "Does , in this case, provide any support for the factor , which in the presence of is alone needed to obtain ? The answer is: No. It never does. Indeed, countersupports unless either or (which are possibilities of no interest). ...",
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"plaintext": "This result is completely devastating to the inductive interpretation of the calculus of probability. All probabilistic support is purely deductive: that part of a hypothesis that is not deductively entailed by the evidence is always strongly countersupported by the evidence ... There is such a thing as probabilistic support; there might even be such a thing as inductive support (though we hardly think so). But the calculus of probability reveals that probabilistic support cannot be inductive support.",
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"plaintext": "The orthodox Neyman–Pearson theory of hypothesis testing considers how to decide whether to accept or reject a hypothesis, rather than what probability to assign to the hypothesis. From this point of view, the hypothesis that \"All ravens are black\" is not accepted gradually, as its probability increases towards one when more and more observations are made, but is accepted in a single action as the result of evaluating the data that has already been collected. As Neyman and Pearson put it:",
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"plaintext": "Without hoping to know whether each separate hypothesis is true or false, we may search for rules to govern our behaviour with regard to them, in following which we insure that, in the long run of experience, we shall not be too often wrong.",
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"plaintext": "According to this approach, it is not necessary to assign any value to the probability of a hypothesis, although one must certainly take into account the probability of the data given the hypothesis, or given a competing hypothesis, when deciding whether to accept or to reject. The acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis carries with it the risk of error.",
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"plaintext": "This contrasts with the Bayesian approach, which requires that the hypothesis be assigned a prior probability, which is revised in the light of the observed data to obtain the final probability of the hypothesis. Within the Bayesian framework there is no risk of error since hypotheses are not accepted or rejected; instead they are assigned probabilities.",
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"plaintext": "An analysis of the paradox from the orthodox point of view has been performed, and leads to, among other insights, a rejection of the equivalence condition:",
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"plaintext": "It seems obvious that one cannot both accept the hypothesis that all P's are Q and also reject the contrapositive, i.e. that all non-Q's are non-P. Yet it is easy to see that on the Neyman-Pearson theory of testing, a test of \"All P's are Q\" is not necessarily a test of \"All non-Q's are non-P\" or vice versa. A test of \"All P's are Q\" requires reference to some alternative statistical hypothesis of the form of all P's are Q, , whereas a test of \"All non-Q's are non-P\" requires reference to some statistical alternative of the form of all non-Q's are non-P, . But these two sets of possible alternatives are different ... Thus one could have a test of without having a test of its contrapositive.",
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"plaintext": "The following propositions all imply one another: \"Every object is either black or not a raven\", \"Every raven is black\", and \"Every non-black object is a non-raven.\" They are therefore, by definition, logically equivalent. However, the three propositions have different domains: the first proposition says something about \"every object\", while the second says something about \"every raven\".",
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"plaintext": "The first proposition is the only one whose domain of quantification is unrestricted (\"all objects\"), so this is the only one that can be expressed in first-order logic. It is logically equivalent to:",
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"plaintext": "and also to",
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"plaintext": "where indicates the material conditional, according to which \"If then can be understood to mean ",
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"plaintext": "It has been argued by several authors that material implication does not fully capture the meaning of \"If then (see the paradoxes of material implication). \"For every object, is either black or not a raven\" is true when there are no ravens. It is because of this that \"All ravens are black\" is regarded as true when there are no ravens. Furthermore, the arguments that Good and Maher used to criticize Nicod's criterion (see , above) relied on this fact – that \"All ravens are black\" is highly probable when it is highly probable that there are no ravens.",
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"plaintext": "To say that all ravens are black in the absence of any ravens is an empty statement. It refers to nothing. \"All ravens are white\" is equally relevant and true, if this statement is considered to have any truth or relevance.",
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"plaintext": "Some approaches to the paradox have sought to find other ways of interpreting \"If then and \"All are which would eliminate the perceived equivalence between \"All ravens are black\" and \"All non-black things are non-ravens.\"",
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"plaintext": "One such approach involves introducing a many-valued logic according to which \"If then has the truth value meaning \"Indeterminate\" or \"Inappropriate\" when is false. In such a system, contraposition is not automatically allowed: \"If then is not equivalent to \"If then Consequently, \"All ravens are black\" is not equivalent to \"All non-black things are non-ravens\".",
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"plaintext": "In this system, when contraposition occurs, the modality of the conditional involved changes from the indicative (\"If that piece of butter has been heated to 32°C then it has melted\") to the counterfactual (\"If that piece of butter had been heated to 32°C then it would have melted\"). According to this argument, this removes the alleged equivalence that is necessary to conclude that yellow cows can inform us about ravens:",
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"plaintext": "In proper grammatical usage, a contrapositive argument ought not to be stated entirely in the indicative. Thus:",
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"plaintext": "From the fact that if this match is scratched it will light, it follows that if it does not light it was not scratched.",
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"plaintext": "is awkward. We should say:",
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"plaintext": "From the fact that if this match is scratched it will light, it follows that if it were not to light it would not have been scratched....",
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"plaintext": "One might wonder what effect this interpretation of the Law of Contraposition has on Hempel's paradox of confirmation. \"If is a raven then is black\" is equivalent to \"If were not black then would not be a raven\". Therefore whatever confirms the latter should also, by the Equivalence Condition, confirm the former. True, but yellow cows still cannot figure into the confirmation of \"All ravens are black\" because, in science, confirmation is accomplished by prediction, and predictions are properly stated in the indicative mood. It is senseless to ask what confirms a counterfactual.",
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"plaintext": "Several commentators have observed that the propositions \"All ravens are black\" and \"All non-black things are non-ravens\" suggest different procedures for testing the hypotheses. E.g. Good writes:",
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"plaintext": "As propositions the two statements are logically equivalent. But they have a different psychological effect on the experimenter. If he is asked to test whether all ravens are black he will look for a raven and then decide whether it is black. But if he is asked to test whether all non-black things are non-ravens he may look for a non-black object and then decide whether it is a raven.",
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"plaintext": "More recently, it has been suggested that \"All ravens are black\" and \"All non-black things are non-ravens\" can have different effects when accepted. The argument considers situations in which the total numbers or prevalences of ravens and black objects are unknown, but estimated. When the hypothesis \"All ravens are black\" is accepted, according to the argument, the estimated number of black objects increases, while the estimated number of ravens does not change.",
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"plaintext": "It can be illustrated by considering the situation of two people who have identical information regarding ravens and black objects, and who have identical estimates of the numbers of ravens and black objects. For concreteness, suppose that there are 100 objects overall, and, according to the information available to the people involved, each object is just as likely to be a non-raven as it is to be a raven, and just as likely to be black as it is to be non-black:",
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"plaintext": "and the propositions are independent for different objects , and so on. Then the estimated number of ravens is 50; the estimated number of black things is 50; the estimated number of black ravens is 25, and the estimated number of non-black ravens (counterexamples to the hypotheses) is 25.",
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"plaintext": "One of the people performs a statistical test (e.g. a Neyman-Pearson test or the comparison of the accumulated weight of evidence to a threshold) of the hypothesis that \"All ravens are black\", while the other tests the hypothesis that \"All non-black objects",
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"plaintext": "are non-ravens\". For simplicity, suppose that the evidence used for the test has nothing to do with the collection of 100 objects dealt with here. If the first person accepts the hypothesis that \"All ravens are black\" then, according to the argument, about 50 objects whose colors were previously in doubt (the ravens) are now thought to be black, while nothing different is thought about the remaining objects (the non-ravens). Consequently, he should estimate the number of black ravens at 50, the number of black non-ravens at 25 and the number of non-black non-ravens at 25. By specifying these changes, this argument explicitly restricts the domain of \"All ravens are black\" to ravens.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, if the second person accepts the hypothesis that \"All non-black objects are non-ravens\", then the approximately 50 non-black objects about which it was uncertain whether each was a raven, will be thought to be non-ravens. At the same time, nothing different will be thought about the approximately 50 remaining objects (the black objects). Consequently, he should estimate the number of black ravens at 25, the number of black non-ravens at 25 and the number of non-black non-ravens at 50. According to this argument, since the two people disagree about their estimates after they have accepted the different hypotheses, accepting \"All ravens are black\" is not equivalent to accepting \"All non-black things are non-ravens\"; accepting the former means estimating more things to be black, while accepting the latter involves estimating more things to be non-ravens. Correspondingly, the argument goes, the former requires as evidence ravens that turn out to be black and the latter requires non-black things that turn out to be non-ravens.",
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"plaintext": "A number of authors have argued that propositions of the form \"All are \" presuppose that there are objects that are . This analysis has been applied to the raven paradox:",
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"plaintext": "... : \"All ravens are black\" and : \"All nonblack things are nonravens\" are not strictly equivalent'' ... due to their different existential presuppositions. Moreover, although and describe the same regularity – the nonexistence of nonblack ravens – they have different logical forms. The two hypotheses have different senses and incorporate different procedures for testing the regularity they describe.",
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"plaintext": "A modified logic can take account of existential presuppositions using the presuppositional operator, '*'. For example,",
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"plaintext": "can denote \"All ravens are black\" while indicating that it is ravens and not non-black objects which are presupposed to exist in this example.",
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"plaintext": "... the logical form of each hypothesis distinguishes it with respect to its recommended type of supporting evidence: the possibly true substitution instances of each hypothesis relate to different types of objects. The fact that the two hypotheses incorporate different kinds of testing procedures is expressed in the formal language by prefixing the operator '*' to a different predicate. The presuppositional operator thus serves as a relevance operator as well. It is prefixed to the predicate ' is a raven' in because the objects relevant to the testing procedure incorporated in \"All raven are black\" include only ravens; it is prefixed to the predicate ' is nonblack', in , because the objects relevant to the testing procedure incorporated in \"All nonblack things are nonravens\" include only nonblack things. ... Using Fregean terms: whenever their presuppositions hold, the two hypotheses have the same referent (truth-value), but different senses; that is, they express two different ways to determine that truth-value.",
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"plaintext": " Association fallacy",
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"plaintext": " English translation of a paper initially published in French as: ",
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| [
"Logical_paradoxes",
"1940s_neologisms",
"Metaphors_referring_to_birds"
]
| 919,255 | 5,102 | 17 | 45 | 0 | 0 | raven paradox | philosophical paradox: why is it that observing a black raven is evidence for “all ravens are black”, but observing a nonblack nonraven is not? | [
"Hempel's paradox",
"Hempel's raven paradox",
"Hempel's ravens",
"paradox of indoor ornithology"
]
|
37,392 | 1,105,676,860 | Sacramento_River | [
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River () is the principal river of Northern California in the United States and is the largest river in California. Rising in the Klamath Mountains, the river flows south for before reaching the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta and San Francisco Bay. The river drains about in 19 California counties, mostly within the fertile agricultural region bounded by the Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada known as the Sacramento Valley, but also extending as far as the volcanic plateaus of Northeastern California. Historically, its watershed has reached as far north as south-central Oregon where the now, primarily, endorheic (closed) Goose Lake rarely experiences southerly outflow into the Pit River, the most northerly tributary of the Sacramento.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento and its wide natural floodplain were once abundant in fish and other aquatic creatures, notably one of the southernmost large runs of chinook salmon in North America. For about 12,000 years, humans have depended on the vast natural resources of the watershed, which had one of the densest Native American populations in California. The river has provided a route for trade and travel since ancient times. Hundreds of tribes sharing regional customs and traditions inhabited the Sacramento Valley, first coming into contact with European explorers in the late 1700s. The Spanish explorer Gabriel Moraga named the river Rio de los Sacramentos in 1808, later shortened and anglicized into Sacramento.",
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"plaintext": "In the 19th century, gold was discovered on a tributary of the Sacramento River, starting the California Gold Rush and an enormous population influx to the state. Overland trails such as the California Trail and Siskiyou Trail guided hundreds of thousands of people to the gold fields. By the late part of the century mining had ceased to be a major part of the economy, and many immigrants turned to farming and ranching. Many populous communities were established along the Sacramento River, including the state capital of Sacramento. Intensive agriculture and mining contributed to pollution in the Sacramento River, and significant changes to the river's hydrology and environment.",
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"plaintext": "Since the 1950s the watershed has been intensely developed for water supply and the generation of hydroelectric power. Today, large dams impound the river and almost all of its major tributaries. The Sacramento River is used heavily for irrigation and serves much of Central and Southern California through the canals of giant state and federal water projects. While it's now providing water to over half of California's population and supporting the most productive agricultural area in the nation, these changes have left the Sacramento greatly modified from its natural state and have caused the decline of its once-abundant fisheries.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River originates in the mountains and plateaus of far northern California as three major waterways that flow into Shasta Lake: the Upper Sacramento River, McCloud River and Pit River. The Upper Sacramento begins near Mount Shasta, at the confluence of North, Middle and South Forks in the Trinity Mountains of Siskiyou County. It flows east into a small reservoir, Lake Siskiyou, before turning south. The river flows through a canyon for about , past Dunsmuir and Castella, before emptying into Shasta Lake near Lakehead in Shasta County. The McCloud River rises on the east slope of Mount Shasta and flows south for through the southern Cascade Range, roughly parallel to the Upper Sacramento, eventually to reach the McCloud Arm of Shasta Lake.",
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"plaintext": "The Pit River, by far the largest of the three, begins in Modoc County in the northeastern corner of California. Draining a vast and remote volcanic highlands area, it flows southwest for nearly before emptying into Shasta Lake near Montgomery Creek. Goose Lake, straddling the Oregon–California border, occasionally overflows into the Pit River during wet years, although this has not happened since 1881. The Goose Lake watershed is the only part of the Sacramento River basin extending into another state. Unlike most California rivers, the Pit and the McCloud Rivers are predominantly spring-fed, ensuring a large and consistent flow in even the driest of summers. At the lower end of Shasta Lake is Shasta Dam, which impounds the Sacramento River for flood control, irrigation and hydropower generation. Before the construction of Shasta Dam, the McCloud River emptied into the Pit River, which joined the Sacramento near the former mining town of Kennett, submerged when Shasta Lake was filled. The Pit River Bridge, which carries Interstate 5 and the Union Pacific Railroad over the reservoir, is structurally the highest double-decked bridge in the United States (although most of the bridge piers are submerged under Shasta Lake when the reservoir is full). The Upper Sacramento River canyon also provides the route for I-5 and the railroad between Lakehead and Mount Shasta.",
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"plaintext": "Below Shasta Dam the Sacramento River enters the foothills region of the northern Sacramento Valley. It flows through Keswick Dam, where it receives about of water per year diverted from the Trinity River. It then swings east through Redding, the largest city of the Shasta Cascade region, and turns southeast, entering Tehama County. East of Cottonwood it receives Cottonwood Creek – the largest undammed tributary – from the west, then Battle Creek a short distance downstream. Below Battle Creek it carves its last gorge, Iron Canyon, emerging from the hills at Red Bluff, where a pumping station (which replaced the Red Bluff Diversion Dam) removes water for irrigation. Beyond Red Bluff the river reaches the low floodplain of the Sacramento Valley, receiving Mill Creek from the east and Thomes Creek from the west near Los Molinos, then Deer Creek from the east near Vina.",
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"plaintext": "About further downstream, the Sacramento River reaches the Tisdale Weir. During floods, water overtops the weir and flows east into the Sutter Bypass, the first of two major bypass channels that temporarily store and move floodwaters downstream to reduce pressure on the main channel of the Sacramento. The Sacramento River and the Sutter Bypass flow parallel for over , rejoining on the border of Sutter County and Yolo County near Knights Landing. The Feather River, the largest tributary of the Sacramento, joins from the east at Verona directly below the Sutter Bypass. A second flood control structure, the Fremont Weir, diverts flood waters from both the Sacramento and Feather Rivers into the Yolo Bypass, which parallels the Sacramento River down the west side of the valley. Cache Creek and Putah Creek, two major tributaries which formerly joined the Sacramento River from the west, are now intercepted by the Yolo Bypass via man-made channels. The main channel of the Sacramento flows south, forming the Yolo–Sacramento County line.",
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"plaintext": "As the river continues south it approaches the Sacramento metro area, the largest population center in the watershed. Sacramento International Airport is located on the east bank of the river near Fremont. Near downtown Sacramento it receives the American River from the east, then passes under the historic Tower Bridge and Interstate 80 Business. The California State Capitol sits less than half a mile (0.8km) east of the river where the Tower Bridge crosses it. Shortly downstream, the Port of Sacramento is located on the west side of the Sacramento, connected to the river by a lock. The Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel provides access to the port from the Pacific, bypassing about of the winding lower Sacramento. The channel runs parallel to the Sacramento several miles to the west, and also forms the eastern boundary of the Yolo Bypass. The manually operated Sacramento Weir, located across from downtown Sacramento on the west side of the river, serves to relieve floodwater pressure from the American River by allowing it to drain west into the Yolo Bypass instead of continuing down the Sacramento River.",
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"plaintext": "Downstream of Sacramento, the river enters the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta, a vast tidal estuary and inverted river delta of over which receives the entire run-off of the Central Valley, a region covering a third of California. The Sacramento is by far the largest contributor of fresh water to the Delta; in an average year, it accounts for more than 80percent of the fresh water inflow. At Walnut Grove, the manmade Delta Cross Channel connects the Sacramento to the Mokelumne River channel, allowing a portion of the water to be pumped south toward Clifton Court Forebay, the receiving reservoir for the main CVP and State Water Project aqueducts which irrigate millions of acres and supply water to over 23million people in the San Joaquin Valley, the San Francisco Bay Area and Greater Los Angeles. Although river levels are tidally influenced here and occasionally as far north as Verona, the water stays fresh in all but the driest years. Saltwater intrusion from the Pacific Ocean was one of the main reasons for the construction of the federal Central Valley Project (CVP), whose dams maintain a minimum flow in the Sacramento to keep seawater at bay.",
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"plaintext": "Below Rio Vista, the lower Sacramento River is rejoined by the Deep Water Ship Channel and the Yolo Bypass and curves southwest along the base of the Montezuma Hills, forming the border of Solano and Sacramento Counties. This part of the river is dredged for navigation by large oceangoing vessels and averages three-quarters of a mile (1.2km) across. North of Antioch and Pittsburg, the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers join at the head of Suisun Bay, marking the official end of both rivers. The combined waters flow west through Suisun Bay and the Carquinez Strait into San Pablo Bay and San Francisco Bay, joining the Pacific at the Golden Gate.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Columbia River, the Sacramento is the largest river by discharge on the Pacific coast of the continental United States. The natural runoff of the river is 22million acre feet (27km3) per year, or about . Before dams were built on its tributaries, the river flooded up to during the rainy season, equal to the flow of the Mississippi River. Late summers of particularly dry years could see flows drop below . Large volumes of water are withdrawn from the Sacramento River for irrigation, industry and urban supplies. Annual depletions (water not returned to the river after use) are about 4.72million acre feet (5.83km3) for irrigation and for urban use. An additional 7.61million acre feet (9.39km3) is reserved for environmental uses, primarily to maintain a minimum fresh water outflow in the Delta to combat salinity.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has stream gauges on 25 locations along the Sacramento River, although not all of them are currently operational. The ones currently in operation are at Delta, California (near the source at Mount Shasta), at Keswick (near Redding), Colusa (about halfway down the river), Verona, and Freeport. The Freeport gauge, which sits just downstream of Sacramento, provides a relatively good metric of the annual outflow from the Sacramento River Basin. The average flow between 1949 and 2013 was . The maximum recorded flow was on February 19, 1986; the lowest was on October 15, 1977. Flow in the Yolo Bypass, a relief channel designed to carry a portion of the flood waters in order to protect the Sacramento area, is not measured by the Freeport gauge. A separate gauge on the bypass recorded an average throughput of between 1939 and 2013, mostly from December–March. The highest recorded flow was on February 20, 1986. During the dry season of July through September, the bypass carries low to zero flow.",
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"plaintext": "Although the Sacramento River nominally begins near Mount Shasta, the true hydrological source of the Sacramento River system is the Pit River, which is by far the largest of the three rivers flowing into Shasta Lake. At the USGS Montgomery Creek gauge, the average flow of the Pit River was for the period 1966–2013. By comparison, the Sacramento River at Delta gauge, a few miles above Shasta Lake, recorded an average of for the period 1945–2013. The McCloud River had an average discharge of for the 1967–2013 period. Since the 1960s, the McCloud River flow has been reduced and the Pit River flow increased due to diversion of water for hydropower generation; however the total volume of water entering Shasta Lake remains the same. Before Shasta Dam was built, the volcanic springs feeding the Pit and McCloud Rivers provided the majority of river flow in dry summers when the Upper Sacramento and other tributaries slowed to a trickle.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River's watershed is the largest entirely in California, covering much of the northern part of the state. The endorheic (closed) Goose Lake drainage basin in southern Oregon, however, has been known to overflow into the Sacramento River system during particularly wet years. The Sacramento River basin generally lies between the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range on the east and the Coast Ranges and Klamath Mountains in the west, although the part of the basin drained by the Pit River extends east of the Cascades. The Pit River, has the distinction of being one of three rivers that cut through the main crest of the Cascades; its headwaters rise on the western extreme of the Basin and Range Province, east of major Cascade volcanoes such as Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak. The other two are the Klamath River and Columbia River.",
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"plaintext": "By discharge, it is the second-largest contiguous U.S. river draining into the Pacific, after only the Columbia River, which has almost ten times the flow of the Sacramento. The Colorado River, which reaches the Gulf of California just south of the US-Mexico border near the southeast part of the state, is far larger than the Sacramento in terms of length and drainage area but has a slightly smaller flow. The Sacramento, when combined with the Pit, is also one of the longest rivers in the United States entirely within one stateafter Alaska's Kuskokwim and Texas' Trinity.",
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"plaintext": "The major drainage basins bordering that of the Sacramento are that of the Klamath in the north, the San Joaquin and Mokelumne to the south and the Eel River in the west. The Russian River also lies to the west and the endorheic (closed) Honey Lake and Eagle Lake basins to the north. On the east side are many endorheic watersheds of the Great Basin including the Truckee River and Carson River. Parts of the Sacramento watershed come very close to, but do not extend past, the border of California and Nevada.",
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"plaintext": "The basin's diverse geography ranges from the glacier-carved, snowcapped peaks of the Sierra Nevada to the sea-level (and often lower) marshes and farmlands of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. The highest point is at Mount Shasta, a dormant stratovolcano near the headwaters of the Sacramento River. The Sierra Nevada peaks generally decrease in height from south to northfrom over in the headwaters of the American River near Lake Tahoe, to in Lassen County where they adjoin the Cascade Range. On the west side, the Coast Ranges are the opposite, increasing in height to almost in the north. The arid volcanic plateaus in the northeast, which are characterized by alternating hills and large sedimentary basins, typically lie at elevations of .",
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"plaintext": "Most of the Sacramento Valley is below in elevation; in its lower course, the Sacramento River drops only about per mile. Between the bajadas or alluvial slopes extending from the foothills of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges, are the low floodplains of the Sacramento River. The river flows at an elevation somewhat higher than the surrounding terrain due to deposits of sediment over millennia that created raised banks (essentially natural levees). The banks separate the river from the lowlands to the east and west that once served as vast overflow basins during winter storms, creating large areas of seasonal wetlands. Since the 19th century, artificial levee systems have been constructed to enable farming in the fertile flood plain. Today there are of irrigated farmland in the Sacramento Valley. Due to the reduction of the floodplain area, the speed of flood flow in the Sacramento River has increased, creating a significant hazard for the farms and towns along its course. By the early 20th century engineers had realized not all the floodplains could be safely reclaimed, leading to the intentional creation of flood bypasses where development is limited to annual crops and recreational uses.",
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"plaintext": "Further south, much of the Delta region is actually below sea level: subsidence caused by wind erosion and intensive farming have caused the land in the delta to gradually sink since the late 19th century. Many of the delta islands would be underwater if not for the maintenance of the levees and pumps that keep them dry. Some of the \"islands\" are now up to below the adjacent channels and sloughs.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River watershed is home to about 2.8million people; more than two-thirds live within the Sacramento metropolitan area. Other important cities are Chico, Redding, Davis and Woodland. The Sacramento River watershed covers all or most of Shasta, Tehama, Glenn, Butte, Plumas, Yuba, Sutter, Lake and Yolo Counties. It also extends into portions of Siskiyou, Modoc, Lassen, Lake (in Oregon), Sierra, Nevada, Placer, El Dorado, Sacramento, Solano and Contra Costa Counties. The river itself flows through Siskiyou, Shasta, Tehama, Butte, Glenn, Colusa, Sutter, Yolo, Sacramento, Solano and Contra Costa, often forming boundaries between the counties.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the mountainous regions of the watershed are administered by the U.S. Forest Service. The Sacramento River watershed includes large areas of coniferous forests in the Mendocino and Trinity National Forests in the Coast Ranges, Shasta and Lassen National Forests in the southern Cascades and the Plumas, Tahoe and Eldorado National Forests on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The watershed also has Lassen Volcanic National Park, which covers centered on Lassen Peak, the southernmost Cascade volcano. Whiskeytown-Shasta-Trinity National Recreation Area, which is over in size, straddles much of the upper Sacramento and Trinity Rivers, and is named for the three local reservoirs (Shasta Lake, Trinity Lake and Whiskeytown Lake) which are popular tourist areas. Many other state parks and recreation areas lie within the watershed.",
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"plaintext": "By geologic standards, the Sacramento is a fairly young river; the borders of its watershed began to form only a few million years ago as magma welling up below the Earth's crust pushed up by the Pacific Plate colliding with the North American Plate caused the formation of the Sierra Nevada. Although mountains had existed as early as 100million years ago in this region (before then the land was probably submerged under the Pacific), they were worn by erosion, and the present-day range only formed about 4million years ago. The northern part of the Sacramento watershed is more ancient, and was formed by intense volcanic activity over 25million years ago, resulting in lava flows that covered and created the Modoc Plateau, through which the Pit River flows. Mount Shasta and Lassen Peak are among the numerous Cascade Range volcanoes that still stand in the area.",
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"plaintext": "As the Sierra rose, water erosion and glaciation carved deep canyons, depositing massive amounts of sediment to form a coastal plain between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. About 3million years ago, multiple terranes were formed and smashed into the North American Plate from the Pacific Plate, causing the uplift of the California Coast Ranges, enclosing the Sacramento Valley and forcing the streams within to flow south instead of west, forming the ancestral Sacramento River. (The Klamath Mountains, which enclose the northwest part of the Sacramento Basin, were formed in the same way but are much older, dating back 7.5million years.) It is possible that the river once had its outlet in Monterey Bay, and may have played a part in the formation of the Monterey Submarine Canyon when sea levels were lower during the Ice Ages.",
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"plaintext": "The Monterey Bay outlet of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers was blocked off by uplift about 2million years ago, and runoff from the Sierra began to transform the Central Valley into a gigantic lake, called Lake Clyde. This lake stretched north to south and was at least deep. About 650,000 years ago the lake catastrophically overflowed, draining into San Francisco Bay and creating the Carquinez Strait, the only major break for hundreds of miles in the Coast Ranges. The narrow outlet trapped some of the sediments of the rivers in the Central Valley, forming the inland Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. Since then, this inland sea has periodically reformed during times of intense flooding, the most recent being the Great Flood of 1862. Dams, levees and floodways constructed during the 20th century have thus far prevented this phenomenon from re-occurring.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River and its valley were one of the major Native American population centers of California. The river's abundant flow and the valley's fertile soil and mild climate provided enough resources for hundreds of groups to share the land. Most of the villages were small. Although it was once commonly believed that the original natives lived as tribes, they actually lived as bands, family groups as small as twenty to thirty people. The Sacramento Valley was first settled by humans about 12,000 years ago, but permanent villages were not established until about 8,000 years ago. Historians have organized the numerous separate original native groups into several \"tribes\". These are known as the Shasta, Modoc, and Achomawi/Pit River Tribes of the volcanic plateaus in the north; the Wintu and Hupa in the northern Klamath and Trinity mountains; the Nomlaki, Yuki, Patwin, and Pomo of the Coast Ranges; the Yana, Atsugewi, Maidu, Konkow, and Nisenan in the Sierra and their western foothills; and the Miwok in the south.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the Sacramento Valley's native peoples relied on hunting, gathering and fishing, although agriculture was practiced in a few areas. Settlement size ranged from small camps to villages of 30–50 permanent structures. Acorns were a staple food, and the Sacramento Valley's riparian zones, which supported seven species of native oaks, provided these in abundance. Native Americans pounded the acorns into flour, which they used to make bread and cakes. Abundant salmon and steelhead runs in the Sacramento River and its tributaries were harvested using fishing weirs, platforms, baskets and nets. The river also provided shellfish, sturgeon, eel and suckerfish",
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"plaintext": "They also hunted waterfowl, antelope and deer which all existed in huge numbers in the rich valley bottom and marsh lands. Before European contact, the indigenous population of the Sacramento Valley has been estimated at 76,000 people.",
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"plaintext": "The first outsiders to see the river were probably the members of a Spanish colonial-exploratory venture to Northern California in 1772, led by Captain Pedro Fages. The group ascended a mountain, likely in the hills north of Suisun Bay, and found themselves looking down at the delta of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. However, due to their vantage point, neither Fages nor any of his men saw the Sacramento clearly. They assumed that the San Joaquin, coming from the south, was the largest of the merging rivers they saw. In 1808, explorer Gabriel Moraga, on a journey to find suitable sites for the construction of missions, became the first foreigner to see the river clearly. Judging its huge breadth and power he named it Rio de los Sacramentos, or \"River of the Blessed Sacrament\". In the following years, two more Spanish expeditions traversed the lower part of the river, the last one in 1817.",
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"plaintext": "The next visitors were Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) fur trappers exploring southwards from the disputed Oregon Country, starting in the 1820s. The first organized expedition, led by Peter Skene Ogden, arrived in the area of Mount Shasta in 1826. By this time, California was under the control of Mexico, although few Mexican settlers had come to what would later become the state, mostly settling in the small pueblos and ranchos along the south and central coast. The HBC mountain men created the Siskiyou Trail out of several Native American paths that ran through the mountains between Oregon's Willamette Valley and the northern part of the Sacramento Valley. In the years to come, this path, which eventually extended from San Francisco to Portland, Oregon following parts of the Sacramento, Willamette, Klamath, Rogue, and other rivers would become an important trade and travel route.",
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"plaintext": "Although just one of thousands of American emigrants that poured into California over the next few years when California became part of the United States, John Augustus Sutter's arrival marked a turning point in the history of the Sacramento Valley, and California as a whole. In 1841, Sutter and his men built a fortress at the confluence of the Sacramento and American Rivers and the Mexican government granted him almost of land surrounding the two rivers. Naming it New Helvetia, he created an agricultural empire in the lower Sacramento Valley, attracting several hundred settlers to the area, and relied on Native American labor to maintain his domain. Sutter had something of a two-faced relationship with the many Native American groups in the area. He was friendly with some of the tribes, and paid their leaders handsomely for supplying workers, but others he seized by force to labor in the fields.",
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"plaintext": "After the Bear Flag Revolt of 1846 and the Mexican–American War, in which California became part of the United States, Sutter and other large landholders in California held on to their properties. In 1848 Sutter assigned James W. Marshall to build a sawmill on the South Fork American River at Coloma, where Marshall discovered gold. Although Sutter and Marshall originally intended to keep the find a secret, news soon broke attracting three hundred thousand hopefuls from all over North America, and even the world, to the Sacramento River in search of fortunes, kicking off the California Gold Rush. People flocked to the region by the Oregon Trail-Siskiyou Trail, California Trail, Southern Emigrant Trail and various land and/or sea routes through the Isthmus of Panama and around southern South America by ship. Steamboats traveled up and down the Sacramento River carrying miners from San Francisco to the gold fields.",
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"plaintext": "The influx of migrants brought foreign diseases like malaria and smallpox, which American Indians had no immunity to. These diseases killed off a large proportion of their population within a few decades of the arrival of Sutter and the following settlers, the start of the gold rush, not to mention the numerous battles fought between the settlers and native bands as well as the forced relocation of some of the tribes to Indian reservations in several places scattered around the Sacramento Valley, mainly in the Coast Ranges. In the early 1850s, several treaties were signed between the U.S. government and the Native Americans involving their relocation onto a reservation in the Sierra foothills; this promise was broken. Therefore, in 1863, the tribes from the area surrounding the middle Sacramento and Feather rivers, the Konkow group, were removed and marched forcibly to the Round Valley Indian Reservation near the Eel River. A total of 461 people were forced from their homes, but only 277 made it to the reservation; the others perished of disease, starvation or exhaustion.",
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"plaintext": "As mining developed from simple methods such as panning and sluicing to a new form of commercialized extraction, hydraulic mining, profits from the petering gold rush made a second leap, earning more profits than placer miners in the early years had ever made. The city of Sacramento, founded on the original site of Sutter's fort, began to flourish as the center of an agricultural empire that provided food to feed the thousands of miners working in the hills as well as a place of financial exchange of all the gold that was mined. Sacramento was officially established in 1850 and was recognized as the state capital in 1854. As the economy of the Sacramento Valley grew, the Southern Pacific Railroad established tracks along the river to connect California with Oregon following the ancient path of the Siskiyou Trail, in the 1880s and 1890s. Many parts of the railroad were treacherous, especially in the mountainous areas north of Dunsmuir.",
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"plaintext": "It was not long after Sacramento surpassed a population of 10,000, then the Great Flood of 1862 swept away much of it (and almost everything else along the Sacramento River) and put the rest under water. The flood waters were exacerbated by the sediments washed down by the millions of tons by hydraulic mining, which filled the beds of the Sacramento, Feather and American rivers up to in Sacramento and also covered thousands of acres of Central Valley lands. A flood in 1875 covered the city of Marysville and when it subsided the town's streets were filled with debris and rocks washed down from the \"hydraulicking\" going on upstream.",
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"plaintext": "Repeated floods and increased demand for Sacramento River water saw a plethora of massive changes to the environment beginning in the 20th century. An early project was undertaken to raise the entire city of Sacramento about above its original elevation. This was followed by much bigger engineering projects to control and store the floodwaters of the Sacramento River; the building of these public works would radically transform the river during the 20th century.",
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"plaintext": "From the late 19th century through the 20th century, California experienced an economic boom that led to the rapid expansion of both agriculture and urban areas. The Central Valley was becoming a heavily developed irrigation farming region, and cities along the state's Pacific coast and the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers were growing rapidly, requiring river control to prevent flooding on the one hand, and to ensure a consistent supply of water on the other. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the State of California completed reports as early as the 1870s and 1880s which outlined future development of the Sacramento, Feather, Yuba and Bear rivers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1873, Colonel B.S. Alexander of the Army Corps of Engineers surveyed the Central Valley's hydrology and irrigation systems and proposed a great network of pumps and canals that would take water from the Sacramento River in the north, and transport it to drought-prone central and southern California, especially the San Joaquin Valley. The Sacramento River basin receives \"two-thirds to three-quarters of northern California's precipitation though it has only one-third to one-quarter of the land. The San Joaquin River watershed occupies two-thirds to three-quarters of northern California's land, but only collects one-third to one-quarter of the precipitation.\" The topography of the Sacramento River watershed makes it particularly prone to flooding. Storm water runs quickly off the steep mountains flanking the Sacramento Valley, but with few exceptions the alluvial valley floor is strikingly flat, slowing down the runoff and causing it to overflow the river banks. Before flood control works were built, the winter floods frequently transformed the valley into an inland sea. In 1880 State Engineer William H. Hall developed the first flood control plan for the Sacramento River. Hall recognized that with the combination of flat topography and extremely heavy winter runoff volumes, a system of levees alone could not hope to contain flooding, as had been proven time and again in the flood prone city of Sacramento.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River Flood Control Project was authorized by the federal government in 1917. While it intended to contain minor floods in the river banks by strengthening the existing levee system, the main feature was a series of bypasses, or sections of the valley intentionally designed to flood during high water. Weirs placed at strategic points along the Sacramento River release water into the bypasses when the river reaches a certain stage, relieving the pressure of floodwaters on the main channel. The bypasses are then allowed to drain slowly once flood crests have passed. For most of the year, the bypasses remain dry and are used for annual crops such as rice. Some of the principal features are the Butte Basin, Colusa Basin, Sutter Bypass and the Yolo Bypass. The Butte Basin is a large lowland area on the east side of the river between Hamilton City and Colusa; the geographically similar Colusa Basin is located to the west. The Sutter Bypass begins at Colusa and runs parallel to the east side of the Sacramento River until reaching the confluence with the Feather River. The Yolo Bypass, located on the west side of the river, starts at the confluence of the Feather and rejoins the Sacramento in the Delta. Although termed \"bypasses\", the system essentially reconnects the Sacramento with a portion of its historic flood plain, which it would have naturally flooded had the levee system not been in place.",
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"plaintext": "During the Great Depression in the 1930s, the first concrete proposals for a statewide water engineering project emerged, but when the state government could not sell the necessary bonds to fund the project, the federal government took over. The Central Valley Project, one of the largest irrigation projects in the world, was constructed by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation beginning in 1935. Ultimately, the system would distribute 7million acre feet (8.6km3) to irrigate 3million acres (1.2million ha) of land in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. Construction of Shasta Dam, the principal water storage facility in the Sacramento River system, started in 1938 and was completed in 1945. Controlling runoff from the upper of the Sacramento River watershed, Shasta greatly reduces flood peaks on the middle and lower parts of the Sacramento River. Flood waters are stored for irrigation in dry years as well as navigation and electricity generation. In the following decades, more huge reservoirs – capable of storing a combined of water – were constructed on the Sacramento's main tributaries, enabling the regulation of water for irrigation and hydroelectric power. Starting in the late 1950s, two major canals were extended to irrigate the western side of the Sacramento Valley – the Tehama-Colusa and Corning Canals. Starting at the Red Bluff Diversion Dam on the Sacramento, the canals are and long respectively, and divert a total of over of water to irrigate some .",
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"plaintext": "In 1960, construction began on the State Water Project, whose primary purpose was to deliver water to Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area. Oroville Dam – the tallest dam in the U.S. – was built on the Sacramento's largest tributary, the Feather River. A series of channels were enlarged in the Delta to facilitate water flow from the Sacramento to the Banks Pumping Plant and the California Aqueduct, which can carry as much as 4.2million acre feet (5km3) of water each year. From its origin at the Delta the canal runs southwards through the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, providing irrigation water to farmlands along its length, and lifted almost over the Tehachapi Mountains via four large pumping stations. The project irrigates of land in the San Joaquin Valley and serves 22million people in Central and Southern California.",
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"plaintext": "Over the years, several other plans materialized to divert rivers from California's North Coast into the Sacramento watershed, as future demand was projected to exceed supply. The only one to be built was the Trinity River Project (which would become part of the CVP), sending over 90percent of the flow of that river into the Sacramento via a tunnel under the Klamath Mountains. Due to environmental damage and fish kills in the Trinity River, the volume of diverted water has been limited by law since the 1990s. Other, larger projects ultimately failed to take root. One of the most notorious, the Klamath Diversion, proposed to send the entire flow of the Klamath River into the Sacramento River through a system of large reservoirs, canals, pumping stations and tunnels. Similarly, the Dos Rios Dam project would have diverted a considerable portion of the Eel River to the Sacramento. Both projects were defeated by local resistance, opposition from environmentalists, as well as the high capital cost.",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River Deep Water Ship Channel was completed in 1963, and was built to facilitate navigation of large oceangoing ships from the Delta to the port of Sacramento. The channel bypasses the winding lower part of the Sacramento River between the state capital and the Delta thus reducing water travel times. It also serves to discharge floodwaters from the lower end of the Yolo Bypass. Built by the Army Corps of Engineers, the canal is long and is maintained to a depth of .",
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"plaintext": "The Sacramento River and its drainage basin once supported extensive riparian habitat and marshes, in both the Sacramento Valley and the Delta, home to a diverse array of flora and fauna. Due to the reclamation of land for agriculture and the regulation of seasonal flooding, the amount of water-based habitat declined greatly during the 20th century. Other human impacts include the heavy water consumption for agriculture and urban areas, and pollution caused by pesticides, nitrates, mine tailings, acid mine drainage and urban runoff. The Sacramento supports 40–60 species of fish, and 218 species of birds. The basin also has a number of endemic amphibian and fish species. Many Sacramento River fish species are similar to those in the Snake–Columbia River systems; geologic evidence indicates that the two were connected by a series of wetlands and channels about 4-5million years ago.",
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"plaintext": "Located along the Pacific Flyway, the sprawling wetlands of the Sacramento Valley are an important stop for migratory birds; however, only a fraction of the historic wetlands remain. Seasonally flooded rice paddies in the Sacramento Valley comprise a large portion of the habitat currently used by migrating birds. Native bird populations have been declining steadily since the 19th century. Species that were once common but now are endangered or gone include the southwestern willow flycatcher, western yellow-billed cuckoo, least Bell's vireo, and warbling vireo. Another reason for dropping numbers are the introduction of non-native species, such as the parasitic cowbird, which lays its eggs in the nests of other bird species causing its hatchlings to compete with the others for food.",
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"plaintext": "There were once 9 species of amphibians that used the Sacramento River, but some have become extinct and most other populations are declining due to habitat loss caused by agriculture and urban development. Amphibians originally thrived in the marshes, sloughs, side-channels and oxbow lakes because of their warmer water, abundance of vegetation and nutrients, lower predator populations and slower current. This population once included several species of frogs and salamanders; the foothill yellow-legged frog and western spadefoot are listed as endangered species.",
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"plaintext": "Riparian and wetlands areas along the Sacramento once totaled more than ; today only about remains. Much of this consists of restored stretches and artificially constructed wetlands. Levee construction has prevented the river from changing course during winter and spring floods, which was crucial to the renewal of existing wetlands and the creation of new ones. Since the late 19th century the river has been mostly locked in a fixed channel, which once could shift hundreds of feet or even several miles in a year because of floods. In 2010, about of the river's riparian forests are undergoing active restoration.",
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"plaintext": "UC Davis initiated a project known as The Nigiri Project which takes place under the Yolo Bypass in the rice field floodplains adjacent to the Sacramento River. The name comes from a form of Japanese sushi which contains a slice of fish on top of a compressed wedge of vinegared rice, therefore a relationship with rice and fish. Salmon migrate from the Central Valley rivers to the ocean where they increase in size for one to three years then return to rivers to spawn, if a young fish is more large when they enter the ocean, they will have more of a chance to return for spawning. According to UC Davis Center for Watershed Sciences these rice fields adjacent to the Sacramento River will serve as potential nurseries for salmon. UC Davis also concluded from past experimental releases of salmon, that the Yolo Bypass floodway could have up to 57,000 acres of a productive breeding habitat with almost no cost to farmers. The Nigiri project has demonstrated off-season agriculture fields such as the rice fields under the Yolo Bypass next to Sacramento River can serve as an important floodplain habitat and feeding ground for juvenile or endangered fish. UC Davis noted juveniles grew much bigger and faster within the flooded rice fields when compared to those released in the Sacramento River. Public agencies, conservation groups and landowners have all been working together and conducting experiments since 2011. Experiments conducted on rice fields have taken place at the Knaggs Ranch property within the Yolo Bypass by Sacramento River for four consecutive winters. UC Davis shares their results produced the fastest growth of juvenile Chinook salmon in the Central Valley to ever be recorded. The Nigiri project is attempting to see these floodplains as “surrogate wetlands” which can be controlled to copy the Sacramento River system’s annual natural flooding cycle the native fish depend on. Runoff water from agriculture is used to flood the fields for most of this experiment adjacent to the Sacramento River. The recycled water is eventually flushed back into the Delta ecosystem through agricultural canals, meaning no new water is used to perform the experiment.",
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"plaintext": "Second only to the Columbia River on the west coast of the United States in Chinook salmon runs, the Sacramento and its tributaries once supported a huge population of this fish. Millions of salmon once swam upstream to spawn in the Sacramento; as recently as 2002 eight hundred thousand fish were observed to return to the river. The Sacramento and San Joaquin River systems are home to the southernmost existing run of chinook salmon in North America.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in the 20th century, dam construction blocked off hundreds of miles of salmon-spawning streams, such as the upper Feather and American Rivers, and the entirety of the Pit and upper Sacramento rivers. Pollution from farms and urban areas took a heavy toll on the river's environment, and heavy irrigation withdrawals sometimes resulted in massive fish kills. Since 1960, when the big pumps at the head of the California Aqueduct in the Delta began their operation, the pattern of water flow in the Delta has been changed considerably leaving the fish confused as to where to go, resulting in many generations dying off because they have not been able to find their way upstream. In 2004, only 200,000 fish were reported to return to the Sacramento; in 2008, a disastrous low of 39,000.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, five hydroelectric dams on Battle Creek, a major tributary of the Sacramento River, were removed to allow better passage of the fish. Three other dams along the creek were fitted with fish ladders. The river is considered one of the best salmon habitats in the watershed because of its relatively cold water and the availability of ideal habitat such as gravel bars.",
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"plaintext": "By the late 20th and early 21st centuries, the government blamed crashing fish populations on overfishing, especially off the Northern California and Oregon coast, which lie directly adjacent to the migration paths of Sacramento River salmon. This has resulted in a ban on coastal salmon fishing for several years since 2002. The Red Bluff Diversion Dam, although not a large dam and equipped with fish passage facilities, also presents a major barrier. Because of inadequate design, roughly 25–40% of the incoming fish get blocked by the dam each year. The dam has also become a \"favorite spot\" for predatory fish to congregate, feasting on the salmon that get trapped both above and below the dam. As of 2010, the salmon run has shown slight signs of improvement, probably because of that year's greater precipitation.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, a gate on the Folsom Dam on the American River broke open, causing the river's flow to rise by some . The water traveled down the Sacramento and washed into the Pacific; the influx of fresh water was such that it confused thousands of anadromous fish to begin migrating up the river, thinking that the river had risen because of late-autumn storms.",
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"plaintext": "Marine animals such as whales and sea lions are occasionally found far inland after navigating the river for food or refuge and then losing track of how to get back to the Pacific Ocean. In October 1985 a humpback whale affectionately named \"Humphrey the humpbacked whale\" by television media traveled up the Sacramento River before being rescued. Rescuers downstream broadcast sounds of humpback whales feeding to draw the whale back to the ocean.",
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"plaintext": "On May 14, 2007, onlookers and media spotted two humpback whales traveling the deep waters near Rio Vista. The duo, generally believed to be mother and calf (Delta, the mother and Dawn, her calf), continued to swim upstream to the deep water ship channel near West Sacramento, about inland. There was concern because the whales had been injured, perhaps by a boat's propeller or keel, leaving a gash in each whale's skin. The whales were carefully inspected by biologists and injected with antibiotics to help prevent infection. After days of efforts to lure (or frighten) the whales in the direction of the ocean, the whales eventually made their way south into San Francisco Bay, where they lingered for several days. By May 30, 2007, the cow and calf apparently slipped out unnoticed under the Golden Gate Bridge into the Pacific Ocean, likely under cover of night.",
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"plaintext": "For a river of its size, the Sacramento is considered to have fairly clean water. However, pollutants still flow into the river from many of its tributaries and man-made drains or channels. Pesticide runoff, especially DDT, is one of the largest problems faced today, because of the valley's primarily agricultural economy. Increased erosion caused by the removal of riparian vegetation and the runoff of fertilizers into the river have led to occasional algae blooms, though the water is usually cold because of the regulation of dams upstream. Other pollutant sources include urban runoff, mercury and even rocket fuel that was reported to have leaked near the American River from an Aerojet extraction project.",
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"plaintext": "Mercury pollution created by mining and processing activities during the California Gold Rush still has a profound impact on the Sacramento River's environment. According to Domagalski of the USGS, Mercury is currently considered the most serious water-quality problem in the Sacramento River. Mercury is unique because it is the heaviest liquid in existence, it is the only heavy metal that is a liquid at room temperature and it readily vaporizes into the atmosphere. The toxic substance was widely used by miners to separate gold from the surrounding rocks and dirt, and was disposed of by allowing it to evaporate. Most of the mercury was mined in the Coast Ranges to the west of the Sacramento River; mines in these mountains produced roughly 140,000 tons of mercury to serve the Gold Rush. When the gold rush ended, most of the mines were closed but toxic acidic water and chemicals continue to leak from within, into west-side Sacramento tributaries such as Cache Creek and Putah Creek. According to the Sacramento Watershed River Program, an abandoned mercury mine, which is currently an EPA superfund site, is located in the Cache Creek area in the Sacramento River, called the Sulfur Bank Mercury Mine, which is still releasing mercury with leachate into Clear Lake which is close by. This site along with other former mine sites add to the contamination of Cache Creek which is estimated to be responsible for 50% of mercury taken to the Bay Delta area every year. In the east, mercury that permeated into the ground has contaminated several aquifers that feed rivers such as the Feather, Yuba and American. Even the evaporated mercury posed problems – so much of it was used that significant concentrations still linger in the air in many places. According to Griffin with the Sacramento Water Action Team, Mercury cannot naturally escape or dissipate and will be brought down into the soils and sediment to pollute and react with, in some of these cases methane can be produced from the mercury which will contribute to the greenhouse gases and is another contributing issue with mercury pollution, ecological alteration of the Sacramento River and climate change. Griffin shares, \"Mercury and its compounds readily attach to particulate material in soil and sediment. In the presence of living organisms ionic mercury can transform into monomethyl mercury and dimethylmercury. When exposed to sunlight the (di)methylmercury is photodegraded to monomethyl mercury, usually near the surface of water, and methane gas is released”. According to the USGS 2016, the mercury release leaves a permanent imprint not only in the Sacramento River Watershed but also in peat bogs, snowcapped glaciers and sediments up to hundreds and thousands of miles away. Mercury pollution continues today and will probably continue for decades or centuries into the future.",
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"plaintext": "Another form of pollution the Sacramento River is suffering from is plastic pollution. According to researchers from University of Berkley, they recorded over 7 trillion microplastics are deposited in the San Francisco Bay each year with the Sacramento River being a major contributor. They also found one fourth of microplastics in California’s fish’s stomach’s such as the anchovy, striped bass and salmon.",
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"plaintext": "In July 1991, a train derailed near Dunsmuir, California alongside the Sacramento River. A tank car split open, spilling about 19,500 gallons of the pesticide metam sodium into the river. The chemical formed a stinking, bubbling, green glob that moved down the river, killing everything in its path. More than one million fish were killed, including at least 100,000 rainbow trout, and thousands of other aquatic creatures as well as nearby trees. Next, the green glob entered Shasta Lake, California's largest reservoir. Fortunately, a system of aerating pipes at the bottom of the lake had been set up to dissipate the chemical, reducing it to almost nothing by the 29th, preventing further environmental destruction. The tank car carrying the metam sodium through California was of a type that the National Transportation Safety Board said had \"a high incidence of failure\" in accidents. Furthermore, the tank car was not labeled, so the train's crew was unaware of the danger posed by the chemical.",
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"plaintext": "Diazinon was a major pollution problem in the Sacramento River which would originate from agricultural and urban storm water discharges. Diazinon is used for orchards which grow peaches, plums, and almonds to mitigate the number of insects and pests like spider mites and aphids. A wide variety of organizations and groups came together to reduce diazinon concentrations in the Sacramento and Feather River systems. Their collaboration and hard work led to the removal of 79 river miles from the 303(d) list for diazinon impairments in 2010 according to the Environmental Protection Agency.",
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"plaintext": "Auburn Dam",
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| 335,575 | 5,493 | 734 | 342 | 0 | 0 | Sacramento River | river in Northern and Central California, United States | []
|
37,395 | 1,107,886,810 | Celebration,_Florida | [
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"plaintext": "Celebration is a master-planned community (MPC) and census-designated place (CDP) in Osceola County, Florida, United States. A suburb of Orlando, Celebration is located near Walt Disney World Resort and originally developed by The Walt Disney Company. Its population was recorded as 11,178 in the 2020 census.",
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"plaintext": "After founding Celebration, Disney followed its plans to divest most of its control of the town. Several Disney business units continue to occupy the town's office buildings. Walt Disney World operates two utility companies, Smart City Telecom and Reedy Creek Energy Services, that provide services to the town. The town itself is connected to the Walt Disney World resorts via one of its primary streets, World Drive, which begins near the Magic Kingdom.",
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"plaintext": "Various New Classical architects participated in the design of buildings in Celebration. Downtown Celebration's post office was designed by Michael Graves, the adjacent Welcome Center by Philip Johnson, and the Celebration Health building by Robert A. M. Stern. ",
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"plaintext": "Other well-known architects who have designed nearby buildings include Charles Moore (Preview Center), Graham Gund (Bohemian Hotel), Cesar Pelli (movie theatre), and Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown (SunTrust Bank).",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1990s, the Disney Development Company (DDC) established the Celebration Company to spearhead its development within about of land in the southern portion of the Reedy Creek Improvement District. Total investment for the project is estimated at US$2.5billion.",
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"plaintext": "The master plan was developed by two Driehaus Prize winning architects, Jacquelin T. Robertson of Cooper, Robertson & Partners and Robert A. M. Stern. The extensive landscape, parks, trails and pathways were designed by the San Francisco firm EDAW (now AECOM). Urban Design Associates, of Pittsburgh, PA, developed design guidelines, called a Pattern Book, as a tool for the design of new architecture within the community. Celebration is planned in an early 20th-century architectural style and is not zoned for high-density residences. Celebration was named the \"New Community of the Year\" in 2001 by the Urban Land Institute. Disney hired graphic designer Michael Beirut to design community elements including street signs, retail signage, manhole covers, fountains, golf course graphics, park trail markers, as well as home sales brochures.",
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"plaintext": "The first phase of residential development occurred in the summer of 1996 with Celebration Village, West Village, and Lake Evalyn; this was followed by the North Village, South Village, East Village and Aquila Reserve and the final Artisan Park phases. Later phases included construction by a number of developers, including David Waronker.",
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"plaintext": "Disney CEO Michael Eisner took an especially keen interest in the development of the new town in the early days, encouraging the executives at Disney Development Company to \"make history\" and develop a town worthy of the Disney brand and legacy that extended to Walt Disney's vision of an Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow (EPCOT). DDC executives collaborated extensively with leaders in education, health, and technology in addition to planners and architects to create the vision and operating policies for the town.",
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"plaintext": "There were a series of car accidents involving a retention pond adjacent to World Drive which required the addition of more safety structures.",
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"plaintext": "Disney attempted numerous efforts to encourage economic and ethnic diversity among residents in the early days of development. The company placed advertisements in newspapers and magazines that catered to African-American and Hispanic demographics, printed brochures featuring racial minorities, and hired African-American workers in the community's sales office. In addition, the owners of the first 350 houses and 123 apartments were chosen by a lottery in an effort to prevent racial discrimination against homebuyers. However, by 2000, it was revealed that the racial makeup of the community was 88% white, compared to the surrounding county's 59% white population. Demographers partially blamed the lack of diversity on Disney's decision to forego building subsidized housing inside the community, instead opting to donate $900,000 to Osceola County to help area residents buy houses under $80,000, below the market value of most housing in Celebration.",
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"plaintext": "In 2016, The Wall Street Journal reported that Celebration Town Center condominium owners \"are battling leaky roofs, balconies that have become separated from the sides of buildings and mold spreading in their walls. Their properties have become so dilapidated, they say, they're having trouble selling them.\"",
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"plaintext": "An April 2016 civil suit seeks to force the Town Center Foundation, a controlling entity under sole direction of Lexin Capital, \"which took control of part of Celebration in 2004, to pay for upward of $15 million to $20 million in repairs\" which were deferred over ten years.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration is located at (28.320059, −81.540149).",
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"plaintext": "According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which , or 0.28%, is water.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration is under USPS ZIP code 34747, sometimes known as Kissimmee. This is due to the city being unincorporated, as Celebration is not a subdivision and is still considered an unincorporated town.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration is well known by Orlando Area residents for its town center, luxury houses, and walkability, which includes the Celebration Nature Trails. Celebration has over 23 miles of nature trails connecting the entire neighborhood. The nature trails give residents and visitors the chance to take in some of Central Florida’s finest scenery and wildlife. The trails can be enjoyed either on foot or by bike.",
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"plaintext": "As of the census of 2010, there were 7,427 people, 3,063 households, and 716 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 704.9 people per square mile (272.16.0/km). There were 4,566 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 91.0% white (with 81.9% of the population non-Hispanic white), 1.5% black, 3.2% Asian, 2.2% from two or more races and 0.26% Native American. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 11.2% of the population.",
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"plaintext": "There were 3,063 households, out of which 32.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.0% were married couples living together, 4.5% had a female householder with no married spouse present, and 35.0% were non-families. 24.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 3.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.96.",
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"plaintext": "The age distribution was 25.6% under the age of 18, and 9.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males in that age range.",
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"plaintext": "The median income for a household in the CDP was $74,231, and the median income for a family was $92,334. Males had a median income of $51,250 versus $46,650 for females. The per-capita income for the CDP was $39,521, and 4.1% of the population lived below the poverty line.",
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"plaintext": "The area is organized under state law as a community development district. As a result, voting is restricted to local landowners. The largest landowners are entities controlled by The Walt Disney Company.",
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"plaintext": "For decades Celebration was very politically conservative, but as many younger families moved into the area, Celebration became more liberal. Nowadays Celebration is Democratic leaning. Most unaffiliated registered voters in the area vote for Democratic candidates rather than Republican. The neighborhood has a Democratic group named ‘Democrats of Celebration’ which has had meetings with attendance of Congressman Darren Soto",
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"plaintext": "56% of Celebration voted for Joe Biden, and 43% voted for Donald Trump.",
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"plaintext": "55% of Celebration voted for Hillary Clinton, and 44% voted for Donald Trump.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration Town Center contains shops, restaurants, and other commercial establishments, as well as 106 residences.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration has six Christian churches, one Jewish congregation, and one hospital ministry.",
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"plaintext": "There are now more than 500 registered companies listed as doing business in the shopping plazas, small office complexes, and the Disney World office building park. This community holds the only Class A office buildings in Osceola County.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration is separated into areas referred to as \"villages.\" The main village, closest to downtown, is where the first homes were constructed. North Village, closest to US-192, houses the Georgetown Condos as well as Acadia Estate Homes. East Village includes Roseville Corner and Aquila Loop. Lake Evalyn, generally considered its own area of Celebration but not quite its own village, includes a small lake where one can find a multitude of ducks, alligators, and the occasional river otter. South Village houses the Spring Park Loop estate homes and Heritage Hall. Additionally, Siena Condos complete the outer edge of South Village by Celebration Blvd. Mirasol includes condos with concierge service and a day spa. Artisan Park is at the end of Celebration Ave and houses condos, townhomes, single-family residences as well as a clubhouse consisting of a pool, gym, and restaurant.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration hosts many celebrations every year, including community-wide yard sales, an art show, an exotic car festival, an annual Radio Disney Holiday concert, an Oktoberfest Celebration, the \"Great American Pie Festival\" (televised on The Food Network), a \"Posh Pooch\" festival, and downtown events for the Fall and Christmas seasons when autumn leaves and \"snow\" (small-scale soap flakes) are released into the Town Center. The community also hosts a large Independence Day fireworks celebration. The town events are organized on the Internet by the Community Calendar.",
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"plaintext": "The Osceola Library System operates the West Osceola Branch Library in Celebration.",
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"plaintext": "91% of residents who work outside their homes drive to work.",
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"plaintext": "The two main roads going through the center of the Celebration's downtown area are Market Street and Front Street. Other streets in Celebration include:",
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"plaintext": "Celebration Avenue This is considered the main road in the town. The road stretches from U.S. 192 to Artisan Park where it ends in a traffic circle. Starting from U.S. 192 near the Disney Parks and the Celebration water tower, one can find a small shopping plaza. From there, Celebration Avenue passes the North Village, splits the Celebration golf course, winds through a few down-town shops and schools, and then proceeds into the parks and homes in the newer sections of Celebration.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration Boulevard Celebration Boulevard has two sections. The most public section is an avenue parallel to I-4 that includes many commercial businesses and Celebration High School. The architecture on the street is mostly Celebration Modern style. This style reflects art Streamline Moderne and Art Deco influences with its sleek lines, sparse but effective ornamentation, and ample opportunities for individually expressive special features. The entire street is lined with two rows of Washington Palms. The buildings on the street include sitting areas under the shade of trees and trellises along their frontage. The other section of Celebration Boulevard lies on the other side of the golf course, closer to the Celebration Water Tower in the North Village. Here, Celebration Boulevard is almost completely residential. In addition to the homes perched behind white picket fences, this section of Celebration Boulevard flows past the Georgetown condominiums, the community pool, and soccer fields.",
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"plaintext": "Celebration Place Celebration Place nearly spans the gap between the two sections of Celebration Boulevard, except that its eastern end terminates at the Water Tower Plaza instead of at the entrance to North Village on the other side of State Road 417. Celebration Place is a commercial road.",
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"plaintext": "The School District of Osceola County, Florida, operates public schools in Celebration. Celebration is zoned to the Celebration School for K-8. Celebration High School, located in the city, serves Celebration for grades 9–12. ",
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"plaintext": "There are free classes offered at the community center by clubs for cooking, gardening, art, writing, and technology.",
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"plaintext": "There are private education options provided by The Montessori Academy of Celebration (K-8).",
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"plaintext": "Private graduate education was once offered at Stetson University Celebration Campus. The Stetson Celebration campus was sold in 2018 with plans to convert it into offices. It was purchased again in 2021 with intent to open a medical school in the building.",
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"plaintext": " EPCOT (concept)",
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"plaintext": " Golden Oak at Walt Disney World Resort – a concept high-end resort living community within the Walt Disney World Resort",
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"plaintext": " Val d'Europe – located around 35km (22mi) to the east of Paris, near Disneyland Paris. Val d'Europe was built in conjunction with The Walt Disney Company",
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"plaintext": " Todt family murders",
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"plaintext": " Frantz, Douglas and Collins, Catherine. Celebration, U.S.A.: Living in Disney's Brave New Town ()",
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"plaintext": " Official website",
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"plaintext": " Architecture of Celebration",
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| 1,001,696 | 13,012 | 115 | 80 | 0 | 0 | Celebration | census-designated place in Osceola County, Florida, United States | [
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37,397 | 1,099,368,765 | Epcot | [
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"plaintext": "Epcot was originally conceived by Walt Disney during the early development of Walt Disney World, as an experimental planned community that would serve as a center for American enterprise and urban living. Known as \"EPCOT\", an acronym for Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow, the idea included an urban city center, residential areas, industrial areas, schools, and a series of mass transportation systems that would connect the community. After Disney's death in 1966, the \"EPCOT\" concept was abandoned as the company was uncertain about the feasibility of operating a city. In the 1970s, WED Enterprises began developing a second theme park for the resort to supplement Magic Kingdom, as that park's popularity grew. The new park reprised the idea of showcasing modern innovation through avant-garde edutainment attractions, as well as the addition of a world nations exposition. The newly designed park, featuring two sections—Future World and World Showcase—opened as EPCOT Center in 1982. In 1994, the park was renamed to \"Epcot\", dropping the acronym and \"Center\" from the name. In the late 2010s, the park began a major ongoing multi-year overhaul including several new and replaced attractions as well as the revision of the existing two sections of the park into four: World Celebration, World Discovery, World Nature and World Showcase.",
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"plaintext": "The genesis for Epcot was originally conceived as a utopian city of the future by Walt Disney in the 1960s. The concept was an acronym for Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow, often interchanging \"city\" and \"community.\" In Walt Disney's words in 1966: \"EPCOT will take its cue from the new ideas and new technologies that are now emerging from the creative centers of American industry. It will be a community of tomorrow that will never be completed but will always be introducing and testing, and demonstrating new materials and new systems. And EPCOT will always be a showcase to the world of the ingenuity and imagination of American free enterprise.\"",
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"plaintext": "Walt Disney's original vision was for a model community that would have been home to twenty thousand residents and a test bed for city planning as well as organization. It was to have been built in the shape of a circle with businesses and commercial areas at its center with community buildings, schools, and recreational complexes around it while residential neighborhoods would line the perimeter. This radial plan concept is strongly influenced by British planner Ebenezer Howard and his Garden Cities of To-morrow. Transportation would have been provided by monorails and PeopleMovers (like those in Tomorrowland). Automobile traffic would be kept underground, leaving pedestrians safe above ground. Walt Disney was not able to obtain funding and permission to start work on his Florida property until he agreed to first build Magic Kingdom. He died nearly five years before Magic Kingdom opened.",
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"plaintext": "The original plans for the park showed indecision over the park's purpose. Some Imagineers wanted it to represent the cutting edge of emerging technologies, while others wanted it to showcase international cultures and customs. At one point, a model of the futuristic park was pushed together against a model of a World's Fair international theme, and the two were combined. The park was originally named EPCOT Center to reflect the ideals and values of the city. It was constructed for an estimated $800million to $1.4billion and took three years to build, at the time the largest construction project on Earth. The parking lot serving the park is (including bus area) and can accommodate 11,211 vehicles (grass areas hold additional 500+ vehicles). Before it opened on October 1, 1982, Walt Disney World Ambassador Genie Field introduced E. Cardon Walker, Disney's chairman and CEO, who dedicated EPCOT Center. Walker also presented a family with lifetime passes for the two Walt Disney World theme parks. His remarks were followed by Florida Governor Bob Graham and William Ellinghaus, president of AT&T.",
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"plaintext": "As part of the opening-day ceremony, dancers and band members performed \"We've Just Begun to Dream\". The Sherman Brothers wrote a song especially for the occasion entitled \"The World Showcase March\". During the finale, doves and many sets of balloons were released. Performing groups representing countries from all over the world performed in World Showcase. Water was gathered from major rivers across the globe and emptied into the park's Fountain of Nations with ceremonial containers to mark the opening.",
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"plaintext": "Despite its initial success, Epcot was constantly faced with the challenges of evolving with worldwide progress, an issue that caused the park to lose relevance and become outdated in the 1990s. To maintain attendance levels, Disney introduced seasonal events such as the International Flower & Garden Festival and the International Food & Wine Festival in 1994 and 1995, respectively. In the mid-1990s, Disney also began to gradually phase out the park's edutainment attractions in favor of more modern and thrilling attractions. As a result, many of the attractions within the Future World pavilions, were either overhauled or replaced entirely; Universe of Energy was reconfigured as Ellen's Energy Adventure in 1996, World of Motion was replaced with Test Track, and Horizons was demolished in 1999 and replaced with Space. Walt Disney World held the Millennium Celebration with the central focus of the event at Epcot. The Living Seas was closed in 2005, and rethemed with the introduction of characters from Finding Nemo, as The Seas with Nemo & Friends. That same year, Soarin', a flight simulator ride originally developed for Disney's California Adventure (DCA) theme park in Anaheim, was added to The Land following its massive popularity at DCA. Wonders of Life closed in 2007, with the pavilion being occasionally used for the park's annual festivals until permanent closure.",
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"plaintext": "World Celebration, Discovery, and Nature consist of a variety of avant-garde pavilions that explore innovative aspects and applications including technology and science, with each pavilion featuring self-contained attractions and distinct architecture in its design. They were originally grouped as one area called Future World, which debuted with six pavilions: Spaceship Earth, CommuniCore, Imagination!, The Land, Universe of Energy, and World of Motion. The Horizons pavilion opened the following year, and The Living Seas and Wonders of Life pavilions were added in 1986 and 1989, respectively, bringing the lineup to nine. CommuniCore, World of Motion, Horizons, Wonders of Life, Universe of Energy, and Innoventions closed in 1994, 1996, 1999, 2007, 2017, and 2019, respectively. The Fountain of Nations, a large circular musical fountain which debuted with the park, was removed in 2019 as well. Each pavilion was initially sponsored by a corporation which helped fund its construction and maintenance in return for the corporation's logos and some marketing elements appearing throughout the pavilion.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, each pavilion of Future World featured a unique circular logo designed by Norm Inouye, which was featured on park signage and throughout the attractions themselves. The pavilion logos were gradually phased out in the early 2000s, as the pavilions instead were identified by name and recognized by the main attraction(s) housed inside. Several homages remained scattered throughout the park, including merchandising. However, in 2019, Disney revealed that the concept of the circular pavilion logos would be revived as part of Epcot's transformation, with both classic logos revived and new logos introduced.",
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"plaintext": " Spaceship Earth, an eighteen-story-tall geodesic sphere structure and the anchor pavilion, which also houses an eponymous dark ride attraction that depicts the history of communication.",
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"plaintext": " Disney & Pixar Short Film Festival, a 3-D show composed of three animated shorts from both Walt Disney and Pixar animation studios.",
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"plaintext": "Future additions will include Dreamer's Point, which will include a new statue of Walt Disney, and CommuniCore Hall which will act as a multi-use festival pavilion which will be used for exhibitions, gallery space, live music, demonstration kitchen and more. CommuniCore Plaza will be able to host large-scale concerts as well as smaller musical performances.",
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"plaintext": "World Discovery centers on \"stories about space, science, technology and intergalactic adventure comes to life\". Future attractions will include the Play! Pavilion.",
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"plaintext": " Test Track, a thrill ride inspired by the rigorous automobile testing procedures that Chevrolet uses to evaluate concept cars.",
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"plaintext": "Pavilions for Brazil, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Russia, Denmark, Switzerland, Costa Rica, Spain, Venezuela, the United Arab Emirates, and Israel have occasionally been rumored as potential future pavilions but have never made it past the planning phases to date. However, Disney did go as far as announcing three of the pavilions in the 1980s with signage throughout the park.",
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"plaintext": "Originally based on the Disney Channel animated series Kim Possible, the World Showcase Adventure is an interactive mobile attraction taking place in several pavilions throughout the World Showcase. The attraction is an electronic scavenger hunt that has guests using special \"Kimmunicators\" (in actuality, customized cell phones) to help teenage crime-fighters Kim Possible and Ron Stoppable solve a \"crime\" or disrupt an evil-doer's \"plans for global domination.\" The \"Kimmunicator\" is able to trigger specific events within the pavilion grounds that provide clues to completing the adventure. Launched in January 2009 and presented by Verizon Wireless, the Adventure is included in park admission. It was succeeded by Agent P's World Showcase Adventure, based on Disney's Phineas and Ferb, on June 23, 2012. Agent P's World Showcase Adventure was later closed on February 17, 2020, and was replaced by the DuckTales World Showcase Adventure, based on the 2017 reboot of DuckTales.",
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"plaintext": "The Epcot International Flower & Garden Festival, inaugurated in 1994, uses specially-themed floral displays throughout the park, including topiary sculptures of Disney characters. Guests can meet gardening experts and learn new ideas they can use in their own home gardens. The 18th annual event was scheduled for March 2– May 15. Each event takes more than a full year to plan and more than 20,000 cast member hours.",
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"plaintext": "The Epcot International Festival of the Holidays is Epcot's annual holiday celebration. The World Showcase pavilions feature storytellers describing their nation's holiday traditions, and three nightly performances of the \"Candlelight Processional\" featuring an auditioned mass choir and a celebrity guest narrating the story of Christmas. ",
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"plaintext": "At Laugh-O-Gram Studio, a film studio in Kansas City founded by Walt Disney and his friend and animator Ub Iwerks, Walt made a short film entitled Alice's Wonderland, which featured child actress Virginia Davis interacting with animated characters. In 1923, soon after the short was made, Walt filed for bankruptcy, but the short later became a hit after New York film distributor Margaret J. Winkler purchased it, with Disney signing a contract for six Alice Comedies, with an option for two further series of six episodes each. Before the signing, Disney decided to move to Hollywood to join his brother Roy O. Disney because Roy had tuberculosis. This allowed them to co-found the Disney Brothers Studio on October 16, the official start of the company, to produce the films. Walt later convinced Iwerks and Davis' family to move to Hollywood as well. In January 1926, with the completion of the Disney studio on Hyperion Street, The Disney Brothers Studio's name was changed to Walt Disney Studio. After producing several Alice films for the next four years, Winkler handed the role of distributing films to her husband, Charles Mintz. In 1927, Mintz asked for a new series of films under Universal Pictures to be made. In response, Walt created his first series of fully animated films that would feature the character Oswald the Lucky Rabbit. Walt Disney Studio went on to create 26 films with Oswald in them.",
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"plaintext": "In 1928, Walt wanted a larger fee for his films, but Mintz wanted to reduce the price. Soon after Walt found out that Universal owned the intellectual property rights to Oswald, Mintz threatened to produce the films without him if Disney did not take the reductions in payment. Disney declined, and Mintz signed four of Disney's primary animators, with the exception Iwerks who stayed with Disney, to start his own studio. Because of the loss of Oswald, Walt and Iwerks replaced him with a mouse originally named Mortimer Mouse until Disney’s wife urged him to change it so he called him Mickey Mouse, who is now the company's mascot. In May, they made two silent films with the character, Plane Crazy and The Gallopin' Gaucho, as test screenings. Later, Disney’s first sound film and third short to the Mickey series Steamboat Willie was made with synchronized sound, creating the first post-produced sound cartoon. Walt found Pat Powers’ distribution company to distribute the film, and Steamboat Willie became an immediate hit, leading the way for the companies dominance in the animation industry. The sound was created using Powers’ Cinephone system, which used Lee de Forest's Phonofilm system. The company later successfully re-released the two earlier films with synchronized sound in 1929.",
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"plaintext": "After the release of Steamboat Willie at the Colony Theater in New York, Mickey Mouse became an immensely popular character. Disney would go on to make several cartoons featuring him and other characters. In August, Disney began the Silly Symphony series with Columbia Pictures signing on as the series' distributor, because Walt and Roy felt that they were not getting their share of the profits with Powers. Powers would then sign off Iwerks, who would later start his own studio. Carl Starling was said to have played a pivotal role in getting the series started and composed the music for the earlier films in the series, but would later leave the company after Iwerks did. In September, theater manager Harry Woodin requested permission to start a Mickey Mouse Club at his theater, the Fox Dome, to boost attendance. Walt agreed, but David E. Dow started the first ever club at Elsinore Theatre before Woodin could start his. It is unknown why Woodin did not create the first one, but on December 21, the first ever meeting for the club at Elsinore had around 1,200 children in attendance. The Mickey Mouse Clubs ended up spanning over 800 theaters across the country, with one million kids as members. On July 24, Joseph Conley, president of King Features Syndicate, mailed the Disney studio asking for them to make a Mickey Mouse comic strip. They started in November and sent samples of the strip to them, which were approved. On December 16, the Walt Disney Studios partnership was reorganized as a corporation with the name of Walt Disney Productions, Limited, with a merchandising division – Walt Disney Enterprises, and two subsidiaries – Disney Film Recording Company, Limited; and Liled Realty and Investment Company, for real estate holdings. Walt and his wife held 60 percent (6,000 shares) of the company and Roy owned 40 percent.",
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"plaintext": "The comic strip Mickey Mouse debuted on January 13, 1930, in the New York Daily Mirror and by 1931, the strip was published in 60 newspapers in the U.S., as well as papers in twenty other countries. After finding out that coming out with merchandise for the characters would generate more revenue for the company, Walt met a man at a hotel in New York who asked him for the license to put Mickey Mouse on some writing tablets that he was manufacturing for $300. Walt agreed and Mickey became the first licensed character ever, beginning the start of Disney merchandising. In 1933, Walt asked a man who owned a Kansas City advertising firm named Kay Kamen to run Disney's merchandising. He agreed and was considered to completely transform Disney's merchandising. Within a year, Kamen had 40 licenses for Mickey and within two years, $35 million worth of sales were made. In 1934, Walt claimed that he made more money from the merchandising of Mickey than from the Mickey films. Later, as a part of Disney's merchandising push, the Waterbury Clock Company created a Mickey Mouse watch. It became so popular that it saved Waterbury from bankruptcy during the Great Depression. During a promotional event at Macy’s, 11,000 Mickey Mouse watches sold in one day and within two years, 2.5 million watches were sold. As Mickey started to become more of the heroic type instead of a mischievous mouse, Disney needed another character that could produce gags. When Walt was listing to the radio, he heard the voice of Clarence Nash and invited him to the studio. After hearing his voice again, Walt wanted to use it for a talking duck named Donald Duck, who would be the studio's new gag character. Donald made his first appearance in 1934 in The Wise Little Hen. Though he did not become popular as fast as Mickey did, he got his own featured role in Donald and Pluto (1936) and eventually got his own series.",
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"plaintext": "After a fallout with Colombia Pictures for the Silly Symphonies, Walt signed a distribution contract with United Artist from 1932 to 1937 to distribute the series. In 1932, Disney signed an exclusive contract with Technicolor through the end of 1935 to produce cartoons in color, beginning with Flowers and Trees (1932), which was part of the Silly Symphonies. The film was the first ever full-color cartoon and won the Academy Award for the Best Cartoon later that year. In 1933, The Three Little Pigs became another popular Silly Symphonies and also won the Academy Award for Best Cartoon. The song from the film \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?\", composed by Frank Churchill, who also wrote other Silly Symphonies songs, became popular throughout the 1930s and remained one of the most well-known Disney songs. Films from Silly Symphonies would go on to win the Best Cartoon award from 1931 to 1939, except for in 1938 when another Disney film Ferdinand the Bull won it.",
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"plaintext": "In 1934, Walt decided to make Disney's first ever feature-length animated film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, and told his animators by acting out the story. Roy tried to stop Walt from making it saying it would bankrupt the studio, and Hollywood called it \"Disney's Folly\", but Walt continued production on the film. Walt decided to go for a realistic approach to the film and created scenes from the film as if it were live action. During the process of making the film, they created the multiplane camera, which was pieces of glass with drawings on them set at different distances, to create an illusion of depth for the backgrounds. After United Artist attempted to attain future television rights to the Disney shorts, Walt signed a distribution contract with RKO Radio Pictures on March 2, 1936. They ended up exceeding their original budget for Snow White of $150,000 by ten times the amount at $1.5 million.",
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"plaintext": "It took them three years to make, debuting on December 12, 1937. It became the highest-grossing film of all time up to that point at $8 million ; after several re-releases, the film would gross a total of $998,440,000 in the U.S. adjusted for inflation. After the profits of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Disney financed the construction of a new studio complex of 51 acres (20.6 ha) in Burbank, California, which the company fully moved into in 1940. On April 2 of the same year, Disney had its initial public offering, with the common stock remaining with Walt and his family. Walt did not want to go public, but the company needed the money. Shortly before Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs release, work on their next films Pinocchio and Bambi began, with Bambi being postponed. Though Pinocchio would win the Academy Awards for Best Song and Best Score, along with being said to have made groundbreaking achievements in animation, it would end up doing poorly in the box office during its release on February 23, 1940, because its international releases were cut off due to World War II.",
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"plaintext": "Disney's next film Fantasia was also a box-office bomb, but made great achievements by creating Fantasound, an early development surround sound, to produce the films' soundtrack, making it the first commercial film shown in stereo. In 1941, Disney would have a major setback when 300 of its 800 animators, led mainly by one of the companies top animators Art Babbit, would go on strike for five weeks for unionization, because of the amount of payment some of them were getting. Walt thought that the people on strike were secretly Communist and would end up firing many of the studios' animators, including some of its best ones. Roy would try to get the company's main distributors to invest in the film company, trying to secure more production funds for the studio which could no longer afford to offset production costs with employee layoffs, but was unsuccessful in getting anyone. During the premiere of The Reluctant Dragon, Disney's fourth film where Robert Benchley would tour the Disney Studio, protesters from the strike showed up; the film would fall $100,000 short of its production cost.",
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"plaintext": "While negotiations were being made for the strike, Walt accepted an offer from the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs to make a goodwill trip, along with some of his animators, to South America, making sure Walt would be gone during the deal because he knew the results would not be in his favor. During the twelve weeks there, they would start plotting for films and were inspired by the music. As a result of the strike, the studio recognized the Screen Cartoonist's Guild after being compelled to by Federal mediators and loss several animators, leaving the company with only 694 employees. To recover from their financial losses, Disney would create their fifth animated film, Dumbo, in a rush with a lower budget. Dumbo performed successfully at the box office and would be a much needed financial gain for the company. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, many of the companies animators would be drafted into the army. Later, 500 soldiers from the United States Army began to occupy the studio for eight months to protect a nearby Lockheed aircraft plant. While they where, they would fix equipment in large soundstages and convert storage sheds into ammunition depots. On December 8, the Navy asked Walt to create propaganda films to gain support for the war. He agreed and signed a contract with them to create 20 war-related shorts for $90,000. Most of the company's employees got to work on the project and created films such as Victory Through Air Power and included some of the company's characters in several of the films.",
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"plaintext": "In August, 1942, Bambi was finally released as Disney's sixth animated film and did not do well in the box office. In 1943, Disney would go on to make Saludos Amigos and The Three Caballeros after their visit to South America, but they would do poorly upon their releases. The two films were \"package films\", several short cartoons grouped together to make a feature film, which Disney would go on to make more of such as Make Mine Music (1946), Fun and Fancy Free (1947), Melody Time (1948), and The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad (1949) to try to recover from their financial losses. As less expensive to make, the studio started production on live-action films, with a mixture of animation, starting with Song of the South, which would later become Disney's most controversial film. Because the company was short on money, in 1944, they planned to re-release their feature films, which would create much needed revenue. In 1948, Disney began the nature documentary series, True-Life Adventures, which would run until 1960 and win eight Academy Awards. In 1949, while production on the animated film Cinderella was happening, the Walt Disney Music Company was founded in order to help with profits for merchandising, which the music from Cinderella was hoped to be a hit.",
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"plaintext": "In 1950, Disney's first animated film in eight years Cinderella was released and was considered a return to form for Disney. It would be Disney's best box office success since Snow White, making a total of $8 million in its first year in the box office and costing $2.2 million to make. Walt had not been as involved as he was with the previous films because he was distracted with trains and made a trip to England to create Disney's first ever fully live-action film Treasure Island. Because it was a success, he went back to England to produce The Story of Robin Hood and His Merry Men. In 1950, the television industry began to grow, and Disney got in it on Christmas Day when NBC aired the company's first television production One Hour in Wonderland, which was a promotional program for Disney's next animated film Alice in Wonderland and sponsored by Coca-Cola. During his trip in England, Alice in Wonderland was released and came as disappointment to the company falling $1 million short of the production budget. Upon his return, Walt started thinking about an amusement park he wanted to build called Mickey Mouse Park, an eight-acre (3.2 ha) piece of land near the studio with attractions such as a steamboat ride, but business kept getting in the way and production for a third British film The Sword and the Rose began. Walt would only supervise over it, but it would be financed by a new subsidiary of Disney called Walt Disney British Films Limited.",
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"plaintext": "Walt recalled that he first came up with the idea of an amusement park during one of his visits to Griffith Park with his daughters. He said that he watched them ride the carousel there and said that he thought there \"should be... some kind of amusement enterprise built where the parents and the children could have fun together.” As Walt continued to think about Mickey Mouse Park, he changed the name to Disneylandia before changing it to its final name Disneyland. Because Roy was doubtful about the park, Walt would form a new privately owned company called Walt Disney Enterprise on December 16, 1952, to fund the park. Shortly after, its name would change to Walt Disney Incorporated before changing its name to WED Enterprises (now Walt Disney Imagineering) in November 1953. He hired a group of designers to work on the plans and those who worked on it became dubbed as \"Imagineers\". Ever since Walt came up with the idea of a park, he and his friends would visit parks in the U.S. and Europe to get ideas on how to build one. His plan to have the park built in Burbank near the studio quickly changed when he realized that 8 (3.2 ha) acres would not be enough land. He acquired 160 acres (65 ha) of orange groves in Anaheim, southeast of Los Angeles in neighboring Orange County, at $6,200 per acre to build the park. As construction on the park began on July 12, 1954, Walt wanted it to be done by 1955, with storytelling attractions and areas, as well as being clean and perfect.",
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"plaintext": "They designed the park to have guest enter into Main Street U.S.A., themed to resemble American small towns during the early 20th Century based largely off of Walt's hometown in Marceline, Missouri, and walk down the street into the central hub, from which different themed lands branched out. At the end of the street in the central hub, would be a 77ft (23 m) tall Sleeping Beauty Castle inspired by the Neuschwanstein Castle in Germany and based on the castle from the Disney film of the same name, which would be released four years later. The four original different themed lands of the park that branched out from the hub would consist of Frontierland, themed to the American Frontier of the 19th century; Adventureland, resembling a wild tropical jungle; Fantasyland, based on Disney's animated fairy tale films; and Tomorrowland, depicting views of the future, especially that of the Space Age. In total, by the time the park opened, it cost the company $17 million to construct.",
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"plaintext": "In February 1953, Disney's next animated film Peter Pan was released and had been a success, but Walt wanted to figure out how to improve animation without raising the cost. When Disney wanted to create a feature with two short films, The Living Desert, for the True-Life documentary, RKO's lawyer believed it would break the 1948 antitrust Supreme Court ruling if it sold as a package. Roy thought the company would do fine without RKO and the company created its own distribution company, Buena Vista Distribution, named after the street where the studio was located, to distribute their own films from then on. In 1954, Disney's first American live action film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea was released, which was one of the first films to use CinemaScope. From the early to mid-1950s, Walt began to devote less attention to the animation department, entrusting most of its operations to his key animators the Nine Old Men, although he was always present at story meetings. Instead, he started concentrating on other things such as television and Disneyland.",
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"plaintext": "To get money to create the park, the company decided to promote it through a television series. After trying to get NBC and CBS to sign on, in 1954, ABC made a deal with Disney for an hour-long weekly series starting in October called Disneyland, an anthology series consisting of animated cartoons, live-action features, other materials from the studio's library, and would go through four segments of the four different areas of the amusement park. The series was a success and garnered over 50% of viewers in their time slot, along with increasing audiences and praise from critics. In August, Walt formed another company Disneyland, Inc. to finance the theme park, with Disney, himself, Western Publishing, which had been the publisher of Disney books for over twenty years, and ABC all holding stock in the company.",
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"plaintext": "In October, with the success of Disneyland, ABC allowed Disney to produce another series The Mickey Mouse Club, a variety show specifically for kids, showing things such as a daily Disney cartoon, a children's newsreel, and a talent show. It would consist of a host and talented kids and adults called \"Mousketeers\" and \"Mooseketeers\", respectively. After the first season, over 10 million children and half as many adults watched it every day, 2 million Mickey Mouse ears, which the cast wore, had sold, and the shows theme song \"Mickey Mouse March\", written by Jimmie Dodd one of the show's main host, had become a classic. On December 15, 1954, Disneyland aired an episode of the five-part miniseries Davy Crockett, which starred Fess Parker as Crockett. According to writer Neal Gabler, \"[It] became an overnight national sensation\", selling 10 million Crockett coonskin caps. The shows theme song \"The Ballad of Davy Crockett\" had spread throughout American pop culture as much as the Three Little Pig's \"Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wold\" did, selling 10 million records. The Los Angeles Times called it \"the greatest merchandising fad the world had ever seen\". In June 1955, Disney's 15th animated film, Lady and the Tramp, was released and did better in the box office than any other Disney films since Snow White.",
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"plaintext": "Though Walt was more busy with the park than the films, the company would stay busy and produce an average of five releases per year throughout the 1950s and 60s. The animated films created were features such as Sleeping Beauty (1959), One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), and The Sword in the Stone (1963). While Sleeping Beauty was a financial loss for the company, and Disney's highest production costs for a film up to that point at $6 million, One Hundred and One Dalmatians introduced a new way of animating using the xerography process to electromagnetically transfer the drawings to animation cels. In 1956, the Sherman brothers, Robert and Richard, were asked to create the theme song for the TV series Zorro. Disney would later hire them as exclusive staff songwriters, which would be a ten-year association. They wrote many of the songs for Disney's films at the time and some for the theme parks, with several of them being hits. In the late 1950s, Disney would venture into the comedy genre with the live-action films The Shaggy Dog (1959), which became the highest grossing film in the U.S. and Canada for Disney at over $9 million, and The Absent Minded Professor (1961), both starring Fred MacMurray.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the 1960s, Dean Jones, who was called \"the figure who most represented Walt Disney Productions in the 1960s\" by The Guardian, starred in ten Disney films, which included That Darn Cat! (1965), The Ugly Dachshund (1966), and The Love Bug (1968) and its second sequel Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo (1977). Disney's last child actor of the 1960s would be Kurt Russell, who had signed a ten-year contract with the company. He featured in films such as The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes (1969), The Horse in the Gray Flannel Suit (1968) alongside Dean Jones, The Barefoot Executive (1971), and The Strongest Man in the World (1975).",
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"plaintext": "In late 1959, Walt had an idea to build another park in Palm Beach, Florida, called the City of Tomorrow, a city that would be full of technological improvements. In 1964, the company chose land southwest of Orlando, Florida, as the area to build the park and quickly acquired 27,000 acres (10,927 ha) of land for it. On November 15, 1965, Walt, along with Roy and Florida's current governor at the time Haydon Burns, announced the plans for another park called Disney World, which included the Magic Kingdom—a larger and more elaborate version of Disneyland, with golf courses and resort hotels near it—and the City of Tomorrow, which would be at the heart of the park. By 1967, the company had made several expansions to Disneyland including a new area called New Orleans Square, which would be filled with mostly shops and would be based on the look of New Orleans, Louisiana. Through 1966 to 1967 they added three more rides It's a Small World, the Disneyland Railroad, and Pirates of the Caribbean. In all, the expansion costed $20 million, which was $3 million more than it cost to make the park. They also added several other rides before then such as Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room, which was the first attraction to use audio-animatronics; Walt Disney's Carousel of Progress, which debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair before moving to Disneyland in 1967; and Dumbo the Flying Elephant, which opened a month after the park did.",
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"plaintext": "On November 20, 1964, Walt sold most of WED Enterprise to Walt Disney Productions for $3.75 million after being persuaded to by Roy, who thought that Walt having his own company would cause legal problems. Walt formed a new company called Retlaw to handle his personnel business, primarily the Disneyland Railroad and the Disneyland Monorail. When the company started looking for someone to sponsor the project, Walt renamed the City of Tomorrow to EPCOT, which stood for Experimental Prototype Community of Tomorrow. Because Walt had been a heavy smoker since World War I, his health started declining, and he visited the St. Joseph Hospital on November 2, 1965, for testing. The doctors discovered a walnut-sized spot on his left lung and removed it a few days later, finding out it was cancerous. After two weeks, he was released from the hospital, but overgrown lymph nodes showed that he did not have much longer to live. On December 15, 1966, at the age of 65, Walt died of circulatory collapse, caused by lung cancer.",
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"plaintext": "In 1967, the last two films Walt had worked on were released, the animated film The Jungle Book, which would be Disney's most successful film for the next two decades, and the live-action musical The Happiest Millionaire. After Walt's death, the company largely abandoned the animation industry, but would still make several live-action films. Its staff in the field of animation began to decline from 500 workers to 125 employees, with the company only hiring 21 people from 1970 to 1977. Disney's first post-Walt animated film The Aristocats was released in 1970, where Dave Kehr of Chicago Tribune said, \"the absence of his [Walt's] hand is evident.\" That following year the anti-fascist musical Bedknobs and Broomsticks was released and won the Oscar for Best Special Visual Effects. By the time Walt had died, Roy was ready to retire, but wanted to keep Walt's legacy alive and became the first CEO and chairman of the board of the company. In May 1967, he got a legislation passed by Florida's legislatures to grant Disney World to have its own quasi-government agency in an area called the Reedy Creek Improvement District, and he later changed the name from Disney World to Walt Disney World to remind people it was Walt's dream. Over time, EPCOT became less of the City of Tomorrow and developed more into another amusement park. After 18 months of construction that cost around $400 million, Walt Disney World's first park the Magic Kingdom, along with Disney's Contemporary Resort and Disney's Polynesian Resort, opened on October 1, 1971, with 10,400 visitors. A parade with over 1,000 band members, along with 4,000 Disney entertainers and choir from the U.S. Army, marched down Main Street led by composer Meredith Wilson. Unlike Disneyland, the icon of the park would be the Cinderella Castle instead of the Sleeping Beauty Castle. Three months later on Thanksgiving day, cars wanting to get into the Magic Kingdom were stretched miles along the interstate.",
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"plaintext": "On December 21, 1971, Roy died of cerebral hemorrhage at the St. Joseph Hospital. After Roy's death, Donn Tatum, who was a senior executive for 25 years and former president of Disney, became the first non-Disney family member to become CEO and chairman of the board of the company, with Card Walker, who had been with the company since 1938, becoming president of the company. By June 30, 1973, Disney had over 23,000 employees and had a gross total of $257,751,000 over a nine months period, which is a raise compared to the year before when they made $220,026,000. In November, Disney released another animated film Robin Hood, which became Disney's biggest international grossing movie at $18 million. Throughout the 1970s, Disney released several more live-action films such as The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes sequel Now You See Him, Now You Don't, The Love Bug's two sequels Herbie Rides Again (1974) and Herbie Goes to Monte Carlo (1977), Escape to Witch Mountain (1975), and Freaky Friday (1976). In 1976, Card Walker took over as CEO of the company, with Tatum staying as the chairman until 1980 when Walker would replace him. In 1977, Roy E. Disney, Roy O. Disney's son and the only Disney working for the company, would resign from his job as an executive of the company because of disagreements with decisions the company was making.",
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"plaintext": "In 1977, Disney's created the successful animated film The Rescuers, grossing $48 million at the box office. The live-acton/animated musical Pete's Dragon was released in 1977, grossing $16 million in the U.S. and Canada, but was considered a disappointment to the company. In 1979, Disney's first ever PG rated film and most expensive film up to that point at $26 million dollars The Black Hole was released, showing that Disney could also use special effects. Grossing $35 million, which was a disappointment to the company who thought it was going to be a hit like Star Wars (1977), the film was in response to other sci-fi movies that were being released. In September, 12 animators, which was over 15 percent of the department, resigned from the studio. Led by Don Bluth, they left because of a conflict with the training program and the atmosphere at the studio, starting their own company Don Bluth Productions (which later became Sullivan Bluth Studios). In 1981, Disney released Dumbo to VHS and Alice in Wonderland the following year, eventually leading Disney to release all their films to home media. On July 24, Walt Disney World on Ice, a two year tour of ice shows featuring Disney charters, made its premiere at the Brendan Byrne Meadowlands Arena, after Disney licensed its characters to Feld Entertainment. The same month, Disney's animated film The Fox and the Hound was released and became the highest grossing animated film to that point at $39.9 million. It was the first film that Walt had nothing to do with and was the last major work done by Disney's Nine Old Men, making way for the younger animators to do more.",
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"plaintext": "As profits for the company started to slow down, On October 1, 1982, Epcot, then known as EPCOT Center, opened as the second theme park in Walt Disney World, with around 10,000 people in attendance during the opening. Costing the company over $900 million to construct, The park consisted of the Future World pavilion and the World Showcase, which represented nine countries including Mexico, China, Germany, Italy, America, Japan, France, United Kingdom, and Canada (Morocco and Norway would be added later in 1984 and 1988, respectively). The animation industry continued to decline and 69% of the company's profits were from its theme parks, with attendance of 12 million visitors to Walt Disney World which would decline by 5% next June. On July 9, Disney released one of the first films to majorly use computer-generated imagery (CGI) Tron, which would a big influence on other CGI movies, although it only received mixed reviews. In total, in 1982, the company lost $27 million. On April 15, 1983, Disney's first ever foreign park Tokyo Disneyland, similar to Disneyland and the Magic Kingdom, opened in Urayasu, Japan. Costing around $1.4 billion, construction on the park started in 1979 when Disney and The Oriental Land Company agreed to build a park together. Within its first ten year, the park had been a hit with over 140 million visitors. After an investment of $100 million, on April 18, Disney started a pay to watch cable television series called Disney Channel, a sixteen hour-long series showing things such as Disney films, twelve different programs, and two magazines shows for adults. Although it was expected to do well, the company lost $48.3 million after its first year, with around 916,000 subscribers.",
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"plaintext": "In 1983, Walt's son-in-law Ron W. Miller, who had been president of the company since 1978, became CEO of Disney, and Raymond Watson became chairman. Ron would push for more more mature films from the studio, and as a result, Disney founded the film distribution label Touchstone Pictures to produce movies geared toward adults and teenagers in 1984. Splash (1984), was the first film released under the label and would become a much needed success for the studio, grossing over $6.1 million in its first week of screening. Later, Disney's first R-rated film, Down and Out in Beverly Hills (1986), was released and was another hit for the company, grossing $62 million. The following year, Disney's first PG-13 rated film, Adventures in Babysitting, was released. In 1984, Saul Steinberg attempted to buyout the company, holding 11.1% of the stocks in the company. He offered to buy 49% of the company for $1.3 billion or the entire company for $2.75 billion. Disney, which had less than $10 million, rejected and offered to buy all of his stock for $325.5 million. Steinberg agreed, and Disney paid it all with part of a $1.3 billion loan they got from the bank, putting the company at $866 million in debt.",
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"plaintext": "In 1984, the company's shareholders, Roy E. Disney, Sid Bass, Lillian and Diana Disney, and Irwin L. Jacobs, who had a combined total of about 35.5% of the total shares of the company, forced Miller out as CEO and replaced him with Michael Eisner, who had previously been president of Paramount Pictures, as the new CEO, along with bringing in Frank Wells as president. Eisner's first move at Disney was to make it a major film studio, which at the time it was not considered. He brought in Jeffrey Katzenberg as chairman and Roy as head of the animation division to help with the animation industry. He wanted to produce an animated film every 18 months instead of every 4 years like the company had been doing. To help with the film division, they started making Saturday-morning cartoons to create new Disney characters for merchandising and producing several films through Touchstone. Eisner led Disney into the television industry more by creating Touchstone Television and producing The Golden Girls, which was a hit. The company also started to promote their theme parks for the first time at $15 million, raising the attendance rate by 10%. In 1984, Disney created the most expensive animated movie at $40 million, and their first animated film to feature computer-generated imagery The Black Cauldron, which was also their first PG rated animated film because of its darker themes. It ended up being a box office bomb, leading the company to move the animation department out of studio in Burbank and into a warehouse in Glendale, California. Organized in 1985, Silver Screen Partners II, LP financed films for Disney with $193 million. In January 1987, Silver Screen III began financing movies for Disney with $300 million raised, the largest amount raised for a film financing limited partnership by E.F. Hutton. Silver Screen IV was also set up to finance Disney's studios.",
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"plaintext": "In 1986, the company changed its name from Walt Disney Productions to its current name The Walt Disney Company, statomh that the old name only referred to the film industry. With Disney's animation industry declining, the animation department needed a hit with their next movie The Great Mouse Detective. During its release, it grossed $25 million, becoming a much needed financial success for the company in the animation industry. To generate more revenue from merchandising, the company opened their first retail store the Disney Store in Glendale in 1987. Because of its success, they opened two more stores in California, and by 1990 they had 215 stores throughout the country. In 1989, the company saw financial success with $411 million in revenue and a profit of $187 million. In 1987, the company signed an agreement with the French government to build a resort in Paris named Euro Disneyland, consisting of two theme parks named Disneyland Park and Walt Disney Studios Park, a golf course, and six hotels.",
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"plaintext": "Marking the end of the Disney Renaissance, Tarzan was released on June 12, garnering $448 million at the box office and critical acclaim; it also claimed the Academy Award for Best Original Song for Phil Collins' \"You'll Be in My Heart\". Toy Story's sequel and Disney-Pixar film Toy Story 2 was released on November 13 as a successful film, garnering praise and $511 million at the box office. Filling Ovitz spot, Eisner named ABC network chief Bob Iger president and COO of the company on January 25, 2000. In November, Disney sold DIC Entertainment back to Andy Heward, although still doing business with them. Disney had another huge success with Pixar when they released Monsters, Inc. in 2001. Later, Disney bought children's cable network Fox Family Worldwide for $3 billion and the assumption of $2.3 billion in debt. The deal also included 76% stake in Fox Kids Europe, Latin American Fox Kids, more than 6,500 episodes from Saban Entertainment's programming library, and the Fox Family Channel. In 2001, Disney's operations declined with a net loss of $158 million in fiscal, as well as a decline in viewership on the ABC television network, because of decreased tourism due to the September 11 attacks; Disney earning in fiscal 2001 $120 million was heavily reduced from the year's before $920 million. To help with costs savings, Disney announced they would be laying off 4,000 employees and closing 300 to 400 Disney stores. After winning the World Series in 2002, Disney sold the Angels to businessman Arturo Moreno for $180 million in 2003. In 2003, Disney became the first studio to garner $3 billion in a year at the box office. Roy Disney announced his retirement in 2003 because of the way the company was being ran, calling on Eisner to retire; the same week, board member Stanley Gold retired for the same reasons, forming the \"Save Disney\" campaign together.",
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"plaintext": "He started his aviation career in 1909 flying a Demoiselle (dragonfly) monoplane, an aircraft that flew well only if it had a small lightweight pilot. He gained Ae.C.F. licence no. 147 in July 1910. In 1911 Garros graduated to flying Blériot XI monoplanes and entered a number of European air races with this type of aircraft, including the 1911 Paris to Madrid air race and the Circuit of Europe (Paris–London–Paris), in which he came second.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 September 1911, he set an altitude record of . The following year, on 6 September 1912, after Austrian aviator Philipp von Blaschke had flown to , he regained the height record by flying to .",
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"plaintext": "By 1913 he was flying the faster Morane-Saulnier monoplanes, and on 23 September gained fame for making the first non-stop flight across the Mediterranean Sea from Fréjus-Saint Raphaël in the south of France to Bizerte in Tunisia in a Morane-Saulnier G. The flight commenced at 5:47am and lasted for nearly eight hours, during which time Garros resolved two engine malfunctions. The following year, Garros joined the French army at the outbreak of World WarI.",
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"plaintext": "Reports published in August 1914 claimed Garros was involved in the \"first air battle in world history\" and that he had flown his plane into a Zeppelin, destroying the airship and killing its pilots and himself. This story was quickly contradicted by reports that Garros was alive and well in Paris. Such early reports maintained that an unidentified French pilot had indeed rammed and destroyed a Zeppelin, however, German authorities denied the story. Later sources indicated the first aerial victory against a Zeppelin occurred in June 1915 and earlier reports, including that of Garros, had been discounted.",
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"plaintext": "In the early stages of the air war in World War I, the problem of mounting a forward-firing machine gun on combat aircraft—without having the bullets hit the propeller—was considered by several people. As a reconnaissance pilot with the Escadrille MS26, Garros had made several attempts at shooting down German aircraft; however, these efforts were unsuccessful due to the difficulty in hitting an aircraft with a hand-held carbine. He visited the Morane-Saulnier works in November or December 1914 to discuss the problem. ",
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"plaintext": "Raymond Saulnier had begun work on a synchroniser (which times the firing of the gun with the position of the propeller) before World War I and had taken out a patent for a workable mechanism by 14 April 1914, however circumstances beyond his control resulted in its being tested with the Hotchkiss 09/13 portative machine gun, which proved unsuitable due to an inconsistent firing rate. As a workaround, Garros, with the help of his mechanic, Jules Hue, developed protective wedges, which were fitted to the slightly narrowed propeller blades which deflected the occasional round which would have otherwise struck the propeller. With a workable installation now fitted to his Morane-Saulnier Type L parasol monoplane, Garros achieved the first ever shooting-down of an aircraft by a fighter firing through a tractor propeller, on 1 April 1915 and two more victories over German aircraft were achieved on 15 and 18 April 1915. The Aero Club of America awarded him a medal for this invention three years later.",
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"plaintext": "On 18 April 1915, Garros was hit by ground fire, and he came down in German-controlled territory where he failed to destroy his aircraft completely before being taken prisoner: most significantly, the gun and armoured propeller remained intact. Fokker had been working on a system for at least six months before Garros's aircraft fell into German hands, but this convinced the German military to request a similar mechanism. ",
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"plaintext": "With the Fokker's introduction of an interrupter gear (which prevents the gun from firing while the propeller is in front of it), the tables were turned on the Allies. Fokker's aircraft shot down many Allied aircraft, leading to what became known as the Fokker Scourge.",
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"plaintext": "After almost three years in captivity in various German POW camps Garros managed to escape on 14 February 1918 together with fellow aviator lieutenant Anselme Marchal. They made it to London via the Netherlands and from there he returned to France where he rejoined the French army. He returned to Escadrille 26 to pilot a SPAD, and claimed two victories on 2 October 1918, one of which was confirmed.",
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"plaintext": "Garros is sometimes called the world's first fighter ace; however, he shot down only four aircraft, while the criterion for \"ace\" was set at five or more victories. The honour of becoming the first ace went to another French airman, Adolphe Pégoud, who had six victories early in the war.",
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"plaintext": "The Stade Roland Garros tennis centre constructed in Paris in the 1920s was named after him. It accommodates the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments. Consequently, the tournament is officially called Les Internationaux de France de Roland-Garros (the \"French Internationals of Roland Garros\").",
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"plaintext": "According to Vũ Trọng Phụng's urban novel, Dumb Luck (1936), during colonial times the Hanoi government named the city's main tennis stadium after Roland Garros.",
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| 207,709 | 4,279 | 114 | 66 | 0 | 0 | Roland Garros | French aviator | [
"Eugène Adrien Roland Georges Garros",
"Roland Georges Garros"
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"plaintext": "The mole, symbol mol, is the unit of amount of substance in the International System of Units (SI). The quantity amount of substance is a measure of how many elementary entities of a given substance are in an object or sample. The mole is defined as containing exactly elementary entities. Depending on what the substance is, an elementary entity may be an atom, a molecule, an ion, an ion pair, or a subatomic particle such as an electron. For example, 10 moles of water (a chemical compound) and 10 moles of mercury (a chemical element), contain equal amounts of substance and the mercury contains exactly one atom for each molecule of the water, despite the two having different volumes and different masses.",
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"plaintext": "The mole is widely used in chemistry as a convenient way to express amounts of reactants and products of chemical reactions. For example, the chemical equation can be interpreted to mean that for each 2mol dihydrogen (H2) and 1mol dioxygen (O2) that react, 2mol of water (H2O) form. The concentration of a solution is commonly expressed by its molar concentration, defined as the amount of dissolved substance per unit volume of solution, for which the unit typically used is moles per litre (mol/L).",
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"plaintext": "The term gram-molecule was formerly used for \"mole of molecules\", and gram-atom for \"mole of atoms\". For example, 1 mole of MgBr2 is 1gram-molecule of MgBr2 but 3gram-atoms of MgBr2.",
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"plaintext": "The mole corresponds to a given a count of particles. Usually the particles counted are chemically identical entities, individually distinct. For example, a solution may contain a certain number of dissolved molecules that are more or less independent of each other. However, in a solid the constituent particles are fixed and bound in a lattice arrangement, yet they may be separable without losing their chemical identity. Thus the solid is composed of a certain number of moles of such particles. In yet other cases, such as diamond, where the entire crystal is essentially a single molecule, the mole is still used to express the number of atoms bound together, rather than a count of molecules. Thus, common chemical conventions apply to the definition of the constituent particles of a substance, in other cases exact definitions may be specified.",
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"plaintext": "The molar mass of a substance depends not only on its molecular formula, but also on the distribution of isotopes of each chemical element present in it. For example, the molar mass of calcium-40 is , whereas the molar mass of calcium-42 is , and of calcium with the normal isotopic mix is .",
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"plaintext": "Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) was instrumental in the determination of relative atomic masses to ever-increasing accuracy. He was also the first chemist to use oxygen as the standard to which other masses were referred. Oxygen is a useful standard, as, unlike hydrogen, it forms compounds with most other elements, especially metals. However, he chose to fix the atomic mass of oxygen as 100, which did not catch on.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 November 2018, after a meeting of scientists from more than 60 countries at the CGPM in Versailles, France, all SI base units were defined in terms of physical constants. This meant that each SI unit, including the mole, would not be defined in terms of any physical objects but rather they would be defined by physical constants that are, in their nature, exact.",
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"plaintext": "Such changes officially came into effect on 20 May 2019. Following such changes, \"one mole\" of a substance was redefined as containing \"exactly elementary entities\" of that substance.",
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"plaintext": "Since its adoption into the International System of Units in 1971, numerous criticisms of the concept of the mole as a unit like the metre or the second have arisen:",
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"plaintext": " the number of molecules, etc. in a given amount of material is a fixed dimensionless quantity that can be expressed simply as a number, not requiring a distinct base unit;",
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"plaintext": " The SI thermodynamic mole is irrelevant to analytical chemistry and could cause avoidable costs to advanced economies",
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"plaintext": " The mole is not a true metric (i.e. measuring) unit, rather it is a parametric unit, and amount of substance is a parametric base quantity",
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"plaintext": " the SI defines numbers of entities as quantities of dimension one, and thus ignores the ontological distinction between entities and units of continuous quantities",
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"plaintext": "In chemistry, it has been known since Proust's law of definite proportions (1794) that knowledge of the mass of each of the components in a chemical system is not sufficient to define the system. Amount of substance can be described as mass divided by Proust's \"definite proportions\", and contains information that is missing from the measurement of mass alone. As demonstrated by Dalton's law of partial pressures (1803), a measurement of mass is not even necessary to measure the amount of substance (although in practice it is usual). There are many physical relationships between amount of substance and other physical quantities, the most notable one being the ideal gas law (where the relationship was first demonstrated in 1857). The term \"mole\" was first used in a textbook describing these colligative properties.",
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"plaintext": "Like chemists, chemical engineers use the unit mole extensively, but different unit multiples may be more suitable for industrial use. For example, the SI unit for volume is the cubic metre, a much larger unit than the commonly used litre in the chemical laboratory. When amount of substance is also expressed in kmol (1000mol) in industrial-scaled processes, the numerical value of molarity remains the same.",
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"plaintext": "For convenience in avoiding conversions in the imperial (or American customary units), some engineers adopted the pound-mole (notation lb-mol or lbmol), which is defined as the number of entities in 12 lb of 12C. One lb-mol is equal to , which value is the same as the number of grams in an international avoirdupois pound.",
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"plaintext": "In the metric system, chemical engineers once used the kilogram-mole (notation kg-mol), which is defined as the number of entities in 12kg of 12C, and often referred to the mole as the gram-mole (notation g-mol), when dealing with laboratory data.",
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"plaintext": "Late 20th-century chemical engineering practice came to use the kilomole (kmol), which is numerically identical to the kilogram-mole, but whose name and symbol adopt the SI convention for standard multiples of metric units – thus, kmol means 1000mol. This is equivalent to the use of kg instead of g. The use of kmol is not only for \"magnitude convenience\" but also makes the equations used for modelling chemical engineering systems coherent. For example, the conversion of a flowrate of kg/s to kmol/s only requires the molecular mass without the factor 1000 unless the basic SI unit of mol/s were to be used.",
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"plaintext": "Greenhouse and growth chamber lighting for plants is sometimes expressed in micromoles per square metre per second, where 1mol photons = photons. The energy in one mole of photons is sometimes referred to as an einstein.",
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"plaintext": "The only SI derived unit with a special name derived from the mole is the katal, defined as one mole per second of catalytic activity. Like other SI units, the mole can also be modified by adding a metric prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10:",
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"plaintext": "October 23, denoted 10/23 in the US, is recognized by some as Mole Day. It is an informal holiday in honor of the unit among chemists. The date is derived from the Avogadro number, which is approximately . It starts at 6:02a.m. and ends at 6:02p.m. Alternatively, some chemists celebrate June2 (), June22 (), or 6February (), a reference to the 6.02 or 6.022 part of the constant.",
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| 41,509 | 38,009 | 591 | 97 | 0 | 0 | mole | SI unit of amount of substance | [
"mol"
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|
37,401 | 1,106,762,520 | Fertilizer | [
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"plaintext": "A fertilizer (American English) or fertiliser (British English; see spelling differences) is any material of natural or synthetic origin that is applied to soil or to plant tissues to supply plant nutrients. Fertilizers may be distinct from liming materials or other non-nutrient soil amendments. Many sources of fertilizer exist, both natural and industrially produced. For most modern agricultural practices, fertilization focuses on three main macro nutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P), and Potassium (K) with occasional addition of supplements like rock dust for micronutrients. Farmers applying these fertilizers in a variety of ways: through dry or pelletized or liquid application processes, using large agricultural equipment or hand-tool methods.",
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"plaintext": "Historically fertilization came from natural or organic sources: compost, animal manure, human manure, harvested minerals, crop rotations and byproducts of human-nature industries (i.e. fish processing waste, or bloodmeal from animal slaughter). However, starting in the 19th century, after innovations in plant nutrition, an agricultural industry developed around synthetically created fertilizers. This transition was important in transforming the global food system, allowing for larger-scale industrial agriculture with large crop yields. In particular, nitrogen-fixing chemical processes such as the Haber process at the beginning of the 20th century, amplified by production capacity created during World War II led to a boom in using nitrogen fertilizers. In the latter half of the 20th century, increased use of nitrogen fertilizers (800% increase between 1961 and 2019) have been a crucial component of the increased productivity of conventional food systems (more than 30% per capita) as part of the so-called \"Green Revolution\".",
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"plaintext": "Management of soil fertility has preoccupied farmers for thousands of years. Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians, and early Germans are all recorded as using minerals or manure to enhance the productivity of their farms. The science of plant nutrition started well before the work of German chemist Justus von Liebig although his name is most mentioned. Nicolas Théodore de Saussure and scientific colleagues at the time were quick to disprove the simplifications of Justus von Liebig. There was a complex scientific understanding of plant nutrition, where the role of humus and organo-mineral interactions were central, and which was in line with more recent discoveries from 1990 onwards. Prominent scientists on whom Justus von Liebig drew were Carl Ludwig Sprenger and Hermann Hellriegel. In this field, a 'knowledge erosion' took place, partly driven by an intermingling of economics and research. John Bennet Lawes, an English entrepreneur, began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulfuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of Joseph Henry Gilbert; together they performed crop experiments at the Institute of Arable Crops Research.",
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"plaintext": "The Birkeland–Eyde process was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen-based fertilizer production. This process was used to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into nitric acid (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as nitrogen fixation. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of nitrate (NO3−). A factory based on the process was built in Rjukan and Notodden in Norway, combined with the building of large hydroelectric power facilities.",
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"plaintext": "The 1910s and 1920s witnessed the rise of the Haber process and the Ostwald process. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from methane (CH4) (natural gas) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2) from the air. The ammonia from the Haber process is then partially converted into nitric acid (HNO3) in the Ostwald process. After World War II, Nitrogen production plants that had ramped up for war-time bomb manufacturing were pivoted towards agriculture uses. The use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.",
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"plaintext": "The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global population growth— it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use. The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare () requires of phosphate fertilizer to be applied; soybean crops require about half, as 20–25kg per hectare. Yara International is the world's largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration. This article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers typically provide, in varying proportions:",
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"plaintext": " three main macronutrients:",
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"plaintext": " Nitrogen (N): leaf growth",
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"plaintext": " Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit;",
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"plaintext": " Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting;",
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"plaintext": " three secondary macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S);",
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"plaintext": " micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B). Of occasional significance are silicon (Si), cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V).",
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"plaintext": "The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macro-nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA and other components (e.g., chlorophyll). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a \"fixed\" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably legumes) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.",
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"plaintext": "Two sets of enzymatic reactions are highly relevant to the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. ",
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"plaintext": "Urease",
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"plaintext": "The first is the hydrolysis (reaction with water) of urea. Many soil bacteria possess the enzyme urease, which catalyzes conversion of urea to ammonium ion (NH4+) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3−). ",
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"plaintext": "Ammonia oxidation",
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"plaintext": "Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), such as species of Nitrosomonas, oxidize ammonia to nitrite, a process termed nitrification. Nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, especially Nitrobacter, oxidize nitrite to nitrate, which is extremely mobile and is a major cause of eutrophication.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient (e.g., K, P, or N), in which case they are classified as \"straight fertilizers.\" \"Multinutrient fertilizers\" (or \"complex fertilizers\") provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic (the topic of most of this article) versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except ureas. Organic fertilizers are usually (recycled) plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture.",
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"plaintext": "The main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is also widely used. Urea is another popular source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate, respectively. A few percent of the nitrogen fertilizer market (4% in 2007) has been met by calcium ammonium nitrate ().",
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"plaintext": "The main straight phosphate fertilizers are the superphosphates. \"Single superphosphate\" (SSP) consists of 14–18% P2O5, again in the form of Ca(H2PO4)2, but also phosphogypsum (). Triple superphosphate (TSP) typically consists of 44–48% of P2O5 and no gypsum. A mixture of single superphosphate and triple superphosphate is called double superphosphate. More than 90% of a typical superphosphate fertilizer is water-soluble.",
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"plaintext": "The main potassium-based straight fertilizer is muriate of potash (MOP). Muriate of potash consists of 95–99% KCl, and is typically available as 0-0-60 or 0-0-62 fertilizer.",
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"plaintext": "These fertilizers are common. They consist of two or more nutrient components.",
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"plaintext": "Binary (NP, NK, PK) fertilizers",
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"plaintext": "Major two-component fertilizers provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants. These are called NP fertilizers. The main NP fertilizers are monoammonium phosphate (MAP) and diammonium phosphate (DAP). The active ingredient in MAP is NH4H2PO4. The active ingredient in DAP is (NH4)2HPO4. About 85% of MAP and DAP fertilizers are soluble in water.",
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"plaintext": "NPK fertilizers",
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"plaintext": "NPK fertilizers are three-component fertilizers providing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. There exist two types of NPK fertilizers: compound and blends. Compound NPK fertilizers contain chemically bound ingredients, while blended NPK fertilizers are physical mixtures of single nutrient components.",
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"plaintext": "NPK rating is a rating system describing the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a fertilizer. NPK ratings consist of three numbers separated by dashes (e.g., 10-10-10 or 16-4-8) describing the chemical content of fertilizers. The first number represents the percentage of nitrogen in the product; the second number, P2O5; the third, K2O. Fertilizers do not actually contain P2O5 or K2O, but the system is a conventional shorthand for the amount of the phosphorus (P) or potassium (K) in a fertilizer. A bag of fertilizer labeled 16-4-8 contains of nitrogen (16% of the 50 pounds), an amount of phosphorus equivalent to that in 2 pounds of P2O5 (4% of 50 pounds), and 4 pounds of K2O (8% of 50 pounds). Most fertilizers are labeled according to this N-P-K convention, although Australian convention, following an N-P-K-S system, adds a fourth number for sulfur, and uses elemental values for all values including P and K.",
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"plaintext": "Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts-per-million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm or less than 0.04% dry matter. These elements are often required for enzymes essential to the plant's metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes), their impact far exceeds their weight percentage. Typical micronutrients are boron, zinc, molybdenum, iron, and manganese. These elements are provided as water-soluble salts. Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble (bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often administered as a chelate complex, e.g., the EDTA or EDDHA derivatives. The micronutrient needs depend on the plant and the environment. For example, sugar beets appear to require boron, and legumes require cobalt, while environmental conditions such as heat or drought make boron less available for plants.",
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"plaintext": "Synthetic fertilizer used in agriculture has wide-reaching environmental consequences. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Climate Change and Land, production of these fertilizers and associated land use practices are drivers of global warming. The use of fertilizer has also led to a number of direct environmental consequences: agricultural runoff which leads to downstream effects like ocean dead zones and waterway contamination, soil microbiome degradation, and accumulation of toxins in ecosystems. Indirect environmental impacts include: the environmental impacts of fracking for natural gas used in the Haber process, the agricultural boom is partially responsible for the rapid growth in human population and large-scale industrial agricultural practices are associated with habitat destruction, pressure on biodiversity and agricultural soil loss.",
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"plaintext": "In order to mitigate environmental and food security concerns, the international community has included food systems in Sustainable Development Goal 2 which focuses on creating a climate-friendly and sustainable food production system. Most policy and regulatory approaches to address these issues focus on pivoting agricultural practices towards sustainable or regenerative agricultural practices: these use less synthetic fertilizers, better soil management (for example no-till agriculture) and more organic fertilizers.",
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"plaintext": "The production of synthetic, or inorganic, fertilizers requires prepared chemicals, whereas organic fertilizers are derived from the organic processes of plants and animals in biological processes using biochemicals.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrogen fertilizers are made from ammonia (NH3) produced by the Haber-Bosch process. In this energy-intensive process, natural gas (CH4) usually supplies the hydrogen, and the nitrogen (N2) is derived from the air. This ammonia is used as a feedstock for all other nitrogen fertilizers, such as anhydrous ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) and urea (CO(NH2)2).",
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"plaintext": "Deposits of sodium nitrate (NaNO3) (Chilean saltpeter) are also found in the Atacama desert in Chile and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen-rich fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer. Nitrates are also produced from ammonia by the Ostwald process.",
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"plaintext": "Phosphate fertilizers are obtained by extraction from phosphate rock, which contains two principal phosphorus-containing minerals, fluorapatite Ca5(PO4)3F (CFA) and hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3OH. These minerals are converted into water-soluble phosphate salts by treatment with sulfuric (H2SO4) or phosphoric acids (H3PO4). The large production of sulfuric acid is primarily motivated by this application. In the nitrophosphate process or Odda process (invented in 1927), phosphate rock with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with nitric acid (HNO3) to produce a mixture of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2). This mixture can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a compound fertilizer with the three macronutrients N, P and K in easily dissolved form.",
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"plaintext": "Potash is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make potassium (chemical symbol: K) fertilizers. Potash is soluble in water, so the main effort in producing this nutrient from the ore involves some purification steps; e.g., to remove sodium chloride (NaCl) (common salt). Sometimes potash is referred to as K2O, as a matter of convenience to those describing the potassium content. In fact, potash fertilizers are usually potassium chloride, potassium sulfate, potassium carbonate, or potassium nitrate.",
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"plaintext": "There are four major routes for manufacturing NPK fertilizers: 1) steam granulation, 2) chemical granulation, 3) compaction, 4) bulk blending. The first three processes are used to produce compound NPKs. During steam granulation raw materials are mixed and further granulated using steam as binding agent. Chemical granulation process is based on chemical reactions between liquid raw materials (such as phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, ammonia) and solid raw materials (such as potassium chloride, recycle material). Compaction implements high pressure to agglomerate dry powder materials. Lastly, bulk blends are produced by mixing straight fertilizers.",
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"plaintext": "“Organic fertilizers\" can describe those fertilizers with an organic – biologic – origin—that is, fertilizers derived from living or formerly living materials. Organic fertilizers can also describe commercially available and frequently packaged products that strive to follow the expectations and restrictions adopted by “organic agriculture” and ”environmentally friendly\" gardening – related systems of food and plant production that significantly limit or strictly avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The \"organic fertilizer\" products typically contain both some organic materials as well as acceptable additives such as nutritive rock powders, ground sea shells (crab, oyster, etc.), other prepared products such as seed meal or kelp, and cultivated microorganisms and derivatives.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers of an organic origin (the first definition) include animal wastes, plant wastes from agriculture, seaweed, compost, and treated sewage sludge (biosolids). Beyond manures, animal sources can include products from the slaughter of animals – bloodmeal, bone meal, feather meal, hides, hoofs, and horns all are typical components. Organically derived materials available to industry such as sewage sludge may not be acceptable components of organic farming and gardening, because of factors ranging from residual contaminants to public perception. On the other hand, marketed \"organic fertilizers\" may include, and promote, processed organics because the materials have consumer appeal. No matter the definition nor composition, most of these products contain less-concentrated nutrients, and the nutrients are not as easily quantified. They can offer soil-building advantages as well as be appealing to those who are trying to farm / garden more \"naturally\".",
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"plaintext": "In terms of volume, peat is the most widely used packaged organic soil amendment. It is an immature form of coal and improves the soil by aeration and absorbing water but confers no nutritional value to the plants. It is therefore not a fertilizer as defined in the beginning of the article, but rather an amendment. Coir, (derived from coconut husks), bark, and sawdust when added to soil all act similarly (but not identically) to peat and are also considered organic soil amendments – or texturizers – because of their limited nutritive inputs. Some organic additives can have a reverse effect on nutrients – fresh sawdust can consume soil nutrients as it breaks down, and may lower soil pH – but these same organic texturizers (as well as compost, etc.) may increase the availability of nutrients through improved cation exchange, or through increased growth of microorganisms that in turn increase availability of certain plant nutrients. Organic fertilizers such as composts and manures may be distributed locally without going into industry production, making actual consumption more difficult to quantify.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic fertilizers are urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride. Solid fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as prills, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g., UAN). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage. The addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called \"fertigation\".",
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"plaintext": "Urea is highly soluble in water and is therefore also very suitable for use in fertilizer solutions (in combination with ammonium nitrate: UAN), e.g., in 'foliar feed' fertilizers. For fertilizer use, granules are preferred over prills because of their narrower particle size distribution, which is an advantage for mechanical application.",
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"plaintext": "Urea is usually spread at rates of between 40 and 300kg/ha (35 to 270lbs/acre) but rates vary. Smaller applications incur lower losses due to leaching. During summer, urea is often spread just before or during rain to minimize losses from volatilization (a process wherein nitrogen is lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas).",
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"plaintext": "Because of the high nitrogen concentration in urea, it is very important to achieve an even spread. Drilling must not occur on contact with or close to seed, due to the risk of germination damage. Urea dissolves in water for application as a spray or through irrigation systems.",
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"plaintext": "In grain and cotton crops, urea is often applied at the time of the last cultivation before planting. In high rainfall areas and on sandy soils (where nitrogen can be lost through leaching) and where good in-season rainfall is expected, urea can be side- or top-dressed during the growing season. Top-dressing is also popular on pasture and forage crops. In cultivating sugarcane, urea is side-dressed after planting, and applied to each ratoon crop.",
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"plaintext": "Because it absorbs moisture from the atmosphere, urea is often stored in closed containers.",
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"plaintext": "Overdose or placing urea near seed is harmful.",
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"plaintext": "Foliar fertilizers are applied directly to leaves. This method is almost invariably used to apply water-soluble straight nitrogen fertilizers and used especially for high-value crops such as fruits. Urea is the most common foliar fertilizer.",
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"plaintext": "Various chemicals are used to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. In this way farmers can limit the polluting effects of nitrogen run-off. Nitrification inhibitors (also known as nitrogen stabilizers) suppress the conversion of ammonia into nitrate, an anion that is more prone to leaching. 1-Carbamoyl-3-methylpyrazole (CMP), dicyandiamide, nitrapyrin (2-chloro-6-trichloromethylpyridine) and 3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) are popular. Urease inhibitors are used to slow the hydrolytic conversion of urea into ammonia, which is prone to evaporation as well as nitrification. The conversion of urea to ammonia catalyzed by enzymes called ureases. A popular inhibitor of ureases is N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT).",
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"plaintext": "Careful use of fertilization technologies is important because excess nutrients can be detrimental. Fertilizer burn can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in damage or even death of the plant. Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.",
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"plaintext": "Recently nitrogen fertilizers have plateaued in most developed countries. China although has become the largest producer and consumer of nitrogen fertilizers. Africa has little reliance on nitrogen fertilizers. Agricultural and chemical minerals are very important in industrial use of fertilizers, which is valued at approximately $200 billion. Nitrogen has a significant impact in the global mineral use, followed by potash and phosphate. The production of nitrogen has drastically increased since the 1960s. Phosphate and potash have increased in price since the 1960s, which is larger than the consumer price index. Potash is produced in Canada, Russia and Belarus, together making up over half of the world production. Potash production in Canada rose in 2017 and 2018 by 18.6%. Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizers. Fertilizer consumption has surpassed the amount of farmland in the United States. Global market value is likely to rise to more than US$185 billion until 2019. The European fertilizer market will grow to earn revenues of approx. €15.3 billion in 2018.",
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"plaintext": "Data on the fertilizer consumption per hectare arable land in 2012 are published by The World Bank. The diagram below shows fertilizer consumption by the European Union (EU) countries as kilograms per hectare (pounds per acre). The total consumption of fertilizer in the EU is 15.9 million tons for 105 million hectare arable land area (or 107 million hectare arable land according to another estimate). This figure equates to 151kg of fertilizers consumed per ha arable land on average by the EU countries.",
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"plaintext": "Use of fertilizers are beneficial in providing nutrients to plants although they have some negative environmental effects. The large growing consumption of fertilizers can affect soil, surface water, and groundwater due to dispersion of mineral use. ",
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"plaintext": "For each ton of phosphoric acid produced by the processing of phosphate rock, five tons of waste are generated. This waste takes the form of impure, useless, radioactive solid called phosphogypsum. Estimates range from 100,000,000 and 280,000,000 tons of phosphogypsum waste are produced annually worldwide.",
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"plaintext": "Phosphorus and nitrogen fertilizers when commonly used have major environmental effects. This is due to high rainfalls causing the fertilizers to be washed into waterways. Agricultural run-off is a major contributor to the eutrophication of fresh water bodies. For example, in the US, about half of all the lakes are eutrophic. The main contributor to eutrophication is phosphate, which is normally a limiting nutrient; high concentrations promote the growth of cyanobacteria and algae, the demise of which consumes oxygen. Cyanobacteria blooms ('algal blooms') can also produce harmful toxins that can accumulate in the food chain, and can be harmful to humans. Fertilizer run-off can be reduced by using weather-optimised fertilization strategies.",
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"plaintext": "The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of oceans, especially in coastal zones, lakes and rivers. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen greatly reduces the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic fauna. The number of oceanic dead zones near inhabited coastlines are increasing. As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in northwestern Europe and the United States. If eutrophication can be reversed, it may take decades before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.",
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"plaintext": "Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or is lost as run-off. High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high water solubility of nitrate leads to increased runoff into surface water as well as leaching into groundwater, thereby causing groundwater pollution. The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrate levels above 10mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause 'blue baby syndrome' (acquired methemoglobinemia). The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause soil acidification when added. This may lead to decrease in nutrient availability which may be offset by liming.",
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"plaintext": "The concentration of cadmium in phosphorus-containing fertilizers varies considerably and can be problematic. For example, mono-ammonium phosphate fertilizer may have a cadmium content of as low as 0.14mg/kg or as high as 50.9mg/kg. The phosphate rock used in their manufacture can contain as much as 188mg/kg cadmium (examples are deposits on Nauru and the Christmas islands). Continuous use of high-cadmium fertilizer can contaminate soil (as shown in New Zealand) and plants. Limits to the cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers has been considered by the European Commission. Producers of phosphorus-containing fertilizers now select phosphate rock based on the cadmium content.",
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"plaintext": "Phosphate rocks contain high levels of fluoride. Consequently, the widespread use of phosphate fertilizers has increased soil fluoride concentrations. It has been found that food contamination from fertilizer is of little concern as plants accumulate little fluoride from the soil; of greater concern is the possibility of fluoride toxicity to livestock that ingest contaminated soils. Also of possible concern are the effects of fluoride on soil microorganisms.",
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"plaintext": "The radioactive content of the fertilizers varies considerably and depends both on their concentrations in the parent mineral and on the fertilizer production process. Uranium-238 concentrations can range from 7 to 100 pCi/g in phosphate rock and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers. Where high annual rates of phosphorus fertilizer are used, this can result in uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several times greater than are normally present. However, the impact of these increases on the risk to human health from radinuclide contamination of foods is very small (less than 0.05 mSv/y).",
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"plaintext": "Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of zinc (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead arsenic, cadmium, chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water-soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households, such as Miracle-Gro. These highly water-soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. Some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers are made with high purity ingredients.",
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"plaintext": "Attention has been addressed to the decreasing concentrations of elements such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium in many foods over the last 50–60 years. Intensive farming practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers are frequently suggested as reasons for these declines and organic farming is often suggested as a solution. Although improved crop yields resulting from NPK fertilizers are known to dilute the concentrations of other nutrients in plants, much of the measured decline can be attributed to the use of progressively higher-yielding crop varieties that produce foods with lower mineral concentrations than their less-productive ancestors. It is, therefore, unlikely that organic farming or reduced use of fertilizers will solve the problem; foods with high nutrient density are posited to be achieved using older, lower-yielding varieties or the development of new high-yield, nutrient-dense varieties.",
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"plaintext": "Fertilizers are, in fact, more likely to solve trace mineral deficiency problems than cause them: In Western Australia deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to fertilizers used in agriculture in this state. Many other soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in both plants and humans, and zinc fertilizers are widely used to solve this problem.",
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"plaintext": "High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the symbiotic relationships between plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi.",
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"plaintext": "In the US in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas were consumed in the industrial production of ammonia, less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.",
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"plaintext": "A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.",
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"plaintext": "Ammonia is produced from natural gas and air. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia. The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.",
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"plaintext": "The greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide are produced during the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizer. CO2 is estimated as over 1% of global CO2 emissions. Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by soil bacteria to nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas. Nitrous oxide emissions by humans, most of which are from fertilizer, between 2007 and 2016 have been estimated at 7 million tonnes per year, which is incompatible with limiting global warming to below 2°C.",
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"plaintext": "Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which was used at a rate of about 110 million tons (of N) per year in 2012, adding to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, nitrous oxide (N2O) has become the third most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.",
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"plaintext": "By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic climate change.",
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"plaintext": "Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice paddy fields) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers. These emissions contribute to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.",
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"plaintext": "In Europe, problems with high nitrate concentrations in runoff are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive. Within Britain, farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'. In the US, high concentrations of nitrate and phosphorus in runoff and drainage water are classified as nonpoint source pollutants due to their diffuse origin; this pollution is regulated at the state level. Oregon and Washington, both in the United States, have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.",
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"plaintext": "In China, regulations have been implemented to control the use of N fertilizers in farming. In 2008, Chinese governments began to partially withdraw fertilizer subsidies, including subsidies to fertilizer transportation and to electricity and natural gas use in the industry. In consequence, the price of fertilizer has gone up and large-scale farms have begun to use less fertilizer. If large-scale farms keep reducing their use of fertilizer subsidies, they have no choice but to optimize the fertilizer they have which would therefore gain an increase in both grain yield and profit.",
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"plaintext": "Two types of agricultural management practices include organic agriculture and conventional agriculture. The former encourages soil fertility using local resources to maximize efficiency. Organic agriculture avoids synthetic agrochemicals. Conventional agriculture uses all the components that organic agriculture does not use.",
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"plaintext": " Agroecology",
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"plaintext": " Circulus (theory)",
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"plaintext": " Fertigation",
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"plaintext": " Food and Agriculture Organization",
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"section_name": "See also",
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"plaintext": " History of organic farming",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Milorganite",
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"target_page_ids": [
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1,
12
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Leaf Color Chart",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
68451131
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1,
17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nutrient Recovery and Reuse",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
28
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},
{
"plaintext": " Phosphogypsum",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Soil defertilisation",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Seaweed fertilizer",
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"target_page_ids": [
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0,
18
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium Values of Organic Fertilizers ",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
}
]
| [
"Fertilizers",
"Horticulture",
"Climate_change_and_agriculture"
]
| 83,323 | 32,955 | 2,185 | 248 | 0 | 0 | fertilizer | material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) applied to soils or to plants to supply essential nutrients | [
"fertiliser",
"fertilizers",
"fertilisers"
]
|
37,402 | 1,107,760,861 | Chicken | [
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"plaintext": "The chicken (Gallus domesticus) is a domesticated junglefowl species, with attributes of wild species such as the grey and the Ceylon junglefowl that are originally from Southeastern Asia. Rooster or cock is a term for an adult male bird, and a younger male may be called a cockerel. A male that has been castrated is a capon. An adult female bird is called a hen and a sexually immature female is called a pullet.",
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"plaintext": "Originally raised for cockfighting or for special ceremonies, chickens were not kept for food until the Hellenistic period (4th–2nd centuries BC). Humans now keep chickens primarily as a source of food (consuming both their meat and eggs) and as pets.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens are one of the most common and widespread domestic animals, with a total population of 23.7 billion , up from more than 19 billion in 2011. There are more chickens in the world than any other bird. There are numerous cultural references to chickens – in myth, folklore and religion, and in language and literature.",
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"plaintext": "Genetic studies have pointed to multiple maternal origins in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia, but the clade found in the Americas, Europe, the Middle East and Africa originated from the Indian subcontinent. From ancient India, the chicken spread to Lydia in western Asia Minor, and to Greece by the 5th century BC. Fowl have been known in Egypt since the mid-15th century BC, with the \"bird that gives birth every day\" having come from the land between Syria and Shinar, Babylonia, according to the annals of Thutmose III.",
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"plaintext": "An adult male is a called a cock or (in the United States) a rooster and an adult female is called a hen.",
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"plaintext": "Other terms are:",
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"plaintext": " Biddy: a newly hatched chicken",
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"plaintext": " Capon: a castrated or neutered male chicken",
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"plaintext": " Chick: a young chicken",
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"plaintext": " Chook : a chicken (Australia/New Zealand, informal)",
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"plaintext": " Cockerel: a young male chicken less than a year old",
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"plaintext": " Dunghill fowl: a chicken with mixed parentage from different domestic varieties.",
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"plaintext": " Pullet: a young female chicken less than a year old. In the poultry industry, a pullet is a sexually immature chicken less than 22 weeks of age.",
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"plaintext": " Yardbird: a chicken (southern United States, dialectal)",
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"plaintext": "Chicken was originally a term only for an immature, or at least young, bird. In older sources, chicken as a species were typically referred to as common fowl or domestic fowl.",
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"plaintext": "Chicken may also mean a chick .",
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"plaintext": "According to Merriam-Webster, the term rooster (i.e. a roosting bird) originated in the mid- or late 18th century as a euphemism to avoid the sexual connotation of the original English cock, and is widely used throughout North America. Roosting is the action of perching aloft to sleep at night.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens are omnivores. In the wild, they often scratch at the soil to search for seeds, insects, and even animals as large as lizards, small snakes, or sometimes young mice.",
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"plaintext": "The average chicken may live for 5–10 years, depending on the breed. The world's oldest known chicken lived 16 years according to Guinness World Records.",
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"plaintext": "Roosters can usually be differentiated from hens by their striking plumage of long flowing tails and shiny, pointed feathers on their necks ('hackles') and backs ('saddle'), which are typically of brighter, bolder colours than those of females of the same breed. However, in some breeds, such as the Sebright chicken, the rooster has only slightly pointed neck feathers, the same colour as the hen's. The identification can be made by looking at the comb, or eventually from the development of spurs on the male's legs (in a few breeds and in certain hybrids, the male and female chicks may be differentiated by colour). Adult chickens have a fleshy crest on their heads called a comb, or cockscomb, and hanging flaps of skin either side under their beaks called wattles. Collectively, these and other fleshy protuberances on the head and throat are called caruncles. Both the adult male and female have wattles and combs, but in most breeds these are more prominent in males.",
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"plaintext": "A 'muff' or 'beard' is a mutation found in several chicken breeds which causes extra feathering under the chicken's face, giving the appearance of a beard.",
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"plaintext": "Domestic chickens are not capable of long-distance flight, although lighter chickens are generally capable of flying for short distances, such as over fences or into trees (where they would naturally roost). Chickens may occasionally fly briefly to explore their surroundings, but generally do so only to flee perceived danger.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens are gregarious birds and live together in flocks. They have a communal approach to the incubation of eggs and raising of young. Individual chickens in a flock will dominate others, establishing a 'pecking order', with dominant individuals having priority for food access and nesting locations. Removing hens or roosters from a flock causes a temporary disruption to this social order until a new pecking order is established. Adding hens, especially younger birds, to an existing flock can lead to fighting and injury.",
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"plaintext": "When a rooster finds food, he may call other chickens to eat first. He does this by clucking in a high pitch as well as picking up and dropping the food. This behaviour may also be observed in mother hens to call their chicks and encourage them to eat.",
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"plaintext": "A rooster's crowing is a loud and sometimes shrill call and sends a territorial signal to other roosters. However, roosters may also crow in response to sudden disturbances within their surroundings.",
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"plaintext": "Hens cluck loudly after laying an egg, and also to call their chicks. Chickens also give different warning calls when they sense a predator approaching from the air or on the ground.",
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"plaintext": "Roosters almost always start crowing before four months of age. Although it is possible for a hen to crow as well, crowing (together with hackles development) is one of the clearest signs of being a rooster.",
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"plaintext": "Rooster crowing contests, also known as crowing contests, are a traditional sport in several countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, the United States, Indonesia and Japan. The oldest contests are held with longcrowers. Depending on the breed, either the duration of the crowing or the times the rooster crows within a certain time is measured.",
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"plaintext": "To initiate courting, some roosters may dance in a circle around or near a hen (a 'circle dance'), often lowering the wing which is closest to the hen. The dance triggers a response in the hen and when she responds to his 'call', the rooster may mount the hen and proceed with the mating.",
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"plaintext": "More specifically, mating typically involves the following sequence:",
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"plaintext": " Male approaching the hen",
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"plaintext": " Male pre-copulatory waltzing",
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"plaintext": " Male waltzing",
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"plaintext": " Female crouching (receptive posture) or stepping aside or running away (if unwilling to copulate)",
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"plaintext": " Male mounting",
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"plaintext": " Male treading with both feet on hen's back",
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"plaintext": " Male tail bending (following successful copulation)",
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"plaintext": "Hens will often try to lay in nests that already contain eggs and have been known to move eggs from neighbouring nests into their own. The result of this behaviour is that a flock will use only a few preferred locations, rather than having a different nest for every bird. Hens will often express a preference to lay in the same location. It is not unknown for two (or more) hens to try to share the same nest at the same time. If the nest is small, or one of the hens is particularly determined, this may result in chickens trying to lay on top of each other. There is evidence that individual hens prefer to be either solitary or gregarious nesters.",
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"plaintext": "Under natural conditions, most birds lay only until a clutch is complete, and they will then incubate all the eggs. Hens are then said to \"go broody\". The broody hen will stop laying and instead will focus on the incubation of the eggs (a full clutch is usually about 12eggs). She will sit or 'set' on the nest, fluffing up or pecking in defense if disturbed or removed. The hen will rarely leave the nest to eat, drink, or dust-bathe. While brooding, the hen maintains the nest at a constant temperature and humidity, as well as turning the eggs regularly during the first part of the incubation. To stimulate broodiness, owners may place several artificial eggs in the nest. To discourage it, they may place the hen in an elevated cage with an open wire floor.",
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"plaintext": "Breeds artificially developed for egg production rarely go broody, and those that do often stop part-way through the incubation. However, other breeds, such as the Cochin, Cornish and Silkie, do regularly go broody, and make excellent mothers, not only for chicken eggs but also for those of other species — even those with much smaller or larger eggs and different incubation periods, such as quail, pheasants, ducks, turkeys, or geese.",
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"plaintext": "Fertile chicken eggs hatch at the end of the incubation period, about 21 days. Development of the chick starts only when incubation begins, so all chicks hatch within a day or two of each other, despite perhaps being laid over a period of two weeks or so. Before hatching, the hen can hear the chicks peeping inside the eggs, and will gently cluck to stimulate them to break out of their shells. The chick begins by 'pipping'; pecking a breathing hole with its egg tooth towards the blunt end of the egg, usually on the upper side. The chick then rests for some hours, absorbing the remaining egg yolk and withdrawing the blood supply from the membrane beneath the shell (used earlier for breathing through the shell). The chick then enlarges the hole, gradually turning round as it goes, and eventually severing the blunt end of the shell completely to make a lid. The chick crawls out of the remaining shell, and the wet down dries out in the warmth of the nest.",
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"plaintext": "Hens usually remain on the nest for about two days after the first chick hatches, and during this time the newly hatched chicks feed by absorbing the internal yolk sac. Some breeds sometimes start eating cracked eggs, which can become habitual. Hens fiercely guard their chicks, and brood them when necessary to keep them warm, at first often returning to the nest at night. She leads them to food and water and will call them toward edible items, but seldom feeds them directly. She continues to care for them until they are several weeks old.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens may occasionally gang up on a weak or inexperienced predator. At least one credible report exists of a young fox killed by hens. A group of hens have been recorded in attacking a hawk that had entered their coop.",
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"plaintext": "If a chicken is threatened by predators, stress, or is sick, there is a chance that they will puff up their feathers.",
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"plaintext": "Sperm transfer occurs by cloacal contact between the male and female, in a maneuver known as the 'cloacal kiss'. As with birds in general, reproduction is controlled by a neuroendocrine system, the Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone-I neurons in the hypothalamus. Locally to the reproductive system itself, reproductive hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone) initiate and maintain sexual maturation changes. Over time there is reproductive decline, thought to be due to GnRH-I-N decline. Because there is significant inter-individual variability in egg-producing duration, it is believed to be possible to breed for further extended useful lifetime in egg-layers.",
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"plaintext": "Chicken embryos have long been used as model organisms to study developing embryos. Large numbers of embryos can be provided by commercial chicken farmers who sell fertilized eggs which can be easily opened and used to observe the developing embryo. Equally important, embryologists can carry out experiments on such embryos, close the egg again and study the effect later on. For instance, many important discoveries in the area of limb development have been made using chicken embryos, such as the discovery of the apical ectodermal ridge (AER) and the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) by John W. Saunders.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, scientists researching the ancestry of birds \"turned on\" a chicken recessive gene, talpid2, and found that the embryo jaws initiated formation of teeth, like those found in ancient bird fossils. John Fallon, the overseer of the project, stated that chickens have \"...retained the ability to make teeth, under certain conditions... .\"",
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"plaintext": "Given its eminent role in farming, meat production, but also research, the house chicken was the first bird genome to be sequenced. At 1.21 Gb, the chicken genome is considerably smaller than other vertebrate genomes, such as the human genome (3 Gb). The final gene set contained 26,640 genes (including noncoding genes and pseudogenes), with a total of 19,119 protein-coding genes in annotation release 103 (2017), a similar number of protein-coding genes as in the human genome.",
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"plaintext": "Populations of chickens from high altitude regions like Tibet have special physiological adaptations that result in a higher hatching rate in low oxygen environments. When eggs are placed in a hypoxic environment, chicken embryos from these populations express much more hemoglobin than embryos from other chicken populations. This hemoglobin also has a greater affinity for oxygen, allowing hemoglobin to bind to oxygen more readily.",
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"plaintext": "Pinopsins were originally discovered in the chicken pineal gland.",
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"plaintext": "Although all avians appear to have lost TLR9, artificial immunity against bacterial pathogens has been induced in neonatal chicks by Taghavi et al 2008 using tailored oligodeoxynucleotides.",
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"plaintext": "Galliformes, the order of bird that chickens belong to, is directly linked to the survival of birds when all other dinosaurs went extinct. Water or ground-dwelling fowl, similar to modern partridges, survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed all tree-dwelling birds and dinosaurs. Some of these evolved into the modern galliformes, of which domesticated chickens are a main model. They are descended primarily from the red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) and are scientifically classified as the same species. As such, domesticated chickens can and do freely interbreed with populations of red junglefowl. Subsequent hybridization of the domestic chicken with grey junglefowl, Sri Lankan junglefowl and green junglefowl occurred; a gene for yellow skin, for instance, was incorporated into domestic birds through hybridization with the grey junglefowl (G. sonneratii). In a study published in 2020, it was found that chickens shared between 71% - 79% of their genome with red junglefowl, with the period of domestication dated to 8,000 years ago.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional view is that chickens were first domesticated for cockfighting in Asia, Africa, and Europe. In the last decade, there have been a number of genetic studies to clarify the origins. According to one early study, a single domestication event of the red junglefowl in what now is the country of Thailand gave rise to the modern chicken with minor transitions separating the modern breeds. The red junglefowl, known as the bamboo fowl in many Southeast Asian languages, is well adapted to take advantage of the vast quantities of seed produced during the end of the multi-decade bamboo seeding cycle, to boost its own reproduction. In domesticating the chicken, humans took advantage of this predisposition for prolific reproduction of the red junglefowl when exposed to large amounts of food.",
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"plaintext": "Exactly when and where the chicken was domesticated remains a controversial issue. Genomic studies estimate that the chicken was domesticated 8,000 years ago in Southeast Asia and spread to China and India 2000–3000 years later. Archaeological evidence supports domestic chickens in Southeast Asia well before 6000BC, China by 6000BC and India by 2000BC. A landmark 2020 Nature study that fully sequenced 863 chickens across the world suggests that all domestic chickens originate from a single domestication event of red junglefowl whose present-day distribution is predominantly in southwestern China, northern Thailand and Myanmar. These domesticated chickens spread across Southeast and South Asia where they interbred with local wild species of junglefowl, forming genetically and geographically distinct groups. Analysis of the most popular commercial breed shows that the White Leghorn breed possesses a mosaic of divergent ancestries inherited from subspecies of red junglefowl.",
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"plaintext": "Middle Eastern chicken remains go back to a little earlier than 2000BC in Syria; chickens went southward only in the 1st millennium BC. They reached Egypt for purposes of cockfighting about 1400BC, and became widely bred only in Ptolemaic Egypt (about 300BC). Phoenicians spread chickens along the Mediterranean coasts as far as Iberia. During the Hellenistic period (4th–2nd centuries BC), in the Southern Levant, chickens began to be widely domesticated for food. This change occurred at least 100 years before domestication of chickens spread to Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens reached Europe circa 800BC. Breeding increased under the Roman Empire, and was reduced in the Middle Ages. Genetic sequencing of chicken bones from archaeological sites in Europe revealed that in the High Middle Ages chickens became less aggressive and began to lay eggs earlier in the breeding season.",
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"plaintext": "Three possible routes of introduction into Africa around the early first millennium AD could have been through the Egyptian Nile Valley, the East Africa Roman-Greek or Indian trade, or from Carthage and the Berbers, across the Sahara. The earliest known remains are from Mali, Nubia, East Coast, and South Africa and date back to the middle of the first millennium AD.",
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"plaintext": "Domestic chicken in the Americas before Western contact is still an ongoing discussion, but blue-egged chickens, found only in the Americas and Asia, suggest an Asian origin for early American chickens.",
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"plaintext": "A lack of data from Thailand, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa makes it difficult to lay out a clear map of the spread of chickens in these areas; better description and genetic analysis of local breeds threatened by extinction may also help with research into this area.",
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"plaintext": "An unusual variety of chicken that has its origins in South America is the Araucana, bred in southern Chile by the Mapuche people. Araucanas lay blue-green eggs. Additionally, some Araucanas are tailless, and some have tufts of feathers around their ears. It has long been suggested that they pre-date the arrival of European chickens brought by the Spanish and are evidence of pre-Columbian trans-Pacific contacts between Asian or Pacific Oceanic peoples, particularly the Polynesians, and South America. In 2007, an international team of researchers reported the results of their analysis of chicken bones found on the Arauco Peninsula in south-central Chile. Radiocarbon dating suggested that the chickens were pre-Columbian, and DNA analysis showed that they were related to prehistoric populations of chickens in Polynesia. These results appeared to confirm that the chickens came from Polynesia and that there were transpacific contacts between Polynesia and South America before Columbus's arrival in the Americas.",
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"plaintext": "However, a later report looking at the same specimens concluded:",
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"plaintext": "A published, apparently pre-Columbian, Chilean specimen and six pre-European Polynesian specimens also cluster with the same European/Indian subcontinental/Southeast Asian sequences, providing no support for a Polynesian introduction of chickens to South America. In contrast, sequences from two archaeological sites on Easter Island group with an uncommon haplogroup from Indonesia, Japan, and China and may represent a genetic signature of an early Polynesian dispersal. Modeling of the potential marine carbon contribution to the Chilean archaeological specimen casts further doubt on claims for pre-Columbian chickens, and definitive proof will require further analyses of ancient DNA sequences and radiocarbon and stable isotope data from archaeological excavations within both Chile and Polynesia.",
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"plaintext": "The debate for and against a Polynesian origin for South American chickens continued with this 2014 paper and subsequent responses in PNAS.",
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"plaintext": "More than 50 billion chickens are reared annually as a source of meat and eggs. In the United States alone, more than 8 billion chickens are slaughtered each year for meat, and more than 300 million chickens are reared for egg production.",
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"plaintext": "The vast majority of poultry are raised in factory farms. According to the Worldwatch Institute, 74 percent of the world's poultry meat and 68 percent of eggs are produced this way. An alternative to intensive poultry farming is free-range farming.",
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"plaintext": "Friction between these two main methods has led to long-term issues of ethical consumerism. Opponents of intensive farming argue that it harms the environment, creates human health risks and is inhumane. Advocates of intensive farming say that their highly efficient systems save land and food resources owing to increased productivity, and that the animals are looked after in state-of-the-art environmentally controlled facilities.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens farmed for meat are called broilers. Chickens will naturally live for six or more years, but broiler breeds typically take less than six weeks to reach slaughter size. A free range or organic broiler will usually be slaughtered at about 14 weeks of age.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens farmed primarily for eggs are called layer hens. In total, the UK alone consumes more than 34 million eggs per day. Some hen breeds can produce over 300 eggs per year, with \"the highest authenticated rate of egg laying being 371 eggs in 364 days\". After 12 months of laying, the commercial hen's egg-laying ability starts to decline to the point where the flock is commercially unviable. Hens, particularly from battery cage systems, are sometimes infirm or have lost a significant amount of their feathers, and their life expectancy has been reduced from around seven years to less than two years. In the UK and Europe, laying hens are then slaughtered and used in processed foods or sold as 'soup hens'. In some other countries, flocks are sometimes force moulted, rather than being slaughtered, to re-invigorate egg-laying. This involves complete withdrawal of food (and sometimes water) for 7–14 days or sufficiently long to cause a body weight loss of 25 to 35%, or up to 28 days under experimental conditions. This stimulates the hen to lose her feathers, but also re-invigorates egg-production. Some flocks may be force-moulted several times. In 2003, more than 75% of all flocks were moulted in the US.",
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"plaintext": "Keeping chickens as pets became increasingly popular in the 2000s among urban and suburban residents. Many people obtain chickens for their egg production but often name them and treat them as any other pet like cats or dogs. Chickens provide companionship and have individual personalities. While many do not cuddle much, they will eat from one's hand, jump onto one's lap, respond to and follow their handlers, as well as show affection.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens are social, inquisitive, intelligent birds, and many find their behaviour entertaining. Certain breeds, such as Silkies and many bantam varieties, are generally docile and are often recommended as good pets around children with disabilities. Many people feed chickens in part with kitchen food scraps.",
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"plaintext": "A cockfight is a contest held in a ring called a cockpit between two cocks known as gamecocks. This term, denoting a cock kept for game, sport, pastime or entertainment, appears in 1646, after \"cock of the game\" used by George Wilson in the earliest known book on the secular sport, The Commendation of Cocks and Cock Fighting of 1607. Gamecocks are not typical farm chickens. The cocks are specially bred and trained for increased stamina and strength. The comb and wattle are removed from a young gamecock because, if left intact, they would be a disadvantage during a match. This process is called dubbing. Sometimes the cocks are given drugs to increase their stamina or thicken their blood, which increases their chances of winning. Cockfighting is considered a traditional sporting event by some, and an example of animal cruelty by others and is therefore outlawed in most countries. Usually wagers are made on the outcome of the match, with the survivor or last bird standing declared winner.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens were originally used for cockfighting, a sport where 2 male chickens (cocks) fight each other until one dies or becomes badly injured. Cocks possess congenital aggression toward all other cocks to contest with females. Studies suggest that cockfights have existed even up to the Indus Valley civilisation as a pastime. Today it is commonly associated with religious worship, pastime, and gambling in Asian and some South American countries. While not all fights are to the death, most use metal spurs as a weapon attached above or below the chicken's own spur, which typically results in death in one or both cocks. If chickens are in practice, owners place gloves on the spurs to prevent injuries. Cockfighting has been banned in most western countries and debated by animal rights activists for its brutality.",
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"plaintext": "Incubation can occur artificially in machines that provide the correct, controlled environment for the developing chick. The average incubation period for chickens is 21 days but the duration depends on the temperature and humidity in the incubator. Temperature regulation is the most critical factor for a successful hatch. Variations of more than from the optimum temperature of will reduce hatch rates. Humidity is also important because the rate at which eggs lose water by evaporation depends on the ambient relative humidity. Evaporation can be assessed by candling, to view the size of the air sac, or by measuring weight loss. Relative humidity should be increased to around 70% in the last three days of incubation to keep the membrane around the hatching chick from drying out after the chick cracks the shell. Lower humidity is usual in the first 18 days to ensure adequate evaporation. The position of the eggs in the incubator can also influence hatch rates. For best results, eggs should be placed with the pointed ends down and turned regularly (at least three times per day) until one to three days before hatching. If the eggs aren't turned, the embryo inside may stick to the shell and may hatch with physical defects. Adequate ventilation is necessary to provide the embryo with oxygen. Older eggs require increased ventilation.",
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"plaintext": "Many commercial incubators are industrial-sized with shelves holding tens of thousands of eggs at a time, with rotation of the eggs a fully automated process. Home incubators are boxes holding from 6 to 75 eggs; they are usually electrically powered, but in the past some were heated with an oil or paraffin lamp.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens are susceptible to several parasites, including lice, mites, ticks, fleas, and intestinal worms, as well as other diseases. Despite the name, they are not affected by chickenpox, which is generally restricted to humans.",
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"plaintext": "Chickens can carry and transmit salmonella in their dander and feces. In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention advise against bringing them indoors or letting small children handle them.",
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"plaintext": "Some of the diseases that can affect chickens are shown below:",
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"plaintext": "Eastern Europe is the eastern part of the European continent. The term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural, and socio-economic connotations. Russia, a transcontinental country with around 23 per cent of its landmass in Eastern Europe, is the largest European country by area, spanning roughly 40 per cent of Europe's total landmass; it is also the most populous European country, with the majority of its citizens residing in its European portion and comprising over 15 per cent of the continent's population.",
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"plaintext": "Eastern Europe represents a significant part of European culture, with its main socio-cultural characteristics consisting of Slavic and Greek traditions as well as the influence of Eastern Christianity, historically developed through the post-split Eastern Roman Empire; and, to a lesser extent, Ottoman-era Turkish influence. Another definition was created by the Cold War with Eastern Bloc communist states comprising Eastern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "Several definitions of Eastern Europe exist in the early 21st century, but they often lack precision, are too general, or are outdated. These definitions are debated across cultures and among experts, even political scientists, as the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural, and socioeconomic connotations. It has also been described as a \"fuzzy\" term, as the idea itself of Eastern Europe is in constant redefinition. The solidification of the idea of an \"Eastern Europe\" dates back chiefly to the (French) Enlightenment.",
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"plaintext": "While the eastern geographical boundaries of Europe are well defined, the boundary between Eastern and Western Europe is not geographical but historical, religious and cultural and is harder to designate.",
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"plaintext": "The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the geographical land border of the eastern edge of Europe. E.g. Kazakhstan, which is mainly located in Central Asia with the most western parts of it located west of the Ural River also shares a part of Eastern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In the west, however, the historical and cultural boundaries of \"Eastern Europe\" are subject to some overlap and, most importantly, have undergone historical fluctuations, which makes a precise definition of the western geographic boundaries of Eastern Europe and the geographical midpoint of Europe somewhat difficult.",
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"plaintext": "The parts of Eastern Europe which remained Eastern Orthodox was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence; after the East–West Schism in 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to the Catholic (and later also Protestant) Western Europe within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.",
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"plaintext": "Western Europe according to this point of view is formed by countries with dominant Roman Catholic and Protestant churches (including Central European countries such as Croatia, Slovenia, Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia).",
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"plaintext": "A large part of Eastern Europe is formed by countries with dominant Orthodox churches, like Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine, for instance. The Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "The schism is the break of communion and theology between what are now the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman Catholic from the 11th century, as well as from the 16th century also Protestant) churches. This division dominated Europe for centuries, in opposition to the rather short-lived Cold War division of four decades.",
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"plaintext": "Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Roman Catholic (and later additionally Protestant) churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian (often incorrectly labelled \"Greek Orthodox\") churches in the east. Due to this religious cleavage, Eastern Orthodox countries are often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic; for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox, but is very rarely included in \"Eastern Europe\", for a variety of reasons, the most prominent being that Greece's history, for the most part, was more influenced by Mediterranean cultures and contact.",
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"plaintext": "The fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the Cold War east–west division in Europe, but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media. Another definition was used during the 40 years of Cold War between 1947 and 1989, and was more or less synonymous with the terms Eastern Bloc and Warsaw Pact. A similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe.",
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"plaintext": "EuroVoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, has entries for \"23 EU languages\" classifying Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Slovak and Slovenian, plus the languages of candidate countries Albanian, Macedonian and Serbian as Central and Eastern European.",
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"plaintext": "UNESCO, EuroVoc, National Geographic Society, Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography, and the STW Thesaurus for Economics place the Baltic states in Northern Europe, whereas the CIA World Factbook places the region in Eastern Europe with a strong assimilation to Northern Europe. They are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight regional cooperation forum whereas Central European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group. The Northern Future Forum, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Nordic Battlegroup, the Nordic-Baltic Eight and the New Hanseatic League are other examples of Northern European cooperation that includes the three countries collectively referred to as the Baltic states.",
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"plaintext": " Armenia ",
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"plaintext": " Azerbaijan",
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"plaintext": "There are three de facto independent Republics with limited recognition in the South Caucasus region. All three states participate in the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations: ",
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"plaintext": " Abkhazia",
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"plaintext": " Artsakh",
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"plaintext": "There are seven republics in the North Caucasus that fall under direct Russian political control:",
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"plaintext": " Chechnya",
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"plaintext": " Ingushetia",
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"plaintext": " Kabardino-Balkaria",
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"plaintext": " Karachay-Cherkessia",
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"plaintext": " North Ossetia-Alania",
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"plaintext": " Moldova (sometimes considered a part of the Balkans or Southeast Europe)",
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"plaintext": "Unrecognized states:",
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"plaintext": " Transnistria",
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"plaintext": " Donetsk People's Republic",
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"plaintext": " Luhansk People's Republic",
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"plaintext": "In some media, \"Central Europe\" can thus partially overlap with \"Eastern Europe\" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Central European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.",
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"plaintext": " Slovenia (most often placed in Central Europe but sometimes in Southeastern Europe)",
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"plaintext": "Some countries in Southeast Europe can be considered part of Eastern Europe. Some of them can sometimes, albeit rarely, be characterized as belonging to Southern Europe, and some may also be included in Central Europe.",
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"plaintext": "In some media, \"Southeast Europe\" can thus partially overlap with \"Eastern Europe\" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Southeast European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.",
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"plaintext": " Albania ",
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"plaintext": " Bosnia and Herzegovina ",
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"plaintext": " Bulgaria ",
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{
"plaintext": " Cyprus (Geographically located in Asia, though most often considered a part of Southeastern Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Croatia (can variously be included in Southeastern or Central Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Greece (Sometimes grouped in Southern Europe with countries like Italy, Spain and Portugal)",
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"plaintext": " Moldova (usually grouped with the non-Baltic post-Soviet states but sometimes considered part of Southeastern Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Montenegro",
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"plaintext": " North Macedonia ",
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"plaintext": " Romania (can variously be included in Southeastern or Central Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Serbia (mostly placed in Southeastern but sometimes in Central Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Slovenia (most often placed in Central Europe but sometimes in Southeast Europe)",
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"plaintext": " Turkey (East Thrace, the portion west of the Turkish Straits)",
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"plaintext": "Partially recognized states:",
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"plaintext": " Kosovo",
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"plaintext": "Ancient kingdoms of the region included Orontid Armenia, Caucasian Albania, Colchis and Iberia (not to be confused with the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe), of which the former two were the predecessor states of Armenia and Azerbaijan respectively, while the latter two were the predecessor states of modern-day Georgia. These peripheral kingdoms were, either from the start or later on, incorporated into various Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Persian, Parthian, and Sassanid Persian Empires. Parts of the Balkans and some more northern areas were ruled by the Achaemenid Persians as well, including Thrace, Paeonia, Macedon, and most of the Black Sea coastal regions of Romania, Ukraine, and Russia. Owing to the rivalry between the Parthian Empire and Rome, and later between Byzantium and the Sassanid Persians, the Parthians would invade the region several times, although it was never able to hold the area, unlike the Sassanids who controlled most of the Caucasus during their entire rule.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest known distinctions between east and west in Europe originate in the history of the Roman Republic. As the Roman domain expanded, a cultural and linguistic division appeared. The mainly Greek-speaking eastern provinces had formed the highly urbanized Hellenistic civilization. In contrast, the western territories largely adopted the Latin language. This cultural and linguistic division was eventually reinforced by the later political east–west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two spheres deepened during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages due to a number of events. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, marking the start of the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire—the Byzantine Empire—had a survival strategy that kept it alive for another 1,000 years.",
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"plaintext": "The rise of the Frankish Empire in the west, and in particular the Great Schism that formally divided Eastern and Western Christianity in 1054, heightened the cultural and religious distinctiveness between Eastern and Western Europe. Much of Eastern Europe was invaded and occupied by the Mongols.",
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"plaintext": "During the Ostsiedlung, towns founded under Magdeburg rights became centers of economic development and scattered German settlements were founded all over Eastern Europe. Introduction of German town law is often seen as a second great step after introduction of Christianity at the turn of the first and second millennia. The ensuing modernization of society and economy allowed the increased role played by the rulers of Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary. ",
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"plaintext": "The conquest of the Byzantine Empire, center of the Eastern Orthodox Church, by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, and the gradual fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire (which had replaced the Frankish empire) led to a change of the importance of Roman Catholic/Protestant vs. Eastern Orthodox concept in Europe. Armour points out that Cyrillic-alphabet use is not a strict determinant for Eastern Europe, where from Croatia to Poland and everywhere in between, the Latin alphabet is used. Greece's status as the cradle of Western civilization and an integral part of the Western world in the political, cultural and economic spheres has led to it being nearly always classified as belonging not to Eastern, but Southern or Western Europe. During the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries, Eastern Europe enjoyed a relatively high standard of living. This period is also called the east-central European golden age of around 1600. At the beginning of the 17th century, numeracy levels in eastern Europe were relatively low, although regional differences existed. During the 18th century, the regions began to catch up with western Europe, but did not develop as rapidly. Areas with stronger female autonomy developed more quickly in terms of numeracy.",
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"plaintext": "Serfdom was a prevalent status of agricultural workers until the 19th century. It resembled slavery in terms of lack of freedom, however the landowners could not buy and sell serfs, who are permanently attached to specific plots of land. The system emerged in the 14th and 15th century, the same time it was declining in Western Europe. The climax came in the 17th and 18th century. The early 19th century saw its decline, marked especially by the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861. Emancipation meant that the ex-serfs paid for their freedom with annual cash payments to their former masters for decades. The system varied widely country by country, and was not as standardized as in Western Europe. Historians, until the 20th century, focused on master-serf economic and labor relations, portraying the serfs as slave-like, passive, and isolated. 20th century scholars downplayed the evils and emphasize the complexities.",
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"plaintext": "A major result of the First World War was the breakup of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires, as well as partial losses to the German Empire. A surge of ethnic nationalism created a series of new states in Eastern Europe, validated by the Versailles Treaty of 1919. Poland was reconstituted after the partitions of the 1790s had divided it between Germany, Austria, and Russia. New countries included Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine (which was soon absorbed by the Soviet Union), Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. Austria and Hungary had much-reduced boundaries. The new states included sizeable ethnic minorities, which were to be protected according to the League of Nations minority protection regime. Throughout Eastern Europe, ethnic Germans constituted by far the largest single ethnic minority. In some areas, as in the Sudetenland, regions of Poland, and in parts of Slovenia, German speakers constituted the local majority, creating upheaval regarding demands of self-determination.",
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"plaintext": "Romania, Bulgaria, and Albania likewise were independent. Many of the countries were still largely rural, with little industry and only a few urban centres. Nationalism was the dominant force but most of the countries had ethnic or religious minorities who felt threatened by majority elements. Nearly all became democratic in the 1920s, but all of them (except Czechoslovakia and Finland) gave up democracy during the depression years of the 1930s, in favor of autocratic, strong-man or single-party states. The new states were unable to form stable military alliances, and one by one were too weak to stand up against Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union, which took them over between 1938 and 1945.",
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"plaintext": "Russia ended its participation in the First World War in March 1918 and lost territory, as the Baltic countries and Poland became independent. The region was the main battlefield in the Second World War (1939–45), with German and Soviet armies sweeping back and forth, with millions of Jews killed by the Nazis, and millions of others killed by disease, starvation, and military action, or executed after being deemed as politically dangerous. During the final stages of World War II the future of Eastern Europe was decided by the overwhelming power of the Soviet Red Army, as it swept the Germans aside. It did not reach Yugoslavia and Albania, however. Finland was free but forced to be neutral in the upcoming Cold War.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout Eastern Europe, German-speaking populations were expelled to the reduced borders of Germany in one of the largest ethnic cleansing operations in history. Regions where Germans had formed the local population majority were re-settled with Polish- or Czech-speakers.",
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"plaintext": "The region fell to Soviet control and Communist governments were imposed. Yugoslavia and Albania had their own Communist regimes independent of Moscow. The Eastern Bloc at the onset of the Cold War in 1947 was far behind the Western European countries in economic rebuilding and economic progress. Winston Churchill, in his famous \"Sinews of Peace\" address of 5 March 1946, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, stressed the geopolitical impact of the \"iron curtain\":",
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"plaintext": "Eastern Europe after 1945 usually meant all the European countries liberated from Nazi Germany and then occupied by the Soviet army. It included the German Democratic Republic (also known as East Germany), formed by the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. All the countries in Eastern Europe adopted communist modes of control by 1948. These countries were officially independent of the Soviet Union, but the practical extent of this independence was quite limited. Yugoslavia and Albania had Communist control that was independent of the Kremlin.",
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"plaintext": "The communists had a natural reservoir of popularity in that they had destroyed the Nazi invaders. Their goal was to guarantee long-term working-class solidarity. The Soviet secret police, the NKVD, working in collaboration with local communists, created secret police forces using leadership trained in Moscow. This new secret police arrived to arrest political enemies according to prepared lists. The national Communists then took power in a gradualist manner, backed by the Soviets in many, but not all, cases. For a while, cooperative non-Communist parties were tolerated. The Communist governments nationalized private businesses, placing them under state ownership, and monitored the media and churches. When dividing up government offices with coalition partners, the Communists took control of the interior ministries, which controlled the local police. They also took control of the mass media, especially radio, as well as the education system. They confiscated and redistributed farmland, and seized control of or replaced the organizations of civil society, such as church groups, sports, youth groups, trade unions, farmers' organizations, and civic organizations. In some countries, they engaged in large-scale ethnic cleansing, moving ethnic groups such as Germans, Poles, Ukrainians and Hungarians far away from where they previously lived, often with high loss of life, to relocate them within the new post-war borders of their respective countries.",
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"plaintext": "Under pressure from Stalin, these nations rejected grants from the American Marshall Plan. Instead, they participated in the Molotov Plan, which later evolved into the Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). When NATO was created in 1949, most countries of Eastern Europe became members of the opposing Warsaw Pact, forming a geopolitical concept that became known as the Eastern Bloc. This consisted of:",
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"plaintext": " First and foremost was the Soviet Union (which included the modern-day territories of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova and the illegally occupied Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia). Other countries dominated by the Soviet Union were the German Democratic Republic, People's Republic of Poland, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Bulgaria, and Socialist Republic of Romania.",
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"plaintext": " The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY; formed after World War II and before its later dismemberment) was not a member of the Warsaw Pact. It was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, an organization created in an attempt to avoid being assigned to either the NATO or Warsaw Pact blocs. The movement was demonstratively independent of both the Soviet Union and the Western bloc for most of the Cold War period, allowing Yugoslavia and its other members to act as a business and political mediator between the blocs.",
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"plaintext": " The Socialist People's Republic of Albania broke with the Soviet Union in the early 1960s as a result of the Sino-Soviet split, aligning itself instead with China. Albania formally left the Warsaw pact in September 1968 after the suppression of the Prague Spring. When China established diplomatic relations with the United States in 1978, Albania also broke away from China. Albania and especially Yugoslavia were not unanimously appended to the Eastern Bloc, as they were neutral for a large part of the Cold War period.",
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"plaintext": "With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, the political landscape of the Eastern Bloc, and indeed the world, changed. In the German reunification, the Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic in 1990. In 1991, COMECON, the Warsaw Pact, and the Soviet Union were dissolved. Many European nations that had been part of the Soviet Union regained their independence (Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic States of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia). Czechoslovakia peacefully separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. Many countries of this region joined the European Union, namely Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. The term \"EU11 countries\" refer to the Central and Eastern European member states, including the Baltic states, that accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and the Slovak Republic; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.",
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"plaintext": "The economic changes were in harmony with the constitutional reforms: constitutional provisions on public finances can be identified and, in some countries, a separate chapter deals with public finances. Generally, they soon encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth, and high government debt. By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and between 2004 and 2013 all of them joined the European Union. Most of the constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s: free-market economy (sometimes complemented with the socially [and ecologically] oriented sector), economic development, or only economic rights are included as a ground for the economy.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of fiscal policy, the legislative, the executive and other state organs (Budget Council, Economic and Social Council) define and manage the budgeting. The average government debt in the countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt ratio to GDP in most countries has been rising. Only three countries are affected by high government debt: Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia (over 70% of the GDP), while Slovakia and Poland fulfill the Maastricht requirement but only 10% below the threshold. The contribution to cover the finances for common needs is declared, the principle of just tax burden-sharing is supplemented sometimes with special aspects. Tax revenues expose typically 15–19 % of the GDP, and rates above 20% only rarely can be found.",
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"plaintext": "The state audit of the government budget and expenditures is an essential control element in public finances and an important part of the concept of checks and balances. The central banks are independent state institutions, which possess a monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them even perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system. In the case of a price stability function, the inflation rate, in the examined area, relatively quickly dropped to below 5% by 2000. In monetary policy the differences are based on the euro-zone: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia use the common currency. The economies of this decade – similar to the previous one – show a moderate inflation. As a new phenomenon, a slight negative inflation (deflation) appeared in this decade in several countries (Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), which demonstrates sensitivity regarding international developments. The majority of the constitutions determine the national currency, legal tender or monetary unit. The local currency exchange rate to the U.S. dollar shows that drastic interventions were not necessary. National wealth or assets are the property of the state and/or local governments and, as an exclusive property, the management and protection of them aim at serving the public interest.",
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"plaintext": " Eastern Partnership",
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"plaintext": " Euronest Parliamentary Assembly",
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"plaintext": " European Russia",
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"plaintext": " Intermarium",
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1160693
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"plaintext": " List of Intangible Cultural Heritage elements in Eastern Europe",
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37434922
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"plaintext": " List of political parties in Eastern Europe",
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"plaintext": "European subregions",
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"plaintext": " East-Central Europe",
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"plaintext": " Northern Europe",
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"plaintext": " Southeast Europe",
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"plaintext": " Western Europe",
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"plaintext": " Geographical midpoint of Europe",
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"plaintext": " Regions of Europe",
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"plaintext": " Applebaum, Anne. Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (2012)",
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"plaintext": " Berend, Iván T. Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Europe before World War II (2001)",
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29265987
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"plaintext": " Day, Alan J. et al. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe (2nd ed 2007) abstract",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Donert, Celia, Emily Greble, and Jessica Wardhaugh. \"New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe.\" Contemporary European History 26.3 (2017): 507-507. DOI: New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Frankel, Benjamin. The Cold War 1945-1991. Vol. 2, Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World (1992), 379pp of biographies.",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Frucht, Richard, ed. Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism (2000)",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Fuchs-Schündeln, Nicola, and Matthias Schündeln. \"The long-term effects of communism in Eastern Europe.\" Journal of Economic Perspectives 34.2 (2020): 172–91. online",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": " Gal, Susan and Gail Kligman, The Politics of Gender After Socialism (Princeton University Press, 2000).",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Gorshkov, Boris B. \"Serfdom: Eastern Europe.\" in Encyclopedia of European Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 2: 2001), pp.379–388. Online",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ghodsee, Kristen R. Lost in Transition: Ethnographies of Everyday Life After Communism (Duke University Press, 2011).",
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"target_page_ids": [
29429770
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},
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"plaintext": " Held, Joseph, ed. The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (1993)",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jeffries, Ian, and Robert Bideleux. The Balkans: A Post-Communist History (2007).",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans, Vol. 1: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (1983)",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Ramet, Sabrina P. Eastern Europe: Politics, Culture, and Society Since 1939 (1999)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Roskin, Michael G. The Rebirth of East Europe (4th ed. 2001); 204pp",
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"target_page_ids": [
49338579
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Schenk, Frithjof Benjamin, Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History, EGO - European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2013, retrieved: March 4, 2020 (pdf).",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Schevill, Ferdinand. The History of the Balkan Peninsula; From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1966)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe Between the Wars 1918-1941 (1945) online",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Simons, Thomas W. Eastern Europe in the Postwar World (1991)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
47805933
],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " Snyder, Timothy. Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (2011)",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [
5832465,
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],
"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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"plaintext": " Stavrianos, L.S. The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), major scholarly history; online free to borrow",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Swain, Geoffrey and Nigel Swain, Eastern Europe Since 1945 (3rd ed. 2003)",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Verdery, Katherine. What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Walters, E. Garrison. The Other Europe: Eastern Europe to 1945 (1988) 430pp; country-by-country coverage",
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"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wolchik, Sharon L. and Jane L. Curry, eds. Central and East European Politics: From Communism to Democracy (2nd ed. 2010), 432pp",
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Wolff, Larry: Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994. ",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Interview with historian Larry Wolff on \"Inventing Eastern Europe\"",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " Eastern Europe Economic Data",
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"plaintext": " Emerging Europe - A new narrative for the region",
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"plaintext": "KFC (Kentucky Fried Chicken) is an American fast food restaurant chain headquartered in Louisville, Kentucky, that specializes in fried chicken. It is the world's second-largest restaurant chain (as measured by sales) after McDonald's, with 22,621 locations globally in 150 countries . The chain is a subsidiary of Yum! Brands, a restaurant company that also owns the Pizza Hut and Taco Bell chains.",
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"plaintext": "KFC was founded by Colonel Harland Sanders (1890–1980), an entrepreneur who began selling fried chicken from his roadside restaurant in Corbin, Kentucky, during the Great Depression. Sanders identified the potential of the restaurant franchising concept and the first \"Kentucky Fried Chicken\" franchise opened in Utah in 1952. KFC popularized chicken in the fast-food industry, diversifying the market by challenging the established dominance of the hamburger. By branding himself as \"Colonel Sanders\", Harland became a prominent figure of American cultural history and his image remains widely used in KFC advertising to this day. However, the company's rapid expansion overwhelmed the aging Sanders and he sold it to a group of investors led by John Y. Brown Jr. and Jack C. Massey in 1964.",
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"plaintext": "KFC was one of the first American fast-food chains to expand internationally, opening outlets in Canada, the United Kingdom, Mexico and Jamaica by the mid-1960s. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, it experienced mixed fortunes domestically, as it went through a series of changes in corporate ownership with little or no experience in the restaurant business. In the early 1970s, KFC was sold to the spirits distributor Heublein, which was taken over by the R. J. Reynolds food and tobacco conglomerate; that company sold the chain to PepsiCo. The chain continued to expand overseas, however, and in 1987 it became the first Western restaurant chain to open in China. It has since expanded rapidly in China, which is now the company's single largest market. PepsiCo spun off its restaurants division as Tricon Global Restaurants, which later changed its name to Yum! Brands.",
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"plaintext": "KFC's original product is pressure-fried chicken pieces, seasoned with Sanders' recipe of 11 herbs and spices. The constituents of the recipe are a trade secret. Larger portions of fried chicken are served in a cardboard \"bucket\", which has become a feature of the chain since it was first introduced by franchisee Pete Harman in 1957. Since the early 1990s, KFC has expanded its menu to offer other chicken products such as chicken fillet sandwiches and wraps, as well as salads and side dishes such as French fries and coleslaw, desserts and soft drinks; the latter often supplied by PepsiCo. KFC is known for its slogans \"It's Finger Lickin' Good!\", \"Nobody does chicken like KFC\" and \"So good\".",
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"plaintext": "In 1930, Sanders took over a Shell filling station on US Route 25 just outside North Corbin, Kentucky, a small town on the edge of the Appalachian Mountains. It was here that he first served to travelers the recipes that he had learned as a child: fried chicken and other dishes such as steaks and country ham. After four years of serving from his own dining room table, Sanders purchased the larger filling station on the other side of the road and expanded to six tables. By 1936, this had proven successful enough for Sanders to be given the honorary title of Kentucky Colonel by Governor Ruby Laffoon. In 1937 he expanded his restaurant to 142 seats and added a motel he purchased across the street, naming it Sanders Court & Café.",
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"plaintext": "Don Anderson, a sign painter hired by Harman, coined the name \"Kentucky Fried Chicken\". For Harman, the addition of KFC was a way of differentiating his restaurant from competitors; a product from Kentucky was exotic and evoked imagery of Southern hospitality. Harman trademarked the phrase \"It's finger lickin' good\", which eventually became the company slogan. He also introduced the \"bucket meal\" in 1957 (14 pieces of chicken, five bread rolls and a pint of gravy in a cardboard bucket). Serving their signature meal in a paper bucket was to become an iconic feature of the company.",
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"plaintext": "By 1963, there were 600 KFC restaurants, making the company the largest fast food operation in the United States. KFC popularized chicken in the fast food industry, diversifying the market by challenging the dominance of the hamburger.",
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"plaintext": "Pat Grace met with Saunders at his holiday home in near Toronto and agreed to franchise the brand in Ireland. In 1970 Grace returned to Ireland after a number of years in Canada to open his first Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurants in Phibsboro shopping centre in Dublin. Eventually he opened another six restaurants located in Dublin, Limerick and Cork. After disagreements over cost cutting with KFC management in the early 1980s, the Irish restaurants were renamed to Pat Grace's Famous Fried Chicken reportatly retaining the original receipe. These stores were closed in the late 1980s. Pat Grace went on to wholesale the chicken spice blend under the brand Grace’s Perfect Blend. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1964, Sanders sold KFC to a group of investors led by John Y. Brown Jr. and Jack C. Massey for US$2 million (around US$17 million in 2020). The contract included a lifetime salary for Sanders and the agreement that he would be the company's quality controller and trademark. The chain had reached 3,000 outlets in 48 countries by 1970. In July 1971, Brown sold the company to the Connecticut-based Heublein, a packaged food and drinks corporation, for US$285 million (around US$1.8 billion in 2020). Sanders died in 1980, his promotional work making him a prominent figure in American cultural history. By the time of his death, there were an estimated 6,000 KFC outlets in 48 countries worldwide, with $2 billion worth of sales annually.",
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"plaintext": "In 1982, Heublein was acquired by R. J. Reynolds, the tobacco giant. In July 1986, Reynolds announced the sale of KFC to PepsiCo for $850 million (around US$2.0 billion in 2020). The actual sale took place in early October for $840 million. PepsiCo made the chain a part of its restaurants division alongside Pizza Hut and Taco Bell. KFC entered the Chinese market in November 1987, with an outlet in Beijing.",
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"plaintext": "In 1991, the KFC name was officially adopted, although it had already been widely known by that initialism. Kyle Craig, president of KFC U.S., admitted the change was an attempt to distance the chain from the unhealthy connotations of \"fried\". The early 1990s saw a number of successful major product launches, including spicy \"Hot Wings\" (launched in 1990), popcorn chicken (1992) and, internationally, the \"Zinger\", a spicy chicken fillet sandwich (1993). By 1994 KFC had 5,149 outlets in the US and 9,407 overall, with over 100,000 employees. In August 1997, PepsiCo spun off its restaurants division as a public company valued at US$4.5 billion (around US$7.3 billion in 2020). The new company was named Tricon Global Restaurants and, at the time, had 30,000 outlets and annual sales of US$10 billion (around US$16 billion in 2020), making it second in the world only to McDonald's. Tricon was renamed Yum! Brands in May 2002.",
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"plaintext": "By 2015, KFC was struggling, having lost business to other retailers and being surpassed by Chick-fil-A as the leading chicken retailer in the US three years previously. The company launched a new initiative with a plan to revamp its packaging, decor and uniforms and expand its menu. Additionally, beginning in May 2015, a new series of US advertisements was launched featuring Darrell Hammond as Colonel Sanders. In a planned rotation of actors, Norm Macdonald, Jim Gaffigan, George Hamilton and Rob Riggle portrayed Sanders in similar ads through the fall of 2016. In January 2018, country music icon Reba McEntire played the first female Colonel Sanders.",
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"plaintext": "Before leaving as CEO in 2021, Andrea Zahumensky told Ad Age the \"brand assets that we're so lucky to have\" were the bucket, the three stripes and the full name Kentucky Fried Chicken. All of these were being used more by the chain.",
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"plaintext": "KFC is a subsidiary of Yum! Brands, one of the largest restaurant companies in the world. KFC had sales of $23 billion in 2013. KFC is incorporated under Delaware General Corporation Law, and has its headquarters at 1441 Gardiner Lane, Louisville, Kentucky, in a three-story colonial style building known colloquially as the \"White House\" due to its resemblance to the US president's home. The headquarters contain executive offices and the company's research and development facilities.",
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"plaintext": "KFC's core product offering is pressure fried on-the-bone chicken pieces seasoned with Colonel Harland Sanders' \"Original Recipe\" of 11 herbs and spices. The product is typically available in either two- or three-piece individual servings or in a family size cardboard bucket typically holding between six and 16 chicken pieces. In territories that follow the system handed down by Colonel Sanders, such as Canada and the UK, each chicken is divided into nine different cuts (two drumsticks, two thighs, two wings, two breast pieces and one keel); however, the United States now uses an eight-piece cut. The product is hand-breaded at individual KFC outlets with wheat flour mixed with seasoning in a two- to four-minute process. It is then pressure fried for between seven and 10 minutes (the timing differs between countries) in oil at 185 degrees Celsius. Following this, the chicken is left to stand for 5 minutes in order for it to sufficiently cool before it is placed in the warming oven. It is KFC policy to discard chicken if it has not been sold within 90 minutes in order to ensure freshness. The frying oil varies regionally and versions used include sunflower, soybean, rapeseed and palm oil. A KFC executive stated that the taste of the chicken will vary between regions depending on the oil variety used and whether the chicken has been corn-fed or wheat-fed.",
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"plaintext": "As well as its core chicken on the bone offering, KFC's major products include chicken sandwiches (including the Zinger and the Tower); wraps (\"Twisters\" and \"Boxmasters\"); and a variety of finger foods, including crispy chicken strips and hot wings. Popcorn chicken, which consists of bite-sized pieces of fried chicken, is one of the most widely available KFC products. In some locations, such as in Australia, Belarus, Malaysia and South Africa, chicken nuggets are also sold.",
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"plaintext": "McCormick & Company is KFC's largest supplier of sauces, seasonings and marinades and is a long-term partner in new product development.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the company's previous relationship with PepsiCo, most territories supply PepsiCo products, but exceptional territories include Barbados, Greece, Mexico, New Zealand, the Philippines, Romania, South Africa, Turkey, Indonesia (since 2019), Singapore (since 2022) and Malaysia (since 2022) which stock drinks supplied by The Coca-Cola Company, and Aruba, which stocks RC Cola from the Cott Corporation. In Peru, the locally popular Inca Kola is sold.",
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"plaintext": "Launched in 2009, the Krusher/Krushem range of frozen beverages containing \"real bits\" such as Kit Kat, Oreo and strawberry shortcake is available in over 2,000 outlets. Egg custard tart is a popular dessert worldwide, but other items include ice cream sundaes and tres leches cake in Peru.",
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"plaintext": "In 2012, the \"KFC AM\" breakfast menu began to be rolled out internationally, including such items as pancakes, waffles and porridge, as well as fried chicken.",
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"plaintext": "On August 27, 2019, KFC tested meatless boneless wings and nuggets in Atlanta, Georgia.",
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"plaintext": "Sanders' Original Recipe of \"11 herbs and spices\" is one of the best known trade secrets in the catering industry. The recipe is not patented, because patent law requires public disclosure of an invention and provides protection only for a strictly limited term, whereas trade secrets can remain the intellectual property of their holders in perpetuity.",
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"plaintext": "A copy of the recipe, signed by Sanders, is held inside a safe inside a vault in KFC's Louisville headquarters, along with 11 vials containing the herbs and spices. To maintain the secrecy of the recipe, half of it is produced by Griffith Laboratories before it is given to McCormick, who add the second half.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999, a couple who bought the house formerly occupied by Colonel Sanders found scribbled notes purported to be the secret recipe. Initially, KFC wanted to file a lawsuit against the couple to stop an auction of the notes but, by early 2001, it dropped the lawsuit, claiming the scribbled notes are \"nowhere close\" to the original recipe.",
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"plaintext": "Joe Ledington of Kentucky, a nephew by marriage of Colonel Sanders, claimed to have found a copy of the original KFC fried chicken recipe on a handwritten piece of paper in an envelope in a scrapbook. In August 2016, Chicago Tribune staffers conducted a cooking test of this recipe and claimed after a few attempts that, with the addition of the MSG flavor-enhancer Ac'cent, they produced fried chicken which tasted \"indistinguishable\" from the chicken they purchased at KFC.",
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"plaintext": "KFC adapts its menu internationally to suit regional tastes and there are over 300 KFC menu items worldwide. Some locations, such as the UK and the US, sell grilled chicken. In predominantly Islamic countries, the chicken served is halal. In Asia, there is a preference for spicy foods, such as the Zinger chicken sandwich. In many international markets, the seasoning used for the core chicken pieces product is available as a hot and spicy version as an alternative to the classic KFC recipe. The hot and spicy coating, as well as having a spicier flavour, also has a crispy consistency. In Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, a grilled chicken known as \"Smoky Red\" is available. KFC locations in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau and Vietnam offer a roasted option known as Flava Crava. Some locations in the US sell fried chicken livers and gizzards. A small number of US outlets offer an all-you-can-eat buffet option with a limited menu.",
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"plaintext": "A number of territories, such as Japan, Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbados, Ecuador and Singapore sell fried seafood products under the \"Colonel's Catch\" banner. In Jamaica, what was originally a seasonal offering for the Lent period was expanded to a year-round offering from 2010. In Japan, KFC is a Christmas tradition.",
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"plaintext": "Value menu items are sold under the \"Streetwise\" name in locations such as Canada, Nigeria, South Africa and Mauritius. Side dishes often include French fries, coleslaw, barbecue baked beans, corn on the cob, mashed potato, bread rolls and American biscuits. Salads include the bean salad, the Caesar salad and the garden salad. In a number of territories, KFC sells onion rings. In most of Asia, several Sub-Saharan Africa and Pacific markets, rice based side dishes are often sold. In the US and Greece, potato wedges are sold instead of French fries.",
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"plaintext": "In a number of Eastern European locations and Portugal, beer is offered in addition to soft drinks.",
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"plaintext": "KFC initially used stove-top covered cooking pots to fry its chicken. In the 1960s, the officially recommended model was the L S Hartzog developed \"KFC 20-Head Cooker\", a large device that cost $16,000. The Hartzog model had no oil filtration system, meaning that filtering had to be done manually, and the pressure fryers occasionally exploded often harming employees. In 1969, inventor and engineer Winston L. Shelton developed the \"Collectramatic\" pressurized fryer to overcome the problems KFC faced in quickly frying chicken to meet growing customer demand. The Collectramatic used precision time and temperature controls and self-filtered the cooking oil – all while meeting Colonel Sanders' high standards. Fred Jeffries, then vice president of purchasing at KFC, claimed that the invention helped fuel the company's rapid expansion and success:",
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"plaintext": "There's no way it (KFC) could have grown as it did without the Collectramatic. Stores were doing about $200,000 a year in sales on average with the pots...but they could never have done the $900,000 a year it became without Win's fryer. He (Shelton) helped set the stage for that with true engineering thinking.",
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"plaintext": "Although a number of franchisees bought the Collectramatic, which had the support of Colonel Sanders from 1970 onwards, John Y. Brown Jr. had given tacit approval to franchisees to exclusively use the older L S Hartzog fryer, saying \"Though those old pots were damn dangerous, at least we knew they worked! I was mostly afraid these new fryers would break down in the middle of business.\" Brown warned franchisees that they were in violation of their contract if they used the Collectramatic. Brown held his ground on the issue until he learned that his father, John Y. Brown Sr., who owned multiple KFC franchises, was successfully using the Collectramatic in every franchise he owned. The issue was eventually resolved after Heublein purchased KFC, acquired Hartzog and nullified the contract. The Collectramatic has been an approved pressure fryer for KFC from 1972 onwards.",
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"plaintext": "From 2013 onwards, KFC has been transitioning from using Collectramatic cookers to pressure fryers produced by Henny Penny, which supplies KFC with various equipment. The 'Velocity' series of pressure fryers includes increased load capacity, automatic oil filtration and increased oil longevity.",
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"plaintext": "Colonel Sanders was a key component of KFC advertising until his death in 1980. Despite his death, Sanders remains a key icon of the company as an \"international symbol of hospitality\". Early official slogans for the company included \"North America's Hospitality Dish\" (from 1956) and \"We fix Sunday dinner seven nights a week\". The \"finger lickin' good\" slogan was used from 1956 and went on to become one of the best-known slogans of the 20th century. The trademark expired in the US in 2006. The first KFC logo was introduced in 1952 and featured a \"Kentucky Fried Chicken\" typeface and a logo of the Colonel. In 1962, Dave Thomas took Colonel Sanders' bucket and turned it into a sign that revolved in a circular motion in front of almost every American KFC outlet.",
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"plaintext": "Advertising played a key role at KFC after it was sold by Sanders and the company began to advertise on US television with a budget of US$4 million in 1966. In order to fund nationwide advertising campaigns, the Kentucky Fried Chicken Advertising Co-Op was established, giving franchisees 10 votes and the company three when deciding on budgets and campaigns. In 1969, KFC hired its first national advertising agency, Leo Burnett. A notable Burnett campaign in 1972 was the \"Get a bucket of chicken, have a barrel of fun\" jingle, performed by Barry Manilow. By 1976, KFC was one of the largest advertisers in the US.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2020, KFC revealed the KFConsole, a new gaming console with a \"Chicken Chamber\" to keep food warm.",
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"plaintext": "Since the beginning of the 21st century, fast food has been criticized for its animal welfare record, its links to obesity and its environmental impact. Eric Schlosser's book Fast Food Nation (2002) and Morgan Spurlock's film Super Size Me (2004) reflected these concerns. Since 2003, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) has protested KFC's choice of poultry suppliers worldwide. The exception is KFC Canada, which signed an agreement pledging to only use \"animal-friendly\" suppliers. President of KFC's US division Gregg Dedrick said PETA mischaracterized KFC as a poultry producer rather than a purchaser of chickens. In 2008, Yum! stated: \"[As] a major purchaser of food products, [Yum!] has the opportunity and responsibility to influence the way animals supplied to us are treated. We take that responsibility very seriously, and we are monitoring our suppliers on an ongoing basis.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, Greenpeace accused KFC Europe of sourcing the soya bean for its chicken feed from Cargill, which had been accused of clearing large swathes of the Amazon rainforest in order to grow the crop.",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, according to The Guardian, \"in the US where fried chicken remains closely associated with age-old racist stereotypes about black people in the once segregated south\", KFC Australia aired the 30-second promotion on television named \"KFC's cricket survival guide\" which shows a cricket fan surrounded by fans from the opposing team. The television announcer asks, \"Need a tip when you're stuck in an awkward situation?\" The fan passes around his \"bucket of KFC\", even though the commercial was intended for an Australian audience, which found its way to social media in the United States, prompting sharp disapproval. KFC Australia made a statement to the fact the commercial was \"misinterpreted by a segment of people in the US\" and it was a \"light-hearted reference to the West Indian cricket team\" and \"The ad was reproduced online in the US without KFC's permission, where we are told a culturally-based stereotype exists, leading to the incorrect assertion of racism...We unequivocally condemn discrimination of any type and have a proud history as one of the world's leading employers for diversity\".",
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"plaintext": "In May 2012, Greenpeace accused KFC of sourcing paper pulp for its food packaging from Indonesian rainforest wood. Independent forensic tests showed that some packaging contained more than 50 percent mixed tropical hardwood fiber, sourced from Asia Pulp & Paper (APP). APP said such fiber can be found in recycled paper, or: \"It can also come from tree residues that are cleared, after a forest area has become degraded, logged-over or burned, as part of a sustainable development plan. APP has strict policies and practices in place to ensure that only residues from legal plantation development on degraded or logged-over forest areas and sustainable wood fiber enters the production supply chain.\" KFC said: \"From a global perspective, 60 percent of the paper products that Yum! (our parent company) sources are from sustainable sources. Our suppliers are working towards making it 100 percent.\"",
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"plaintext": "In December 2012, the chain was criticized in China when it was discovered that a number of KFC suppliers had been using growth hormones and an excessive amount of antibiotics on its poultry in ways that violated Chinese law. In February 2013, Yum! CEO David Novak admitted that the scandal had been \"longer lasting and more impactful than we ever imagined.\" The issue is of major concern to Yum!, which earns almost half of its profits from China, largely through the KFC brand. In March 2013, Yum! reported that sales had rebounded in February, but that lower sales in December and January would result in a decline in same-store sales of 20 percent in the first quarter.",
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| 524,757 | 145,909 | 1,338 | 197 | 1 | 0 | KFC | American fast food restaurant chain specializing in fried chicken | [
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37,406 | 1,107,531,296 | Kristiansund | [
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund (, ; historically spelled Christianssund and earlier named Fosna) is a municipality on the western coast of Norway in the Nordmøre district of Møre og Romsdal county. The administrative center of the municipality is the town of Kristiansund (established in 1742), which is the major town for the whole Nordmøre region. Other notable settlements in the municipality include the villages of Kvalvåg, Rensvik, and Nedre Frei.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality is the 333rd largest by area out of the 356 municipalities in Norway. Kristiansund is the 51st most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 24,179. The municipality's population density is and its population has increased by 4% over the previous 10-year period.",
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"plaintext": "The parish of Christianssund was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). Initially, the small island municipality included just the town of Christianssund and its immediate surrounding area. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, Kristiansund Municipality was merged with the tiny Grip Municipality (population: 104) to the northwest and the Dale area of Bremsnes Municipality on Nordlandet island (population: 963). The neighboring Frei Municipality was merged with Kristiansund on 1 January 2008 creating a much larger Kristiansund Municipality.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality is named after the town of Kristiansund. Historically, it was spelled Christianssund. The name comes from the Danish-Norwegian King Christian VI who founded the town in 1742. The last element of the name, sund, means \"strait\". The old name of the town/village (originally the island Kirkelandet) was Fosna or Fosen () which means \"hiding place\" (here 'hidden port'). It was also often named Lille Fosen (\"the small Fosen\") to distinguish it from the island Storfosna (\"the big Fosen\") in Ørland.",
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"plaintext": "Before 1877, the name was spelled Christianssund, from 1877 to 1888 it was spelled Kristianssund, and since 1889 it has had its present spelling, Kristiansund.",
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"plaintext": "Before the introduction of postal codes in Norway in 1968, it was easy to confuse the name Kristiansund with Kristiansand in the south. It was therefore obligatory to always add an N (for north) to Kristiansund (Kristiansund N) and an S (for south) to Kristiansand (Kristiansand S). This is pretty much still practiced and also occurs in some other contexts than postal addresses.",
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"plaintext": "The coat of arms was granted on 27 June 1742. The arms were granted by King Christian VI and are described as a silver or white river flowing from a cliff, with salmon jumping upwards on a blue background. The waterfall may possibly be the Lille Fosen waterfall near the town.",
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"plaintext": "There are two myths as to why the arms show a waterfall. The first one is because the old name of the town (Fosen) was misinterpreted as Fossund (as a compound of foss which means waterfall and sund which means strait).",
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"plaintext": "The other myth concerning the coat of arms is that there was a mix up, between Kristiansund's and Molde's intended shield. The Dano-Norwegian government officials in charge of the giving of the coats, had a party to remember the momentous occasion and became too drunk and hungover to remember which was which, and so Molde got the coat with a whale (which are scarce in between the Romsdal fjords) and Kristiansund got the waterfall (since Molde is on the mainland and Kristiansund lies in the open sea, it would be more likely that the waterfall was intended for Molde's mountains and the whales for Kristiansund.)",
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"plaintext": "The Church of Norway has three parishes () within the municipality of Kristiansund. It is part of the Ytre Nordmøre prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Møre.",
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"plaintext": "St. Eystein Catholic Church is the only Catholic church in Kristiansund.",
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"plaintext": "The municipality borders Smøla Municipality and Aure Municipality to the northeast, Tingvoll Municipality to the east, Gjemnes Municipality to the south, and Averøy Municipality to the southwest. The small Grip archipelago is located in the northwestern part of the municipality. The municipality is surrounded by the Freifjorden and Kvernesfjorden with the open sea to the northwest.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund is built on four main islands, with many smaller islands. The island of Nordlandet (\"North Land\", humorously nicknamed Marokko), is the second largest island and the site of the local airport, Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget (IATA code: KSU). Kirkelandet, third in size is made up of two areas Kirkelandet and Gomalandet. In the local dialect, Kirkelandet (the \"Church Land\") is pronounced \"Kirklandet\", without the middle e. The smallest island is Innlandet (\"Innermost Land\"; humorously, \"Tahiti\"). The largest island in the municipality is Frei which was part of the old Frei Municipality which was merged into Kristiansund on 1 January 2008. The highest point of the municipality is located on Frei island, Freikollen at a height of .",
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"plaintext": "The islands of Grip, located northwest of Kristiansund are also a part of the municipality. Grip Municipality was Norway's smallest municipality, and also one of the most remote until it merged with Kristiansund in 1964. Today the island of Grip holds status as a deserted fishing village, but in the summer season it is a popular tourist attraction due to the very special location and architecture. Grip Stave Church, the second smallest stave church of Norway (Undredal Stave Church is smaller), is also located at Grip. It is also where Grip Lighthouse is located.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund includes the town of Kristiansund which is one of the most densely populated cities of Norway, having what is arguably the country's most urban small city centre, due to the relatively small size of the islands on which it is built and the very constricted central harbour/town area of Kirkelandet.",
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"plaintext": "Archeological evidence exists of settlement in the area which is now Kristiansund from as early as 8000 BCE. At the end of the last ice age some areas at the western coast of Norway were ice-free. The first evidence of such settlements were discovered at Voldvatnet in Kristiansund in 1909. More have since been found, a discovery at Kvernberget in 2007 when archeological digs were conducted before the extension of the city's airport. Finds have also been discovered from the bronze age, and early iron age.",
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"plaintext": "During the Viking era there were many battles around Kristiansund. The most famous one was the Battle of Rastarkalv on the island of Frei, where the Norwegian King Håkon the Good fought against the Eirikssønnene group. There is now a monument located near at Nedre Frei, where the battle was fought.",
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"plaintext": "The island of Grip was an important fishing community during the Middle Ages, and was considered to be the most important municipality in the region at the time. The natural harbour in Lille-fosen, close to where Kristiansund is located today was also frequently used for fishing purposes.",
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"plaintext": "During the 17th century a small settlement developed around the area we know today as Kristiansund harbour. As more and more settlers arrived, the area became an important trading port for fishing and the lumber transportation along the coast. The Dano-Norwegian government established a customs station here, which was controlled by the main trading port in Trondheim. In 1631, the port was declared to be a ladested.",
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"plaintext": "Dutch sailors brought the knowledge of clipfish production to Kristiansund at the end of the 17th century, and for a number of years the town was the largest exporter of clipfish in Norway, exporting goods mainly to the Mediterranean countries as Spain and Portugal. The city's clipfish production was also part of the reason why it was given town status as a kjøpstad in 1742.",
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"plaintext": "The town of Christianssund was established as the municipality of Christianssund on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, Kristiansund Municipality was merged with the tiny Grip Municipality (population: 104) to the northwest and the Dale area of Bremsnes Municipality on Nordlandet island (population: 963). The neighboring Frei Municipality was merged with Kristiansund on 1 January 2008 creating a much larger Kristiansund Municipality.",
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"plaintext": "The local newspaper of Kristiansund is Tidens Krav, which also functions as a semi-regional newspaper for the other municipalities located nearby the city.",
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"plaintext": "Other online newspapers for the city exists, such as KSU.no. A local radio station, also named KSU 24/7, was founded in 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund has a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb) with cool-to-warm summers and mild winters. The city structure with the unique natural harbour of the city combined with Atlantic air from the southwest and the Gulf Stream gives Kristiansund a much warmer climate than its latitude would indicate. The all-time high was set 28 July, 2018. The warmest month on record at Kristiansund Airport was July 2014 with mean and average daily high . The all-time low was recorded 23 February, 2010. The coldest month on record at Kristiansund Airport was December 2010 with mean and average daily low . The coldest month recorded at earlier weather stations in Kristiansund was February 1947 with mean (recordings since 1871).",
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"plaintext": "All municipalities in Norway, including Kristiansund, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor, and subcomittes for specific sectors of governance, such as education, public health and the Petroleum industry. The municipality falls under the Nordmøre District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.",
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"plaintext": "The municipal council () of Kristiansund is made up of 45 representatives that are elected to four-year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:",
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"plaintext": "The mayors of Kristiansund (incomplete list):",
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"plaintext": "2015–present: Kjell Neergaard (Ap)",
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"plaintext": "1997-2007: Dagfinn Ripnes (H)",
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"plaintext": "1995-1997: Aud Inger Aure (KrF)",
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"plaintext": "1989-1995: Harald Martin Stokke (Ap)",
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"plaintext": "1984-1989: Øivind Jensen (Ap)",
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"plaintext": "1982-1983: Knut Engdahl (H)",
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"plaintext": "Kirstiansund has sister city agreements with the following places:",
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"plaintext": " Kokkola, Finland",
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"plaintext": " Härnösand, Sweden",
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"plaintext": " Fredericia, Denmark",
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"plaintext": "Together the three cities hold a tournament called Nordiske Dager (\"Nordic Days\").",
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"plaintext": "Though fairly small in size, the city of Kristiansund contains many green parks and gardens, frequently used by the city's inhabitants. There are two larger parks near the city centre. The first one is located near Langveien, and was constructed in the aftermath of World War II . The second one is located in Vanndamman. This area used to be part of the city water supply, due to the large amount of small lakes in the area. (hence the name \"Vanndamman\" (The Water ponds)) The two parks are partly linked together, but the Langveien-park serve more as an urban recreation area due to the short walking distance from the city centre, while the Vanndamman-park is more suitable for outings and jogging.",
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"plaintext": "Started in 1876 and still going strong is the Sundbåt (\"Sound Boat\"/\"Strait Crossing Boat\") shuttle service with a capacity of a few tens of passengers, travelling between the islands. The small motor ferry crosses the harbour from Kirkelandet to Innlandet, then goes on to Nordlandet, to Gomalandet, and back to Kirkelandet, repeating the round trip in half-hour intervals morning to evening on weekdays. The Sundbåt bears the distinction of being the world's oldest motorized regular public transport system in continuous service.",
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"plaintext": "The road to Kristiansund from the mainland, Norwegian National Road 70 is connected to European route E39 by the bridge/tunnel system called Krifast. After passing through the underwater Freifjord Tunnel from the central part of Krifast, National Road 70 crosses Frei, and enters Kristiansund over the Omsund Bridge onto Nordlandet. The Nordsund Bridge brings the Rv 70 to Gomalandet and its terminus in downtown at Kirkelandet. Another high bridge, the Sørsund Bridge, leads from Kirkelandet to Innlandet. E39 leads southwest to the town of Molde and northeast via the European route E6 to Trøndelag and the city of Trondheim.",
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"plaintext": "There used to be a car ferry going from Kirkelandet island to neighboring Averøy Municipality to the west, whose people have been commuting to town for many years for work as well as selling agricultural products. The ferry to Averøy connected Kristiansund to Norwegian National Road 64, which continued along the scenic Atlanterhavsvegen to Molde. The ferry was replaced by the long underwater Atlantic Ocean Tunnel in December 2009. Because both tunnels are forbidden for bicyclists, Kristiansund cannot easily be reached by bicycle.",
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"plaintext": "A second car ferry goes from Seivika on Nordlandet to Tustna in the northeast (road: RV 680), with further road and ferry connections to the islands of Smøla and Hitra, and to Aure Municipality on the mainland.",
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"plaintext": "Besides roads and car ferries and Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget, connections to/from Kristiansund consist of the traditional coastal express Hurtigruten connecting coastal towns from Bergen in the south to Kirkenes in the north, and the high speed catamaran passenger service Kystekspressen to Trondheim. Another option to get to Kristiansund is to fly with Scandinavian Airlines from several other Norwegian cities.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund is known as the major bacalhau city of Norway. Bacalhau is made of salted, dried codfish, and has traditionally been exported in large amounts to Spain, Portugal and Latin America as food suitable during Lent. In recent years Kristiansund has become the major oil and gas city at the mid-northwestern coast. Oil companies like Royal Dutch Shell and Statoil have offices in Kristiansund from where they serve their offshore installations at Haltenbanken (one of the northernmost underwater oil fields in the world).",
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"plaintext": "Due to the city's heavy involvement in fish processing and international shipping, there used to be as many as seven consulates in Kristiansund, mainly to Latin countries. Currently, there are only five left: Britain, Finland, Latvia, the Netherlands, and Portugal.",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund is an important cultural centre in the region of Nordmøre. The city is probably best known for housing one of Norway's oldest operas, which was established in 1928 by Edvard Bræin. There is an annual opera festival held every February in Kristiansund named The Opera Weeks (Operafestukene). In addition to this, Kristiansund is also host city of Northern Europes largest photo festival, Nordic Light. Even though this is a rather \"young\" festival, (Est. 2006) it has grown to become one of the most important of its kind in Europe, attracting famous photographers from all around the world, like Don McCullin, Jock Sturges and William Klein. Other smaller festivals held in Kristiansund include The Tahiti Festival and Kristiansund Church, Art and Culture Festival (shortened to the KKKK-festival in Norwegian).",
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"plaintext": "Kristiansund's main football team, Kristiansund BK, is a result of the 2003 merger between the two largest football teams in the city, KFK and Clausenengen, which together with support from local businesses helped in creating a united elite club commitment. The club started at the 4th level (tredje divisjon) of the Norwegian football league system, and qualified for the 2017 season to play at the top level (Eliteserien). The team finished 7th in its first season at the top level, beating all expectation, and has since climed upwards; Finishing 5th at the top level in 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Other popular sports in Kristiansund include Volleyball, Wrestling, Swimming, Ice skating and Handball.",
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"plaintext": " The archipelago of Grip, northwest of Kristiansund was (until 1964) the smallest municipality of Norway. Today it is a deserted fishing village, but is a popular tourist attraction for the special architecture and unique location. Norway's smallest stave church, which was constructed in the end of the 15th century is also located at Grip.",
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"plaintext": " Sundbåtene in Kristiansund claims to be the world's oldest public transport system, founded in 1876. The small \"Sundbåt\" passenger ferries crosses between the four \"lands\" of the city.",
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"plaintext": " The old city structure in Vågen is a center for the historical fishing settlement in Kristiansund. Mellemværftet is also located here, which is an old shipbuilding facility for sailing ships. The Norwegian Clipfish Museum is also located here.",
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"plaintext": " Innlandet is an old city part of Kristiansund with very special and unique coastal architecture. Innlandet is the part of Kristiansund that was least damaged during the bombings of Kristiansund during World War II .",
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"plaintext": " Nordic Light is an annual festival of photography arranged for the first time in 2006, and is currently the largest of its kind in Northern Europe. The festival is represented by Morten Krogvold.",
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"plaintext": " Festiviteten (Kristiansund Opera) is the oldest opera house in Norway. It is built in Art Nouveau-style, and was completed in 1914. It is one of the few older buildings in the city centre of Kristiansund that survived the bombing of the city during World War II .",
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"plaintext": " Tahitifestivalen is an annual music festival that is arranged in Kristiansund. The festival is arranged by Frode Alnæs and the cafè Dødeladen on Innlandet. The festival was first introduced for the first time in 2000. There has been artist like Dance with a Stranger, Madcon, Hellbillies, Madrugada, Bigbang and many more.",
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"plaintext": "Varden is an old lookout tower located 78 meters above sea level. At the top you get magnificent views to the shipping lane with the fishing village Grip on the horizon. The panorama goes 360 degrees with the Nordmøre mountains as a powerful backdrop. Open every day with free access where you can view the mountains and fjords of Nordmøre.",
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"plaintext": "The following people are from, or have their roots in, Kristiansund.",
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"plaintext": " Edvard Bræin (1887-1957) an organist, composer, and orchestra conductor",
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"plaintext": " Arnulf Øverland (1889–1968) poet, wrote to inspire the Norwegian resistance movement",
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"plaintext": " Tordis Maurstad (1901–1997) a Norwegian stage actress ",
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"plaintext": " Ragnar Vold (1906–1967) a journalist, non-fiction writer and novelist",
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"plaintext": " Vera Zorina (1917–2003) ballerina, theatre and film actress, brought up in Kr'sund ",
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"plaintext": " Edvard Fliflet Bræin (1924–1976) a Norwegian composer and orchestra conductor",
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"plaintext": " Karsten Alnæs (born 1938) fiction and popular history writer (parents were from Kr'sund)",
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"plaintext": " Ingar Knudtsen (born 1944) fantasy & science fiction author, lives in Kr'sund",
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"plaintext": " Petter Schramm (1946-2014) a Norwegian poet, grew up in Kr'sund",
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"plaintext": " Øivind Elgenes (born 1958) a Norwegian vocalist, guitarist and composer",
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"plaintext": " Frode Alnæs (born 1959) singer, jazz guitarist, features with Dance with a Stranger ",
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"plaintext": " Dagfinn Koch (born 1964) musician, writes chamber music and for orchestra, opera and ballet",
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"plaintext": " Jan Erik Mikalsen (born 1979) Norwegian composer of contemporary classical music",
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"plaintext": " 120 Days (2001–2012) rock band, formerly known as \"The Beautiful People\"",
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"plaintext": " Wilhelm Frimann Koren Christie (1778–1849) rep. at Norwegian Constituent Assembly",
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"plaintext": " John Moses (1781–1849) merchant and politician, rep. at Norwegian Constituent Assembly",
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"plaintext": " Georg Ulrich Wasmuth (1788–1814) military officer, rep. at Norwegian Constitutional Assembly",
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"plaintext": " Peter Christian Knudtzon (1789-1864) a Danish businessman and ship-owner",
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"plaintext": " Nicolai Hanson (1870–1899) a Norwegian zoologist and Antarctic explorer",
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"plaintext": " Wollert Krohn-Hansen (1889—1973) pastor, Bishop of Sør-Hålogaland, 1952-1959",
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"plaintext": " Kaare Fostervoll (1891–1981) DG of Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation, 1949 to 1962",
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"plaintext": " Niels Werring (1897–1990) a Norwegian ship-owner of Wilh. Wilhelmsen Holding ASA",
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"plaintext": " Sigurd Frisvold (born 1947) Army General, former Chief of Defence, 1999 to 2005",
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"plaintext": " Ansgar Løvold (1888–1961) a wrestler, butcher and philanthropist",
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"plaintext": " Arne Gaupset (1894–1976) a sport wrestler, competed at the 1924 Summer Olympics",
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"plaintext": " Robert Gaupset (1906–1964) a wrestler, he competed at the 1928 Summer Olympics",
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"plaintext": " Ivar Stokke (1911–1993) a sport wrestler who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics",
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"plaintext": " Babe Didrikson Zaharias (1914–1956), U.S. golfer, athlete and twice Olympic gold medalist; her father Ole came from Kr'sund",
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"plaintext": " Anders Giske (born 1959) footballer with 288 club caps and 38 for Norway",
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"plaintext": " Gøran Sørloth (born 1962) a former footballer with 250 club caps and 55 for Norway ",
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"plaintext": " Gudrun Høie (born 1970) amateur sport wrestler & four times world champion",
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"plaintext": " Anne Holten (born 1972) a Norwegian sport wrestler, twice world champion",
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"plaintext": " Øyvind Leonhardsen (born 1970) footballer with 402 club caps and 86 for Norway ",
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"plaintext": " Petter Rudi (born 1973) a retired footballer with 350 club caps and 46 for Norway,",
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| 109,483 | 2,961 | 322 | 240 | 0 | 0 | Kristiansund | municipality in Møre og Romsdal, Norway | []
|
37,407 | 1,105,585,095 | Strasbourg | [
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"plaintext": "In 2019, the city proper had 287,228 inhabitants and both the Eurométropole de Strasbourg (Greater Strasbourg) and the Arrondissement of Strasbourg had 505,272 inhabitants. Strasbourg's metropolitan area had a population of 846,450 in 2018, making it the eighth-largest metro area in France and home to 14% of the Grand Est region's inhabitants. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 958,421 inhabitants. Strasbourg is one of the de facto four main capitals of the European Union (alongside Brussels, Luxembourg and Frankfurt), as it is the seat of several European institutions, such as the European Parliament, the Eurocorps and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. An organization separate from the European Union, the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines most commonly known in French as \"Pharmacopée Européenne\", and its European Audiovisual Observatory) is also located in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Together with Basel (Bank for International Settlements), Geneva (United Nations), The Hague (International Court of Justice) and New York City (United Nations world headquarters), Strasbourg is among the few cities in the world that is not a state capital that hosts international organisations of the first order. The city is the seat of many non-European international institutions such as the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the International Institute of Human Rights. It is the second city in France in terms of international congress and symposia, after Paris. Strasbourg's historic city centre, the Grande Île (Grand Island), was classified a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1988, with the newer \"Neustadt\" being added to the site in 2017. Strasbourg is immersed in Franco-German culture and although violently disputed throughout history, has been a cultural bridge between France and Germany for centuries, especially through the University of Strasbourg, currently the second-largest in France, and the coexistence of Catholic and Protestant culture. It is also home to the largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque.",
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"plaintext": "Until the fifth century CE, the city was known as Argantorati (in the nominative, Argantorate in the locative), a Celtic Gaulish name Latinised first as Argentorate (with Gaulish locative ending, as appearing on the first Roman milestones in the first century CE) and then as Argentoratum (with regular Latin nominative ending, in later Latin texts). That Gaulish name is a compound of -rati, the Gaulish word for fortified enclosures, cognate to the Old Irish ráth (see ringfort) and arganto(n)- (cognate to Latin argentum, which gave modern French argent), the Gaulish word for silver, but also any precious metal, particularly gold, suggesting either a fortified enclosure located by a river gold mining site, or hoarding gold mined in the nearby rivers.",
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"plaintext": "After the fifth century CE the city became known by a completely different name, later Gallicized as Strasbourg (Lower Alsatian: Strossburi; ). That name is of Germanic origin and means 'town (at the crossing) of roads'. The modern Stras- is cognate with the German Straße and English street, both derived from Latin strata (\"paved road\"), while -bourg is cognate with the German Burg and English borough, both derived from Proto-Germanic *burgz (\"hill fort, fortress\").",
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"plaintext": "Gregory of Tours was the first to mention the name change: in the tenth book of his History of the Franks written shortly after 590 he said that Egidius, Bishop of Reims, accused of plotting against King Childebert II of Austrasia in favor of his uncle King Chilperic I of Neustria, was tried by a synod of Austrasian bishops in Metz in November 590, found guilty and removed from the priesthood, then taken \"ad Argentoratensem urbem, quam nunc Strateburgum vocant\" (\"to the city of Argentoratum, which they now call Strateburgus\"), where he was exiled.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg is situated at the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the Rhine, which also forms the eastern border of the modern city, facing across the river to the German town Kehl. The historic core of Strasbourg, however, lies on the Grande Île in the river Ill, which here flows parallel to, and roughly from, the Rhine. The natural courses of the two rivers eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city.",
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"plaintext": "The city lies in the Upper Rhine Plain, at between and above sea level, with the upland areas of the Vosges Mountains some to the west and the Black Forest to the east. This section of the Rhine valley is a major axis of north–south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself, and major roads and railways paralleling it on both banks.",
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"plaintext": "The city is some east of Paris. The mouth of the Rhine lies approximately to the north, or as the river flows, whilst the head of navigation in Basel is some to the south, or by river.",
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"plaintext": "In spite of its position far inland, Strasbourg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), though with less maritime influence than the milder climates of Western and Southern France. The city has warm, relatively sunny summers and cool, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, totaling annually. On average, snow falls 30 days per year.",
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"plaintext": "The third highest temperature ever recorded was in August 2003, during the 2003 European heat wave. This record was broken, on June 30, 2019, when it reached and then on July 25, 2019, when it reached . The lowest temperature ever recorded was in December 1938.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg's location in the Rhine valley, sheltered from strong winds by the Vosges and Black Forest mountains, results in poor natural ventilation, making Strasbourg one of the most atmospherically polluted cities of France. Nonetheless, the progressive disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution in recent years.",
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"plaintext": "The Roman camp of Argentoratum was first mentioned in 12 BC; the city of Strasbourg which grew from it celebrated its 2,000th anniversary in 1988. The fertile area in the Upper Rhine Plain between the rivers Ill and Rhine had already been populated since the Middle Paleolithic.",
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"plaintext": "Between 362 and 1262, Strasbourg was governed by the bishops of Strasbourg; their rule was reinforced in 873 and then more in 982. In 1262, the citizens violently rebelled against the bishop's rule (Battle of Hausbergen) and Strasbourg became a free imperial city. It became a French city in 1681, after the conquest of Alsace by the armies of Louis XIV. In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, the city became German again, until 1918 (end of World War I), when it reverted to France. After the defeat of France in 1940 (World War II), Strasbourg came under German control again through formal annexation into the Gau Baden-Elsaß under the Nazi Gauleiter Robert Wagner; since the end of 1944, it has again been a French city. In 2016, Strasbourg was promoted from capital of Alsace to capital of Grand Est.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg played an important part in the Protestant Reformation, with personalities such as John Calvin, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, Matthew and Katharina Zell, but also in other aspects of Christianity such as German mysticism, with Johannes Tauler, Pietism, with Philipp Spener, and Reverence for Life, with Albert Schweitzer. Delegates from the city took part in the Protestation at Speyer. It was also one of the first centres of the printing industry with pioneers such as Johannes Gutenberg, Johannes Mentelin, and Heinrich Eggestein. Among the darkest periods in the city's long history were the years 1349 (Strasbourg massacre), 1518 (Dancing plague), 1793 (Reign of Terror), 1870 (Siege of Strasbourg) and the years 1940–1944 with the Nazi occupation (atrocities such as the Jewish skeleton collection) and the British and American bombing raids. Some other notable dates were the years 357 (Battle of Argentoratum), 842 (Oaths of Strasbourg), 1538 (establishment of the university), 1605 (world's first newspaper printed by Johann Carolus), 1792 (La Marseillaise), and 1889 (pancreatic origin of diabetes discovered by Minkowski and Von Mering).",
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"plaintext": " Centre Ville (Downtown Strasbourg)",
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"plaintext": " Gare, Tribunal (Central Station, Court)",
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"plaintext": " Conseil des XV, Orangerie",
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"plaintext": " Cronenbourg",
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"plaintext": " Hautepierre, Poteries",
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"plaintext": " Koenigshoffen,",
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"plaintext": " Montagne-Verte (Green Hill)",
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"plaintext": " Elsau",
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"plaintext": " Meinau",
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"plaintext": " Neudorf-Musau",
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"plaintext": " Robertsau",
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"plaintext": " Port du Rhin (Rhin's Harbor)",
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"plaintext": "The city is chiefly known for its sandstone Gothic Cathedral with its famous astronomical clock, and for its medieval cityscape of Rhineland black and white timber-framed buildings, particularly in the Petite France district or Gerberviertel (\"tanners' district\") alongside the Ill and in the streets and squares surrounding the cathedral, where the renowned Maison Kammerzell stands out.",
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"plaintext": "Notable medieval streets include Rue Mercière, Rue des Dentelles, Rue du Bain aux Plantes, Rue des Juifs, Rue des Frères, Rue des Tonneliers, Rue du Maroquin, Rue des Charpentiers, Rue des Serruriers, Grand' Rue, Quai des Bateliers, Quai Saint-Nicolas and Quai Saint-Thomas.",
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"plaintext": "In addition to the cathedral, Strasbourg houses several other medieval churches that have survived the many wars and destructions that have plagued the city: the Romanesque Église Saint-Étienne, partly destroyed in 1944 by Allied bombing raids; the part-Romanesque, part-Gothic, very large Église Saint-Thomas with its Silbermann organ on which Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Albert Schweitzer played; the Gothic Église protestante Saint-Pierre-le-Jeune with its crypt dating back to the seventh century and its cloister partly from the eleventh century; the Gothic Église Saint-Guillaume with its fine early-Renaissance stained glass and furniture; the Gothic Église Saint-Jean; the part-Gothic, part-Art Nouveau Église Sainte-Madeleine etc.",
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"plaintext": "The Neo-Gothic church Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux Catholique (there is also an adjacent church Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux Protestant) serves as a shrine for several 15th-century wood-worked and painted altars coming from other, now destroyed churches and installed there for public display; especially the Passion of Christ.",
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"plaintext": "Among the numerous secular medieval buildings, the monumental Ancienne Douane (old custom-house) stands out.",
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"plaintext": "The German Renaissance has bequeathed the city some noteworthy buildings (especially the current Chambre de commerce et d'industrie, former town hall, on Place Gutenberg), as did the French Baroque and Classicism with several hôtels particuliers (i.e. palaces), among which the Palais Rohan (completed 1742, used for university purposes from 1872 to 1895, now housing three museums) is the most spectacular. Other buildings of its kind are the \"Hôtel de Hanau\" (1736, now the city hall); the Hôtel de Klinglin (1736, now residence of the préfet); the Hôtel des Deux-Ponts (1755, now residence of the military governor); the Hôtel d'Andlau-Klinglin (1725, now seat of the administration of the Port autonome de Strasbourg) etc. The largest baroque building of Strasbourg though is the 1720s main building of the Hôpital civil.",
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"plaintext": "As for French Neo-classicism, it is the Opera House on Place Broglie that most prestigiously represents this style.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg also offers high-class eclecticist buildings in its very extended German district, the Neustadt, being the main memory of Wilhelmian architecture since most of the major cities in Germany proper suffered intensive damage during World War II. Streets, boulevards and avenues are homogeneous, surprisingly high (up to seven stories) and broad examples of German urban lay-out and of this architectural style that summons and mixes up five centuries of European architecture as well as Neo-Egyptian, Neo-Greek and Neo-Babylonian styles. The former imperial palace Palais du Rhin, the most political and thus heavily criticized of all German Strasbourg buildings epitomizes the grand scale and stylistic sturdiness of this period. But the two most handsome and ornate buildings of these times are the École internationale des Pontonniers (the former Höhere Mädchenschule, with its towers, turrets and multiple round and square angles and the Haute école des arts du Rhin with its lavishly ornate façade of painted bricks, woodwork and majolica.",
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"plaintext": "Notable streets of the German district include: Avenue de la Forêt Noire, Avenue des Vosges, Avenue d'Alsace, Avenue de la Marseillaise, Avenue de la Liberté, Boulevard de la Victoire, Rue Sellénick, Rue du Général de Castelnau, Rue du Maréchal Foch, and Rue du Maréchal Joffre. Notable squares of the German district include Place de la République, Place de l'Université, Place Brant, and Place Arnold.",
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"plaintext": "Impressive examples of Prussian military architecture of the 1880s can be found along the newly reopened Rue du Rempart, displaying large-scale fortifications among which the aptly named Kriegstor (war gate).",
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"plaintext": "As for modern and contemporary architecture, Strasbourg possesses some fine Art Nouveau buildings (such as the huge Palais des Fêtes and houses and villas like Villa Schutzenberger and Hôtel Brion), good examples of post-World War II functional architecture (the Cité Rotterdam, for which Le Corbusier did not succeed in the architectural contest) and, in the very extended Quartier Européen, some spectacular administrative buildings of sometimes utterly large size, among which the European Court of Human Rights building by Richard Rogers is arguably the finest. Other noticeable contemporary buildings are the new Music school Cité de la Musique et de la Danse, the Musée d'Art moderne et contemporain and the Hôtel du Département facing it, as well as, in the outskirts, the tramway-station Hoenheim-Nord designed by Zaha Hadid.",
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"plaintext": "The city has many bridges, including the medieval and four-towered Ponts Couverts that, despite their name, are no longer covered. Next to the Ponts Couverts is the Barrage Vauban, a part of Vauban's 17th-century fortifications, that does include a covered bridge. Other bridges are the ornate 19th-century Pont de la Fonderie (1893, stone) and Pont d'Auvergne (1892, iron), as well as architect Marc Mimram's futuristic Passerelle over the Rhine, opened in 2004.",
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"plaintext": "The largest square at the centre of the city of Strasbourg is the Place Kléber. Located in the heart of the city's commercial area, it was named after general Jean-Baptiste Kléber, born in Strasbourg in 1753 and assassinated in 1800 in Cairo. In the square is a statue of Kléber, under which is a vault containing his remains. On the north side of the square is the Aubette (Orderly Room), built by Jacques François Blondel, architect of the king, in 1765–1772.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg features a number of prominent parks, of which several are of cultural and historical interest: the Parc de l'Orangerie, laid out as a French garden by André le Nôtre and remodeled as an English garden on behalf of Joséphine de Beauharnais, now displaying noteworthy French gardens, a neo-classical castle and a small zoo; the Parc de la Citadelle, built around impressive remains of the 17th-century fortress erected close to the Rhine by Vauban; the Parc de Pourtalès, laid out in English style around a baroque castle (heavily restored in the 19th century) that now houses a small three-star hotel, and featuring an open-air museum of international contemporary sculpture.",
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"plaintext": "The Jardin botanique de l'Université de Strasbourg (botanical garden) was created under the German administration next to the Observatory of Strasbourg, built in 1881, and still owns some greenhouses of those times. The Parc des Contades, although the oldest park of the city, was completely remodeled after World War II. The futuristic Parc des Poteries is an example of European park-conception in the late 1990s. The Jardin des deux Rives, spread over Strasbourg and Kehl on both sides of the Rhine opened in 2004 and is the most extended (60-hectare) park of the agglomeration. The most recent park is Parc du Heyritz (8,7 ha), opened in 2014 along a canal facing the hôpital civil.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2020, the city of Strasbourg has eleven municipal museums (including Aubette 1928), eleven university museums, and at least two privately owned museums (Musée vodou and Musée du barreau de Strasbourg). Five communes in the metropolitan area also have museums (see below), three of them dedicated to military history.",
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"plaintext": "The collections in Strasbourg are distributed over a wide range of museums, according to a system that takes into account not only the types and geographical provenances of the items, but also the epochs. This concerns in particular the following domains:",
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"plaintext": "Old master paintings from the Germanic Rhenish territories and until 1681 are displayed in the Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame (MOND); old master paintings from all the rest of Europe (including the Dutch Rhenish territories) and until 1871, as well as old master paintings from the Germanic Rhenish territories between 1681 and 1871, are displayed in the Musée des Beaux-Arts; paintings since 1871 are displayed in the Musée d'art moderne et contemporain (MAMCS).",
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"plaintext": "Decorative arts until 1681 are on display in the MOND, decorative arts from the years 1681 until 1871 are on display in the Musée des arts décoratifs, decorative arts after 1871 are on display at the MAMCS, with items from each epoch also shown in the Musée historique.",
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"plaintext": "Prints and drawings until 1871 are displayed in the Cabinet des estampes et dessins, save for the original plans of Strasbourg Cathedral, displayed in the MOND. Prints and drawings after 1871 are displayed in the MAMCS, and in the Musée Tomi Ungerer/Centre international de l’illustration (the combined number of prints and drawings amounts to well over 200,000).",
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"plaintext": "Artefacts from Ancient Egypt are on display in two entirely different collections, one in the Musée archéologique and the other belonging to the Instituts d'Égyptologie et de Papyrologie of the University of Strasbourg.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée des Beaux-Arts owns paintings by Hans Memling, Francisco de Goya, Tintoretto, Paolo Veronese, Giotto di Bondone, Sandro Botticelli, Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, El Greco, Correggio, Cima da Conegliano and Piero di Cosimo, among others.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée de l'Œuvre Notre-Dame (located in a part-Gothic, part-Renaissance building next to the cathedral) houses a large and renowned collection of medieval and Renaissance upper-Rhenish art, among which original sculptures, plans and stained glass from the cathedral and paintings by Hans Baldung and Sebastian Stoskopff.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée d'Art moderne et contemporain is among the largest museums of its kind in France.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée des Arts décoratifs, located in the sumptuous former residence of the cardinals of Rohan, the Palais Rohan displays a reputable collection of 18th century furniture and china.",
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"plaintext": " The Cabinet des estampes et des dessins displays five centuries of engravings and drawings, but also woodcuts and lithographies.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée Tomi Ungerer/Centre international de l'illustration, located in a large former villa next to the Theatre, displays original works by Ungerer and other artists (Saul Steinberg, Ronald Searle ... ) as well as Ungerer's large collection of ancient toys.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée archéologique presents a large display of regional findings from the first ages of man to the sixth century, focusing on the Roman and Celtic period. It also includes a collection of works from Ancient Egypt and Ancient Greece, assembled and bequeathed by Gustave Schlumberger.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée alsacien is dedicated to traditional Alsatian daily life.",
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"plaintext": " Le Vaisseau (\"The vessel\") is a science and technology centre, especially designed for children.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée historique (historical museum) is dedicated to the tumultuous history of the city and displays many artifacts of the times, including the Grüselhorn, the horn that was blown at 10 every evening during medieval times to order the Jews out of the city.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée vodou (Voodoo museum) opened its doors on 28 November 2013. Displaying a private collection of artefacts from Haiti, it is located in a former water tower (château d'eau) built in 1883 and classified as a Monument historique.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée du barreau de Strasbourg (The Strasbourg bar association museum) is a museum dedicated to the work and the history of lawyers in the city.",
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"plaintext": "The Université de Strasbourg is in charge of a number of permanent public displays of its collections of scientific artefacts and products of all kinds of exploration and research.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée zoologique is one of the oldest in France and is especially famous for its collection of birds. The museum is co-administrated by the municipality.",
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"plaintext": " The Gypsothèque (also known as Musée des moulages or Musée Adolf Michaelis) is France's second-largest cast collection and the largest university cast collection in France.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée de Sismologie et Magnétisme terrestre displays antique instruments of measure.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée Pasteur is a collection of medical curiosities.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée de minéralogie is dedicated to minerals.",
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"plaintext": " The Musée d'Égyptologie houses a collections of archaeological findings made in and brought from Egypt and Sudan. This collection is entirely separate from the Schlumberger collection of the Musée archéologique (see above).",
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"plaintext": " The Crypte aux étoiles (\"star crypt\") is situated in the vaulted basement below the Observatory of Strasbourg and displays old telescopes and other antique astronomical devices such as clocks and theodolites.",
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"plaintext": " Musée Les Secrets du Chocolat (Chocolate museum) in Geispolsheim",
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"plaintext": " Fort Frère in Oberhausbergen",
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"plaintext": " Fort Rapp in Reichstett",
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"plaintext": " Pixel Museum, a video game museum, in Schiltigheim",
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"plaintext": " MM Park France, a military museum, in La Wantzenau",
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"plaintext": "The commune of Strasbourg proper had a population of 287,228 on 1 January 2019, the result of a constant moderate annual growth which is also reflected in the constant growth of the number of students at its university (e. g. from 42,000 students in 2010 to 52,000 students in 2019). The metropolitan area of Strasbourg had a population of 846,450 inhabitants in 2018 (French side of the border only), while the transnational Eurodistrict had a population of 958,421 inhabitants.",
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"plaintext": "In the Middle Ages, Strasbourg (a Free imperial city since 1262), was an important town. According to a 1444 census, the population was circa 20,000; only one third less than Cologne, then a major European city.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg is the seat of internationally renowned institutions of music and drama:",
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"plaintext": " The Orchestre philharmonique de Strasbourg, founded in 1855, one of the oldest symphonic orchestras in western Europe. Based since 1975 in the Palais de la musique et des congrès.",
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"plaintext": " The Opéra national du Rhin",
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"plaintext": " The Théâtre national de Strasbourg",
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"plaintext": " The Percussions de Strasbourg",
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{
"plaintext": " The Théâtre du Maillon",
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{
"plaintext": " The \"Laiterie\"",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Joshy's house - a venue for performance poetry and freestyle urban music.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Au Zénith ",
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"plaintext": "Other theatres are the Théâtre jeune public, the TAPS Scala, the Kafteur ... ",
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"plaintext": " Musica, international festival of contemporary classical music (autumn)",
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"plaintext": " Festival international de Strasbourg (founded in 1932), festival of classical music and jazz (summer)",
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"plaintext": " Festival des Artefacts, festival of contemporary non-classical music",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Les Nuits électroniques de l'Ososphère",
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},
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg European Fantastic Film Festival is an annual film festival devoted to science fiction, horror and fantasy. It was known as the Spectre Film Festival before 2008.",
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"plaintext": " The Strasbourg International Film Festival is an annual film festival focusing on new and emerging independent filmmakers from around the world.",
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"plaintext": " Christkindelsmärik, held from the end of November through December, is an annual Christmas market that dates back to 1570.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg, well known as centre of humanism, has a long history of excellence in higher-education, at the crossroads of French and German intellectual traditions. Although Strasbourg had been annexed by the Kingdom of France in 1683, it still remained connected to the German-speaking intellectual world throughout the 18th century, and the university attracted numerous students from the Holy Roman Empire, with Goethe, Metternich and Montgelas, who studied law in Strasbourg, among the most prominent. With 19 Nobel prizes in total, Strasbourg is the most eminent French university outside of Paris.",
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"plaintext": "Up until January 2009, there were three universities in Strasbourg, with an approximate total of 48,500 students (another 4,500 students are being taught at one of the diverse post-graduate schools):",
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg I – Louis Pasteur University",
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg II – Marc Bloch University",
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg III – Robert Schuman University",
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"plaintext": "As of 1 January 2009, those three universities have merged and now constitute the Université de Strasbourg.",
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"plaintext": "Schools part of the Université de Strasbourg include:",
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"plaintext": " Sciences Po Strasbourg (Institut d'études politiques de Strasbourg), the University of Strasbourg's political science & international studies center",
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"plaintext": " The EMS (EM Strasbourg Business School), the University of Strasbourg's business school",
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"plaintext": " The INSA (Institut national des sciences appliquées), the University of Strasbourg's engineering school",
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"plaintext": " The ENA (École nationale d'administration). ENA trains most of the nation's high-ranking civil servants. The relocation to Strasbourg was meant to give a European vocation to the school and to implement the French government's \"décentralisation\" plan.",
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"plaintext": " The ESAD (École supérieure des arts décoratifs) is an art school of European reputation.",
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"plaintext": " The ISEG Group (Institut supérieur européen de gestion group)",
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"plaintext": " The ISU (International Space University) is located in the south of Strasbourg (Illkirch-Graffenstaden).",
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"plaintext": " The ECPM (École européenne de chimie, polymères et matériaux)",
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"plaintext": " The EPITA (École pour l'informatique et les techniques avancées)",
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"plaintext": " The EPITECH (École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies)",
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"plaintext": " The INET (Institut national des études territoriales)",
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"plaintext": " The IIEF (Institut international d'études françaises)",
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"plaintext": " The ENGEES (École nationale du génie de l'eau et de l'environnement de Strasbourg)",
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"plaintext": " The CUEJ (Centre universitaire d'enseignement du journalisme)",
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"plaintext": " TÉLÉCOM Physique Strasbourg (École nationale supérieure de physique de Strasbourg), Institute of Technology, located in the South of Strasbourg (Illkirch-Graffenstaden)",
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"plaintext": "International schools include:",
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"plaintext": "Multiple levels:",
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"plaintext": " European School of Strasbourg (priority given to children whose parents are employed at the European institutions)",
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"plaintext": "For elementary education:",
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"plaintext": " École Internationale Robert Schuman",
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg International School",
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"plaintext": " International School at Lucie Berger",
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"plaintext": " Russian Mission School in Strasbourg",
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"plaintext": "For middle school/junior high school education:",
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"plaintext": " Collège International de l'Esplanade",
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"plaintext": "For senior high school/sixth form college:",
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"plaintext": " Lycée international des Pontonniers (FR)",
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"plaintext": "The Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire (BNU) is, with its collection of more than 3,000,000 titles, the second-largest library in France after the Bibliothèque nationale de France. It was founded by the German administration after the complete destruction of the previous municipal library in 1871 and holds the unique status of being simultaneously a students' and a national library. The Strasbourg municipal library had been marked erroneously as \"City Hall\" in a French commercial map, which had been captured and used by the German artillery to lay their guns. A librarian from Munich later pointed out \"...that the destruction of the precious collection was not the fault of a German artillery officer, who used the French map, but of the slovenly and inaccurate scholarship of a Frenchman.\"",
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"plaintext": "The municipal library Bibliothèque municipale de Strasbourg (BMS) administrates a network of ten medium-sized librairies in different areas of the town. A six stories high \"Grande bibliothèque\", the Médiathèque André Malraux, was inaugurated on 19 September 2008 and is considered the largest in Eastern France.",
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"plaintext": "As one of the earliest centers of book-printing in Europe (see above: History), Strasbourg for a long time held a large number of incunabula — books printed before 1500 — in its library as one of its most precious heritages: no less than 7,000. After the total destruction of this institution in 1870, however, a new collection had to be reassembled from scratch. Today, Strasbourg's different public and institutional libraries again display a sizable total number of incunabula, distributed as follows: Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire, ca. 2,120, Médiathèque de la ville et de la communauté urbaine de Strasbourg, 349, Bibliothèque du Grand Séminaire, 238, Médiathèque protestante, 66, and Bibliothèque alsatique du Crédit Mutuel, 5.",
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"plaintext": "Train services operate from the Gare de Strasbourg, the city's main station in the city centre, eastward to Offenburg and Karlsruhe in Germany, westward to Metz and Paris, and southward to Basel. Strasbourg's links with the rest of France have improved due to its recent connection to the TGV network, with the first phase of the TGV Est (Paris–Strasbourg) in 2007, the TGV Rhin-Rhône (Strasbourg-Lyon) in 2012, and the second phase of the TGV Est in July 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg also has its own airport, serving major domestic destinations as well as international destinations in Europe and northern Africa. The airport is linked to the Gare de Strasbourg by a frequent train service.",
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"plaintext": "City transport in Strasbourg includes the futurist-looking Strasbourg tramway, which opened in 1994 and is operated by the regional transit company Compagnie des Transports Strasbourgeois (CTS), consisting of 6 lines with a total length of . The CTS also operates a comprehensive bus network throughout the city that is integrated with the trams. With more than of bicycle paths, biking in the city is convenient and the CTS operates a cheap bike-sharing scheme named Vélhop'''. The CTS, and its predecessors, also operated a previous generation of tram system between 1878 and 1960, complemented by trolleybus routes between 1939 and 1962.",
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"plaintext": "Being on the Ill and close to the Rhine, Strasbourg has always been an important centre of fluvial navigation, as is attested by archeological findings. In 1682 the Canal de la Bruche was added to the river navigations, initially to provide transport for sandstone from quarries in the Vosges for use in the fortification of the city. That canal has since closed, but the subsequent Canal du Rhône au Rhin, Canal de la Marne au Rhin and Grand Canal d'Alsace are still in use, as is the important activity of the Port autonome de Strasbourg. Water tourism inside the city proper attracts hundreds of thousands of tourists yearly.",
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"plaintext": "The tram system that now criss-crosses the historic city centre complements walking and biking in it. The centre has been transformed into a pedestrian priority zone that enables and invites walking and biking by making these active modes of transport comfortable, safe and enjoyable. These attributes are accomplished by applying the principle of \"filtered permeability\" to the existing irregular network of streets. It means that the network adaptations favour active transport and, selectively, \"filter out\" the car by reducing the number of streets that run through the centre. While certain streets are discontinuous for cars, they connect to a network of pedestrian and bike paths which permeate the entire centre. In addition, these paths go through public squares and open spaces increasing the enjoyment of the trip. This logic of filtering a mode of transport is fully expressed in a comprehensive model for laying out neighbourhoods and districts – the Fused Grid.",
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"plaintext": "At present the A35 autoroute, which parallels the Rhine between Karlsruhe and Basel, and the A4 autoroute, which links Paris with Strasbourg, penetrate close to the centre of the city. The Grand contournement ouest (GCO) project, programmed since 1999, planned to construct a highway connection between the junctions of the A4 and the A35 autoroutes in the north and of the A35 and A352 autoroutes in the south. This routes well to the west of the city in order to divest a significant portion of motorized traffic from the unité urbaine. The GCO project was opposed by environmentalists, who created a ZAD (or Zone to Defend). After much delay, the GCO was finally inaugurated on 11 December 2021.",
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"plaintext": "The average amount of time people spend commuting on public transport in Strasbourg on weekdays is 52 min. 7% of travellers on public transport travel for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transport is 9 min and 11% of passengers wait for more than 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually travel in a single trip on public transport is , whilst none travels for more than in a single direction.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg is the seat of over twenty international institutions, most famously of the Council of Europe and of the European Parliament, of which it is the official seat. Strasbourg is considered the legislative and democratic capital of the European Union, while Brussels is considered the executive and administrative capital and Luxembourg the judiciary and financial capital.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg is the seat of the following organisations, among others:",
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"plaintext": " Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine (since 1920)",
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"plaintext": " Council of Europe with all the bodies and organisations affiliated to this institution (since 1949)",
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"plaintext": " European Parliament (since 1952)",
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"plaintext": " European Ombudsman",
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"plaintext": " Eurocorps headquarters,",
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"plaintext": " Franco-German television channel Arte",
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"plaintext": " European Science Foundation",
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"plaintext": " Human Frontier Science Program",
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"plaintext": " International Commission on Civil Status",
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"plaintext": " Assembly of European Regions",
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"plaintext": " Centre for European Studies (French: Centre d'études européennes de Strasbourg)",
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"plaintext": " Sakharov Prize",
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"plaintext": "France and Germany have created a Eurodistrict straddling the Rhine, combining the Greater Strasbourg and the Ortenau district of Baden-Württemberg, with some common administration. It was established in 2005 and has been fully functional since 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Sporting teams from Strasbourg are the Racing Club de Strasbourg Alsace (football), SIG Strasbourg (basketball) and the Étoile Noire (ice hockey). The women's tennis Internationaux de Strasbourg is one of the most important French tournaments of its kind outside Roland-Garros. In 1922, Strasbourg was the venue for the XVI Grand Prix de l'A.C.F. which saw Fiat battle Bugatti, Ballot, Rolland Pilain, and Britain's Aston Martin and Sunbeam.",
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"plaintext": " The Medal of Honor Strasbourg",
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"plaintext": " Sakharov Prize seated in Strasbourg",
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"plaintext": " City of Strasbourg Silver (gilt) Medal, a former medal with City Coat of Arms and Ten Arms of the Cities of the Dekapolis",
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"plaintext": "In chronological order, notable people born in Strasbourg include: Eric of Friuli, Johannes Tauler, Sebastian Brant, Jean Baptiste Kléber, Louis Ramond de Carbonnières, François Christophe Kellermann, Marie Tussaud, Ludwig I of Bavaria, Charles Frédéric Gerhardt, Louis-Frédéric Schützenberger, Gustave Doré, Émile Waldteufel, René Beeh, Jean/Hans Arp, Charles Münch, Hans Bethe, Maurice Kriegel-Valrimont, Marcel Marceau, Tomi Ungerer, Elizabeth Sombart, Arsène Wenger, Petit and Matt Pokora.",
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"plaintext": "In chronological order, notable residents of Strasbourg include: Johannes Gutenberg, Hans Baldung, Martin Bucer, John Calvin, Joachim Meyer, Johann Carolus, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, Georg Büchner, Louis Pasteur, Ferdinand Braun, Albrecht Kossel, Georg Simmel, Albert Schweitzer, Otto Klemperer, Marc Bloch, Alberto Fujimori, Marjane Satrapi, Paul Ricœur and Jean-Marie Lehn.",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": " Boston, United States, since 1960",
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"plaintext": " Leicester, United Kingdom, since 1960",
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"plaintext": " Stuttgart, Germany, since 1962",
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"plaintext": " Dresden, Germany, since 1990",
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"plaintext": " Ramat Gan, Israel, since 1991",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg has cooperative agreements with:",
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"plaintext": " Jacmel, Haiti, since 1991 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Fez, Morocco, since 1999 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Douala, Cameroon, since 2005 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Vologda, Russia, since 2009 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Oran, Algeria, since 2015 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Kairouan, Tunisia, since 2015 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Moscow, Russia, since 2016 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Kampala, Uganda, since 2018 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " Kagoshima, Japan, since 2019 (Coopération décentralisée)",
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"plaintext": " The opening scenes of the 1977 Ridley Scott film The Duellists take place in Strasbourg in 1800.",
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"plaintext": " The 2007 film In the City of Sylvia is set in Strasbourg.",
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"plaintext": " Early February 2011, principal photography for A Game of Shadows (2011) moved for two days to Strasbourg. Shooting took place on, around, and inside the Strasbourg Cathedral. The opening scene of the movie covers an assassination-bombing in the city.",
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"plaintext": " One of the longest chapters of Laurence Sterne's novel Tristram Shandy (1759–1767), \"Slawkenbergius' tale\", takes place in Strasbourg.",
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"plaintext": " An episode of Matthew Gregory Lewis' novel The Monk (1796) takes place in the forests then surrounding Strasbourg.",
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"plaintext": " Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart called his Third violin concerto (1775) Straßburger Konzert because of one of its most prominent motives, based on a local, minuet-like dance that had already appeared as a tune in a symphony by Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf. It is not related to Mozart's ulterior stay in Strasbourg (1778), where he gave three concert performances on the piano.",
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"plaintext": " Havergal Brian's Symphony No. 7 was inspired by passages in Goethe's memoirs recalling his time spent at Strasbourg University. The work ends with an orchestral bell sounding the note E, the strike-note of the bell of Strasbourg Cathedral. ",
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"plaintext": " British art-punk band The Rakes had a minor hit in 2005 with their song \"Strasbourg\". This song features witty lyrics with themes of espionage and vodka and includes a count of 'eins, zwei, drei, vier!!', even though Strasbourg's spoken language is French.",
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"plaintext": " On their 1974 album Hamburger Concerto, Dutch progressive band Focus included a track called \"La Cathédrale de Strasbourg\", which included chimes from a cathedral-like bell.",
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg pie, a dish containing foie gras, is mentioned in the finale of the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical Cats.",
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"plaintext": " Several works have specifically been dedicated to Strasbourg Cathedral, notably ad hoc compositions (masses, motets etc.) by Kapellmeisters Franz Xaver Richter and Ignaz Pleyel and, more recently, It is Finished by John Tavener.",
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"plaintext": " Connaître Strasbourg by Roland Recht, Georges Foessel and Jean-Pierre Klein, 1988, .",
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"plaintext": " Histoire de Strasbourg des origines à nos jours'', four volumes (ca. 2000 pages) by a collective of historians under the guidance of Georges Livet and Francis Rapp, 1982, .",
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"plaintext": " Strasbourg municipality website",
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"plaintext": " Tourist office of Strasbourg",
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"plaintext": " CTS – Compagnie des transports strasbourgeois",
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"plaintext": " The city archives of Strasbourg ",
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| [
"Strasbourg",
"Cities_in_France",
"Communes_of_Bas-Rhin",
"Former_republics",
"Populated_places_on_the_Rhine",
"Prefectures_in_France",
"States_and_territories_established_in_1262",
"World_Heritage_Sites_in_France",
"Vauban_fortifications_in_France"
]
| 6,602 | 54,489 | 5,476 | 506 | 0 | 0 | Strasbourg | capital and largest city of Grand Est; located in the historical region of Alsace | [
"Straßburg",
"Strassburg",
"Schdroosburi",
"Strossburi",
"Strossburig",
"Strosburi",
"Strasburg"
]
|
37,408 | 1,107,905,613 | Kingston,_Jamaica | [
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"plaintext": "Kingston is the capital and largest city of Jamaica, located on the southeastern coast of the island. It faces a natural harbour protected by the Palisadoes, a long sand spit which connects the town of Port Royal and the Norman Manley International Airport to the rest of the island. In the Americas, Kingston is the largest predominantly English-speaking city south of the United States.",
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"plaintext": "The local government bodies of the parishes of Kingston and Saint Andrew were amalgamated by the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation Act of 1923, to form the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation (KSAC). Greater Kingston, or the \"Corporate Area\" refers to those areas under the KSAC; however, it does not solely refer to Kingston Parish, which only consists of the old downtown and Port Royal. Kingston Parish had a population of 89,057, and St. Andrew Parish had a population of 573,369 in 2011 Kingston is only bordered by Saint Andrew to the east, west and north. The geographical border for the parish of Kingston encompasses the following communities: Tivoli Gardens, Denham Town, Rae Town, Kingston Gardens, National Heroes Park, Bournemouth Gardens, Norman Gardens, Rennock Lodge, Springfield and Port Royal, along with portions of Rollington Town, Franklyn Town, and Allman Town.",
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"plaintext": "The city proper is bounded by Six Miles to the west, Stony Hill to the north, Papine to the northeast, and Harbour View to the east, which are communities in urban and suburban Saint Andrew. Communities in rural St. Andrew such as Gordon Town, Mavis Bank, Lawrence Tavern, Mt. Airy, and Bull Bay would not be described as being in Kingston city.",
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"plaintext": "Two districts make up the central area of Kingston: the historic Downtown and New Kingston. Both are served by Norman Manley International Airport and also by the smaller and primarily domestic Tinson Pen Aerodrome.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston was founded in July 22, 1692, shortly after the 1692 earthquake that devastated Port Royal in 1692; the original section of the city which was situated at the bottom of the Liguanea Plains was laid out to house survivors of that earthquake.",
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"plaintext": "Before the earthquake, Kingston's functions were purely agricultural. The earthquake survivors set up a camp on the sea front. Approximately two thousand people died due to mosquito-borne diseases. Initially the people lived in a tented camp on Colonel Barry's Hog Crawle. The town did not begin to grow until after the further destruction of Port Royal by fire in 1703. Surveyor John Goffe drew up a plan for the town based on a grid bounded by North, East, West, and Harbour Streets. The new grid system of the town was designed to facilitate commerce, particularly the system of main thoroughfares across, which allowed transportation between the port and plantations farther inland. By 1716, it had become the largest town and the centre of trade for Jamaica. The government sold land to people with the regulation that they purchase no more than the amount of the land that they owned in Port Royal, and only land on the sea front. Gradually wealthy merchants began to move their residences from above their businesses to the farm lands north on the plains of Liguanea.",
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"plaintext": "The first free school, Wolmers's, was founded in 1729 and there was a theatre, first on Harbour Street and then moved in 1774 to North Parade. Both are still in existence. In 1755 the governor, Sir Charles Knowles, had decided to transfer the government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston. It was thought by some to be an unsuitable location for the Assembly in proximity to the moral distractions of Kingston, and the next governor rescinded the Act. However, by 1780 the population of Kingston was 11,000, and the merchants began lobbying for the administrative capital to be transferred from Spanish Town, which was by then eclipsed by the commercial activity in Kingston.",
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"plaintext": "The Church of St. Thomas, on King Street, the chief thoroughfare, was first built before 1699 but was rebuilt after the earthquake in 1907.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of the 18th century, the city contained more than 3,000 brick buildings. The harbour fostered trade, and played part in several naval wars of the 18th century. Kingston took over the functions of Spanish Town (the capital at the time). These functions included agriculture, commercial, processing and a main transport hub to and from Kingston and other sections of the island.",
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"plaintext": "In 1788, Kingston had a population of 25,000, which was about a tenth of the overall population of the island. One in every four people living in Kingston was white, and there was a large population of free people of color there too, meaning that two out of every five people living in Kingston were free. The remaining three-fifths of Kingston's population was made up of black slaves.",
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"plaintext": "The government passed an act to transfer the government offices to Kingston from Spanish Town, which occurred in 1872. In 1882, there was a large fire in Kingston. In 1892, electricity first came to Jamaica, when it was supplied to a coal-burning steam-generating plant on Gold Street in Kingston.",
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"plaintext": "In 1907, 800 people died in another earthquake known as the 1907 Kingston earthquake, destroying nearly all the historical buildings south of Parade in the city. That was when a restriction of no more than of height was instituted on buildings in the city centre. These three-story-high buildings were built with reinforced concrete. Construction on King Street in the city was the first area to breach this building code.",
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"plaintext": "During the 1930s, island-wide riots led to the development of trade unions and political parties to represent workers.",
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"plaintext": "The city became home to the Mona campus of the University of the West Indies founded in 1948, with 24 medical students.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1960s, the international attention of reggae music at that time coincided with the expansion and development of of the Kingston city centre waterfront area; by the 1980s, most of the old buildings were demolished by construction companies and the entire waterfront was re-developed with hotels, shops, offices, cultural centres, and cruise and cargo ship facilities.",
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"plaintext": "In 1966, Kingston was the host city to the Commonwealth Games.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1980 general elections, the democratic socialist People's National Party (PNP) government was voted out, and subsequent governments have been more market-oriented and focused on tourism and relations with the United States, which reflected the \"turbulent\" and \"volatile\" era, in which Cuba and the United States fought for cultural control over Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1990s, crime increased in the region and several riots were reporting, including one in 1999 against a rise of fuel prices. In 1999, the Jamaican government ordered army troops to patrol the streets of Kingston in an attempt to curb the violent crime. In 2001, army troops and armoured vehicles used force to \"restore order\" in Kingston after \"three days of unrest leave at least 27 people dead\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2010, the Kingston unrest, an armed conflict between Jamaica's military and police forces in Kingston and the Shower Posse drug cartel, attracted international attention. The violence, which largely took place over 24–25 May, killed at least 73 civilians and wounded at least 35 others. Four soldiers and police were also killed.",
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"plaintext": "The majority of the population of Kingston is of African descent. Large minority ethnic groups include East Indians and Chinese, who came to the country as indentured servants in the late 19th century. The Chinese occupy important roles in Jamaica's economy especially in the retail markets in Downtown Kingston and the wider metropolitan area. There is also a minority of Europeans, mostly descending from immigrants from Germany and Great Britain. Syrians and Lebanese form one of the most influential ethnic groups in not only Kingston, but the entire island. Though a minority ethnic group, the Lebanese were able to give Jamaica one of its prime ministers, Edward Philip George Seaga. Multi-racial Jamaicans continue to form the second largest racial group, and there is also a small Jewish population in the city.",
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"plaintext": " 79.2% Black",
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"plaintext": " 12.8% Multiracial",
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"plaintext": " 5.2% Asian",
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"plaintext": " 3.4% White",
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"plaintext": "There is a wide variety of Christian churches in the city, most of which are Protestant. The chief denominations are Church of God, Baptist, Anglican, Methodist, Roman Catholic, Seventh-day Adventist and Pentecostal.",
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"plaintext": "There is a strong Roman Catholic community, with the Holy Trinity Cathedral which is the seat of metropolitan archbishop and was consecrated in 1911, as well a few Catholic schools and institutions such as the Immaculate Conception High School, St Francis Primary and Infant School, Holy Childhood High School which was founded and is owned by the Franciscan Missionary Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary of our Lady of Perpetual Help (FMS) in Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": "Afro-Christian syncretic religions such as the Rastafari movement also have a significant following.",
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"plaintext": "The Shaare Shalom Synagogue serves Kingston's Jewish population. The city also has communities of Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims. The Islamic Council of Jamaica and the Islamic Education and Dawah Centre are both located in Kingston. There are three units of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the city.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston plays a central role in Jamaica's economy. The vast majority of economic activity takes place within Kingston, and as most government ministries are located in the city, it is a key force in legislation in regards to Jamaica's finances. The high population density of the capital city means that the majority of monetary transactions occur in Kingston – stimulating much of Jamaica's local economy. The city is also home to the highest number of schools, hospitals and universities anywhere in Jamaica. Kingston is also the island's main transportation hub and its largest seaport.",
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"plaintext": "Many multinational conglomerates and financial institutions are headquartered in and around the Kingston Metropolitan Area. Air Jamaica was headquartered in Kingston. The idea of making Jamaica an International Financial Centre has also been proposed as a way to boost the city's financial sector and create more jobs, especially for professionals such as accountants and lawyers.",
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"plaintext": "The city's major industries include tourism, apparel manufacturing, and shipping. Many international exports are traded through the city's seaport, with major exports including bauxite, sugar and coffee. The city is also a major tourist destination, and tourism is one of its largest sources of economic activity. The city has suffered economic troubles recently, however, along with the rest of the country of Jamaica. Plans to help the city's economy have made downtown Kingston the subject of numerous redevelopment plans. There have also been attempts to grow the manufacturing industry in the area and to attract call centres to the city.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston is surrounded by the Blue Mountains, Red Hills, Long Mountain and the Kingston Harbour. The city is on the Liguanea plain, an alluvial plain alongside the Hope River. Kingston experiences frequent earthquakes, including the 1907 earthquake.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical wet-and-dry climate (Aw/As), that borders on a hot semi-arid climate (BSh). characterised by a wet season from May to November, which coincides with the hurricane season, and a dry season from December to April. During the dry season, there is not much rainfall, however, cold and stationary fronts occur at this time, and often bring heavy showers, especially in March. Kingston is in the rain shadow of the Blue Mountains; therefore, little to none of the moisture carried by the Northeast Trade Winds falls over Kingston, causing Kingston to be very dry in comparison to Portland and Saint Mary on the windward side of the Blue Mountains. Kingston is on a coastal location, hence it comes under the influence of the sea, though dense urban development can negate this effect. In the 21st century, Kingston has experienced temperatures as high as and as low as . Between 1895 and 1990, the total average rainfall was recorded at , the highest monthly average rainfall recorded in October at , and the lowest monthly average rainfall recorded in March at . Fog, hail, thunder and tornadoes are all extremely rare.",
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"plaintext": "In 1848 the Jamaican government expanded Kingston by constructing new homes in the west, north and east of the city. This housing became highly segregated in terms of race and class and by 1860 the majority of white elites lived on the outskirts of the city.",
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"plaintext": "As Kingston's population grew, existing settlements became so densely occupied that marshes in the southwest were filled in to allow the development of new housing. By 1935, continued population growth and poverty resulted in the emergence of slums in the east and west of the city. Later these areas were demolished by the government and residents were rehoused in Denham Town. This development accommodated 3,000 people, leaving more than one sixth of displaced resident homeless. Consequently, overcrowding persisted throughout the city and cramped living condition resulted in public health issues.",
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"plaintext": "Suburbanization also became significant and by the 1960s this residential area spread to the foothills of the Blue Mountains. Subsequently, the lack of space and continued consumerism meant this area then expanded to the east of the mountains.",
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"plaintext": "In Kingston, 20% of the population now live in squatter settlements. Contrastingly, Kingston is also home to Red Hills, Norbrook, Cherry Gardens, Stony Hill, Jack's Hill, suburbs that hold some of the most expensive houses in all of Jamaica.",
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"plaintext": "The city of Kingston is home to a number of urban parks which are frequently transformed to accommodate various events and festivities on the Jamaican calendar. The most popular parks include: Emancipation Park, Hope Gardens, Devon House, National Heroes' Park, St William Grant Park and Mandela Park.",
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"plaintext": "The Liguanea Club, a recreational and social club for the upper class in society, located on Knutsford Boulevard, owned over of land including the former Liguanea Park now the site of Emancipation Park. The club gave the land measuring seven acres as a gift to the Jamaican Government.",
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"plaintext": "Several government members argued that the land should be converted into a business district, while others felt a multi-functional entertainment complex should be built on the site. The large financial input needed for either venture, was not forthcoming. In 2002 Cabinet granted approval for the transfer of the land to the National Housing Trust on the condition that a park was built and maintained at that location. The land was transferred for one Jamaican dollar.",
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"plaintext": "The park is well known for the 11ft. (approximately 3m) high bronze sculpture done by Jamaican artist Laura Facey, situated at the park's main entrance. This prominent sculpture comprises two naked black male and female statues gazing to the skies – symbolic of their triumphant rise from the horrors of slavery. The statue was unveiled in July 2003, in time for the park's first anniversary which caused an out cry from the Jamaican populace who believed that the blatant nudity and generous bodily proportions of the figures were very inappropriate to depict the freedom of black people.",
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"plaintext": "The Royal Botanical Gardens at Hope, popularly called Hope Gardens serves as a national attraction. The Hope Gardens is a part of the of land making it the largest botanical garden in the English-speaking Caribbean. The land situated by the foothills of the Blue Mountains was originally owned by Major Richard Hope from whom it got its name. Two hundred acres of this land was obtained by the Government of Jamaica in 1880 and was originally established as a plant introduction and crop-testing facility for plants such as pineapple, cocoa, coffee and tobacco. The formal Botanical Gardens were laid out on approximately of this land with the assistance of personnel from the Kew Gardens in England.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1950s, the Queen, after visiting the island and being pleased with the state of the gardens, gave permission for it to be called the Royal Botanical Gardens, Hope. The Gardens have many exotic species along with some endemic trees of Jamaica. Over the years, the ravages of hurricanes and other disasters have resulted in the loss of a significant number of species. However, there are still some prominent trees and popular sites to be viewed in the Gardens. At Hope Gardens, visitors can view a number of other features including the Coconut Museum, the Sunken Gardens, the Orchid House, the Lily Pond, the Maze and Palm Avenue.",
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"plaintext": "The Hope Gardens has an adjoining zoo referred to as Hope Gardens Zoo. The gardens and zoo are undergoing redevelopment to improve the physical landscape and the animal inventory as a part of Bring Back The Hope campaign.",
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"plaintext": "The St William Grant Park (Parade) in the heart of downtown Kingston is the starting point for three of Jamaica's four A roads, namely the A1 (Kingston to Lucea), the A3 (Kingston to Saint Ann's Bay) and the A4 (Kingston to Annotto Bay), while the city itself is provided with a dense network of trunk, main, secondary and minor roads. It also consists of the Highway 2000, Jamaica which runs through Portmore, Ocho Rios and Mandeville. A new section of Highway 2000, Jamaica (called \"T3\") was recently opened to the public. It has greatly reduced the travel time between Kingston and Montego Bay from 4 hours to a mere hours.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston is served well by a modern bus system, mini buses and taxis, which operate throughout the city with major hubs at Parade, Cross Roads, Half Way Tree and elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "In June 1898, the existing mule car service was phased out and a transition to electric trams, initially operated by the West India Electric Company and later by the Jamaica Public Service Company, was undertaken. This transition to the electric tram was completed on 31 March 1899. This service continued to operate, but the inflexibility of a tram service could not keep pace with a growing city, and the tram service ceased to operate on 7 August 1948.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1948 and 1953 a motor bus service was operated by a company called Jamaica Utilities. The government revoked its franchise in 1953.",
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"plaintext": "From 1953 to 1983 the Jamaica Omnibus Service operated a service, which at its peak consisted of over 600 buses and served an area spanning Spanish Town, Border, Mt. James, Bull Bay and Port Royal. It was wound up by the government in 1983 after being nationalised in 1974.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston is served well by a modern bus system, the Jamaica Urban Transit Company (JUTC), mini buses, and taxis, which operate throughout the city with major hubs at Parade, Cross Roads, Half Way Tree and elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": "The now disused Kingston railway station served the Kingston to Montego Bay main line with branches from Spanish Town to Ewarton, Bog Walk to Port Antonio, Linstead to New Works and May pen to Frankfield.",
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"plaintext": "The railway station opened in 1845 and closed in October 1992 when all passenger traffic on Jamaica's railways abruptly ceased.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston's international airport is Norman Manley International Airport while Tinson Pen Aerodrome provides domestic services.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the Kingston waterfront was Jamaica's main port with many finger piers at which freighters and passenger liners could dock. More recently, with the containerisation of freight, the port has moved to Newport West.",
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"plaintext": "Jamaica's police force, the Jamaica Constabulary Force, is based on Old Hope Road near Liguanea. Smaller police stations, such as Hunt's Bay, Matilda's Corner and Half-Way-Tree, are dispersed across the Corporate Area. The Supreme Court of Jamaica is also located in Kingston. Other courts, such as the Half-Way-Tree Resident Magistrate's Court, Gun Court, Traffic Court and Family Court, make Kingston their home. The Jamaica Defence Force (JDF) has its headquarters at Up Park Camp near New Kingston and Cross Roads. The JDF also operates a major naval base at Port Royal.",
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"plaintext": "Fire response in Kingston is provided by the Jamaica Fire Brigade, the national fire service. The service operates from fire stations spread throughout the Corporate Area. Fire stations are located at",
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"plaintext": "York Park (HQ)",
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"plaintext": "Half-Way-Tree",
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"plaintext": "Rollington Town",
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"plaintext": "Stony Hill",
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"plaintext": "Trench Town",
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"plaintext": "Kingston Harbour (Fire Boat)",
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"plaintext": "The Gleaner Company, the Jamaica Observer and the Sunday Herald, three of Jamaica's large newspaper companies, make their home in Kingston. Several television and radio stations including Television Jamaica (TVJ), CVM TV, RJR 94 FM, TBC Radio 88.5 FM, Hitz 92 FM, FAME 95 FM, LOVE TV, ZIP 103, Kool 97 FM and LOVE FM, are all based in Kingston.",
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"plaintext": "Fixed voice and broadband services in Kingston are provided by either FLOW and Digicel (via their new Digicel Play service which is exclusive to the Kingston Metropolitan Area). FLOW uses a Hybrid Fibre and Coaxial network to provide IPTV, VoIP & POTS and broadband capable of speeds up to 100 Mbit/s. FLOW also uses a Copper network to provide POTS and ADSL capable of speeds up to 12 Mbit/s. Digicel uses a GPON fibre-optic network, providing IPTV, VoIP and broadband speeds of up to 200 Mbit/s. Digicel's Fibre-optic network boasts capacity of up to 10 Gbit/s.",
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"plaintext": "Mobile voice and broadband services in Kingston are dominated by incumbents, FLOW and Digicel. Both carriers provide GSM, EDGE, HSPA, HSPA+ and LTE connectivity in and around the city.",
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"plaintext": "Digicel also offers 21 Mbit/s HSPA+ however, they also offer DC-HSDPA (commonly known as DC-HSPA+) allowing capable devices speeds of up to 42 Mbit/s on contiguous 850MHz spectrum. Digicel was also first to market with LTE in Jamaica. Their network covers all of Kingston Parish and most of the populous areas in the Kingston Metropolitan Area, capable of speeds of up to 75 Mbit/s on 10MHz of Band 17 spectrum.",
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"plaintext": "FLOW also offers LTE in Kingston. FLOW's LTE network is accessible on Band 4 or AWS spectrum. Due to the network delaying its rollout to acquire more spectrum, its network is theoretically faster than both Digicel and Caricel, to the tune of 150 Mbit/s (20MHz of Bandwidth) with further plans to add low band spectrum, possibly increasing theoretical speeds up to 225 Mbit/s.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston is also home to Caricel, Jamaica's newest telecoms operator, which deployed its LTE network first to the Kingston Metropolitan Area.",
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"plaintext": "In addition, both carriers have their Jamaican head offices in the city (with the exception of Digicel, which has its company headquarters in Kingston rather than a regional office there as is the case with FLOW, which is based in Miami).",
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"plaintext": "Postal services in Kingston and throughout the island are provided by the Postal Corporation of Jamaica, the national post office of Jamaica. Services include domestic and international mail delivery, post office boxes, registered mail, priority mail (local courier), parcel delivery, express mail service (international courier), advertising mail and provision of post office boxes.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston, as the capital, is the financial, cultural, economic and industrial centre of Jamaica. Many financial institutions are based in Kingston, and the city boasts the largest number of hospitals, schools, universities and cultural attractions of any urban area on the island. Notable Kingston landmarks include the University of the West Indies, Jamaica Defence Force Museum, and Bob Marley Museum. A United Nations agency, the International Seabed Authority is headquartered in Kingston.",
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"plaintext": "Kingston is twinned with:",
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| 34,692 | 34,721 | 3,248 | 173 | 0 | 0 | Kingston | capital of Jamaica | [
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|
37,409 | 1,107,319,731 | Ravenna | [
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"plaintext": "Although it is an inland city, Ravenna is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal. It is known for its well-preserved late Roman and Byzantine architecture, with eight buildings comprising the UNESCO World Heritage Site \"Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna\".",
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"plaintext": "The origin of the name Ravenna is unclear. Some have speculated that \"Ravenna\" is related to \"Rasenna\" (or \"Rasna\"), the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.",
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"plaintext": "The origins of Ravenna are uncertain. However, the oldest archaeological evidence found allows us to date the Umbri presence in Ravenna at least to the 5th century BC, where they remained undisturbed until the 3rd century BC, when the first contacts with Roman civilization began to take place. Its territory was settled also by the Senones, especially the southern countryside of the city (that wasn't part of the lagoon), the Ager Decimanus. Ravenna consisted of houses built on piles on a series of small islands in a marshy lagoon – a situation similar to Venice several centuries later. The Romans ignored it during their conquest of the Po River Delta, but later accepted it into the Roman Republic as a federated town in 89 BC.",
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"plaintext": "In 49 BC, it was where Julius Caesar gathered his forces before crossing the Rubicon. Later Octavian, after his battle against Mark Antony in 31 BC, founded the military harbor of Classis. This harbor, protected at first by its own walls, was an important station of the Roman Imperial Fleet. Nowadays the city is landlocked, but Ravenna remained an important seaport on the Adriatic until the early Middle Ages. During the Germanic campaigns, Thusnelda, widow of Arminius, and Marbod, King of the Marcomanni, were confined at Ravenna.",
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"plaintext": "Ravenna greatly prospered under Roman rule. Emperor Trajan built a long aqueduct at the beginning of the 2nd century. During the Marcomannic Wars, Germanic settlers in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus Aurelius decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there. In AD 408, Emperor Honorius transferred the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Rome to Ravenna; it subsequently served as the capital of the empire for most period of the 5th century and the last de facto western emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed here in AD 476. At that time it was home to 50,000 people. The transfer was made partly for defensive purposes: Ravenna was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and was perceived to be easily defensible (although in fact the city fell to opposing forces numerous times in its history); it is also likely that the move to Ravenna was due to the city's port and good sea-borne connections to the Eastern Roman Empire. However, in 409, King Alaric I of the Visigoths simply bypassed Ravenna, and went on to sack Rome in 410 and to take Galla Placidia, daughter of Emperor Theodosius I, hostage.",
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"plaintext": "After many vicissitudes, Galla Placidia returned to Ravenna with her son, Emperor Valentinian III, due to the support of her nephew Theodosius II. Ravenna enjoyed a period of peace, during which time the Christian religion was favoured by the imperial court, and the city gained some of its most famous monuments, including the Orthodox Baptistry, the misnamed Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (she was not actually buried there), and San Giovanni Evangelista.",
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"plaintext": "The late 5th century saw the dissolution of Roman authority in the west, and Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476 by the general Odoacer. Odoacer ruled as King of Italy for 13 years, but in 489 the Eastern Emperor Zeno sent the Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great to re-take the Italian peninsula. After losing the Battle of Verona, Odoacer retreated to Ravenna, where he withstood a siege of three years by Theodoric, until the taking of Rimini deprived Ravenna of supplies. Theodoric took Ravenna in 493, supposedly slew Odoacer with his own hands, and Ravenna became the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Theodoric, following his imperial predecessors, also built many splendid buildings in and around Ravenna, including his palace church Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, an Arian cathedral (now Santo Spirito) and Baptistery, and his own Mausoleum just outside the walls.",
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"plaintext": "Both Odoacer and Theodoric and their followers were Arian Christians, but co-existed peacefully with the Latins, who were largely Catholic Orthodox. Ravenna's Orthodox bishops carried out notable building projects, of which the sole surviving one is the Cappella Arcivescovile. Theodoric allowed Roman citizens within his kingdom to be subject to Roman law and the Roman judicial system. The Goths, meanwhile, lived under their own laws and customs. In 519, when a mob had burned down the synagogues of Ravenna, Theodoric ordered the town to rebuild them at its own expense.",
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"plaintext": "Theodoric died in 526 and was succeeded by his young grandson Athalaric under the authority of his daughter Amalasunta, but by 535 both were dead and Theodoric's line was represented only by Amalasuntha's daughter Matasuntha. Various Ostrogothic military leaders took the Kingdom of Italy, but none were as successful as Theodoric had been. Meanwhile, the orthodox Christian Byzantine Emperor Justinian I opposed both Ostrogoth rule and the Arian variety of Christianity. In 535 his general Belisarius invaded Italy and in 540 conquered Ravenna. After the conquest of Italy was completed in 554, Ravenna became the seat of Byzantine government in Italy.",
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"plaintext": "From 540 to 600, Ravenna's bishops embarked upon a notable building program of churches in Ravenna and in and around the port city of Classe. Surviving monuments include the Basilica of San Vitale and the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe, as well as the partially surviving San Michele in Africisco.",
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"plaintext": "Following the conquests of Belisarius for Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, Ravenna became the seat of the Byzantine governor of Italy, the Exarch, and was known as the Exarchate of Ravenna. It was at this time that the Ravenna Cosmography was written.",
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"plaintext": "Under Byzantine rule, the archbishop of the Archdiocese of Ravenna was temporarily granted autocephaly from the Roman Church by the emperor, in 666, but this was soon revoked. Nevertheless, the archbishop of Ravenna held the second place in Italy after the pope, and played an important role in many theological controversies during this period.",
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"plaintext": "The Lombards, under King Liutprand, occupied Ravenna in 712, but were forced to return it to the Byzantines. However, in 751 the Lombard king, Aistulf, succeeded in conquering Ravenna, thus ending Byzantine rule in northern Italy.",
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"plaintext": "King Pepin of the Franks attacked the Lombards under orders of Pope Stephen II. Ravenna then gradually came under the direct authority of the Popes, although this was contested by the archbishops at various times. Pope Adrian I authorized Charlemagne to take away anything from Ravenna that he liked, and an unknown quantity of Roman columns, mosaics, statues, and other portable items were taken north to enrich his capital of Aachen.",
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"plaintext": "Ravenna was ruled by Venice until 1509, when the area was invaded in the course of the Italian Wars. In 1512, during the Holy League wars, Ravenna was sacked by the French following the Battle of Ravenna. Ravenna was also known during the Renaissance as the birthplace of the Monster of Ravenna.",
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"plaintext": "After the Venetian withdrawal, Ravenna was again ruled by legates of the Pope as part of the Papal States. The city was damaged in a tremendous flood in May 1636. Over the next 300 years, a network of canals diverted nearby rivers and drained nearby swamps, thus reducing the possibility of flooding and creating a large belt of agricultural land around the city.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from another short occupation by Venice (1527–1529), Ravenna was part of the Papal States until 1796, when it was annexed to the French puppet state of the Cisalpine Republic, (Italian Republic from 1802, and Kingdom of Italy from 1805). It was returned to the Papal States in 1814. Occupied by Piedmontese troops in 1859, Ravenna and the surrounding Romagna area became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy in 1861.",
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"plaintext": "During World War II, troops of 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards - 5th Canadian Armoured Division and the British 27th Lancers entered and liberated Ravenna on 5 December 1944. A total of 937 Commonwealth soldiers who died in the winter of 1944-45 are buried in Ravenna War Cemetery, including 438 Canadians. The town suffered very little damage.",
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"plaintext": "Eight early Christian buildings of Ravenna are inscribed on the World Heritage List. These are",
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"plaintext": " Orthodox Baptistery also called Baptistry of Neon (c. 430)",
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"plaintext": " Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (c. 430)",
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"plaintext": " Arian Baptistery (c. 500)",
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"plaintext": " Archiepiscopal Chapel (c. 500)",
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"plaintext": " Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (c. 500)",
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"plaintext": " Mausoleum of Theodoric (520)",
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"plaintext": " Basilica of San Vitale (548)",
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"plaintext": " Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe (549)",
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"plaintext": "Other attractions include:",
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"plaintext": " The church of San Giovanni Evangelista is from the 5th century, erected by Galla Placidia after she survived a storm at sea. It was restored after the World War II bombings. The belltower contains four bells, the two majors dating back to 1208.",
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"plaintext": " The 6th-century church of the Spirito Santo, which has been quite drastically altered since the 6th century. It was originally the Arian cathedral. The façade has a 16th-century portico with five arcades.",
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"plaintext": " The Basilica of San Francesco, rebuilt in the 10th–11th centuries over a precedent edifice dedicated to the Apostles and later to St. Peter. Behind the humble brick façade, it has a nave and two aisles. Fragments of mosaics from the first church are visible on the floor, which is usually covered by water after heavy rains (together with the crypt). Here the funeral ceremony of Dante Alighieri was held in 1321. The poet is buried in a tomb annexed to the church, the local authorities having resisted for centuries all demands by Florence for return of the remains of its most famous exile.",
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"plaintext": " The Baroque church of Santa Maria Maggiore (525–532, rebuilt in 1671). It houses a picture by Luca Longhi.",
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"plaintext": " The church of San Giovanni Battista (1683), also in Baroque style, with a Middle Ages campanile.",
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"plaintext": " The basilica of Santa Maria in Porto (16th century), with a rich façade from the 18th century. It has a nave and two aisles, with a high cupola. It houses the image of famous Greek Madonna, which was allegedly brought to Ravenna from Constantinople.",
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"plaintext": " The nearby Communal Gallery has various works from Romagnoli painters.",
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"plaintext": " The Rocca Brancaleone (\"Brancaleone Castle\"), built by the Venetians in 1457. Once part of the city walls, it is now a public park. It is divided into two parts: the true Castle and the Citadel, the latter having an extent of .",
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"plaintext": " The \"so-called Palace of Theodoric\", in fact the entrance to the former church of San Salvatore. It includes mosaics from the true palace of the Ostrogoth king.",
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"plaintext": " The church of Sant'Eufemia (18th century), gives access to the so-called Stone Carpets Domus (6th–7th century): this houses splendid mosaics from a Byzantine palace.",
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"plaintext": " The National Museum.",
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"plaintext": " The Archiepiscopal Museum",
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"plaintext": "The city annually hosts the Ravenna Festival, one of Italy's prominent classical music gatherings. Opera performances are held at the Teatro Alighieri while concerts take place at the Palazzo Mauro de André as well as in the ancient Basilica of San Vitale and Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe. Chicago Symphony Orchestra music director Riccardo Muti, a longtime resident of the city, regularly participates in the festival, which invites orchestras and other performers from around the world.",
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"plaintext": " After his banishment from his native Florence, Dante spent most of the rest of his life in Ravenna, and he mentions the city in Canto V of his Inferno.",
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"plaintext": " Also in the 16th century, Nostradamus provides four prophecies:",
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"plaintext": " \"The Magnavacca (canal) at Ravenna in great trouble, Canals by fifteen shut up at Fornase\", in reference to fifteen French saboteurs.",
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"plaintext": " As the place of a battle extending to Perugia and a sacred escape in its aftermath, leaving rotting horses left to eat",
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"plaintext": " In relation to the snatching of a lady \"near Ravenna\" and then the legate of Lisbon seizing 70 souls at sea",
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"plaintext": " Ravenna is one of three-similarly named contenders for the birth of the third and final Antichrist who enslaves Slovenia (see Ravne na Koroškem)",
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"plaintext": " Ravenna is the setting for The Witch, a play by Thomas Middleton ",
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"plaintext": " Lord Byron lived in Ravenna between 1819 and 1821, led by the love for a local aristocratic and married young woman, Teresa Guiccioli. Here he continued Don Juan and wrote Ravenna Diary, My Dictionary and Recollections.",
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"plaintext": " Ravenna is the location where Lionel, the protagonist of Mary Shelley's post-apocalyptic novel The Last Man, comes ashore after losing his companions to a howling storm in the Aegean Sea.",
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"plaintext": " Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) wrote a poem Ravenna in 1878.",
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"plaintext": " Symbolist, lyrical poet Alexander Blok (1880–1921) wrote a poem entitled Ravenna (May–June 1909) inspired by his Italian journey (spring 1909).",
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"plaintext": " During his travels, German poet and philosopher Hermann Hesse (1877–1962) came across Ravenna and was inspired to write two poems of the city. They are entitled Ravenna (1) and Ravenna (2).",
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"plaintext": " T. S. Eliot's (1888–1965) poem \"Lune de Miel\" (written in French) describes a honeymooning couple from Indiana sleeping not far from the ancient Basilica of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (just outside Ravenna), famous for the carved capitals of its columns, which depict acanthus leaves buffeted by the wind, unlike the leaves in repose on similar columns elsewhere.",
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"plaintext": " J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973) may have based his city of Minas Tirith at least in part on Ravenna.",
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"plaintext": "Michelangelo Antonioni filmed his 1964 movie Red Desert (Deserto Rosso) within the industrialised areas of the Pialassa valley.",
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"plaintext": "Ravenna has an important commercial and tourist port.",
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"plaintext": "Ravenna railway station has direct Trenitalia service to Bologna, Ferrara, Lecce, Milan, Parma, Rimini, and Verona.",
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"plaintext": "Ravenna Airport is located in Ravenna. The nearest commercial airports are those of Forlì, Rimini and Bologna.",
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"plaintext": "Freeways crossing Ravenna include: A14-bis from the hub of Bologna; on the north–south axis of EU routes E45 (from Rome) and E55 (SS-309 \"Romea\" from Venice); and on the regional Ferrara-Rimini axis of SS-16 (partially called \"Adriatica\").",
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"plaintext": " Mirabilandia",
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"plaintext": " Safari Ravenna",
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"plaintext": "Ravenna is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": " Chichester, United Kingdom, since 1996",
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"plaintext": " Speyer, Germany, since 1989",
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"plaintext": " Chartres, France, since 1957",
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"plaintext": "The traditional football club of the city is Ravenna F.C. Currently it plays in the third tier of Italian football, Serie C.",
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"plaintext": "A.P.D. Ribelle 1927 is the football club of Castiglione di Ravenna, a town to the south of Ravenna and was founded in 1927. Currently it plays in Italy's Serie D after promotion from Eccellenza Emilia-Romagna Girone B in the 2013–14 season. The president is Marcello Missiroli and the manager is Enrico Zaccaroni. Its home ground is Stadio Massimo Sbrighi with 1,000 seats. The team's colors are white and blue.",
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"plaintext": "The beaches of Ravenna hosted the 2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup, in September 2011.",
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"plaintext": "Valentinian III (419-455), Roman Emperor",
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"plaintext": "Matteo Plazzi, Italian sailor",
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"plaintext": "Laura Pausini (b. 1974), Italian pop singer-songwriter, record producer and television personality",
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"plaintext": "Raul Gardini (1933-1993), Italian businessman",
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"plaintext": "Franco Manzecchi (1931-1979), Jazz drummer",
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"plaintext": "Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), Baroque violinist and composer",
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"plaintext": "Luigi Legnani (1790-1877), guitarist and luthier",
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"plaintext": "Tullio Bassi (b. 1937), Italian violin maker",
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| [
"Ravenna",
"Capitals_of_former_nations",
"Castles_in_Italy",
"Cities_and_towns_in_Emilia-Romagna",
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| 13,364 | 34,892 | 1,665 | 234 | 0 | 0 | Ravenna | city in northern Italy | []
|
37,410 | 1,107,688,890 | Dresden | [
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"plaintext": "Dresden has a long history as the capital and royal residence for the Electors and Kings of Saxony, who for centuries furnished the city with cultural and artistic splendor, and was once by personal union the family seat of Polish monarchs. The city was known as the Jewel Box, because of its baroque and rococo city centre. The controversial American and British bombing of Dresden in World War II towards the end of the war killed approximately 25,000 people, many of whom were civilians, and destroyed the entire city centre. After the war, restoration work has helped to reconstruct parts of the historic inner city.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden in the 20th century was a major communications hub and manufacturing centre with 127 factories and major workshops and was designated by the German military as a defensive strongpoint, with which to hinder the Soviet advance. Being the capital of the German state of Saxony, Dresden not only had garrisons but a whole military borough, the Albertstadt. This military complex, named after Saxon King Albert, was not specifically targeted in the bombing of Dresden, though it was within the expected area of destruction and was extensively damaged.",
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"plaintext": "During the final months of the Second World War, Dresden harboured some 600,000 refugees, with a total population of . Dresden was attacked seven times between 1944 and 1945, and was occupied by the Red Army after the German capitulation.",
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"plaintext": "The bombing of Dresden by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) between 13 and 15 February 1945 was controversial. On the night of 13–14 February 1945, 773 RAF Lancaster bombers dropped 1,181.6 tons of incendiary bombs and 1,477.7 tons of high explosive bombs, targeting the rail yards at the centre of the city. The inner city of Dresden was largely destroyed. The high explosive bombs damaged buildings and exposed their wooden structures, while the incendiaries ignited them, denying their use by retreating German troops and refugees. Widely quoted Nazi propaganda reports claimed 200,000 deaths, but the German Dresden Historians' Commission, made up of 13 prominent German historians, in an official 2010 report published after five years of research concluded that casualties numbered between 18,000 and 25,000.",
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"plaintext": "The Allies described the operation as the legitimate bombing of a military and industrial target. Several researchers have argued that the February attacks were disproportionate. As a result of inadequate Nazi air raid measures for refugees, mostly women and children died.",
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"plaintext": "American author Kurt Vonnegut's novel Slaughterhouse Five is loosely based on his first-hand experience of the raid as a POW. In remembrance of the victims, the anniversaries of the bombing of Dresden are marked with peace demonstrations, devotions and marches.",
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"plaintext": "The destruction of Dresden allowed Hildebrand Gurlitt, a major Nazi museum director and art dealer, to hide a large collection of artwork worth over a billion dollars that had been stolen during the Nazi era, as he claimed it had been destroyed along with his house which was located in Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "Following his military service the German press photographer and photojournalist Richard Peter returned to Dresden and began to document the ruined city. Among his best known works Blick auf Dresden vom Rathausturm (View of Dresden from the Rathus Tower). It has become one of the best known photographs of a ruined post-war Germany following its appearance in 1949 in his book Dresden, eine Kamera klagt an (\"Dresden, a photographic accusation\", ).",
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"plaintext": "When a skeleton previously used as a model for drawing art classes was found in the ruins of the Dresden Art Academy the photographer Edmund Kesting with the assistance of Peter posed it in a number of different locations to produce a series of haunting photographic images to give the impression that Death was wandering through the city in search of the dead. Kesting subsequently published them in the book Dresdner Totentanz (Dresden’s Death Dance)",
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"plaintext": "The damage from the Allied air raids was so bad that following the end of the Second World War a narrow gauge light railway system was constructed to remove the debris, though being makeshift there were frequent derailments. This railway system which had seven lines, employed 5,000 staff and 40 locomotives, all of which bore women’s names. The last train remained in service until 1958, though the last official debris clearance team was only disbanded in 1977.",
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"plaintext": "Rather than repair them the German Democratic Republic (former East Germany) authorities razed the ruins of many churches, royal buildings and palaces in the 1950s and 1960s, such as the Gothic Sophienkirche, the Alberttheater and the Wackerbarth-Palais as well as many historic residential buildings. The surroundings of the once lively Prager Straße resembled a wasteland before it was rebuilt in the socialist style at the beginning of the 1960s.",
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"plaintext": "However compared to West Germany, the majority of historic buildings were saved. Among them were the Ständehaus (1946), the Augustusbrücke (1949), the Kreuzkirche (until 1955), the Zwinger (until 1963), the Catholic Court Church (until 1965), the Semperoper (until 1985), the Japanese Palace (until 1987) and the two largest train stations. Some of this work dragged on for decades often interrupted by the overall economic situation in the GDR. The ruins of the Frauenkirche were allowed to remain on Neumarkt as a memorial to the war.",
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"plaintext": "While the Theater and Schloßplatz were rebuilt in accordance with the historical model in 1990, the Neumarkt remained completely undeveloped. On the other hand buildings of socialist classicism and spatial design and orientation according to socialist ideals (e.g. Kulturpalast) were built at the Altmarkt.",
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"plaintext": "From 1955 to 1958, a large part of the art treasures looted by the Soviet Union was returned, which meant that from 1960 onwards many state art collections could be opened in reconstructed facilities or interim exhibitions. Important orchestras such as the Staatskapelle performed in alternative venues (for example in the Kulturpalast from 1969). Some cultural institutions were moved out of the city center (for example the state library in Albertstadt). The Outer Neustadt, which was almost undamaged during the war was threatened with demolition in the 1980s following years of neglect, but was preserved following public protests.",
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"plaintext": "To house the homeless large prefabricated housing estates were built on previously undeveloped land In Prohlis and Gorbitz. Damaged housing in the Johannstadt and other areas in the city center were demolished and replaced with large apartment blocks. The villa districts in Blasewitz, Striesen, Kleinzschachwitz, Loschwitz and on the Weißen Hirsch were largely preserved.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden became a major industrial centre in the German Democratic Republic (former East Germany) with a great deal of research infrastructure. It was the centre of Bezirk Dresden (Dresden District) between 1952 and 1990. Many of the city's important historic buildings were reconstructed, including the Semper Opera House and the Zwinger Palace, although the city leaders chose to rebuild large areas of the city in a \"socialist modern\" style, partly for economic reasons, but also to break away from the city's past as the royal capital of Saxony and a stronghold of the German bourgeoisie.",
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"plaintext": "Until the end of the Cold War, the 1st Armored Guard Army of the Soviet Army and the 7th Panzer Division of the National People's Army were stationed in and around Dresden. Following reunification in 1989, the Soviet / Russian troops were withdrawn from Germany in the early 1990s and the NVA dissolved in accordance with the provisions of the Two-Plus-Four Treaty of 1990.",
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"plaintext": "From 1985 to 1990, the future President of Russia, Vladimir Putin, was stationed in Dresden by the KGB, where he worked for Lazar Matveev, the senior KGB liaison officer there. On 3 October 1989 (the so-called \"battle of Dresden\"), a convoy of trains carrying East German refugees from Prague passed through Dresden on its way to the Federal Republic of Germany. Local activists and residents joined in the growing civil disobedience movement spreading across the German Democratic Republic, by staging demonstrations and demanding the removal of the communist government.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden has experienced dramatic changes since the reunification of Germany in the early 1990s. The city still bears many wounds from the bombing raids of 1945, but it has undergone significant reconstruction in recent decades. Restoration of the Dresden Frauenkirche, a Lutheran church, the rebuilding of which was started after the reunification of Germany in 1994, was completed in 2005, a year before Dresden's 800th anniversary, notably by privately raised funds. The gold cross on the top of the church was funded officially by \"the British people and the House of Windsor\". The urban renewal process, which includes the reconstruction of the area around the Neumarkt square on which the Frauenkirche is situated, will continue for many decades, but public and government interest remains high, and there are numerous large projects underway—both historic reconstructions and modern plans—that will continue the city's recent architectural renaissance.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden remains a major cultural centre of historical memory, owing to the city's destruction in World War II. Each year on 13 February, the anniversary of the British and American fire-bombing raid that destroyed most of the city, tens of thousands of demonstrators gather to commemorate the event. Since reunification, the ceremony has taken on a more neutral and pacifist tone (after being used more politically during the Cold War). Beginning in 1999, right-wing Neo-Nazi white nationalist groups have organised demonstrations in Dresden that have been among the largest of their type in the post-war history of Germany. Each year around the anniversary of the city's destruction, people convene in the memory of those who died in the fire-bombing.",
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"plaintext": "The completion of the reconstructed Dresden Frauenkirche in 2005 marked the first step in rebuilding the Neumarkt area. The areas around the square have been divided into 8 \"quarters\", with each being rebuilt as a separate project, the majority of buildings to be rebuilt either to the original structure or at least with a facade similar to the original. The quarters I, II, IV, V, VI and VIII have since been completed, with quarter III and quarter VII still partly under construction in 2020.",
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"plaintext": "In 2002, torrential rains caused the Elbe to flood above its normal height, i.e., even higher than the old record height from 1845, damaging many landmarks (see 2002 European floods). The destruction from this \"millennium flood\" is no longer visible, due to the speed of reconstruction.",
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"plaintext": "The United Nations' cultural organization UNESCO declared the Dresden Elbe Valley to be a World Heritage Site in 2004. After being placed on the list of endangered World Heritage Sites in 2006, the city lost the title in June 2009, due to the construction of the Waldschlößchenbrücke, making it only the second ever World Heritage Site to be removed from the register. UNESCO stated in 2006 that the bridge would destroy the cultural landscape. The city council's legal moves, meant to prevent the bridge from being built, failed.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden lies on both banks of the Elbe, mostly in the Dresden Basin, with the further reaches of the eastern Ore Mountains to the south, the steep slope of the Lusatian granitic crust to the north, and the Elbe Sandstone Mountains to the east at an altitude of about . Triebenberg is the highest point in Dresden at .",
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"plaintext": "With a pleasant location and a mild climate on the Elbe, as well as Baroque-style architecture and numerous world-renowned museums and art collections, Dresden has been called \"Elbflorenz\" (Florence on the Elbe).",
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"plaintext": "The incorporation of neighbouring rural communities over the past 60 years has made Dresden the fourth largest urban district by area in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg and Cologne.",
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"plaintext": "The nearest German cities are Chemnitz to the southwest, Leipzig to the northwest and Berlin to the north. Prague (Czech Republic) is about to the south and Wrocław (Poland) to the east.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden is one of the greenest cities in all of Europe, with 62% of the city being green areas and forests. The Dresden Heath (Dresdner Heide) to the north is a forest in size. There are four nature reserves. The additional Special Conservation Areas cover . The protected gardens, parkways, parks and old graveyards host 110 natural monuments in the city. The Dresden Elbe Valley is a former world heritage site which is focused on the conservation of the cultural landscape in Dresden. One important part of that landscape is the Elbe meadows, which cross the city in a 20 kilometre swath. Saxon Switzerland is located south-east of the city.",
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"plaintext": "Like many places in the eastern parts of Germany, Dresden has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with significant continental influences due to its inland location. The summers are warm, averaging 19.0°C (66.2°F) in July. The winters are slightly colder than the German average, with a January average temperature of . The driest months are February, March and April, with precipitation of around . The wettest months are July and August, with more than per month.",
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"plaintext": "The microclimate in the Elbe valley differs from that on the slopes and in the higher areas, where the Dresden district Klotzsche, at 227 metres above sea level, hosts the Dresden weather station. The weather in Klotzsche is colder than in the inner city at 112 metres above sea level.",
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"plaintext": "Because of its location on the banks of the Elbe, into which some water sources from the Ore Mountains flow, flood protection is important. Large areas are kept free of buildings to provide a flood plain. Two additional trenches, about 50 metres wide, have been built to keep the inner city free of water from the Elbe, by dissipating the water downstream through the inner city's gorge portion. Flood regulation systems like detention basins and water reservoirs are almost all outside the city area.",
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"plaintext": "The Weißeritz, normally a rather small river, suddenly ran directly into the main station of Dresden during the 2002 European floods. This was largely because the river returned to its former route; it had been diverted so that a railway could run along the river bed.",
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"plaintext": "Many locations and areas need to be protected by walls and sheet pilings during floods. A number of districts become waterlogged if the Elbe overflows across some of its former floodplains.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden is a spacious city. Its boroughs differ in their structure and appearance. Many parts still contain an old village core, while some quarters are almost completely preserved as rural settings. Other characteristic kinds of urban areas are the historic outskirts of the city, and the former suburbs with scattered housing. During the German Democratic Republic, many apartment blocks were built. The original parts of the city are almost all in the boroughs of Altstadt (Old town) and Neustadt (New town). Growing outside the city walls, the historic outskirts were built in the 18th and 19th century. They were planned and constructed on the orders of the Saxon monarchs and many of them are named after Saxon sovereigns (e.g. Friedrichstadt and Albertstadt). Dresden has been divided into ten boroughs called \"Stadtbezirk\" and nine former municipalities (\"Ortschaften\") which have been incorporated since 1990.",
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"plaintext": "The population of Dresden grew to 100,000 inhabitants in 1852, making it one of the first German cities after Hamburg and Berlin to reach that number. The population peaked at 649,252 in 1933, and dropped to 368,519 in 1945 because of World War II, during which large residential areas of the city were destroyed. After large incorporations and city restoration, the population grew to 522,532 again between 1946 and 1983.",
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"plaintext": "Since German reunification, demographic development has been very unsteady. The city has struggled with migration and suburbanisation. During the 1990s the population increased to 480,000 because of several incorporations, and decreased to 452,827 in 1998. Between 2000 and 2010, the population grew quickly by more than 45,000 inhabitants (about 9.5%) due to a stabilised economy and re-urbanisation. Along with Munich and Potsdam, Dresden is one of the ten fastest-growing cities in Germany.",
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"plaintext": " the population of the city of Dresden was 557,075, the population of the Dresden agglomeration was 790,400 , and the population of the Dresden metropolitan area, which includes the neighbouring districts of Meißen, Sächsische Schweiz-Osterzgebirge, Bautzen and Görlitz, was 1,343,305.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2018 about 50.0% of the population was female. the mean age of the population was 43 years, which is the lowest among the urban districts in Saxony. there were 67,841 people with a migration background (12.1% of the population, increased from 7.2% in 2010), and about two-thirds of these, 44,665 or about 8.0% of all Dresden citizens were foreigners. This percentage increased from 4.1% in 2010.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden is one of Germany's 16 political centres and the capital of Saxony. It has institutions of democratic local self-administration that are independent from the capital functions. Some local affairs of Dresden receive national attention.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden hosted some international summits in recent years, such as the Petersburg Dialogue between Russia and Germany, the European Union's Minister of the Interior conference and the G8 labour ministers conference.",
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"plaintext": "The city council is the legislative branch of the city government. The council gives orders to the mayor () via resolutions and decrees, and thus also has some degree of executive power.",
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"plaintext": "The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was Herbert Wagner of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), who served from 1990 to 2001. The mayor was originally chosen by the city council, but since 1994 has been directly elected. Ingolf Roßberg of the Free Democratic Party (FDP) served from 2001 until 2008. He was succeeded by Helma Orosz (CDU). Dirk Hilbert was elected mayor in 2015 under the banner \"Independent Citizens for Dresden\". He was nominated by the FDP and Free Voters, and was endorsed by the CDU and AfD in the runoff. The most recent mayoral election was held on 12 June 2022, with a runoff held on 10 July, and the results were as follows:",
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"plaintext": "! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate",
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"plaintext": "! rowspan=2| Party",
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"plaintext": "! colspan=2| First round",
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"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Second round",
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"plaintext": "|-",
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{
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{
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{
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{
"plaintext": "| 8",
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{
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{
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{
"plaintext": "| 17.2",
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{
"plaintext": "| 12",
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{
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{
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"plaintext": "| 12",
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"plaintext": "| 3",
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"plaintext": "| align=left| Social Democratic Party (SPD)",
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"plaintext": "| 73,627",
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"plaintext": "| 8.8",
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"plaintext": "| 4.0",
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"plaintext": "| 6",
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"plaintext": "| 3",
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"plaintext": "| 62,613",
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"plaintext": "| 7.5",
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"plaintext": "| 2.5",
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"plaintext": "| 5",
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"plaintext": "| 2",
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"plaintext": "| align=left| Free Voters Dresden (WV)",
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{
"plaintext": "| 44,725",
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"plaintext": "| 5.3",
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"plaintext": "| 5.2",
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{
"plaintext": "| 4",
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{
"plaintext": "| 4",
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{
"plaintext": "| align=left| Pirate Party Germany (Piraten)",
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{
"plaintext": "| 20,516",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| 2.4",
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{
"plaintext": "| 0.9",
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{
"plaintext": "| 1",
"section_idx": 4,
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{
"plaintext": "| 1",
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{
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{
"plaintext": "| bgcolor=| ",
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{
"plaintext": "| align=left| Die PARTEI (PARTEI)",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| 15,268",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 1.8",
"section_idx": 4,
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 0.9",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 1",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 1",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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{
"plaintext": "| align=left| Free Citizens Dresden (FBD)",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| 12,652",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 1.5",
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{
"plaintext": "| 2.3",
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{
"plaintext": "| 1",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 1",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
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"section_name": "Governance",
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},
{
"plaintext": "| bgcolor=| ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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{
"plaintext": "| align=left| National Democratic Party (NPD)",
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14,
39
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},
{
"plaintext": "| 4,744",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 0.6",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 2.2",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 0",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "| 2",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Valid votes",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! 288,060",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! 98.7",
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"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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"anchor_spans": []
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{
"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Invalid votes",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! 3,937",
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{
"plaintext": "! 1.3",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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"section_name": "Governance",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! ",
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},
{
"plaintext": "|-",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Governance",
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{
"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Total",
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},
{
"plaintext": "! 291,997",
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{
"plaintext": "! 100.0",
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},
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"plaintext": "! ",
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"plaintext": "! 70",
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{
"plaintext": "! ±0",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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"plaintext": "! colspan=2| Electorate/voter turnout",
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"plaintext": "! 436,179",
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"plaintext": "! 66.9",
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"plaintext": "! 17.9",
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"plaintext": "! ",
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"plaintext": "! ",
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{
"plaintext": "|-",
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{
"plaintext": "| colspan=7| Source: Wahlen in Sachsen",
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"plaintext": "|}",
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"plaintext": "As the capital of Saxony, Dresden is home to the Saxon state parliament (Landtag) and the ministries of the Saxon Government. The controlling Constitutional Court of Saxony is in Leipzig. The highest Saxon court in civil and criminal law, is the Higher Regional Court of Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the Saxon state authorities are located in Dresden. Dresden is home to the Regional Commission of the Dresden Regierungsbezirk, which is a controlling authority for the Saxon Government. It has jurisdiction over eight rural districts, two urban districts and the city of Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "Like many cities in Germany, Dresden is also home to a local court, has a trade corporation and a Chamber of Industry and Trade and many subsidiaries of federal agencies (such as the Federal Labour Office or the Federal Agency for Technical Relief). It hosts some divisions of the German Customs and Waterways and Shipping Office.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden is home to a military subdistrict command, but no longer has large military units as it did in the past. Dresden is the traditional location for army officer schooling in Germany, today carried out in the Offizierschule des Heeres.",
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"plaintext": "Local affairs in Dresden often centre around the urban development of the city and its spaces. Architecture and the design of public places is a controversial subject. Discussions about the Waldschlößchenbrücke, a bridge under construction across the Elbe, received international attention because of its position across the Dresden Elbe Valley World Heritage Site. The city held a public referendum in 2005 on whether to build the bridge, prior to UNESCO expressing doubts about the compatibility between bridge and heritage. Its construction caused loss of World Heritage site status in 2009.",
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"plaintext": "In 2006, the city of Dresden sold its publicly subsidized housing organization, WOBA Dresden GmbH, to the US-based private investment company Fortress Investment Group. The city received euro and paid off its remaining loans, making it the first large city in Germany to become debt-free. Opponents of the sale were concerned about Dresden's loss of control over the subsidized housing market.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden has been the center of groups and activities of far-right movements. Politicians and politics of Alternative for Germany (AfD) have a strong backing. Starting in October 2014, PEGIDA, a nationalistic political movement based in Dresden has been organizing weekly demonstrations against what it perceives as the Islamization of Europe at the height of the European migrant crisis. As the number of demonstrators increased to 15,000 in December 2014, so has the international media coverage of it. However, since 2015, the number of demonstrators has decreased significantly.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, the Dresden City Council passed a policy statement against \"anti-democratic, anti-pluralist, misanthropic and right-wing-extremist developments\". The motion was originally put forward by the satirical political party Die Partei. Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, Die Linke, SPD and Die Partei voted in favour of the statement. The CDU and AfD voted against it. Among other things, the statement calls on strengthening democracy, protecting human rights and raising spending on (political) education.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden and Coventry became twins after the Second World War in an act of reconciliation, as both had suffered near-total destruction from massive aerial bombing. Similar symbolism occurred in 1988, when Dresden twinned with the Dutch city of Rotterdam. The Coventry Blitz and Rotterdam Blitz bombardments by the German Luftwaffe are also considered to be disproportional.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden has had a triangular partnership with Saint Petersburg and Hamburg since 1987. Dresden is twinned with:",
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"plaintext": "Coventry, England, United Kingdom (1959)",
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"plaintext": "Wrocław, Poland (1963)",
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"plaintext": "Skopje, North Macedonia (1967)",
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"plaintext": "Ostrava, Czech Republic (1971)",
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"plaintext": "Brazzaville, Congo (1975)",
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"plaintext": "Florence, Italy (1978)",
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"plaintext": "Hamburg, Germany (1987)",
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"plaintext": "Rotterdam, Netherlands (1988)",
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"plaintext": "Strasbourg, France (1990)",
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"plaintext": "Salzburg, Austria (1991)",
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"plaintext": "Columbus, United States (1992)",
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"plaintext": "Hangzhou, China (2009)",
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"plaintext": "Dresden also has friendly relations with:",
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"plaintext": "Daejeon, South Korea",
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"plaintext": "Gostyń, Poland",
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"plaintext": "Shiraz, Iran",
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"plaintext": "Although Dresden is often said to be a Baroque city, its architecture is influenced by more than one style. Other eras of importance are the Renaissance and Historicism, as well as the contemporary styles of Modernism and Postmodernism.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden has some 13,000 listed cultural monuments and eight districts under general preservation orders.",
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"plaintext": "The Dresden Castle was the seat of the royal household from 1485. The wings of the building have been renewed, built upon and restored many times. Due to this integration of styles, the castle is made up of elements of the Renaissance, Baroque and Classicist styles.",
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"plaintext": "The Zwinger Palace is across the road from the castle. It was built on the old stronghold of the city and was converted to a centre for the royal art collections and a place to hold festivals. Its gate by the moat is surmounted by a golden crown.",
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"plaintext": "Other royal buildings and ensembles:",
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"plaintext": " Brühl's Terrace was a gift to Heinrich, count von Brühl, and became an ensemble of buildings above the river Elbe.",
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"plaintext": " Dresden Elbe Valley with the Pillnitz Castle and other castles",
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"plaintext": "The Hofkirche was the church of the royal household. Augustus the Strong, who desired to be King of Poland, converted to Catholicism, as Polish kings had to be Catholic. At that time Dresden was strictly Protestant. Augustus the Strong ordered the building of the Hofkirche, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, to establish a sign of Roman Catholic religious importance in Dresden. The church is the cathedral \"Sanctissimae Trinitatis\" since 1980. The crypt of the Wettin Dynasty is located within the church. King Augustus III of Poland is buried in the cathedral, as one of very few Polish Kings to be buried outside the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków.",
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"plaintext": "In contrast to the Hofkirche, the Lutheran Frauenkirche located at the Neumarkt was built almost contemporaneously by the citizens of Dresden. The city's historic Kreuzkirche was reconsecrated in 1388.",
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"plaintext": "There are also other churches in Dresden, for example the Russian Orthodox St. Simeon of the Wonderful Mountain Church in the Südvorstadt district.",
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"plaintext": "Notable examples of Renaissance Revival architecture in Dresden include the Albertinum located at Brühl's Terrace as well as the Saxon State Chancellery and the Saxon State Ministry of Finance located on the northern Elbe river banks. The Ehrlichsche Gestiftskirche, constructed in 1907, was a historicist church building that was demolished in August 1951.",
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"plaintext": "The Villa Rosa was built in 1839 and was considered one of the most important villa buildings in Dresden, due to its Renaissance Revival architecture.",
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"plaintext": "Yenidze is a former cigarette factory building built in the style of a mosque between 1907 and 1909.",
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"plaintext": "The most recent historicist buildings in Dresden date from the short era of Stalinist architecture in the 1950s, e.g. at the Altmarkt.",
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"plaintext": "The Garden City of Hellerau, at that time a suburb of Dresden, was founded in 1909. It was Germany's first garden city. In 1911, Heinrich Tessenow built the Hellerau Festspielhaus (festival theatre). Until the outbreak of World War I, Hellerau was a centre for European modernism with international standing. In 1950, Hellerau was incorporated into the city of Dresden. Today, the Hellerau reform architecture is recognized as exemplary. In the 1990s, the garden city of Hellerau became a conservation area.",
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"plaintext": "The German Hygiene Museum (built 1928–1930) is a signal example of modern architecture in Dresden in the interwar period. The building is designed in an impressively monumental style, but employs plain façades and simple structures.",
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"plaintext": "Important modernist buildings erected between 1945 and 1990 are the Centrum-Warenhaus (a large department store), representing the international Style, and the multi-purpose hall Kulturpalast.",
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"plaintext": "After 1990 and German reunification, new styles emerged. Important contemporary buildings include the New Synagogue, a postmodern building with few windows, the Transparent Factory, the Saxon State Parliament and the New Terrace, the UFA-Kristallpalast cinema by Coop Himmelb(l)au (one of the biggest buildings of Deconstructivism in Germany), and the Saxon State Library.",
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"plaintext": "Daniel Libeskind and Norman Foster both modified existing buildings. Foster roofed the main railway station with translucent Teflon-coated synthetics. Libeskind changed the whole structure of the Bundeswehr Military History Museum by placing a wedge through the historical arsenal building. According to Libeskind's studio, \"[t]he façade’s openness and transparency is intended to contrast with the opacity and rigidity of the existing building.\"",
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"plaintext": "Important bridges crossing the Elbe river are the Blaues Wunder bridge and the Augustus Bridge.",
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"plaintext": "Jean-Joseph Vinache's golden equestrian statue of August the Strong, the Goldener Reiter (Golden Cavalier), is on the Neustädter Markt square. It shows August at the beginning of the Hauptstraße (Main street) on his way to Warsaw, where he was King of Poland in personal union. Another statue is the memorial of Martin Luther in front of the Frauenkirche.",
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"plaintext": "Großer Garten is a Baroque garden in central Dresden. It includes the Dresden Zoo and the Dresden Botanical Garden.",
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"plaintext": "The Dresden Heath is a large forest located in the northeast of Dresden and one of the city's most important recreation areas.",
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"plaintext": "The park of Pillnitz Palace is famous for its botanical treasures, including a more than 230-year-old Japanese camellia and about 400 potted plants.",
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"plaintext": "Carl Maria von Weber and Richard Wagner had a number of their works performed for the first time in Dresden. Other artists, such as Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Otto Dix, Oskar Kokoschka, Richard Strauss, Gottfried Semper and Gret Palucca, were also active in the city. Dresden is also home to several art collections and musical ensembles.",
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"plaintext": "The Saxon State Opera descends from the opera company of the former electors and Kings of Saxony. Their first opera house was the Opernhaus am Taschenberg, opened in 1667. The Opernhaus am Zwinger presented opera from 1719 to 1756, when the Seven Years' War began. The later Semperoper was completely destroyed during the bombing of Dresden during the second world war. The opera's reconstruction was completed exactly 40 years later, on 13 February 1985. Its musical ensemble is the Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden, founded in 1548. The Dresden State Theatre runs a number of smaller theatres. The Dresden State Operetta is the only independent operetta in Germany. The Herkuleskeule (Hercules club) is an important site in German-speaking political cabaret.",
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"plaintext": "There are several choirs in Dresden, the best-known of which is the Dresdner Kreuzchor (Choir of The Holy Cross). It is a boys' choir drawn from pupils of the Kreuzschule, and was founded in the 13th century. The Dresdner Kapellknaben are not related to the Staatskapelle, but to the former Hofkapelle, the Catholic cathedral, since 1980. The Dresden Philharmonic Orchestra is the orchestra of the city of Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "Throughout the summer, the outdoor concert series \"Zwingerkonzerte und Mehr\" is held in the Zwingerhof. Performances include dance and music.",
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"plaintext": "There are several small cinemas presenting cult films and low-budget or low-profile films chosen for their cultural value. Dresden also has a few multiplex cinemas, of which the Rundkino is the oldest.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden's Striezelmarkt is one of the largest Christmas markets in Germany. Founded as a one-day market in 1434, it is considered the first genuine Christmas market in the world.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden hosts the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden (Dresden State Art Collections) which, according to the institution's own statements, place it among the most important museums presently in existence. The art collections consist of twelve museums, including the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister (Old Masters Gallery) and the Grünes Gewölbe (Green Vault) and the Japanese Palace (Japanisches Palais). Also known are Galerie Neue Meister (New Masters Gallery), Rüstkammer (Armoury) with the Turkish Chamber, and the Museum für Völkerkunde Dresden (Museum of Ethnology).",
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"plaintext": "Other museums and collections owned by the Free State of Saxony in Dresden are:",
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"plaintext": " The Deutsche Hygiene-Museum, founded for mass education in hygiene, health, human biology and medicine",
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"plaintext": " The Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte (State Museum of Prehistory)",
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"plaintext": " The Senckenberg Naturhistorische Sammlungen Dresden (Senckenberg Natural History Collections Dresden)",
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"plaintext": " The Universitätssammlung Kunst + Technik (Collection of Art and Technology of the Dresden University of Technology)",
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"plaintext": " Verkehrsmuseum Dresden (Transport Museum)",
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"plaintext": " Festung Dresden (Dresden Fortress)",
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"plaintext": " Panometer Dresden (Dresden Panometer) (Panorama museum)",
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"plaintext": "The Dresden City Museum is run by the city of Dresden and focused on the city's history.",
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"plaintext": "The Bundeswehr Military History Museum is placed in the former garrison in the Albertstadt.",
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"plaintext": "The book museum of the Saxon State Library presents the Dresden Codex.",
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"plaintext": "The Kraszewski Museum is a museum dedicated to the most prolific Polish writer Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, who lived in Dresden from 1863 to 1883.",
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"plaintext": "DVB is the municipal company in charge of transport in the city of Dresden. DVB provides a night service named ('goodnight lines'), which operates Monday-Sunday, although the frequency of the buses is greater on Friday, Saturday and before holidays when the routes run every 30 minutes between 22:45 and 04:45. Postplatz is the most important hub for night-time travel in Dresden. Most GuteNachtLinie routes meet here at the same time to allow people to switch routes.",
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"plaintext": "The Bundesautobahn 4 (European route E40) crosses Dresden in the northwest from west to east. The Bundesautobahn 17 leaves the A4 in a south-eastern direction. In Dresden it begins to cross the Ore Mountains towards Prague. The Bundesautobahn 13 leaves from the three-point interchange \"Dresden-Nord\" and goes to Berlin. The A13 and the A17 are on the European route E55. In addition, several Bundesstraßen (federal highways) run through Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "The CarGoTram is a tram that supplies Volkswagen's Transparent Factory, crossing the city. The transparent factory is located not far from the city centre next to the city's largest park.",
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"plaintext": "Until enterprises like Dresdner Bank left Dresden in the communist era to avoid nationalisation, Dresden was one of the most important German cities, an important industrial centre of the German Democratic Republic. The period of the GDR until 1990 was characterized by low economic growth in comparison to western German cities. ",
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"plaintext": "In 1990 Dresden had to struggle with the economic collapse of the Soviet Union and the other export markets in Eastern Europe. After reunification enterprises and production sites broke down almost completely as they entered the social market economy, facing competition from the Federal Republic of Germany. After 1990 a completely new legal system and currency system was introduced and infrastructure was largely rebuilt with funds from the Federal Republic of Germany. Dresden as a major urban centre has developed much faster and more consistently than most other regions in the former German Democratic Republic.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1990 and 2010 the unemployment rate fluctuated between 13% and 15%, but has decreased significantly ever since. In December 2019 the unemployment rate was 5.3%, the fourth lowest among the 15 largest cities of Germany (after Munich, Stuttgart and Nuremberg). In 2017, the GDP per capita of Dresden was 39,134 euros, the highest in Saxony.",
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"plaintext": "Thanks to the presence of public administration centres, a high density of semi-public research institutes and an extension of publicly funded high technology sectors, the proportion of highly qualified workers Dresden is again among the highest in Germany and by European criteria.",
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"plaintext": "In 2019, Dresden had the seventh-best future prospects of all cities in Germany, after being ranked fourth in 2017. According to the 2019 study by Forschungsinstitut Prognos, Dresden is one of the most dynamic regions in Germany. It ranks at number 41 of all 401 German regions and second of all regions in former East Germany (only surpassed by Jena).",
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"plaintext": "Silicon Saxony Saxony's semiconductor industry was built up in 1969. Major enterprises today include AMD's semiconductor fabrication spin-off GlobalFoundries, Infineon Technologies, ZMDI and Toppan Photomasks. Their factories attract many suppliers of material and cleanroom technology enterprises to Dresden.",
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"plaintext": " The Dresden University of Technology (Technische Universität Dresden, abbreviated as TU Dresden or TUD) with more than 36,000 students (2011) was founded in 1828 and is among the oldest and largest Universities of Technology in Germany. It is currently the university of technology in Germany with the largest number of students but also has many courses in social studies, economics and other non-technical sciences. It offers 126 courses. In 2006, the TU Dresden was successful in the German Universities Excellence Initiative of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Germany).",
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"plaintext": " The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts (Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden) was founded in 1764 and is known for its former professors and artists such as George Grosz, Sascha Schneider, Otto Dix, Oskar Kokoschka, Bernardo Bellotto, Carl-Gustav Carus, Caspar David Friedrich and Gerhard Richter.",
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"plaintext": " The Palucca School of Dance (Palucca Hochschule für Tanz) was founded by Gret Palucca in 1925 and is a major European school of free dance.",
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"plaintext": " The Carl Maria von Weber College of Music was founded in 1856.",
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"plaintext": "Other universities include the Hochschule für Kirchenmusik, a school specialising in church music, and the Evangelische Hochschule für Sozialarbeit, an education institution for social work. The Dresden International University is a private postgraduate university, founded in 2003 in cooperation with the Dresden University of Technology.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden hosts many research institutes, some of which have gained an international standing. The domains of most importance are micro- and nanoelectronics, transport and infrastructure systems, material and photonic technology, and bio-engineering. The institutes are well connected among one other as well as with the academic education institutions.",
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"plaintext": "Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf is the largest complex of research facilities in Dresden, a short distance outside the urban areas. It focuses on nuclear medicine and physics. As part of the Helmholtz Association it is one of the German Big Science research centres.",
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"plaintext": "The Max Planck Society focuses on fundamental research. There are three Max Planck Institutes (MPI) in Dresden: the MPI of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, the MPI for Chemical Physics of Solids, and the MPI for the Physics of Complex Systems.",
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"plaintext": "The Fraunhofer Society hosts institutes of applied research that also offer mission-oriented research to enterprises. With eleven institutions or parts of institutes, Dresden is the largest location of the Fraunhofer Society worldwide. The Fraunhofer Society has become an important factor in location decisions and is seen as a useful part of the \"knowledge infrastructure\".",
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"plaintext": "Dresden has more than 20 gymnasia which prepare for a tertiary education, five of which are private. The Sächsisches Landesgymnasium für Musik with a focus on music is supported, as its name implies by the State of Saxony, rather than by the city. There are some Berufliche Gymnasien which combine vocational education and secondary education and a Abendgymnasium which prepares higher education of adults avocational.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden is home to Dynamo Dresden, which had a tradition in UEFA club competitions up to the early 1990s. Dynamo Dresden won eight titles in the DDR-Oberliga. Currently, the club is a member of the 2. Bundesliga after some seasons in the Bundesliga and 3. Liga.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 20th century, the city was represented by Dresdner SC, who were one of Germany's most successful clubs in football. Their best performances came during World War II, when they were twice German champions, and twice Cup winners. Dresdner SC is a multisport club. While its football team plays in the sixth-tier Landesliga Sachsen, its volleyball section has a team in the women's Bundesliga. Dresden has a third football team SC Borea Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "ESC Dresdner Eislöwen is an ice hockey club playing in the second-tier ice hockey league DEL2.",
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"plaintext": "Dresden Monarchs are an American football team in the German Football League.",
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"plaintext": "The Dresden Titans are the city's top basketball team. Due to good performances, they have moved up several divisions and currently play in Germany's second division ProA. The Titans' home arena is the Margon Arena.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1890, horse races have taken place and the Dresdener Rennverein 1890 e.V. are active and one of the big sporting events in Dresden.",
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"plaintext": "Major sporting facilities in Dresden are the Rudolf-Harbig-Stadion, the Heinz-Steyer-Stadion and the EnergieVerbund Arena for ice hockey.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2017 Global Least & Most Stressful Cities Ranking, Dresden was one of the least stressful cities in the world. It was ranked 15th out of 150 cities worldwide and above Düsseldorf, Leipzig, Dortmund, Cologne, Frankfurt, and Berlin.",
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"plaintext": " Georg Bartisch (c. 1535–1607), eye surgeon and author of first German-language textbook of ophthalmology",
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"plaintext": "Of the six alkaline earth metals, beryllium, calcium, barium, and radium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope; magnesium and strontium do not. Beryllium-7, beryllium-10, and calcium-41 are trace radioisotopes; calcium-48 and barium-130 only decay by double beta decay and have very long half-lives (longer than the age of the universe) - thus they are primordial radionuclides; and all isotopes of radium are radioactive. Calcium-48 is the lightest nuclide to undergo double beta decay. Calcium and barium are weakly radioactive: calcium contains about 0.1874% calcium-48, and barium contains about 0.1062% barium-130. The longest lived isotope of radium is radium-226 with a half-life of 1600 years; it and radium-223, -224, and -228 occur naturally in the decay chains of primordial thorium and uranium. Beryllium-8 is notable by its absence as it nigh instantaneously decays into two alpha particles whenever it is formed. The triple alpha process in stars can only occur at energies high enough for beryllium-8 to encounter a third alpha particle before it decays. This is why most main sequence stars spend billions of years hydrogen burning but never or only briefly during their red giant phase initiate helium burning. Strontium-90 is a common fission product of the fission of uranium and has been produced in appreciable quantities by humanmade nuclear reactions as well as a tiny secular equilibrium concentration in uranium due to spontaneous fission. Radioisotopes of alkaline earth metals are usually \"bone seekers\" as they behave chemically similar to calcium and may do significant harm to bone marrow (a rapidly dividing tissue) when they accumulate there. This property is also made use of in radiotherapy of certain bone cancers as the chemical properties allow the radionuclide to target the cancerous growth in the bone while leaving the rest of the body unharmed.",
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"plaintext": "Compared to their neighbors in the periodic table, alkaline earth metals tend to have more stable isotopes, as they possess an even number of protons and for any given even isobar the even-even nuclides are usually more stable than the odd-odd nuclei.",
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"plaintext": "The alkaline earth metals are named after their oxides, the alkaline earths, whose old-fashioned names were beryllia, magnesia, lime, strontia, and baryta. These oxides are basic (alkaline) when combined with water. \"Earth\" was a term applied by early chemists to nonmetallic substances that are insoluble in water and resistant to heating—properties shared by these oxides. The realization that these earths were not elements but compounds is attributed to the chemist Antoine Lavoisier. In his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry) of 1789 he called them salt-forming earth elements. Later, he suggested that the alkaline earths might be metal oxides, but admitted that this was mere conjecture. In 1808, acting on Lavoisier's idea, Humphry Davy became the first to obtain samples of the metals by electrolysis of their molten earths, thus supporting Lavoisier's hypothesis and causing the group to be named the alkaline earth metals.",
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"plaintext": "The calcium compounds calcite and lime have been known and used since prehistoric times. The same is true for the beryllium compounds beryl and emerald. The other compounds of the alkaline earth metals were discovered starting in the early 15th century. The magnesium compound magnesium sulfate was first discovered in 1618 by a farmer at Epsom in England. Strontium carbonate was discovered in minerals in the Scottish village of Strontian in 1790. The last element is the least abundant: radioactive radium, which was extracted from uraninite in 1898.",
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"plaintext": "All elements except beryllium were isolated by electrolysis of molten compounds. Magnesium, calcium, and strontium were first produced by Humphry Davy in 1808, whereas beryllium was independently isolated by Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy in 1828 by reacting beryllium compounds with potassium. In 1910, radium was isolated as a pure metal by Curie and André-Louis Debierne also by electrolysis.",
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"plaintext": "Beryl, a mineral that contains beryllium, has been known since the time of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. Although it was originally thought that beryl was an aluminium silicate, beryl was later found to contain a then-unknown element when, in 1797, Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin dissolved aluminium hydroxide from beryl in an alkali. In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler and Antoine Bussy independently isolated this new element, beryllium, by the same method, which involved a reaction of beryllium chloride with metallic potassium; this reaction was not able to produce large ingots of beryllium. It was not until 1898, when Paul Lebeau performed an electrolysis of a mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride, that large pure samples of beryllium were produced.",
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"plaintext": "Magnesium was first produced by Humphry Davy in England in 1808 using electrolysis of a mixture of magnesia and mercuric oxide. Antoine Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was magnium, but the name magnesium is now used.",
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"plaintext": "Lime has been used as a material for building since 7000 to 14,000BCE, and kilns used for lime have been dated to 2,500BCE in Khafaja, Mesopotamia. Calcium as a material has been known since at least the first century, as the ancient Romans were known to have used calcium oxide by preparing it from lime. Calcium sulfate has been known to be able to set broken bones since the tenth century. Calcium itself, however, was not isolated until 1808, when Humphry Davy, in England, used electrolysis on a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide, after hearing that Jöns Jakob Berzelius had prepared a calcium amalgam from the electrolysis of lime in mercury.",
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"plaintext": "In 1790, physician Adair Crawford discovered ores with distinctive properties, which were named strontites in 1793 by Thomas Charles Hope, a chemistry professor at the University of Glasgow, who confirmed Crawford's discovery. Strontium was eventually isolated in 1808 by Humphry Davy by electrolysis of a mixture of strontium chloride and mercuric oxide. The discovery was announced by Davy on 30 June 1808 at a lecture to the Royal Society.",
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"plaintext": "Barite, a mineral containing barium, was first recognized as containing a new element in 1774 by Carl Scheele, although he was able to isolate only barium oxide. Barium oxide was isolated again two years later by Johan Gottlieb Gahn. Later in the 18th century, William Withering noticed a heavy mineral in the Cumberland lead mines, which are now known to contain barium. Barium itself was finally isolated in 1808 when Humphry Davy used electrolysis with molten salts, and Davy named the element barium, after baryta. Later, Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen isolated pure barium by electrolysis of a mixture of barium chloride and ammonium chloride.",
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"plaintext": "While studying uraninite, on 21 December 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie discovered that, even after uranium had decayed, the material created was still radioactive. The material behaved somewhat similarly to barium compounds, although some properties, such as the color of the flame test and spectral lines, were much different. They announced the discovery of a new element on 26 December 1898 to the French Academy of Sciences. Radium was named in 1899 from the word radius, meaning ray, as radium emitted power in the form of rays.",
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"plaintext": "Beryllium occurs in the earth's crust at a concentration of two to six parts per million (ppm), much of which is in soils, where it has a concentration of six ppm. Beryllium is one of the rarest elements in seawater, even rarer than elements such as scandium, with a concentration of 0.2 parts per trillion. However, in freshwater, beryllium is somewhat more common, with a concentration of 0.1 parts per billion.",
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"plaintext": "Magnesium and calcium are very common in the earth's crust, being respectively the fifth- eighth-most-abundant elements. None of the alkaline earth metals are found in their elemental state. Common magnesium-containing minerals are carnallite, magnesite, and dolomite. Common calcium-containing minerals are chalk, limestone, gypsum, and anhydrite.",
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"plaintext": "Strontium is the fifteenth-most-abundant element in the Earth's crust. The principal minerals are celestite and strontianite. Barium is slightly less common, much of it in the mineral barite.",
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"plaintext": "Radium, being a decay product of uranium, is found in all uranium-bearing ores. Due to its relatively short half-life, radium from the Earth's early history has decayed, and present-day samples have all come from the much slower decay of uranium.",
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"plaintext": "Most beryllium is extracted from beryllium hydroxide. One production method is sintering, done by mixing beryl, sodium fluorosilicate, and soda at high temperatures to form sodium fluoroberyllate, aluminium oxide, and silicon dioxide. A solution of sodium fluoroberyllate and sodium hydroxide in water is then used to form beryllium hydroxide by precipitation. Alternatively, in the melt method, powdered beryl is heated to high temperature, cooled with water, then heated again slightly in sulfuric acid, eventually yielding beryllium hydroxide. The beryllium hydroxide from either method then produces beryllium fluoride and beryllium chloride through a somewhat long process. Electrolysis or heating of these compounds can then produce beryllium.",
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"plaintext": "In general, strontium carbonate is extracted from the mineral celestite through two methods: by leaching the celestite with sodium carbonate, or in a more complicated way involving coal.",
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"plaintext": "To produce barium, barite (impure barium sulfate) is converted to barium sulfide by carbothermic reduction (such as with coke). The sulfide is water-soluble and easily reacted to form pure barium sulfate, used for commercial pigments, or other compounds, such as barium nitrate. These in turn are calcined into barium oxide, which eventually yields pure barium after reduction with aluminium. The most important supplier of barium is China, which produces more than 50% of world supply.",
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"plaintext": "Beryllium is used mainly in military applications, but non-military uses exist. In electronics, beryllium is used as a p-type dopant in some semiconductors, and beryllium oxide is used as a high-strength electrical insulator and heat conductor. Beryllium alloys are used for mechanical parts when stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability are required over a wide temperature range. Beryllium-9 is used in small-scale neutron sources that use the reaction , the reaction used by James Chadwick when he discovered the neutron. Its low atomic weight and low neutron absorption cross section would make beryllium suitable as a neutron moderator, but its high price and the readily available alternatives such as water, heavy water and nuclear graphite have limited this to niche applications. In the FLiBe eutectic used in molten salt reactors, beryllium's role as a moderator is more incidental than the desired property leading to its use.",
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"plaintext": "Magnesium has many uses. It offers advantages over other structural materials such as aluminium, but magnesium's usage is hindered by its flammability. Magnesium is often alloyed with aluminium, zinc and manganese to increase it strength and corrosion resistance. Magnesium has many other industrial applications, such as its role in the production of iron and steel, and in the Kroll process for production of titanium.",
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"plaintext": "Calcium is used as a reducing agent in the separation of other metals such as uranium from ore. It is a major component of many alloys, especially aluminium and copper alloys, and is also used to deoxidize alloys. Calcium has roles in the making of cheese, mortars, and cement.",
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"plaintext": "Strontium and barium have fewer applications than the lighter alkaline earth metals. Strontium carbonate is used in the manufacturing of red fireworks. Pure strontium is used in the study of neurotransmitter release in neurons. Radioactive strontium-90 finds some use in RTGs, which utilize its decay heat. Barium is used in vacuum tubes as a getter to remove gases. Barium sulfate has many uses in the petroleum industry, and other industries.",
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"plaintext": "Radium has many former applications based on its radioactivity, but its use is no longer common because of the adverse health effects and long half-life. Radium was frequently used in luminous paints, although this use was stopped after it sickened workers. The nuclear quackery that alleged health benefits of radium formerly led to its addition to drinking water, toothpaste, and many other products. Radium is no longer used even when its radioactive properties are desired because its long half-life makes safe disposal challenging. For example, in brachytherapy, short half-life alternatives such as iridium-192 are usually used instead.",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with halogens",
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"plaintext": "Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2",
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"plaintext": "Anhydrous calcium chloride is a hygroscopic substance that is used as a desiccant. Exposed to air, it will absorb water vapour from the air, forming a solution. This property is known as deliquescence.",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with oxygen",
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"plaintext": "Ca + 1/2O2 → CaO",
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"plaintext": "Mg + 1/2O2 → MgO",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with sulphur",
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"plaintext": "Ca + 1/8S8 → CaS",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with carbon",
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"plaintext": "With carbon, they form acetylides ",
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"plaintext": "directly. Beryllium forms carbide.",
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"plaintext": "2Be + C → Be2C",
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"plaintext": "CaO + 3C → CaC2 + CO (at 2500 °C in furnace)",
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"plaintext": "CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2",
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"plaintext": "Mg2C3 + 4H2O → 2Mg(OH)2 + C3H4",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with nitrogen",
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"plaintext": "Only Be and Mg form nitrides directly.",
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"plaintext": "3Be + N2 → Be3N2",
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"plaintext": "3Mg + N2 → Mg3N2",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with hydrogen",
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"plaintext": "Alkaline earth metals react with hydrogen to generate saline hydride that are unstable in water.",
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"plaintext": "Ca + H2 → CaH2",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with water",
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"plaintext": "Ca, Sr and Ba readily react with water to form hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Be and Mg are passivated by an impervious layer of oxide. However, amalgamated magnesium will react with water vapour.",
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"plaintext": "Mg + H2O → MgO + H2",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with acidic oxides",
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"plaintext": "Alkaline earth metals reduce the nonmetal from its oxide.",
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"plaintext": "2Mg + SiO2 → 2MgO + Si",
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"plaintext": "2Mg + CO2 → 2MgO + C (in solid carbon dioxide)",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with acids",
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"plaintext": "Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2",
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"plaintext": "Be + 2HCl → BeCl2 + H2",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with bases",
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"plaintext": "Be exhibits amphoteric properties. It dissolves in concentrated sodium hydroxide.",
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"plaintext": "Be + NaOH + 2H2O → Na[Be(OH)3] + H2",
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"plaintext": "Reaction with alkyl halides",
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"plaintext": "Magnesium reacts with alkyl halides via an insertion reaction to generate Grignard reagents.",
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"plaintext": "RX + Mg → RMgX (in anhydrous ether)",
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"plaintext": "The flame test",
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"plaintext": "The table below presents the colours observed when the flame of a Bunsen burner is exposed to salts of alkaline earth metals. Be and Mg do not impart colour to the flame due to their small size.",
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"plaintext": "In solution",
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"plaintext": "Mg2+",
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"plaintext": "Disodium phosphate is a very selective reagent for magnesium ions and, in the presence of ammonium salts and ammonia, forms a white precipitate of ammonium magnesium phosphate. ",
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"plaintext": "Mg2+ + NH3 + Na2HPO4 → (NH4)MgPO4 + 2Na+",
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"plaintext": "Ca2+",
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"plaintext": "Ca2+ forms a white precipitate with ammonium oxalate. Calcium oxalate is insoluble in water, but is soluble in mineral acids.",
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"plaintext": "Ca2+ + (COO)2(NH4)2 → (COO)2Ca + NH4+",
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"plaintext": "Sr2+",
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"plaintext": "Strontium ions precipitate with soluble sulphate salts.",
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"plaintext": "Sr2+ + Na2SO4 → SrSO4 + 2Na+",
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"plaintext": "All ions of alkaline earth metals form white precipitate with ammonium carbonate in the presence of ammonium chloride and ammonia.",
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"plaintext": "Oxides",
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"plaintext": "The alkaline earth metal oxides are formed from the thermal decomposition of the corresponding carbonates.",
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"plaintext": "CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (at approx. 900°C)",
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"plaintext": "In laboratory, they are obtained from hydroxides:",
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"plaintext": "Mg(OH)2 → MgO + H2O",
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"plaintext": "or nitrates:",
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"plaintext": "Ca(NO3)2 → CaO + 2NO2 + 1/2O2",
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"plaintext": "The oxides exhibit basic character: they turn phenolphthalein red and litmus, blue. They react with water to form hydroxides in an exothermic reaction.",
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"plaintext": "CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Q",
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"plaintext": "Calcium oxide reacts with carbon to form acetylide.",
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"plaintext": "CaO + 3C → CaC2 + CO (at 2500°C)",
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"plaintext": "CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 + C",
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"plaintext": "CaCN2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2N—CN",
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"plaintext": "H2N—CN + H2O → (H2N)2CO (urea)",
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"plaintext": "CaCN2 + 2H2O → CaCO3 + NH3",
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"plaintext": "Hydroxides",
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"plaintext": "They are generated from the corresponding oxides on reaction with water. They exhibit basic character: they turn phenolphthalein pink and litmus, blue. Beryllium hydroxide is an exception as it exhibits amphoteric character.",
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"plaintext": "Be(OH)2 + 2HCl → BeCl2 + H2O",
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"plaintext": "Be(OH)2 + NaOH → Na[Be(OH)3]",
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"plaintext": "Salts",
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"plaintext": "Ca and Mg are found in nature in many compounds such as dolomite, aragonite, magnesite (carbonate rocks).",
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"plaintext": "Calcium and magnesium ions are found in hard water. Hard water represents a multifold issue. It is of great interest to remove these ions, thus softening the water. This procedure can be done using reagents such as calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or sodium phosphate. A more common method is to use ion-exchange aluminosilicates or ion-exchange resins that trap Ca2+ and Mg2+ and liberate Na+ instead:",
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"plaintext": "Na2O·Al2O3·6SiO2 + Ca2+ → CaO·Al2O3·6SiO2 + 2Na+",
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"plaintext": "Magnesium and calcium are ubiquitous and essential to all known living organisms. They are involved in more than one role, with, for example, magnesium or calcium ion pumps playing a role in some cellular processes, magnesium functioning as the active center in some enzymes, and calcium salts taking a structural role, most notably in bones.",
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"plaintext": "Strontium plays an important role in marine aquatic life, especially hard corals, which use strontium to build their exoskeletons. It and barium have some uses in medicine, for example \"barium meals\" in radiographic imaging, whilst strontium compounds are employed in some toothpastes. Excessive amounts of strontium-90 are toxic due to its radioactivity and strontium-90 mimics calcium (i.e. Behaves as a \"bone seeker\") where it bioaccumulates with a significant biological half life. While the bones themselves have higher radiation tolerance than other tissues, the rapidly dividing bone marrow does not and can thus be significantly harmed by Sr-90. The effect of ionizing radiation on bone marrow is also the reason why acute radiation syndrome can have anemia-like symptoms and why donation of red blood cells can increase survivability.",
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"plaintext": "Beryllium and radium, however, are toxic. Beryllium's low aqueous solubility means it is rarely available to biological systems; it has no known role in living organisms and, when encountered by them, is usually highly toxic. Radium has a low availability and is highly radioactive, making it toxic to life.",
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"plaintext": "The next alkaline earth metal after radium is thought to be element 120, although this may not be true due to relativistic effects. The synthesis of element 120 was first attempted in March 2007, when a team at the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna bombarded plutonium-244 with iron-58 ions; however, no atoms were produced, leading to a limit of 400 fb for the cross-section at the energy studied. In April 2007, a team at the GSI attempted to create element 120 by bombarding uranium-238 with nickel-64, although no atoms were detected, leading to a limit of 1.6 pb for the reaction. Synthesis was again attempted at higher sensitivities, although no atoms were detected. Other reactions have been tried, although all have been met with failure.",
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"plaintext": "The chemistry of element 120 is predicted to be closer to that of calcium or strontium instead of barium or radium. This noticeably contrasts with periodic trends, which would predict element 120 to be more reactive than barium and radium. This lowered reactivity is due to the expected energies of element 120's valence electrons, increasing element 120's ionization energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii.",
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"plaintext": "The next alkaline earth metal after element 120 has not been definitely predicted. Although a simple extrapolation using the Aufbau principle would suggest that element 170 is a congener of 120, relativistic effects may render such an extrapolation invalid. The next element with properties similar to the alkaline earth metals has been predicted to be element 166, though due to overlapping orbitals and lower energy gap below the 9s subshell, element 166 may instead be placed in group 12, below copernicium.",
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"plaintext": " Alkaline earth octacarbonyl complexes",
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"plaintext": " Group 2 – Alkaline Earth Metals, Royal Chemistry Society.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Hogan, C. Michael. 2010. \"Calcium\". A. Jorgensen, C. Cleveland, eds. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment.",
"section_idx": 15,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
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"plaintext": " Maguire, Michael E. \"Alkaline Earth Metals\". Chemistry: Foundations and Applications. Ed. J. J. Lagowski. Vol. 1. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2004. 33–34. 4 vols. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Thomson Gale.",
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"plaintext": " Petrucci R.H., Harwood W.S., and Herring F.G., General Chemistry (8th edition, Prentice-Hall, 2002)",
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"plaintext": " Silberberg, M.S., Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change (3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009)",
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| 19,563 | 11,998 | 255 | 304 | 0 | 0 | alkaline earth metal | group of chemical elements | [
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37,412 | 1,107,087,296 | Gold_standard | [
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"plaintext": "A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. The gold standard was the basis for the international monetary system from the 1870s to the early 1920s, and from the late 1920s to 1932 as well as from 1944 until 1971 when the United States unilaterally terminated convertibility of the US dollar to gold foreign central banks, effectively ending the Bretton Woods system. Many states nonetheless hold substantial gold reserves.",
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"plaintext": "Historically, the silver standard and bimetallism have been more common than the gold standard. The shift to an international monetary system based on a gold standard reflected accident, network externalities, and path dependence. Great Britain accidentally adopted a de facto gold standard in 1717 when Sir Isaac Newton, then-master of the Royal Mint, set the exchange rate of silver to gold too low, thus causing silver coins to go out of circulation. As Great Britain became the world's leading financial and commercial power in the 19th century, other states increasingly adopted Britain's monetary system.",
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"plaintext": "The gold standard was largely abandoned during the Great Depression before being re-instated in a limited form as part of the post-World War II Bretton Woods system. The gold standard was abandoned due to its propensity for volatility, as well as the constraints it imposed on governments: by retaining a fixed exchange rate, governments were hamstrung in engaging in expansionary policies to, for example, reduce unemployment during economic recessions. There is a consensus among economists that a return to the gold standard would not be beneficial, and most economic historians reject the idea that the gold standard \"was effective in stabilizing prices and moderating business-cycle fluctuations during the nineteenth century.\"",
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"plaintext": "The United Kingdom slipped into a gold specie standard in 1717 by over-valuing gold at 15.2 times its weight in silver. It was unique among nations to use gold in conjunction with clipped, underweight silver shillings, addressed only before the end of the 18th century by the acceptance of gold proxies like token silver coins and banknotes.",
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"plaintext": "From the more widespread acceptance of paper money in the 19th century emerged the gold bullion standard, a system where gold coins do not circulate, but authorities like central banks agree to exchange circulating currency for gold bullion at a fixed price. First emerging in the late 18th century to regulate exchange between London and Edinburgh, Keynes (1913) noted how such a standard became the predominant means of implementing the gold standard internationally in the 1870s.",
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"plaintext": "Restricting the free circulation of gold under the Classical Gold Standard period from the 1870s to 1914 was also needed in countries which decided implement the gold standard while guaranteeing the exchangeability of huge amounts of legacy silver coins into gold at the fixed rate (rather than valuing publicly-held silver at its depreciated value). The term limping standard is often used in countries maintaining significant amounts of silver coin at par with gold, thus an additional element of uncertainty with the currency's value versus gold. The most common silver coins kept at limping standard parity included French 5-franc coins, German 3-mark thalers, Dutch guilders, Indian rupees, and U.S. Morgan dollars.",
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"plaintext": "Lastly, countries may implement a gold exchange standard, where the government guarantees a fixed exchange rate, not to a specified amount of gold, but rather to the currency of another country that is under a gold standard. This became the predominant international standard under the Bretton Woods Agreement from 1945 to 1971 by the fixing of world currencies to the U.S. dollar, the only currency after World War II to be on the gold bullion standard.",
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"plaintext": "The use of gold as money began around 600 BCE in Asia Minor and has been widely accepted ever since, together with various other commodities used as money, with those that lose the least value over time becoming the accepted form. In the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus or bezant was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, but its use waned with the decline of the Byzantine Empire's economic influence.",
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"plaintext": "However, economic systems using gold as the sole currency and unit of account never emerged before the 18th century. For millennia it was silver, not gold, which was the real basis of the domestic economies: the foundation for most money-of-account systems, for payment of wages and salaries, and for most local retail trade.",
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"plaintext": "Gold functioning as currency and unit of account for daily transactions was not possible due to various hindrances which were only solved by tools that emerged in the 19th century, among them:",
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"plaintext": " Divisibility: Gold as currency was hindered by its small size and rarity, with the dime-sized ducat of 3.4 grams representing 7 days’ salary for the highest-paid workers. In contrast, coins of silver and billon (low-grade silver) easily corresponded to daily labor costs and food purchases, making silver more effective as currency and unit of account. In mid-15th century England, most highly paid skilled artisans earned 6d a day (six pence, or 5.4 g silver), and a whole sheep cost 12d. This made the ducat of 40d and the half-ducat of 20d of little use for domestic trade.",
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"plaintext": " Non-existence of token coinage for gold: Sargent and Velde (1997) explained how token coins of copper or billon exchangeable for silver or gold were almost non-existent before the 19th century. Small change was issued at almost full intrinsic value and without conversion provisions into specie. Tokens of little intrinsic value were widely mistrusted, were viewed as a precursor to currency devaluation, and were easily counterfeited in the pre-industrial era. This made the gold standard impossible anywhere with token silver coins; Britain itself only accepted the latter in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": " Non-existence of banknotes: Banknotes were mistrusted as currency in the first half of the 18th century following France's failed banknote issuance in 1716 under economist John Law. Banknotes only became accepted across Europe with the further maturing of banking institutions, and also as a result of the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century. Counterfeiting concerns also applied to banknotes.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest European currency standards were therefore based on the silver standard, from the denarius of the Roman Empire, to the penny (denier) introduced by Charlemagne throughout Western Europe, to the Spanish dollar and the German Reichsthaler and Conventionsthaler which survived well into the 19th century. Gold functioned as a medium for international trade and high-value transactions, but it generally fluctuated in price versus everyday silver money.",
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"plaintext": "A bimetallic standard emerged under a silver standard in the process of giving popular gold coins like ducats a fixed value in terms of silver. In light of fluctuating gold-silver ratios in other countries, bimetallic standards were rather unstable and de facto transformed into a parallel bimetallic standard (where gold circulates at a floating exchange rate to silver) or reverted to a mono-metallic standard.",
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"plaintext": "France was the most important country which maintained a bimetallic standard during most of the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The English pound sterling introduced c 800 CE was initially a silver standard unit worth 20 shillings or 240 silver pennies. The latter initially contained 1.35 g fine silver, reducing by 1601 to 0.464 g (hence giving way to the shilling [12 pence] of 5.57 g fine silver). Hence the pound sterling was originally 324 g fine silver reduced to 111.36 g by 1601.",
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"plaintext": "The problem of clipped, underweight silver pennies and shillings was a persistent, unresolved issue from the late 17th century to the early 19th century. In 1717 the value of the gold guinea (of 7.6885 g fine gold) was fixed at 21 shillings, resulting in a gold-silver ratio of 15.2 higher than prevailing ratios in Continental Europe. Great Britain was therefore de jure under a bimetallic standard with gold serving as the cheaper and more reliable currency compared to clipped silver (full-weight silver coins did not circulate and went to Europe where 21 shillings fetched over a guinea in gold). Several factors helped extend the British gold standard into the 19th century, namely:",
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"plaintext": " The Brazilian Gold Rush of the 18th century supplying significant quantities of gold to Portugal and Britain, with Portuguese gold coins also legal tender in Britain.",
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"plaintext": " Ongoing trade deficits with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of most of Europe. Combined with greater confidence in banknotes issued by the Bank of England, it opened the way for gold as well as banknotes becoming acceptable currency in lieu of silver.",
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"plaintext": " The acceptability of token / subsidiary silver coins as substitutes for gold before the end of the 18th century. Initially issued by the Bank of England and other private companies, permanent issuance of subsidiary coinage from the Royal Mint commenced after the Great Recoinage of 1816.",
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"plaintext": "A proclamation from Queen Anne in 1704 introduced the British West Indies to the gold standard; however it did not result in the wide use of gold currency and the gold standard, given Britain's mercantilist policy of hoarding gold and silver from its colonies for use at home. Prices were quoted de jure in gold pounds sterling but were rarely paid in gold; the colonists' de facto daily medium of exchange and unit of account was predominantly the Spanish silver dollar. Also explained in the history of the Trinidad and Tobago dollar.",
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"plaintext": "Following the Napoleonic Wars, Britain legally moved from the bimetallic to the gold standard in the 19th century in several steps, namely:",
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"plaintext": " The 21-shilling guinea was discontinued in favor of the 20-shilling gold sovereign, or £1 coin, which contained 7.32238 g fine gold",
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"plaintext": " The permanent issuance of subsidiary, limited legal tender silver coinage, commencing with the Great Recoinage of 1816",
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"plaintext": " The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments, which set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility of Bank of England banknotes into gold sovereigns, and",
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"plaintext": " The Peel Banking Act of 1844, which institutionalized the gold standard in Britain by establishing a ratio between gold reserves held by the Bank of England versus the banknotes which it could issue, and by significantly curbing the privilege of other British banks to issue banknotes.",
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"plaintext": "From the second half of the 19th century Britain then introduced its gold standard to Australia, New Zealand, and the British West Indies in the form of circulating gold sovereigns as well as banknotes that were convertible at par into sovereigns or Bank of England banknotes. Canada introduced its own gold dollar in 1867 at par with the U.S. gold dollar and with a fixed exchange rate to the gold sovereign.",
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"plaintext": "Up until 1850 only Britain and a few of its colonies were on the gold standard, with the majority of other countries being on the silver standard. France and the United States were two of the more notable countries on the bimetallic standard. France's actions in maintaining the French franc at either 4.5 g fine silver or 0.29032 g fine gold stabilized world gold-silver price ratios close to the French ratio of 15.5 in the first three quarters of the 19th century by offering to mint the cheaper metal in unlimited quantities – gold 20-franc coins whenever the ratio is below 15.5, and silver 5-franc coins whenever the ratio is above 15.5. The United States dollar was also bimetallic de jure until 1900, worth either 24.0566 g fine silver, or 1.60377 g fine gold (ratio 15.0); the latter revised to 1.50463 g fine gold (ratio 15.99) from 1837 to 1934. The silver dollar was generally the cheaper currency before 1837, while the gold dollar was cheaper between 1837 and 1873.",
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"plaintext": "The nearly-coincidental California gold rush of 1849 and the Australian gold rushes of 1851 significantly increased world gold supplies and the minting of gold francs and dollars as the gold-silver ratio went below 15.5, pushing France and the United States into the gold standard with Great Britain during the 1850s. The benefits of the gold standard were first felt by this larger bloc of countries, with Britain and France being the world's leading financial and industrial powers of the 19th century while the United States was an emerging power.",
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"plaintext": "By the time the gold-silver ratio reverted to 15.5 in the 1860s, this bloc of gold-utilizing countries grew further and provided momentum to an international gold standard before the end of the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": " Portugal and several British colonies commenced with the gold standard in the 1850s and 1860s",
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"plaintext": " France was joined by Belgium, Switzerland and Italy in a larger Latin Monetary Union based on both the gold and silver French francs.",
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"plaintext": " Several international monetary conferences during the 1860s began to consider the merits of an international gold standard, albeit with concerns on its impact on the price of silver should several countries make the switch.",
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"plaintext": "The international classical gold standard commenced in 1873 after the German Empire decided to transition from the silver North German thaler and South German gulden to the German gold mark, reflecting the sentiment of the monetary conferences of the 1860s, and utilizing the 5 billion gold francs (worth 4.05 billion marks or 1,451 metric tons) in indemnity demanded from France at the end of the Franco-Prussian War. This transition done by a large, centrally located European economy also triggered a switch to gold by several European countries in the 1870s, and led as well to the suspension of the unlimited minting of silver 5-franc coins in the Latin Monetary Union in 1873.",
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"plaintext": "The following countries switched from silver or bimetallic currencies to gold in the following years (Britain is included for completeness):",
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"plaintext": " 1816, pound sterling: from 111.37 g silver to 7.32238 g gold; ratio 15.21",
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"plaintext": " 1873, German Empire: one North German thaler or 1 South German gulden of 16.67 g silver, converted to 3 German gold marks of 3/2.79 = 1.0753 g gold; ratio 15.5",
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"plaintext": " 1873, Latin Monetary Union franc: from 4.5 g silver to 9/31 = 0.29032 g gold; ratio 15.5",
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"plaintext": " 1873, United States dollar, by the Coinage Act of 1873: from 24.0566 g silver to 1.50463 g gold; ratio 15.99",
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"plaintext": " 1875, Scandinavian Monetary Union: Rigsdaler specie of 25.28 g silver, converted to 4 krone (or krona) of 4/2.48 = 1.6129 g gold; ratio 15.67",
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"plaintext": " 1875, Netherlands: the Dutch Guilder from 9.45 g silver to 0.6048 g gold; ratio 15.625.",
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"plaintext": " 1892, Austria–Hungary: the Austro-Hungarian gulden of 11.11 g silver, converted to two Austro-Hungarian krone of 2/3.28 = 0.60976 g gold; ratio 18.22",
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"plaintext": " 1897, Russian Empire: the ruble from 18 g silver to 0.7742 g gold; ratio 23.25.",
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"plaintext": "The gold standard became the basis for the international monetary system after 1873. According to economic historian Barry Eichengreen, \"only then did countries settle on gold as the basis for their money supplies. Only then were pegged exchange rates based on the gold standard firmly established.\" Adopting and maintaining a singular monetary arrangement encouraged international trade and investment by stabilizing international price relationships and facilitating foreign borrowing.",
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"plaintext": " The gold standard was not firmly established in non-industrial countries.",
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"plaintext": "As feared by the various international monetary conferences of the 1860s, the switch to gold, combined with record U.S. silver output from the Comstock Lode, plunged the price of silver after 1873 with the gold-silver ratio climbing to historic highs of 18 by 1880. Most of continental Europe made the conscious decision to move to the gold standard while leaving the mass of legacy (and erstwhile depreciated) silver coins remaining unlimited legal tender and convertible at face value for new gold currency. The term limping standard was used to describe currencies whose nations’ commitment to the gold standard was put into doubt by the huge mass of silver coins still tendered for payment, the most numerous of which were French 5-franc coins, German 3-mark Vereinsthalers, Dutch guilders and American Morgan dollars.",
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"plaintext": "Britain's original gold specie standard with gold in circulation was not feasible anymore with the rest of Continental Europe also switching to gold. The problem of scarce gold and legacy silver coins was only resolved by national central banks taking over the replacement of silver with national bank notes and token coins, centralizing the nation's supply of scarce gold, providing for reserve assets to guarantee convertibility of legacy silver coins, and allowing the conversion of banknotes into gold bullion or other gold-standard currencies solely for external purchases. This system is known as either a gold bullion standard whenever gold bars are offered, or a gold exchange standard whenever other gold-convertible currencies are offered.",
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"plaintext": "John Maynard Keynes referred to both standards above as simply the gold exchange standard in his 1913 book Indian Currency and Finance. He described this as the predominant form of the international gold standard before the First World War, that a gold standard was generally impossible to implement before the 19th century due to the absence of recently developed tools (like central banking institutions, banknotes, and token currencies), and that a gold exchange standard was even superior to Britain's gold specie standard with gold in circulation. As discussed by Keynes:",
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"plaintext": "The classical gold standard of the late 19th century was therefore not merely a superficial switch from circulating silver to circulating gold. The bulk of silver currency was actually replaced by banknotes and token currency whose gold value was guaranteed by gold bullion and other reserve assets held inside central banks. In turn, the gold exchange standard was just one step away from modern fiat currency with banknotes issued by central banks, and whose value is secured by the bank's reserve assets, but whose exchange value is determined by the central bank's monetary policy objectives on its purchasing power in lieu of a fixed equivalence to gold.",
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"plaintext": "The final chapter of the classical gold standard ending in 1914 saw the gold exchange standard extended to many Asian countries by fixing the value of local currencies to gold or to the gold standard currency of a Western colonial power. The Netherlands East Indies guilder was the first Asian currency pegged to gold in 1875 via a gold exchange standard which maintained its parity with the gold Dutch guilder.",
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"plaintext": "Various international monetary conferences were called up before 1890, with various countries actually pledging to maintain the limping standard of freely circulating legacy silver coins in order to prevent the further deterioration of the gold–silver ratio which reached 20 in the 1880s. After 1890 however, silver's price decline could not be prevented further and the gold–silver ratio rose sharply above 30.",
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"plaintext": "In 1893 the Indian rupee of 10.69 g fine silver was fixed at 16 British pence (or £1 = 15 rupees; gold-silver ratio 21.9), with legacy silver rupees remaining legal tender. In 1906 the Straits dollar of 24.26 g silver was fixed at 28 pence (or £1 = 8 dollars; ratio 28.4).",
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"plaintext": "Nearly similar gold standards were implemented in Japan in 1897, in the Philippines in 1903, and in Mexico in 1905 when the previous yen or peso of 24.26 g silver was redefined to approximately 0.75 g gold or half a U.S. dollar (ratio 32.3). Japan gained the needed gold reserves after the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1920s John Maynard Keynes retrospectively developed the phrase \"rules of the game\" to describe how central banks would ideally implement a gold standard during the prewar classical era, assuming international trade flows followed the ideal price–specie flow mechanism. Violations of the \"rules\" actually observed during the classical gold standard era from 1873 to 1914, however, reveal how much more powerful national central banks actually are in influencing price levels and specie flows, compared to the \"self-correcting\" flows predicted by the price-specie flow mechanism.",
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"plaintext": "Keynes premised the \"rules of the game\" on best practices of central banks to implement the pre-1914 international gold standard, namely:",
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"plaintext": " To substitute gold with fiat currency in circulation, so that gold reserves may be centralized",
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"plaintext": " To actually allow a prudently-determined ratio of gold reserves to fiat currency of less than 100%, with the difference made up by other loans and invested assets, such reserve ratio amounts consistent with fractional reserve banking practices",
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"plaintext": " To exchange circulating currency for gold or other foreign currencies at a fixed gold price, and to freely permit gold imports and exports",
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"plaintext": " Central banks were actually allowed modest margins in exchange rates to reflect gold delivery costs while still adhering to the gold standard. To illustrate this point, France may ideally allow the pound sterling (worth 25.22 francs based on ratios of their gold content) to trade between so-called gold points of 25.02F to 25.42F (plus or minus an assumed 0.20F/£ in gold delivery costs). France prevents sterling from climbing above 25.42F by delivering gold worth 25.22F or £1 (spending 0.20F for delivery), and from falling below 25.02F by the reverse process of ordering £1 in gold worth 25.22F in France (and again, minus 0.20F in costs).",
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"plaintext": " Finally, central banks were authorized to suspend the gold standard in times of war until it could be restored again as the contingency subsides.",
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"plaintext": "Central banks were also expected to maintain the gold standard on the ideal assumption of international trade operating under the price–specie flow mechanism proposed by economist David Hume wherein:",
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"plaintext": " Countries which exported more goods would receive specie (gold or silver) inflows, at the expense of countries which imported those goods.",
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"plaintext": " More specie in exporting countries will result in higher price levels there, and conversely in lower price levels amongst countries spending their specie.",
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"plaintext": " Price disparities will self-correct as lower prices in specie-deficient will attract spending from specie-rich countries, until price levels in both places equalize again.",
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"plaintext": "In practice, however, specie flows during the classical gold standard era failed to exhibit the self-corrective behavior described above. Gold finding its way back from surplus to deficit countries to exploit price differences was a painfully slow process, and central banks found it far more effective to raise or lower domestic price levels by lowering or raising domestic interest rates. High price level countries may raise interest rates to lower domestic demand and prices, but it may also trigger gold inflows from investors – contradicting the premise that gold will flow out of countries with high price levels. Developed economies deciding to buy or sell domestic assets to international investors also turned out to be more effective in influencing gold flows than the self-correcting mechanism predicted by Hume.",
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"plaintext": "Another set of violations to the \"rules of the game\" involved central banks not intervening in a timely manner even as exchange rates went outside the \"gold points\" (in the example above, cases existed of the pound climbing above 25.42 francs or falling below 25.02 francs). Central banks were found to pursue other objectives other than fixed exchange rates to gold (like e.g. lower domestic prices, or stopping huge gold outflows), though such behavior is limited by public credibility on their adherence to the gold standard. Keynes described such violations occurring before 1913 by French banks limiting gold payouts to 200 francs per head and charging a 1% premium, and by the German Reichsbank partially suspending free payment in gold, though \"covertly and with shame\".",
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"plaintext": "Some countries had limited success in implementing the gold standard even while disregarding such \"rules of the game\" in its pursuit of other monetary policy objectives. Inside the Latin Monetary Union, the Italian lira and the Spanish peseta traded outside typical gold-standard levels of 25.02–25.42F/£ for extended periods of time.",
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"plaintext": " Italy tolerated in 1866 the issuance of (forced legal tender paper currency) worth less than the Latin Monetary Union franc. It also flooded the Union with low-valued subsidiary silver coins worth less than the franc. For the rest of the 19th century the Italian lira traded at a fluctuating discount versus the standard gold franc.",
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"plaintext": " In 1883 the Spanish peseta went off the gold standard and traded below parity with the gold French franc. However, as the free minting of silver was suspended to the general public, the peseta had a floating exchange rate between the value of the gold franc and the silver franc. The Spanish government captured all profits from minting (5-peseta coins) out of silver bought for less than 5 ptas. While total issuance was limited to prevent the peseta from falling below the silver franc, the abundance of in circulation prevented the peseta from returning at par with the gold franc. Spain's system where the silver traded at a premium above its metallic value due to relative scarcity is called the fiduciary standard, and was similarly implemented in the Philippines and other Spanish colonies in the end of the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "John Hull was authorized by the Massachusetts legislature to make the earliest coinage of the colony, the willow, the oak, and the pine tree shilling in 1652, once again based on the silver standard.",
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"plaintext": "In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress that a decimal currency system be adopted by the United States. The initial recommendation in 1785 was a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar (finalized at 371.25 grains or 24.0566 g fine silver), but in the final version of the Coinage Act of 1792 Hamilton's recommendation to include a $10 gold eagle was also approved, containing 247.5 grains (16.0377 g) fine gold. Hamilton therefore put the U.S. dollar on a bimetallic standard with a gold-silver ratio of 15.0.",
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"plaintext": "American-issued dollars and cents remained less common in circulation than Spanish dollars and reales (1/8th dollar) for the next six decades until foreign currency was demonetized in 1857. $10 gold eagles were exported to Europe where it could fetch over ten Spanish dollars due to their higher gold ratio of 15.5. American silver dollars also compared favorably with Spanish dollars and were easily used for overseas purchases. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of exportable gold coins and silver dollars in order to divert the United States Mint’s limited resources into fractional coins which stayed in circulation.",
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"plaintext": "The United States also embarked on establishing a national bank with the First Bank of the United States in 1791 and the Second Bank of the United States in 1816. In 1836, President Andrew Jackson failed to extend the Second Bank's charter, reflecting his sentiments against banking institutions as well as his preference for the use of gold coins for large payments rather than privately-issued banknotes. The return of gold could only be possible by reducing the dollar's gold equivalence, and in the Coinage Act of 1834 the gold-silver ratio was increased to 16.0 (ratio finalized in 1837 to 15.99 when the fine gold content of the $10 eagle was set at 232.2 grains or 15.0463 g).",
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"plaintext": "Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money. Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard-money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.",
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"plaintext": "Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, silver coins 50 cents and below were reduced in silver content and cannot be requested for minting by the general public (only the U.S. government can request for it). In 1857 the legal tender status of Spanish dollars and other foreign coinage was repealed. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system.",
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"plaintext": "Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the U.S. Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called \"greenbacks\".",
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"plaintext": "After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price of the greenback matched the mint price of gold, and according to Barry Eichengreen, the United States was effectively on the gold standard that year.",
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"plaintext": "The Coinage Act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ‘73) suspended the minting of the standard silver dollar (of 412.5 grains, 90% fine), the only fully legal tender coin that individuals could convert silver bullion into in unlimited (or Free silver) quantities, and right at the onset of the silver rush from the Comstock Lode in the 1870s. Political agitation over the inability of silver miners to monetize their produce resulted in the Bland–Allison Act of 1878 and Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 which made compulsory the minting of significant quantities of the silver Morgan dollar.",
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"plaintext": "With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879, the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. While greenbacks made suitable substitutes for gold coins, American implementation of the gold standard was hobbled by the continued over-issuance of silver dollars and silver certificates emanating from political pressures. Lack of public confidence in the ubiquitous silver currency resulted in a run on U.S. gold reserves during the Panic of 1893.",
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"plaintext": "During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862–1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.",
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"plaintext": "Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which \"it failed utterly\" according to economist Richard Lipsey. The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it. According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard's failure to resume its previous position after World War I was \"the Bank of England's precarious liquidity position and the gold-exchange standard\". A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before. In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the U.S. and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflation rates were more severe than America's. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of U.S. exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.",
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"plaintext": "Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.",
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"plaintext": "For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because war reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to \"sterilize\" some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money. By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard. As a result of World War I the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.",
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"plaintext": "The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not abolished. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa, that the gold specie standard was officially ended.",
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"plaintext": "The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but \"only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy [12kg] of fine gold\". John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard. By fixing the price at a level which restored the pre-war exchange rate of US$4.86 per pound sterling, as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a \"historic mistake\".",
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"plaintext": "The pound left the gold standard in 1931 and a number of currencies of countries that historically had performed a large amount of their trade in sterling were pegged to sterling instead of to gold. The Bank of England took the decision to leave the gold standard abruptly and unilaterally.",
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"plaintext": "Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, leading to a period of relative stability but also deflation. This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929–1939) forced countries off the gold standard. Primary-producing countries were first to abandon the gold standard. In the summer of 1931, a Central European banking crisis led Germany and Austria suspend gold convertibility and impose exchange controls. A May 1931 run on Austria's largest commercial bank had caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.",
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"plaintext": "On September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound led the Bank of England to abandon the gold standard, ostensibly \"temporarily\". However, the ostensibly temporary departure from the gold standard had unexpectedly positive effects on the economy, leading to greater acceptance of departing from the gold standard. Loans from American and French central banks of £50million were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic. The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.",
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"plaintext": "The interwar partially-backed gold standard was inherently unstable because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.",
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"plaintext": "Upon taking office in March 1933, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt departed from the gold standard.",
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"plaintext": "By the end of 1932, the gold standard had been abandoned as a global monetary system. Czechoslovakia, Belgium, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland abandoned the gold standard in the mid-1930s. According to Barry Eichengreen, there were three primary reasons for the collapse of the gold standard:",
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"plaintext": " Tradeoffs between currency stability and other domestic economic objectives: Governments in the 1920s and 1930s faced conflictual pressures between maintaining currency stability and reducing unemployment. Suffrage, trade unions, and labor parties pressured governments to focus on reducing unemployment rather than maintaining currency stability.",
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"plaintext": " Increased risk of destabilizing capital flight: International finance doubted the credibility of national governments to maintain currency stability, which led to capital flight during crises, which aggravated the crises.",
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"plaintext": " The U.S., not Britain, was the main financial center: Whereas Britain had during past periods been capable of managing a harmonious international monetary system, the U.S. was not.",
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"plaintext": "Economists, such as Barry Eichengreen, Peter Temin and Ben Bernanke, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. It has been described as the consensus view among economists. In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could \"prime the pump\" for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40% of its demand notes.",
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"plaintext": "Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks. As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply. Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the U.S. money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.",
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"plaintext": "The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, deflation-adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy. Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.",
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"plaintext": "In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.",
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"plaintext": "Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return, the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority, the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from to the troy ounce to to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40%.",
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"plaintext": "Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot–Hawley Tariff in the U.S. and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain, the failure of central banks to act responsibly, government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis–Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The U.S. top marginal income tax rate went from 25% to 63% in 1932 and to 79% in 1936, while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from .375% in 1929 to 4% in 1932. The concurrent massive drought resulted in the U.S. Dust Bowl.",
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"plaintext": "The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust. Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act \"tore asunder\" any remaining confidence in the banking system. Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly 'great' was the European banking crisis of 1931. According to Federal Reserve Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually, the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still, they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the US dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.",
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"plaintext": "After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a \"gold exchange standard\" was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.",
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"plaintext": "Starting in the 1959–1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing U.S. economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the \"Nixon Shock\").",
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"plaintext": "This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the \"Smithsonian Agreement\" was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from per troy ounce of gold to . Other countries' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to . Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money. However, gold has persisted as a significant reserve asset since the collapse of the classical gold standard.",
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"plaintext": "An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about , or a cube on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.",
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"plaintext": "World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth (i.e. a doubling in this period) although it has lagged behind world economic growth (an approximately eightfold increase since the 1950s, and fourfold since 1980).",
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"plaintext": "Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.",
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"plaintext": "Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.",
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"plaintext": "Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A U.S. silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.",
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"plaintext": "Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation.",
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"plaintext": "Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.",
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"plaintext": "A full or 100%-reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold. Gold standard proponents have said, \"Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income.\" While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.",
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"plaintext": "In an international gold-standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned), gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.",
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"plaintext": "A poll of forty prominent U.S. economists conducted by the IGM Economic Experts Panel in 2012 found that none of them believed that returning to the gold standard would be economically beneficial. The specific statement with which the economists were asked to agree or disagree was: \"If the U.S. replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a 'dollar' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price-stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American.\" 40% of the economists disagreed, and 53% strongly disagreed with the statement; the rest did not respond to the question. The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well-known research universities. A 1995 study reported on survey results among economic historians showing that two-thirds of economic historians disagreed that the gold standard \"was effective in stabilizing prices and moderating business-cycle fluctuations during the nineteenth century.\"",
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"plaintext": "The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University was known for refuting Ron Paul's advocacy of the gold standard from the 1970s onward. He sometimes summarized his opposition by stating simply, \"[W]e don't have the gold standard. It’s not because we don't know about the gold standard, it's because we do.\"",
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"plaintext": "According to Michael D. Bordo, the gold standard has three benefits: \"its record as a stable nominal anchor; its automaticity; and its role as a credible commitment mechanism.\"",
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"plaintext": " A gold standard does not allow some types of financial repression. Financial repression acts as a mechanism to transfer wealth from creditors to debtors, particularly the governments that practice it. Financial repression is most successful in reducing debt when accompanied by inflation and can be considered a form of taxation. In 1966 Alan Greenspan wrote \"Deficit spending is simply a scheme for the confiscation of wealth. Gold stands in the way of this insidious process. It stands as a protector of property rights. If one grasps this, one has no difficulty in understanding the statists' antagonism toward the gold standard.\"",
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"plaintext": " Long-term price stability has been described as one of the virtues of the gold standard, but historical data shows that the magnitude of short run swings in prices were far higher under the gold standard.",
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"plaintext": "Currency crises were less frequent under the gold standard than in periods without the gold standard. However, banking crises were more frequent.",
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"plaintext": " The gold standard provides fixed international exchange rates between participating countries and thus reduces uncertainty in international trade. Historically, imbalances between price levels were offset by a balance-of-payment adjustment mechanism called the \"price–specie flow mechanism\". Gold used to pay for imports reduces the money supply of importing nations, causing deflation, which makes them more competitive, while the importation of gold by net exporters serves to increase their money supply, causing inflation, making them less competitive.",
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"plaintext": " Hyper-inflation, a common correlator with government overthrows and economic failures, is more difficult when a gold standard exists. This is because hyper-inflation, by definition, is a loss in trust of failing fiat and those governments that create the fiat.",
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"plaintext": " The unequal distribution of gold deposits makes the gold standard more advantageous for those countries that produce gold. In 2010 the largest producers of gold, in order, were China, Australia, the U.S., South Africa, and Russia. The country with the largest unmined gold deposits is Australia.",
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"plaintext": " Some economists believe that the gold standard acts as a limit on economic growth. According to David Mayer, \"As an economy's productive capacity grows, then so should its money supply. Because a gold standard requires that money be backed in the metal, then the scarcity of the metal constrains the ability of the economy to produce more capital and grow.\"",
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"plaintext": " Mainstream economists believe that economic recessions can be largely mitigated by increasing the money supply during economic downturns. A gold standard means that the money supply would be determined by the gold supply and hence monetary policy could no longer be used to stabilize the economy.",
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"plaintext": " Although the gold standard brings long-run price stability, it is historically associated with high short-run price volatility. It has been argued by Schwartz, among others, that instability in short-term price levels can lead to financial instability as lenders and borrowers become uncertain about the value of debt. Historically, discoveries of gold and rapid increases in gold production have caused volatility.",
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"plaintext": " Deflation punishes debtors. Real debt burdens therefore rise, causing borrowers to cut spending to service their debts or to default. Lenders become wealthier, but may choose to save some of the additional wealth, reducing GDP.",
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"plaintext": " The money supply would essentially be determined by the rate of gold production. When gold stocks increase more rapidly than the economy, there is inflation and the reverse is also true. The consensus view is that the gold standard contributed to the severity and length of the Great Depression, as under the gold standard central banks could not expand credit at a fast enough rate to offset deflationary forces.",
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"plaintext": " Hamilton contended that the gold standard is susceptible to speculative attacks when a government's financial position appears weak. Conversely, this threat discourages governments from engaging in risky policy (see moral hazard). For example, the U.S. was forced to contract the money supply and raise interest rates in September 1931 to defend the dollar after speculators forced the UK off the gold standard.",
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"plaintext": " Devaluing a currency under a gold standard would generally produce sharper changes than the smooth declines seen in fiat currencies, depending on the method of devaluation.",
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"plaintext": " Most economists favor a low, positive rate of inflation of around 2%. This reflects fear of deflationary shocks and the belief that active monetary policy can dampen fluctuations in output and unemployment. Inflation gives them room to tighten policy without inducing deflation.",
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"plaintext": " A gold standard provides practical constraints against the measures that central banks might otherwise use to respond to economic crises. Creation of new money reduces interest rates and thereby increases demand for new lower cost debt, raising the demand for money.",
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"plaintext": "The late emergence of the gold standard may in part have been a consequence of its higher value than other metals, which made it unpractical for most laborers to use in everyday transactions (relative to less valuable silver coins).",
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"plaintext": "A return to the gold standard was considered by the U.S. Gold Commission in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using a modern Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25grams of pure (24-carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the U.S. dollar and establish a non-debt-backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. However, this proposal has not been taken up, and the global monetary system continues to rely on the U.S. dollar as the main trading and reserve currency.",
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"plaintext": "Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of \"a small minority\" within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard. In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled Gold and Economic Freedom, Greenspan argued the case for returning to a 'pure' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as \"welfare statists\" intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending. More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation \"central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard\", rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of \"monetary constitution\" is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes—for example, a gold standard, some other commodity-based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money—is considerably less important.",
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"plaintext": "The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free-market libertarians, and some supply-siders.",
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"plaintext": "Former congressman Ron Paul is a long-term, high-profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.",
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"plaintext": "In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes. As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. As of 2011 similar legislation was under consideration in other U.S. states. The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.",
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"plaintext": "A 2012 survey of forty economists by the University of Chicago business school found that none agreed that returning to a gold standard would improve price stability and employment outcomes for the average American.",
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"plaintext": "In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.",
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"plaintext": "In 2015, some Republican candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with the candidates' assertions that the gold standard would benefit the U.S. economy.",
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"plaintext": " A Program for Monetary Reform (1939) – The Gold Standard",
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"plaintext": " Bimetallism/Free Silver",
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"plaintext": " Coinage Act of 1792",
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"plaintext": " Executive Order 6102",
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"plaintext": " Fiat money",
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"plaintext": " Full-reserve banking",
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"plaintext": " Gold as an investment",
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"plaintext": " Gold dinar",
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},
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"plaintext": " Gold points",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
29372762
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},
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"plaintext": " Hard money (policy)",
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1514318
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1,
20
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]
},
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"plaintext": " Metal as money",
"section_idx": 9,
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1,
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]
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},
{
"plaintext": " Metallism",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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]
]
},
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"plaintext": " Bank for International Settlements",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
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},
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"plaintext": " International Monetary Fund",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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28
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},
{
"plaintext": " United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
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]
},
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"plaintext": " World Bank",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "See also",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Cassel, Gustav. The Downfall of the Gold Standard. Oxford University Press, 1936.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Drummond, Ian M. The Gold Standard and the International Monetary System 1900–1939. Macmillan Education, LTD, 1987.",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "References",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Also published as: ",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Coletta, Paolo E. \"Greenbackers, Goldbugs, and Silverites: Currency Reform and Politics, 1860-1897,” in H. Wayne Morgan (ed.), The Gilded Age: A Reappraisal. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1963; pp.111–139.",
"section_idx": 11,
"section_name": "Further reading",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": "1925: Churchill & The Gold Standard - UK Parliament Living Heritage",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " What is The Gold Standard? University of Iowa Center for International Finance and Development",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": " History of the Bank of England Bank of England",
"section_idx": 12,
"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " Timeline: Gold's history as a currency standard",
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}
]
| [
"Gold_standard",
"Gold",
"Economic_history_of_Japan",
"Economic_history_of_the_United_States",
"History_of_banking",
"History_of_international_trade",
"Monetary_policy"
]
| 173,509 | 32,996 | 1,083 | 283 | 0 | 0 | gold standard | monetary system based on the value of gold | []
|
37,413 | 1,105,137,309 | Astrid_Lindgren | [
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"plaintext": "Astrid Anna Emilia Lindgren (; ; 14 November 1907– 28 January 2002) was a Swedish writer of fiction and screenplays. She is best known for several children's book series, featuring Pippi Longstocking, Emil of Lönneberga, Karlsson-on-the-Roof, and the Six Bullerby Children (Children of Noisy Village in the US), and for the children's fantasy novels Mio, My Son, Ronia the Robber's Daughter, and The Brothers Lionheart. Lindgren worked on the Children's Literature Editorial Board at the Rabén & Sjögren publishing house in Stockholm and wrote more than 30 books for children. In January 2017, she was calculated to be the world's 18th most translated author, and the fourth most translated children's writer after Enid Blyton, Hans Christian Andersen and the Brothers Grimm. Lindgren has so far sold roughly 167 million books worldwide. In 1994, she was awarded the Right Livelihood Award for \"her unique authorship dedicated to the rights of children and respect for their individuality.\"",
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"plaintext": "Lindgren was the daughter of Samuel August Ericsson (1875–1969) and Hanna Jonsson (1879–1961). She had two sisters, and , and a brother, , who eventually became a member of the Swedish parliament.",
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"plaintext": "Upon finishing school, Lindgren took a job with a local newspaper in Vimmerby. She had a relationship with the chief editor, who was married but eventually proposed marriage in 1926 after she became pregnant. She declined and moved to the capital city of Stockholm, learning to become a typist and stenographer (she would later write most of her drafts in stenography). In due time, she gave birth to her son, Lars, in Copenhagen and left him in the care of a foster family.",
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"plaintext": "Although poorly paid, she saved whatever she could and traveled as often as possible to Copenhagen to be with Lars, often just over a weekend, spending most of her time on the train back and forth. Eventually, she managed to bring Lars home, leaving him in the care of her parents until she could afford to raise him in Stockholm.",
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"plaintext": "Since 1928 Lindgren worked as secretary at the Royal Automobile Club () and by 1931 she married her boss, Sture Lindgren (1898–1952), who left his wife for her. Three years later, in 1934, Lindgren gave birth to her second child, Karin, who would become a translator. The character Pippi Longstocking was invented to amuse her daughter while she was ill in bed. Lindgren later related that Karin had suddenly said to her, \"Tell me a story about Pippi Longstocking,\" and the tale was created in response to that request.",
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"plaintext": "The family moved in 1941 to an apartment on Dalagatan, with a view over Vasaparken, where Lindgren remained until her death on 28 January 2002 at the age of 94 caused by a viral infection, having become blind and almost entirely deaf. Lindgren died in her home in central Stockholm. Her funeral took place in the Storkyrkan in Gamla stan. Among those attending were King Carl XVI Gustaf with Queen Silvia and others of the royal family, and Prime Minister Göran Persson. The ceremony was described as \"the closest you can get to a state funeral.\"",
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"plaintext": "In 1944 Lindgren won second prize in a competition held by Rabén & Sjögren, with the novel (The Confidences of Britt-Marie). A year later she won first prize in the same competition with the chapter book (Pippi Longstocking), which had been rejected by Bonniers. (Rabén & Sjögren published it with illustrations by Ingrid Vang Nyman, the latter's debut in Sweden.) Since then it has become one of the most beloved children's books in the world and has been translated into 60 languages. While Lindgren almost immediately became a much appreciated writer, the irreverent attitude towards adult authority that is a distinguishing characteristic of many of her characters has occasionally drawn the ire of some conservatives.",
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"plaintext": "The women's magazine Damernas Värld sent Lindgren to the United States in 1948 to write short essays. Upon arrival she is said to have been upset by the discrimination against black Americans. A few years later she published the book Kati in America, a collection of short essays inspired by the trip.",
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"plaintext": "In 1956, the inaugural year of the Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis, the German-language edition of (Mio, My Son) won the Children's book award. (Sixteen books written by Astrid Lindgren made the Children's Book and Picture Book longlist, 1956–1975, but only Mio, My Son won a prize in its category.)",
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"plaintext": "In 1958 Lindgren received the second Hans Christian Andersen Medal for Rasmus på luffen (Rasmus and the Vagabond), a 1956 novel developed from her screenplay and filmed in 1955. The biennial International Board on Books for Young People, now considered the highest lifetime recognition available to creators of children's books, soon came to be called the Little Nobel Prize. Prior to 1962 the Board cited a single book published during the preceding two years.",
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"plaintext": "In 1995, she was awarded the Illis quorum by the Swedish government. On her 90th birthday, she was pronounced International Swede of the Year 1997 by Swedes in the World (SVIV), an association for Swedes living abroad.",
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"plaintext": "In its entry on Scandinavian fantasy, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy named Lindgren the foremost Swedish contributor to modern children's fantasy. Its entry on Lindgren was: \"Her niche in children's fantasy remains both secure and exalted. Her stories and images can never be forgotten.\"",
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"plaintext": "By 2012 Astrid Lindgren's books had been translated into 95 different languages and language variants. Further, the first chapter of Ronja the Robber's Daughter has been translated into Latin. Up until 1997 a total of 3,000 editions of her books had been issued internationally, and globally her books had sold a total of 165 million copies. Many of her books have been translated into English by the translator Joan Tate.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, a scandal arose in Sweden when it was publicised that Lindgren's marginal tax rate had risen to 102 percent. This was to be known as the \"Pomperipossa effect\", from a story she published in Expressen on 3 March 1976, entitled Pomperipossa in Monismania, attacking the government and its taxation policies. It was a satirical allegory in response to the marginal tax rate Lindgren had incurred in 1976, which required self-employed individuals to pay both regular income tax and employers' deductions. In a stormy tax debate, she attracted criticism from Social Democrats and even from her own colleagues, and responded by raising the issue of the lack of women involved in the Social Democrats' campaign. In that year's general election, the Social Democratic government was voted out for the first time in 44 years, and the Lindgren tax debate was one of several controversies that may have contributed to the result. Another controversy involved Ingmar Bergman's farewell letter to Sweden, after charges had been made against him of tax evasion. Lindgren nevertheless remained a Social Democrat for the rest of her life.",
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"plaintext": "Lindgren was well known both for her support for children's and animal rights and for her opposition to corporal punishment and the EU. In 1994 she received the Right Livelihood Award, \"For her commitment to justice, non-violence and understanding of minorities as well as her love and caring for nature.\"",
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"plaintext": "Following Lindgren's death, the government of Sweden instituted the Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award in her memory. The award is the world's largest monetary award for children's and youth literature, in the amount of five million Swedish kronor.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 April 2011, Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank announced that Lindgren's portrait will feature on the 20kronor banknote, beginning in 2014–2015. In the run-up to the announcement of the persons who would feature on the new banknotes, Lindgren's name had been the one most often put forward in the public debate.",
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"plaintext": "Asteroid 3204 Lindgren, discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh, was named after her. The name of the Swedish microsatellite Astrid 1, launched on 24January 1995, was originally selected only as a common Swedish female name, but within a short time it was decided to name the instruments after characters in Lindgren's books: PIPPI (Prelude in Planetary Particle Imaging), EMIL (Electron Measurements– In-situ and Lightweight), and MIO (Miniature Imaging Optics).",
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"plaintext": "In memory of Lindgren, a memorial sculpture was created next to her childhood home, named (\"Astrid's Wellspring\" in English). It is situated at the spot where Lindgren first heard fairy tales. The sculpture consists of an artistic representation of a young person's head (1.37m high), flattened on top, in the corner of a square pond, and, just above the water, a ring of rosehip thorn (with a single rosehip bud attached to it). The sculpture was initially slightly different in design and intended to be part of a fountain set in the city center, but the people of Vimmerby vehemently opposed the idea. Furthermore, Lindgren had stated that she never wanted to be represented as a statue. (However, there is a statue of Lindgren in the city center.) The memorial was sponsored by the culture council of Vimmerby.",
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"plaintext": "Lindgren's childhood home is near the statue and open to the public. Just from Astrid's Wellspring is a museum in her memory. The author is buried in Vimmerby where the Astrid Lindgren's World theme park is also located. The children's museum Junibacken, in Stockholm, was opened in June 1996 with the main theme of the permanent exhibition being devoted to Lindgren; at the heart of the museum is a theme train ride through the world of Lindgren's novels.",
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"plaintext": " Lotta on Troublemaker Street (also known as: Lotta Leaves Home, Lotta Makes a Mess, Swedish: , 1961)",
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"plaintext": " Lotta's Christmas Surprise (also known as: Of Course Polly Can Do Almost Anything, Swedish: , 1965",
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"plaintext": " Emil's Pranks (also known as: Emil and the Sneaky Rat, Emil Gets into Mischief, Swedish: , 1966)",
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"plaintext": " Emil and Piggy Beast (also known as: Emil and His Clever Pig, Swedish: , 1970)",
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"plaintext": " Emil's Little Sister (also known as: , 1984)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Emil's Sticky Problem (also known as: , 1970)",
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"plaintext": " Karlsson-on-the-Roof series ()",
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1,
21
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},
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"plaintext": " Karlsson-on-the-Roof (also known as: Karlson on the Roof, Swedish: , 1955)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Karlson Flies Again (also known as: Karlsson-on-the-Roof is Sneaking Around Again, Swedish , 1962)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " The World's Best Karlson (, 1968)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kati series",
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1,
5
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},
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"plaintext": " Kati in America (, 1951)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kati in Italy (, 1952)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kati in Paris (, 1953)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Madicken series",
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1,
9
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"plaintext": " Mardie (also known as: Mischievous Meg, Swedish , 1960)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Mardie to the Rescue (, 1976)",
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"plaintext": " The Runaway Sleigh Ride (, 1983)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Peter & Lena series",
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},
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"plaintext": " I Want a Brother or Sister (also known as: That's My Baby, Swedish: , 1971)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " I Want to Go to School Too (, 1971)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Pippi Longstocking series ()",
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"plaintext": " Pippi Longstocking (, 1945)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " Pippi Goes On Board (also known as: Pippi Goes Aboard, Swedish: , 1946)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Pippi Longstocking in the Park (, 1945)",
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},
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"plaintext": " Pippi Moves In! (, 1969)",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Six Bullerby Children / The Children of Noisy Village series ()",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Children of Noisy Village (also known as: Cherry Time at Bullerby, Swedish: , 1947)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Happy Times in Noisy Village (, 1952)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Christmas in Noisy Village (, 1963)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Springtime in Noisy Village (, 1965)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Children's Day in Bullerbu (also known as: A Day at Bullerby, 1967)",
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},
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"plaintext": " The Tomten series",
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11
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},
{
"plaintext": " The Tomten and the Fox (, 1966)",
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{
"plaintext": " The Brothers Lionheart (, 1973)",
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1,
23
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"plaintext": " Brenda Brave Helps Grandmother (, 1958)",
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1,
31
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"plaintext": " A Calf for Christmas (, 1989)",
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1,
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1,
24
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"plaintext": " The Day Adam Got Mad (also known as: Goran's Great Escape, The Day Adam Got Angry, Swedish: , 1991)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " The Dragon with Red Eyes (, 1985)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " The Ghost of Skinny Jack (, 1986)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " How Astrid Lindgren achieved enactment of the 1988 law protecting farm animals in Sweden (, 1990)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " I Don't Want to Go to Bed (, 1947)",
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1,
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"plaintext": " In the Land of Twilight (, 1994)",
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1,
24
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},
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"plaintext": " Mio, My Son (also known as: Mio, My Mio, Swedish: , 1954)",
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1,
12
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"plaintext": " Mirabelle (, 2002)",
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1,
10
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"plaintext": " Most Beloved Sister (also known as: My Very Own Sister, Swedish: , 1973)",
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6888821
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1,
20
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"plaintext": " My Nightingale Is Singing (, 1959)",
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62853205
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1,
26
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"plaintext": " Never Violence (, 2018)",
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1,
15
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"plaintext": " Now That Night Is Near (, 2019)",
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1,
23
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Rasmus and the Vagabond (also known as: Rasmus and the Tramp, Swedish: , 1956)",
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1,
24
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},
{
"plaintext": " Ronia the Robber's Daughter (, 1981)",
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534882
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1,
28
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"plaintext": " The Red Bird (, 1959)",
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62850840
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1,
13
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},
{
"plaintext": " Scrap and the Pirates (also known as: Skrallan and the Pirates, Swedish: , 1967)",
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62908388
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1,
22
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"plaintext": " Simon Small Moves In (, 1956)",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Samuel August from Sevedstorp and Hanna i Hult (also known as A love story, Swedish: , 1975)",
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62591306
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Seacrow Island (Vi på Saltkråkan, 1964)",
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8503178
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1,
15
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17,
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"plaintext": " War Diaries, 1939–1945 (, 2015)",
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"plaintext": "In addition to her novels, short stories and picture books, Astrid Lindgren wrote some plays. Many of the plays were created in the 1940s and 1950s in collaboration with her friend Elsa Olenius, a pioneer in Swedish children's theater. Many of the stories were written exclusively for the theater. They have been translated into several languages, including Danish, Finnish and Romanian. Most of Astrid Lindgren's plays have not been translated into English.",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Kalle Blomkvist, Nisse Nöjd och Vicke på Vind",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " För kasperteater två korta akter",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Jul hos Pippi Långstrump",
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63379409
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Serverat, Ers Majestät!",
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63379409
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " En fästmö till låns",
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1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Huvudsaken är att man är frisk",
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63379409
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1,
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"plaintext": "The name \"Mercury\" is possibly related to the Latin word merx (\"merchandise\"; cf. merchant, commerce, etc.), mercari (to trade), and merces (wages); another possible connection is the Proto-Indo-European root merĝ- for \"boundary, border\" (cf. Old English \"mearc\", Old Norse \"mark\" and Latin \"margō\") and Greek οὖρος (by analogy of Arctūrus/Ἀρκτοῦρος), as the \"keeper of boundaries,\" referring to his role as bridge between the upper and lower worlds.",
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"plaintext": "Mercury did not appear among the numinous di indigetes of early Roman religion. Rather, he subsumed the earlier Dei Lucrii as Roman religion was syncretized with Greek religion during the time of the Roman Republic, starting around the 4th century BC. His cult was introduced also by influence of Etruscan religion in which Turms had similar characteristics. From the beginning, Mercury had essentially the same aspects as Hermes, wearing winged shoes (talaria) and a winged hat (petasos), and carrying the caduceus, a herald's staff with two entwined snakes that was Apollo's gift to Hermes. He was often accompanied by a rooster, herald of the new day, a ram or goat, symbolizing fertility, and a tortoise, referring to Mercury's legendary invention of the lyre from a tortoise shell.",
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"plaintext": "Like Hermes, he was also a god of messages, eloquence and of trade, particularly of the grain trade. He was the patron of travelers and the god of thievery as well. Mercury was also considered a god of abundance and commercial success, particularly in Gaul, where he was said to have been particularly revered. He was also, like Hermes, the Romans' psychopomp, leading newly deceased souls to the afterlife. Additionally, Ovid wrote that Mercury carried Morpheus' dreams from the valley of Somnus to sleeping humans.",
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"plaintext": "Archeological evidence from Pompeii suggests that Mercury was among the most popular of Roman gods. The god of commerce was depicted on two early bronze coins of the Roman Republic, the Sextans and the Semuncia.",
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"plaintext": "When they described the gods of Celtic and Germanic tribes, rather than considering them separate deities, the Romans interpreted them as local manifestations or aspects of their own gods, a cultural trait called the interpretatio Romana. Mercury, in particular, was reported as becoming extremely popular among the nations the Roman Empire conquered; Julius Caesar wrote of Mercury being the most popular god in Britain and Gaul, regarded as the inventor of all the arts. This is probably because, in the Roman syncretism, Mercury was equated with the Celtic god Lugus, and in this aspect was commonly accompanied by the Celtic goddess Rosmerta. Although Lugus may originally have been a deity of light or the sun (though this is disputed), similar to the Roman Apollo, his importance as a god of trade made him more comparable to Mercury, and Apollo was instead equated with the Celtic deity Belenus.",
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"plaintext": "Romans associated Mercury with the Germanic god Wotan, by interpretatio Romana; 1st-century Roman writer Tacitus identifies him as the chief god of the Germanic peoples.",
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"plaintext": "Mercury is known to the Romans as Mercurius and occasionally in earlier writings as Merqurius, Mirqurios or Mircurios, had a number of epithets representing different aspects or roles, or representing syncretisms with non-Roman deities. The most common and significant of these epithets included the following:",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Artaios, a syncretism of Mercury with the Celtic god Artaios, a deity of bears and hunting who was worshiped at Beaucroissant, France.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Arvernus, a syncretism of the Celtic Arvernus with Mercury. Arvernus was worshiped in the Rhineland, possibly as a particular deity of the Arverni tribe, though no dedications to Mercurius Arvernus occur in their territory in the Auvergne region of central France.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Cimbrianus, a syncretism of Mercury with a god of the Cimbri sometimes thought to represent Odin.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Cissonius, a combination of Mercury with the Celtic god Cissonius, who is written of in the area spanning from Cologne, Germany to Saintes, France.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Esibraeus, a syncretism of the Iberian deity Esibraeus with the Roman deity Mercury. Esibraeus is mentioned only in an inscription found at Medelim, Portugal, and is possibly the same deity as Banda Isibraiegus, who is invoked in an inscription from the nearby village of Bemposta.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Gebrinius, a syncretism of Mercury with the Celtic or Germanic Gebrinius, known from an inscription on an altar in Bonn, Germany.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Moccus, from a Celtic god, Moccus, who was equated with Mercury, known from evidence at Langres, France. The name Moccus (\"pig\") implies that this deity was connected to boar-hunting.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Sobrius (\"Mercury the Teetotaler\"), a syncretism of Mercury with a Carthaginian god of commerce.",
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"plaintext": "Mercurius Visucius, a syncretism of the Celtic god Visucius with the Roman god Mercury, attested in an inscription from Stuttgart, Germany. Visucius was worshiped primarily in the frontier area of the empire in Gaul and Germany. Although he was primarily associated with Mercury, Visucius was also sometimes linked to the Roman god Mars, as a dedicatory inscription to \"Mars Visucius\" and Visucia, Visicius' female counterpart, was found in Gaul.",
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"plaintext": "In Virgil's Aeneid, Mercury reminds Aeneas of his mission to found the city of Rome. In Ovid's Fasti, Mercury is assigned to escort the nymph Larunda to the underworld. Mercury, however, falls in love with Larunda and makes love to her on the way. Larunda thereby becomes mother to two children, referred to as the Lares, invisible household gods.",
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"plaintext": "Mercury's temple in Rome was situated in the Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine hills, and was built in 495 BC.",
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"plaintext": "That year saw disturbances at Rome between the patrician senators and the plebeians, which led to a secession of the plebs in the following year. At the completion of its construction, a dispute emerged between the consuls Appius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis and Publius Servilius Priscus Structus as to which of them should have the honour of dedicating the temple.",
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"plaintext": "The senate referred the decision to the popular assembly, and also decreed that whichever was chosen should also exercise additional duties, including presiding over the markets, establish a merchants' guild, and exercising the functions of the pontifex maximus. The people, because of the ongoing public discord, and in order to spite the senate and the consuls, instead awarded the honour of dedicating the temple to Marcus Laetorius, the senior military officer of one of the legions. The senate and the consuls, in particular the conservative Appius, were outraged at this decision, and it inflamed the ongoing situation.",
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"plaintext": "The temple was regarded as a fitting place to worship a swift god of trade and travel, since it was a major center of commerce as well as a racetrack. Since it stood between the plebeian stronghold on the Aventine and the patrician center on the Palatine, it also emphasized the role of Mercury as a mediator.",
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"plaintext": "Because Mercury was not one of the early deities surviving from the Roman Kingdom, he was not assigned a flamen (\"priest\"), but he did have his own major festival, on 15May, the Mercuralia. During the Mercuralia, merchants sprinkled water from his sacred well near the Porta Capena on their heads.",
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"plaintext": "The Porsche 914 or VW-Porsche 914 is a mid-engined sports car designed, manufactured and marketed collaboratively by Volkswagen and Porsche from 1969 until 1976. It was only available as a targa-topped two-seat roadster powered by either a flat-4 or flat-6 engine.",
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"plaintext": "On March 1, 1968, the first 914 prototype was presented. However, development became complicated after the death of Volkswagen's chairman, Heinrich Nordhoff, on April 12, 1968. His successor, Kurt Lotz, was not connected with the Porsche dynasty and the verbal agreement between Volkswagen and Porsche fell apart.",
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"plaintext": "Porsche's 914/6 variant featured the 2.0L air-cooled Type 901/3 flat-six engine from the 1967–1969 911T model. This was the least powerful flat-six in Porsche's lineup. This engine had revised pistons that reduced the compression ratio to 8.6:1. The cylinder barrels were entirely made of iron, in contrast to the iron and aluminum \"Biral\" barrels in the engines in the 911S and 911L. New camshafts had less lift, and relaxed timing characteristics. The venturis in the Weber 40IDT3C carburetors were , smaller than the other 911 engines, and the exhaust pipe diameter was also reduced in size. Power output was . When the 911T got a 2.2L engine in 1970, the engine in the 914/6 remained at 2.0L.",
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"plaintext": "All engines were placed amidships in front of a version of the 1969 911's \"901\" gearbox configured for a mid-engined sports car. Karmann manufactured the rolling chassis at their plant, completing Volkswagen production in-house or delivering versions to Porsche for their final assembly.",
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"plaintext": "For 1973 the discontinued 914/6 was replaced in the lineup by a variant powered by a new 2.0L, fuel-injected version of Volkswagen's Type 4 engine.",
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"plaintext": "For 1974, the 1.7L engine was replaced by an 1.8 L, and the new Bosch L-Jetronic fuel injection system was added to American units to help with emissions control.",
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"plaintext": "Over the seven model years, Porsche made a number of changes to the 914. Some of these changes were cosmetic and others were in response to changing crash protection standards. From 1970 to 1972, the 914 was offered with chrome or painted bumpers. In early 1970, rear bumpers were produced with a straight crease on either side of the license plate indent. Between 1970 and 1972, both front and rear bumpers were smooth without bumper guards. In 1973, bumper guards were added to the front of the car. In 1974, guards were also added to the rear bumper. In 1975 and 1976, the chrome or painted bumpers were replaced with heavy, rubber-covered units which actually made the cars more stable at high speeds.",
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"plaintext": "The headlight surrounds were white from the first 914s to mid-production of 73 and subsequently black. Cars produced up to early 1972 had a fixed passenger seat and a removable passenger footrest. Later cars featured a movable passenger seat. Other interior differences included changing vinyl designs, gauge appearance, and air vent configurations in the dash.",
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"plaintext": "The most significant performance upgrade during the vehicle's lifespan was the introduction of anti-roll bars, significantly improving the handling, and a change from the \"tail shifter\" to the \"side shifter\" gearbox for 1973 to 1976, improving the otherwise vague long linkage.",
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"plaintext": "The Porsche 914 was produced from 1969 to 1976 in the following models:",
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"plaintext": "On 1 March 1970 the 914/6 was homologated by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) for Group 4, Special Grand Touring cars. That same month two cars were sent to the Targa Florio for testing, not as competitors. These were the first two 914/6 GT cars built. Externally the cars were distinguished by squared fender flares that were the full depth permitted by FIA rules. The chassis was reinforced with three welded plates on each side. For rally applications a stone guard protected the power-train and a stone shield did the same for the front of the car.",
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"plaintext": "The GT cars received stronger lower front A-arms, and anti-roll bars were fitted front and rear. Ground clearance was reduced to . Brakes front and rear were upgraded to the same components used on the racing 911S model.",
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"plaintext": "Fiberglass panels for the front and rear bumpers, front and rear deck lids, and left and right rocker panels replaced the original steel parts. The rear air intake grille was doubled in size. An inlet in the front bumper admitted air to a new supplementary oil cooler in the nose. The car's nose compartment was nearly filled by a fuel tank. The car weighed ready to race.",
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"plaintext": "The engine remained at 2.0litres displacement with Weber carburetor induction, but was extensively upgraded otherwise. New cylinder heads with larger valves topped aluminum cylinder barrels with chrome-plated bores. A dual-ignition system fired two spark plugs per cylinder. High compression pistons and forged steel piston rods were borrowed from the 911S. A special crankshaft was added. Camshafts and rocker arms came from the 901/20 in the Carrera 6. Power output was up to at 8000 rpm.",
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"plaintext": "Although the factory campaigned the car in rallying, it was more successful in road racing.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States the Porsche+Audi distributor called the car the 914/6R.",
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"plaintext": "To qualify for SCCA homologation, 500 copies of a car had to be built. It is estimated that Porsche built fewer than 40 GTs with the full race engine. To add to the total, an additional 11 cars were equipped with the Competition Option Group M471 package that included the GT's steel fender flares, rocker panels and nose piece as well as wheel spacers, a set of 6-inch wide Fuchs wheels, and 185/70VR15 tires, but did not include the enhanced engine from the GT. Similar appearance-only kits were also supplied to dealers, totaling about 400 units.",
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"plaintext": "Porsche's application for homologation was successful, but instead of being added to the C Production class, the SCCA put the 914/6 GT into the more competitive B Production class.",
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"plaintext": "Two prototype 914s, dubbed 914/8 generally and called 914/S'' by Porsche, were built during 1969. An orange 914/8 was the first constructed, at the instigation of Ferdinand Piëch (then head of the racing department), to prove the concept. Powered by a Type 908 flat-eight racing engine, it was built using a surplus handbuilt 914 development prototype bodyshell, chassis No. 914111, and included many differences from the standard vehicle, such as quad headlamps. The second 914/8, a silver, road-registered car powered by a carburetted and detuned 908 race engine making , was prepared as a gift to Ferry Porsche on his 60th birthday. Also based on a spare prototype shell (chassis No. 914006), it was much closer to the standard car in detail. By all accounts Ferry didn't like the car very much and it is now in the Porsche Museum. Neither car saw a racetrack except for the purposes of testing. The 914/8 was not considered for production as a regular model.",
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"plaintext": "The Porsche Tapiro was a concept car designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro's Italdesign studio and built on a 914/6 platform. The car had gullwing doors and two centrally-hinged covers over the rear engine and storage compartments. The Tapiro debuted at the 1970 Turin Auto Show. Sold to Argentine composer Waldo de los Ríos, the car was extensively damaged in a fire. It was later bought by Italdesign.",
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"plaintext": "This car was a custom-bodied 914/6R that was first shown at the 1970 Turin Auto Show. The design was done by Count Albrecht von Goertz, and was built by the Turinese carrozzeria Eurostyle. Goertz, who had also done the design for the BMW 507 roadster, produced a body with a tapered nose and a roofline that extended straight back, ending with sloping sail panels that gave the car the appearance of a shooting-brake.",
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"plaintext": "In 1970 Swiss Industrialist Dr. Alfred Gerber contracted compatriot car designer Franco Sbarro to build a customized 914. Sbarro installed the 2-rotor Wankel engine and semi-automatic transaxle from Gerber's NSU Ro80 in the mid-engined Porsche. The transaxle's inboard disc brakes were retained, and special halfshafts and shift-linkage were fabricated. A radiator was installed in the nose of the car, with fans sourced from a Renault R16. The engine produced , and in the 914 returned while allowing the car to reach a top speed of .",
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"plaintext": "In 1969 designer Jacques Cooper drew an interpretation of the 914 that he presented to his employer, Brissonneau and Lotz. The French company, a supplier of auto bodies and railcars, approved the project and obtained one of the first 914/6 models built, chassis 1300005, to serve as a basis for the redesigned car. Shortly after this Brissonneau encountered financial difficulties. Cooper, hoping to get the car into production, arranged, with Brissonneau's approval, for the Heuliez company to take on responsibility for development. A running prototype was completed in just two and one half months. The car was displayed at the 1970 Paris Auto Show on the Heuliez stand as the Heuliez Murène. It did not reach production. Heuliez bought the Murène from Brissonneau in 1971 for ₣24,250. In 2012 the car was sold at auction for 42,889 €.",
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"plaintext": "Businessman Werner Bernhard Heiderich was the importer of Porsche for Spain. He established a company named Hispano Alemán to build and sell customized cars. Heiderich contracted with Pietro Frua to produce a new body on a Porsche 914 platform. The car, named the Vizcaya, was first shown at the 1971 Geneva Motor Show. Swiss authorities seized the car owing to a dispute over it between Heiderich and Frua. Heiderich eventually prevailed, and the car next appeared at the 1972 Barcelona Motor Show. The Vizcaya did not go into production.",
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"plaintext": "Planned for the 1972 model year, the Porsche 916 program was cancelled after eleven prototypes were built. The car came with aerodynamic front and rear bumpers and either the 2.4L engine from the 911S, or the 2.7L from the Carrera. It was also to have a fixed steel roof, wider wheels, double grilled engine lid, and flared fenders as styled from the 914-6 GT cars. Ventilated disc brakes were fitted to all four wheels. The 916 also used a \"mid-engined\" version of the then-new 915 transmission, giving a conventional shift pattern with one to four in an H and fifth out on a limb. One 916 was built to US specs and on delivery to the US was fitted with air conditioning by the dealer (Brumos) and has been housed at the Automobile Atlanta 914 museum since 1990.",
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"plaintext": "Günter Artz was director of the Hannover Volkswagen dealer Autohaus Nordstadt. In 1973 Artz and Nordstadt unveiled a custom car called the Carrera Käfer that mounted a modified Volkswagen Beetle 1303 body on a Porsche 914/6 chassis. The engine was upgraded to a flat-six from a Porsche 911 Carrera that produced .",
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"plaintext": "First shown in 1973, General Motors (GM) built the Corvette XP-897GT concept car to showcase their rotary engine technology. Lacking a suitable mid-engined platform, GM bought a 914/6 and shortened the wheelbase by . The body was designed and built by Pininfarina. A GM two-rotor Wankel engine powered the car through a new transaxle. The engine displaced and produced . When the rotary engine project was cancelled, GM stored the car at the Vauxhall Design Centre in England. The car was rescued from the crusher by an English enthusiast, who also managed to obtain an original GM rotary engine. The car was scheduled to appear at Amelia Island in 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In 1974, Porsche produced a series of Limited Edition cars for the North American market to commemorate Porsche's victories in the Can Am racing series. They were equipped with individual color schemes and came standard with otherwise optional equipment. The factory is said to have produced about 1,000 of these vehicles, about 50% Bumblebee and 50% Creamsicle. Variants of this series were manufactured and distributed in very limited numbers to European markets and Japan. Along with the regular Appearance Group option (fog lamps and center console with clock and additional gauges) at $300, the LE package set buyers back another $320. All Limited Editions models came with the 2.0L (1,971cc) flat four engine, which was otherwise optional in the standard 914, that produced 91hp in U.S. trim.",
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"plaintext": "The Creamsicle: With a cream color exterior (paint code U2V9), these cars sported Phoenix red trim, including color matched lower valences and bumpers. This light ivory color scheme concept carried over from the 1973 911 Carrera RS series.",
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"plaintext": "The Bumblebee: Featuring a black exterior (paint code L041), these cars sported a Sunflower yellow trim (paint code L13K). Black body paint color was always an additional cost special option on standard 914 Porsche cars, but was included as a standard component on the black 914 LE cars. Like the Creamsicle All but one photo of the 914 Porsche Can Am prototype cars are Bumblebee cars. The black-based 914 LE color scheme is specific to the 914 LE cars and has no precedent with the Can Am race cars or the 1973 911 Carrera RS series cars. The majority of 914 Limited Editions seem to be Bumblebees.",
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"plaintext": "All 914 LE cars featured a specially designed front spoiler and negative side stripes. Additionally, all Limited Editions were equipped with front and rear anti-roll bars, dual horns, leather covered steering wheel, driving lights, painted rear roll bar trim (as opposed to vinyl clad), Mahle cast aluminum wheels and a center console with an oil temperature gauge, clock, and voltmeter.",
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"plaintext": "A factory prototype 914/6, (chassis no. 914114), surfaced in the US in 2001. Together with a surviving prototype Sportomatic 914/6 (chassis No. 914120), reputedly in Southern Germany, they are a special part of Porsche history.",
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"plaintext": "A 914/6 GT driven by Frenchmen Claude Ballot-Léna and Guy Chasseuil won the GTS class and finished sixth overall at the 1970 24 Hours of Le Mans.",
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"plaintext": "Brian Redman used a 914/6 to scout the course in practice runs for the 1970 Targa Florio.",
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| 1,347,004 | 14,734 | 78 | 81 | 0 | 0 | Porsche 914 | car model | []
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"plaintext": "The Borneo States of Sabah and Sarawak joined the Federation of Malaysia as equal partners with Malaya and Singapore. Sabah and Sarawak retained their rights covered under the Malaysia Agreement of 1963 and their degree of autonomy compared to the other states in Peninsular Malaysia. For example, the Malaysian Borneo States have separate laws regulating the entry of citizens from other states in Malaysia (including the other East Malaysian state), whereas, in Peninsular Malaysia, there are no restrictions on interstate travel or migration, including visitors from East Malaysia. There are also separate land laws governing Sabah and Sarawak, as opposed to the National Land Code, which governs Peninsular Malaysia. ",
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"plaintext": "In December 2021, constitutional amendments were passed to restore the status of Sabah and Sarawak as equal partners to Malaya, with 199 members of Parliament backing the amendment bill without opposition. Apart from restoring Article 1(2) to its pre-1976 wording, the bill defines Malaysia Day for the first time and redefines the federation with the inclusion of Malaysia Agreement (MA63). Previously, only Merdeka Day (independence day of the Federation of Malaya) was defined, and the federation was defined merely by the Malaya Agreement 1957. The Constitution (Amendment) Act 2022 received royal assent on 19 January 2022 and came into force on 11 February 2022.",
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"plaintext": "With regard to the administration of justice, the courts in East Malaysia are part of the federal court system in Malaysia. The Constitution of Malaysia provides that there shall be two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction. The High Court in Malaya and the High Court in Sabah and Sarawak (formerly the High Court in Borneo). The current Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak is Abang Iskandar Abang Hashim from Sarawak. His office is the fourth highest in the Malaysian judicial system (behind the Chief Judge of Malaya, President of the Court of Appeal, and Chief Justice of Malaysia).",
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"plaintext": "Compared to West Malaysia, political parties in Sarawak and Sabah started relatively late. This first political party in Sarawak emerged in 1959 while the first political party in Sabah emerged in August 1961. Sarawak held its first local authorities election in 1959 and did not have any directly elected legislature until 1970. Sabah only held its first district council election in December 1962 and first direct election in April 1967. Both the states were new and had little experience in organised, competitive politics. Therefore, there had been the appearance and rapid disappearance of political parties in Sarawak and Sabah within a short period of time, with some parties took opportunistic moves to form alliances without a definite loyalty to a certain political alignment. The ethnic composition of East Malaysia is also different from West Malaysia. The indigenous people in both Sarawak and Sabah do not form an absolute majority, while the non-native population in East Malaysia mainly consisting of entirely Chinese. Political parties in Sarawak and Sabah were formed largely based on communal lines and can be categorised roughly into native non-Muslim, native Muslim, and non-native parties. With the support of the Malaysia federal government, native Muslim parties in Sabah and Sarawak were strengthened. In Sabah, the native Muslim party United Sabah National Organisation (USNO) first clinged on the chief minister post in 1965 and later consolidated its power in 1967. In Sarawak, native Muslim party named Parti Bumiputera (which later regrouped into Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) held the chief minister post since 1970.",
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"plaintext": "In 1976, all the Sabah and Sarawak MPs supported the Malaysian parliament bill which downgraded both the states from being equal partners to Malaya as a whole, to one of the 13 states in the federation.",
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"plaintext": "Since 2008, East Malaysia played a more significant role in the national political landscape. The loss of two-thirds majority of Barisan Nasional (BN) government in the West Malaysia caused the BN to rely on East Malaysian politicians to cling on power. After the conclusion of 2013 Malaysian general election, there was an increase in ministers and deputy ministers allocation for East Malaysia in the Malaysian Cabinet from 11 out of 57 portfolios in 2008 election to 20 out of 61 portfolios. However, there has been no prime minister or deputy prime minister coming from East Malaysia yet since its incorporation in 1963.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2012, Sarawak, Sabah and Labuan held a total of 57 out 222 seats (25.68%) in the Malaysian parliament. Since 2014, Sarawak have been actively seeking for devolution of powers from the Malaysian federal government.",
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"plaintext": "In October 2018, both Sabah and Sarawak chief ministers met to discuss common goals in demanding from the Malaysian federal government regarding the rights stipulated inside the Malaysia Agreement.",
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"plaintext": "In December 2021, constitutional amendments were passed to restore the status of Sabah and Sarawak as equal partners to Malaya, with 199 members of Parliament backing the amendment bill without opposition. Apart from restoring Article 1(2) to its pre-1976 wording, the bill defines Malaysia Day for the first time and redefines the federation with the inclusion of Malaysia Agreement (MA63). Previously, only Merdeka Day (independence day of the Federation of Malaya) was defined, and the federation was defined merely by the Malaya Agreement 1957. The Constitution (Amendment) Act 2022 received royal assent on 19 January 2022 and came into force on 11 February 2022.",
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"plaintext": "The landscape of East Malaysia is mostly lowland rain forests with areas of mountain rain forest towards the hinterland.",
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"plaintext": "The total area of East Malaysia is 198,447km2, representing approximately 60% of the total land area of Malaysia and 26.4% of the total area of Borneo, which is 50% bigger than Peninsular Malaysia at , comparable with South Dakota or Great Britain.",
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"plaintext": "East Malaysia contains the five highest mountains in Malaysia, the highest being Mount Kinabalu at 4095 m, which is also the highest mountain in Borneo and the 10th highest mountain peak in Southeast Asia. It also contains the two longest rivers in Malaysia– Rajang River and Kinabatangan River.",
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"plaintext": "Banggi Island in Sabah and Bruit Island in Sarawak are the two largest islands that are located entirely within Malaysia. The largest island is Borneo, which is shared with Indonesia and Brunei. The second largest island is Sebatik Island, in Sabah, which is shared with Indonesia.",
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"plaintext": "Sarawak contains the Mulu Caves within Gunung Mulu National Park. Its Sarawak Chamber is the largest (by area) known cave chamber in the world. The Gunung Mulu National Park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in November 2000.",
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"plaintext": "Sabah's attractions include World Heritage Site Kinabalu Park (which includes Mount Kinabalu), and Sipadan Island (a diving and bio-diversity hot-spot).",
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"plaintext": "Several oil and gas fields have been discovered offshore, including the Samarang oil field (1972) offshore Sabah, the Baronia oil field (1967) offshore Sarawak, and the Central Luconia natural gas fields (1968), also offshore Sarawak. The Baronia Field is a domal structural trap between two east–west growth faults, which produces from late Miocene sandstones interbedded with siltstones and clays at 2km depth in 75 m of water. The Samarang Field produces from late Miocene sandtones in an alternating sequence of sandstones, siltstones and clays in an anticline at a depth of about 3km in water 9–45 m. The Central Luconia Gas Fields produce from middle to late Miocene carbonate platform and pinnacle reefs from 1.25-3.76km deep and water depths 60-100m.",
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"plaintext": "The total population of East Malaysia in 2010 was 5.77million (3.21million in Sabah, 2.47million in Sarawak, and 0.09million in Labuan), which represented 20.4% of the population of Malaysia. A significant part of the population of East Malaysia today reside in towns and cities. The largest city and urban centre is Kuching, which is also the capital of Sarawak and has a population of over 600,000 people. Kota Kinabalu is the second largest, and one of the most important cities in East Malaysia. Kuching, Kota Kinabalu, and Miri are the only three places with city status in East Malaysia. Other important towns include Sandakan and Tawau in Sabah, Sibu and Bintulu in Sarawak, and Victoria in Labuan. The 2020 estimated population is 6.8million (3,908,500 in Sabah, 2,816,500 in Sarawak and 99,600 in Labuan).",
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"plaintext": "The earliest inhabitants of East Malaysia were the Dayak people and other related ethnic groups such as the Kadazan-Dusun people. These indigenous people form a significant portion, but not the majority, of the population. For hundreds of years, there has been significant migration into East Malaysia and Borneo from many parts of the Malay Archipelago, including Java, the Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, and Sulu. More recently, there has been immigration from India and China.",
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"plaintext": "The indigenous inhabitants were originally animists. Islamic influence began as early as the 15th century, while Christian influence started in the 19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The indigenous inhabitants are generally partisan and maintain culturally distinct dialects of the Malay language, in addition to their own ethnic languages. Approximately 13% of the population of Sabah, and 26% of the population of Sarawak, is composed of ethnic Chinese Malaysians.",
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"plaintext": "However, the demography of Sabah has been altered dramatically with the alleged implementation of Project IC in the 1990s. Citizenships are alleged to be granted to immigrants of Indonesia and Philippines in order to keep the UMNO ruling party in power. Royal Commission of Inquiry (RCI) has been conducted from 11 August 2012 to 20 September 2013. The outcome of the investigation was submitted to the prime minister on 19 May 2014. The report was released on 3 December 2014 after 6 months delay. It stated that Project IC might have existed, which was responsible for a sudden spike in the state population. However, the report did not pinpoint any responsibility except for \"corrupt officials\" who took advantage of the system.",
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"plaintext": "East Malaysia currently has two public universities, namely Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) and Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS). Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) also has branch campuses in both states. Labuan's own institution of higher education is Universiti Malaysia Sabah Labuan International Campus, which has a branch in Sepanggar Bay, Kota Kinabalu. All prospective university entrants from Sabah, Sarawak, and Labuan must sit the examinations of one matriculation college, Kolej Matrikulasi Labuan.",
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"plaintext": "UCSI University, Sarawak Campus, University College of Technology Sarawak (UCTS) Tunku Abdul Rahman University College (Sabah campus), International University College of Technology Twintech (Sabah campus), and Open University Malaysia (Sabah campus) have local private university branch campuses in East Malaysia. Curtin University, Malaysia and Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus are foreign university branch campuses in Sarawak.",
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"plaintext": "There are 4 teacher training colleges (Malay: Maktab Perguruan) in Sarawak, and 4 teacher training colleges in Sabah.",
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"plaintext": "The Pan Borneo Highway connects Sabah, Sarawak, and Brunei. The road has been poorly maintained since it was built. The narrow road is dark at night without any street lights and there are many danger spots, sharp bends, blind spots, potholes, and erosion. However, federal government funds have been allocated for the upgrade of the highway, which will be carried out in stages until completion in 2025.",
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"plaintext": "The major airports in East Malaysia are Kuching International Airport, Labuan Airport and Kota Kinabalu International Airport. Kota Kinabalu International Airport has also become the second largest airport in Malaysia, with an annual capacity of 12 million passengers – 9 million for Terminal 1 and 3 million for Terminal 2. There are frequent air flights by including Malaysia Airlines (MAS) and AirAsia between East Malaysia and Peninsular Malaysia. Other ports of entry to East Malaysia include Sibu Airport, Bintulu Airport, and Miri Airport in Sarawak, Sandakan Airport and Tawau Airport in Sabah. MAS also operates international flights to major cities in East Malaysia.",
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"plaintext": "The rural areas in Borneo can only be accessed by air or river boat. River transport is especially prevalent in Sarawak because there are many large and long rivers, with Rajang River being the most used. Rivers are used by boats and ferries for communications (i.e. mail) and passenger transport between inland areas and coastal towns. Timber is also transported via vessels and log carriers down the rivers of Sarawak.",
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"plaintext": "The Labuan Ferry operates boat express and vehicle ferries from Labuan Island to Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei. Ferries have overtaken air travel as the chief transportation mode on and off the island.",
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"plaintext": "Shipyards in Sabah and Sarawak build steel vessels for offshore supply, tug, barge and river ferries when compared to shipyards in Peninsular Malaysia that focus on building steel and aluminium vessels for the government as well as oil and gas companies. This makes the shipyards in Sabah and Sarawak more competitive and innovative in design, process and material, compared to the shipyards in peninsular Malaysia, where the big projects are dependent on government funding.",
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"plaintext": "The state of Sabah has been subjected to attacks by Moro pirates and militants since the 1960s and intensification in 1985, 2000, 2013. The Eastern Sabah Security Zone (ESSZONE) and Eastern Sabah Security Command (ESSCOM) were established on 25 March 2013 to tighten security in the region. Since 2014, a 12-hour dusk-to-dawn curfew has been imposed on six Sabah east coast districts.",
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"plaintext": " Andrew Harding & James Chin, 50 years of Malaysia: Federalism revisited (Marshall Cavendish 2014)",
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"plaintext": " Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom ",
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"plaintext": " Virtual Malaysia – The Official Portal of the Ministry of Tourism, Malaysia",
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| [
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"Maritime_Southeast_Asia"
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| 1,901,211 | 13,216 | 362 | 156 | 0 | 0 | East Malaysia | part of Malaysia located on the island of Borneo | [
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|
37,421 | 1,094,765,976 | Bowline | [
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"plaintext": "The bowline ( or ) is an ancient and simple knot used to form a fixed loop at the end of a rope. It has the virtues of being both easy to tie and untie; most notably, it is easy to untie after being subjected to a load. The bowline is sometimes referred to as King of the knots because of its importance. Along with the sheet bend and the clove hitch, the bowline is often considered one of the most essential knots. ",
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"plaintext": "The common bowline shares some structural similarity with the sheet bend. Virtually all end-to-end joining knots (i.e., bends) have a corresponding loop knot. ",
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"plaintext": "Although the bowline is generally considered a reliable knot, its main deficiencies are a tendency to work loose when not under load, to slip when pulled sideways, and the bight portion of the knot to capsize in certain circumstances. To address these shortcomings, a number of more secure variations of the bowline have been developed for use in safety-critical applications, or by securing the knot with an Overhand knot.",
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"plaintext": "The bowline's name has an earlier meaning, dating to the age of sail. On a square-rigged ship, a bowline (sometimes spelled as two words, bow line) is a rope that holds the edge of a square sail towards the bow of the ship and into the wind, preventing it from being taken aback. A ship is said to be on a \"taut bowline\" when these lines are made as taut as possible in order to sail close-hauled to the wind.",
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"plaintext": "The bowline knot is thought to have been first mentioned in John Smith's 1627 work A Sea Grammar under the name Boling knot. Smith considered the knot to be strong and secure, saying, \"The Boling knot is also so firmly made and fastened by the bridles into the cringles of the sails, they will break, or the sail split before it will slip.\"",
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"plaintext": "Another possible finding was discovered on the rigging of the Ancient Egyptian Pharaoh Khufu's solar ship during an excavation in 1954.",
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"plaintext": "The bowline is used to make a loop at one end of a line. It is tied with the rope's working end also known as the \"tail\" or \"end\". The loop may pass around or through an object during the making of the knot. The knot tightens when loaded at (pulled by) the standing part of the line.",
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"plaintext": "The bowline is commonly used in sailing small craft, for example to fasten a halyard to the head of a sail or to tie a jib sheet to a clew of a jib. The bowline is well known as a rescue knot for such purposes as rescuing people who might have fallen down a hole, or off a cliff onto a ledge. This knot is particularly useful in such a situation because it is possible to tie with one hand. As such, a person needing rescue could hold onto the rope with one hand and use the other to tie the knot around their waist before being pulled to safety by rescuers. The Federal Aviation Administration recommends the bowline knot for tying down light aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "A rope with a bowline retains approximately 2/3 of its strength, with variances depending upon the nature of the rope, as in practice the exact strength depends on a variety of factors.",
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{
"plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the knot is listed as part of the training objectives for the Qualified Firefighter Assessment.",
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"section_name": "Usage",
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},
{
"plaintext": "A mnemonic used to teach the tying of the bowline is to imagine the working end of the rope as a rabbit. First a loop is made into the standing part (1,2), which will act as the rabbit's hole. Then the \"rabbit\" comes up the hole (3), goes round the tree (standing part) right to left (4), then back down the hole (5). This can be taught to children with the rhyme: \"Up through the rabbit hole, round the big tree; down through the rabbit hole and off goes he.\"",
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"section_name": "Tying",
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"plaintext": "A single handed method can also be used; see this animation.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "There is a potential with beginners to wrongly tie the bowline. This faulty knot stems from an incorrect first step while tying the rabbit hole. If the loop is made backwards so that the end of the rope (the bitter end) is on the bottom, the resulting knot will be the Eskimo bowline, looking like a sideways bowline, which is also a stable knot.",
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"plaintext": "As noted above, the simplicity of the bowline makes it a good knot for a general purpose end-of-line loop. However, in situations that require additional security, several variants have been developed:",
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"section_name": "Security",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The round turn bowline is made by the addition of an extra turn in the formation of the \"rabbit hole\" before the working end is threaded through.",
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"section_name": "Security",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Similar to the double bowline, the water bowline is made by forming a clove hitch before the working end is threaded through. It is said to be stronger and also more resistant to jamming than the other variations, especially when wet.",
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},
{
"plaintext": "In this variation the knot's working end is taken round the loop in the direction of the original round turn, then threaded back up through the original round turn before the knot is drawn tight. The Yosemite bowline is often used in climbing.",
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"section_name": "Security",
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},
{
"plaintext": "The cowboy bowline (also called Dutch bowline), French bowline, and Portuguese bowline are variations of the bowline, each of which makes one loop. (Names of knots are mostly traditional and may not reflect their origins.) A running bowline can be used to make a noose which draws tighter as tension is placed on the standing part of the rope. The Birmingham bowline has two loops; the working part is passed twice around the standing part (the \"rabbit\" makes two trips out of the hole and around the tree). Other two-loop bowline knots include the Spanish bowline and the bowline on the bight; these can be tied in the middle of a rope without access to the ends. A triple bowline is used to make three loops. A Cossack knot is a bowline where the running end goes around the loop-start rather than the main part and has a more symmetric triangular shaped knot. A slipped version of the Cossack knot is called Kalmyk loop.",
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"section_name": "Other variants",
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},
{
"plaintext": "List of knots",
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"section_name": "See also",
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59024
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[
0,
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},
{
"plaintext": "Karash double loop",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Eye splice",
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"section_name": "See also",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Video of the Lightning Method",
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"section_name": "External links",
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"anchor_spans": []
},
{
"plaintext": " YouTube animation of a Bowline knot",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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}
]
| []
| 753,705 | 16,722 | 58 | 44 | 0 | 0 | bowline | type of knot | [
"bowline knot"
]
|
37,422 | 1,079,851,699 | Loop | [
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"plaintext": "Loop or LOOP may refer to:",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (mobile), a Bulgarian virtual network operator and co-founder of Loop Live",
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{
"plaintext": " Loop, clothing a company founded by Carlos Vasquez in the 1990s and worn by Digable Planets",
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{
"plaintext": " Loop Mobile, an Indian mobile phone operator",
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},
{
"plaintext": " A reusable container program announced in 2019 by TerraCycle",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, Germany, a municipality in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (Texarkana), a roadway loop around Texarkana, Arkansas, United States",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, Blair County, Pennsylvania, United States",
"section_idx": 2,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, Indiana County, Pennsylvania, United States",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, West Virginia, United States",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop 101, see Arizona State Route 101, a semi-beltway of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop 202, see Arizona State Route 202, a semi-beltway of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop 303, see Arizona State Route 303, a semi-beltway of the Phoenix Metropolitan Area",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Chicago Loop, the downtown neighborhood of Chicago bounded by the elevated railway The Loop (CTA)",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop Retail Historic District, a shopping district in the Chicago Loop",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Delmar Loop, an entertainment district in St. Louis, Missouri",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " London Outer Orbital Path (or LOOP), a signed walk around the edge of Outer London, England",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (or LOOP), a deep-water port in the Gulf of Mexico off the coast of Louisiana",
"section_idx": 2,
"section_name": "Geography",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Call Me Loop (born 1991), English singer and songwriter",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Liza Loop, American technology pioneer",
"section_idx": 3,
"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Uno Loop (19302021), Estonian singer, musician, athlete, actor, and educator",
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"section_name": "People",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (1991 film), a British romantic comedy",
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"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (1999 film), a Venezuelan film",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (2020 film), an American animated short",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Film loop, the slack portion of the film around the projector lens in a movie projector",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Porn loop, an 8 or 16mm video \"short\" of a pornographic nature that could be purchased from men's magazines starting in the 1950s",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (band), a London rock band",
"section_idx": 4,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (album), a 2002 album by Keller Williams",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (music), a finite element of sound which is repeated by technical means",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
"target_page_ids": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " \"Loop\" (song), a song by Maaya Sakamoto",
"section_idx": 4,
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"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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1,
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, a 2020 mini-album by Peakboy",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (novel), a novel in the Ring series by Koji Suzuki",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " LOOP Barcelona, an annual meeting point for video art in Barcelona, Spain ",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop Mania, a mobile arcade video game",
"section_idx": 4,
"section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (computing), a method of control flow in computer science",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " LOOP (programming language), the pedagogical primitive recursive programming language with bounded loops",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (telecommunication), sending a signal on a channel and receiving it back at the sending terminal",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Audio induction loop, an aid for the hard of hearing",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
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},
{
"plaintext": " Local loop, (aka local tail, subscriber line, or the last mile), the physical link in telephony that links the customer premises to the telephone company (telco)",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop device, a Unix device node that allows a file to be mounted as if it were a device",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " LOOPS, the object system for Interlisp-D",
"section_idx": 5,
"section_name": "Computing and technology",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (algebra), a quasigroup with an identity element",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Mathematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (graph theory), an edge that begins and ends on the same vertex",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Mathematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (topology), a path that starts and ends at the same point, possibly reduced to a single point",
"section_idx": 6,
"section_name": "Mathematics",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, a type of playboating maneuver",
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"section_name": "Sports",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Aerobatic loop, a type of aircraft aerobatic maneuver",
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"section_name": "Sports",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
15
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Flight (cricket) or loop, an aspect of bowling in cricket",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Sports",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop jump, a figure skating jump",
"section_idx": 7,
"section_name": "Sports",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, a type of offensive shot in table tennis",
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"section_name": "Sports",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (roller coaster), a basic roller coaster inversion",
"section_idx": 8,
"section_name": "Roller coasters",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Pretzel loop, a roller coaster element",
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"section_name": "Roller coasters",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (Amtrak train), a discontinued Amtrak train",
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"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " The Loop (CTA), a rapid transit section bounding Chicago's Loop neighborhood",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop, underground public transportation system of The Boring Company in Tesla cars, including a proposed DC-to-Baltimore system",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Balloon loop, a section of track that allows reversal of direction without stopping",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
1,
13
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Circle route, a public transport route that travels around and connecting the peripheral zones of an area.",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop line (railway), a branch line that deviates from a direct route and rejoins it at another location",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop route, a main route or highway that forms a closed loop",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Passing loop, a short section of track that allows trains to pass on a single track route",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Ring road or loop, a main route or highway that encircles a town or city",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Spiral (railway), a section of track that allows a train to climb a steep hill",
"section_idx": 9,
"section_name": "Transportation",
"target_page_ids": [
1133929
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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17
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (biochemistry), a flexible region in a protein's secondary structure",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Other uses",
"target_page_ids": [
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[
1,
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},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (education), the process of advancing an elementary school teacher with his or her class",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Other uses",
"target_page_ids": [
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"anchor_spans": [
[
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]
},
{
"plaintext": " Loop (knot), one of the fundamental structures used to tie knots",
"section_idx": 10,
"section_name": "Other uses",
"target_page_ids": [
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|
37,423 | 1,064,170,882 | Bend | [
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|
37,424 | 932,771,489 | Colorimeter | [
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| 4,562,860 | 69 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | Colorimeter | Wikimedia disambiguation page | [
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|
37,425 | 951,328,410 | Equilibrium | [
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37,427 | 1,102,656,143 | Le_Chatelier's_principle | [
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"plaintext": "Le Chatelier's principle (pronounced or ), also called Chatelier's principle (or the Equilibrium Law), is a principle of chemistry used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on chemical equilibria. The principle is named after French chemist Henry Louis Le Chatelier, and sometimes also credited to Karl Ferdinand Braun, who discovered it independently. It can be stated as:",
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"plaintext": "Phenomena in apparent contradiction to Le Chatelier's principle can also arise in systems of simultaneous equilibrium (see response reactions).",
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"plaintext": "Le Chatelier's principle is sometimes alluded to in discussions of topics other than thermodynamics.",
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"plaintext": "Le Chatelier's principle describes the qualitative behavior of a system in thermodynamic equilibrium when there is an externally induced, instantaneous change in one parameter of a system; it states that a behavioral shift occurs in the system so as to oppose (partly cancel) the parameter change. The duration of adjustment depends on the strength of the negative feedback to the initial shock. The principle is typically used to describe closed negative-feedback systems, but applies, in general, to thermodynamically closed and isolated systems in nature, since the second law of thermodynamics ensures that the disequilibrium caused by an instantaneous shock must have a finite half-life.",
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"plaintext": "While well rooted in chemical equilibrium, Le Chatelier's principle can also be used in describing mechanical systems in that a system put under stress will respond in such a way as to reduce or minimize that stress. Moreover, the response will generally be via the mechanism that most easily relieves that stress. Shear pins and other such sacrificial devices are design elements that protect systems against stress applied in undesired manners to relieve it so as to prevent more extensive damage to the entire system, a practical engineering application of Le Chatelier's principle.",
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"plaintext": "Where a shock initially induces positive feedback (such as ln thermal runaway), the new equilibrium can be far from the old one, and can take a long time to reach.",
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"plaintext": "Changing the concentration of a chemical will shift the equilibrium to the side that would counter that change in concentration. The chemical system will attempt to partly oppose the change affected to the original state of equilibrium. In turn, the rate of reaction, extent, and yield of products will be altered corresponding to the impact on the system.",
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"plaintext": "This can be illustrated by the equilibrium of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas, reacting to form methanol. ",
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"plaintext": "CO + 2 H2 ⇌ CH3OH",
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"plaintext": "Suppose we were to increase the concentration of CO in the system. Using Le Chatelier's principle, we can predict that the concentration of methanol will increase, decreasing the total change in CO. If we are to add a species to the overall reaction, the reaction will favor the side opposing the addition of the species. Likewise, the subtraction of a species would cause the reaction to \"fill the gap\" and favor the side where the species was reduced. This observation is supported by the collision theory. As the concentration of CO is increased, the frequency of successful collisions of that reactant would increase also, allowing for an increase in forward reaction, and generation of the product. Even if the desired product is not thermodynamically favored, the end-product can be obtained if it is continuously removed from the solution.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of a change in concentration is often exploited synthetically for condensation reactions (i.e., reactions that extrude water) that are equilibrium processes (e.g., formation of an ester from carboxylic acid and alcohol or an imine from an amine and aldehyde). This can be achieved by physically sequestering water, by adding desiccants like anhydrous magnesium sulfate or molecular sieves, or by continuous removal of water by distillation, often facilitated by a Dean-Stark apparatus.",
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"plaintext": "The effect of changing the temperature in the equilibrium can be made clear by 1) incorporating heat as either a reactant or a product, and 2) assuming that an increase in temperature increases the heat content of a system. When the reaction is exothermic (ΔH is negative and energy is released), heat is included as a product, and when the reaction is endothermic (ΔH is positive and energy is consumed), heat is included as a reactant. Hence, whether increasing or decreasing the temperature would favor the forward or the reverse reaction can be determined by applying the same principle as with concentration changes.",
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"plaintext": "Take, for example, the reversible reaction of nitrogen gas with hydrogen gas to form ammonia:",
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"plaintext": "N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)ΔH = −92 kJ mol−1",
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"plaintext": "Because this reaction is exothermic, it produces heat:",
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"plaintext": "N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g) + heat",
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"plaintext": "If the temperature were increased, the heat content of the system would increase, so the system would consume some of that heat by shifting the equilibrium to the left, thereby producing less ammonia. More ammonia would be produced if the reaction were run at a lower temperature, but a lower temperature also lowers the rate of the process, so, in practice (the Haber process) the temperature is set at a compromise value that allows ammonia to be made at a reasonable rate with an equilibrium concentration that is not too unfavorable.",
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"plaintext": "In exothermic reactions, an increase in temperature decreases the equilibrium constant, K, whereas in endothermic reactions, an increase in temperature increases K.",
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"plaintext": "Le Chatelier's principle applied to changes in concentration or pressure can be understood by giving K a constant value. The effect of temperature on equilibria, however, involves a change in the equilibrium constant. The dependence of K on temperature is determined by the sign of ΔH. The theoretical basis of this dependence is given by the Van 't Hoff equation.",
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"plaintext": "The equilibrium concentrations of the products and reactants do not directly depend on the total pressure of the system. They may depend on the partial pressure of the products and reactants, but if the number of moles of gaseous reactants is equal to the number of moles of gaseous products, pressure has no effect on equilibrium.",
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"plaintext": "Changing total pressure by adding an inert gas at constant volume does not affect the equilibrium concentrations (see Effect of adding an inert gas below).",
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"plaintext": "Changing total pressure by changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations (see Effect of change in volume below).",
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"plaintext": "Changing the volume of the system changes the partial pressures of the products and reactants and can affect the equilibrium concentrations. With a pressure increase due to a decrease in volume, the side of the equilibrium with fewer moles is more favorable and with a pressure decrease due to an increase in volume, the side with more moles is more favorable. There is no effect on a reaction where the number of moles of gas is the same on each side of the chemical equation.",
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"plaintext": "Considering the reaction of nitrogen gas with hydrogen gas to form ammonia:",
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"plaintext": " ⇌ ΔH = −92kJ mol−1",
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"plaintext": "Note the number of moles of gas on the left-hand side and the number of moles of gas on the right-hand side. When the volume of the system is changed, the partial pressures of the gases change. If we were to decrease pressure by increasing volume, the equilibrium of the above reaction will shift to the left, because the reactant side has a greater number of moles than does the product side. The system tries to counteract the decrease in partial pressure of gas molecules by shifting to the side that exerts greater pressure. Similarly, if we were to increase pressure by decreasing volume, the equilibrium shifts to the right, counteracting the pressure increase by shifting to the side with fewer moles of gas that exert less pressure. If the volume is increased because there are more moles of gas on the reactant side, this change is more significant in the denominator of the equilibrium constant expression, causing a shift in equilibrium.",
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"plaintext": "An inert gas (or noble gas), such as helium, is one that does not react with other elements or compounds. Adding an inert gas into a gas-phase equilibrium at constant volume does not result in a shift. This is because the addition of a non-reactive gas does not change the equilibrium equation, as the inert gas appears on both sides of the chemical reaction equation. For example, if A and B react to form C and D, but X does not participate in the reaction: . While it is true that the total pressure of the system increases, the total pressure does not have any effect on the equilibrium constant; rather, it is a change in partial pressures that will cause a shift in the equilibrium. If, however, the volume is allowed to increase in the process, the partial pressures of all gases would be decreased resulting in a shift towards the side with the greater number of moles of gas. The shift will never occur on the side with fewer moles of gas. It is also known as Le Chatelier's postulate.",
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"plaintext": "A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed in the reaction. The use of a catalyst does not affect the position and composition of the equilibrium of a reaction, because both the forward and backward reactions are sped up by the same factor.",
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"plaintext": "For example, consider the Haber process for the synthesis of ammonia (NH3):",
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"plaintext": "N2 + 3 H2 ⇌ 2 NH3",
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"plaintext": "In the above reaction, iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo) will function as catalysts if present. They will accelerate any reactions, but they do not affect the state of the equilibrium.",
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"plaintext": "Le Chatelier's principle refers to states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The latter are stable against perturbations that satisfy certain criteria; this is essential to the definition of thermodynamic equilibrium.",
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"plaintext": "OR",
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"plaintext": "It states that changes in the temperature, pressure, volume, or concentration of a system will result in predictable and opposing changes in the system in order to achieve a new equilibrium state.",
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"plaintext": "For this, a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is most conveniently described through a fundamental relation that specifies a cardinal function of state, of the energy kind, or of the entropy kind, as a function of state variables chosen to fit the thermodynamic operations through which a perturbation is to be applied.",
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"plaintext": "In theory and, nearly, in some practical scenarios, a body can be in a stationary state with zero macroscopic flows and rates of chemical reaction (for example, when no suitable catalyst is present), yet not in thermodynamic equilibrium, because it is metastable or unstable; then Le Chatelier's principle does not necessarily apply.",
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"plaintext": "A body can also be in a stationary state with non-zero rates of flow and chemical reaction; sometimes the word \"equilibrium\" is used in reference to such states, though by definition they are not thermodynamic equilibria. Sometimes, it is proposed to consider Le Chatelier's principle for such states. For this exercise, rates of flow and of chemical reaction must be considered. Such rates are not supplied by equilibrium thermodynamics. For such states, it has turned out to be difficult or unfeasible to make valid and very general statements that echo Le Chatelier's principle. Prigogine and Defay demonstrate that such a scenario may or may not exhibit moderation, depending upon exactly what conditions are imposed after the perturbation.",
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"plaintext": "It is common to treat the principle as a more general observation of systems, such as",
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"plaintext": "or, \"roughly stated\":",
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"plaintext": "The concept of systemic maintenance of a stable steady state despite perturbations has a variety of names, and has been studied in a variety of contexts, chiefly in the natural sciences. In chemistry, the principle is used to manipulate the outcomes of reversible reactions, often to increase their yield. In pharmacology, the binding of ligands to receptors may shift the equilibrium according to Le Chatelier's principle, thereby explaining the diverse phenomena of receptor activation and desensitization. In biology), the concept of homeostasis is different from Le Chatelier's principle, in that homoeostasis is generally maintained by processes of active character, as distinct from the passive or dissipative character of the processes described by Le Chatelier's principle in thermodynamics. In economics, even further from thermodynamics, allusion to the principle is sometimes regarded as helping explain the price equilibrium of efficient economic systems. In some dynamic systems, the end-state cannot be determined from the shock or perturbation.",
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"plaintext": "In economics, a similar concept also named after Le Chatelier was introduced by American economist Paul Samuelson in 1947. There the generalized Le Chatelier principle is for a maximum condition of economic equilibrium: Where all unknowns of a function are independently variable, auxiliary constraints—\"just-binding\" in leaving initial equilibrium unchanged—reduce the response to a parameter change. Thus, factor-demand and commodity-supply elasticities are hypothesized to be lower in the short run than in the long run because of the fixed-cost constraint in the short run.",
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"plaintext": "Since the change of the value of an objective function in a neighbourhood of the maximum position is described by the envelope theorem, Le Chatelier's principle can be shown to be a corollary thereof.",
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"plaintext": "Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynamics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York, .",
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"plaintext": "D.J. Evans, D.J. Searles and E. Mittag (2001), \"Fluctuation theorem for Hamiltonian systems—Le Chatelier's principle\", Physical Review E, 63, 051105(4).",
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"plaintext": "Hatta, Tatsuo (1987), \"Le Chatelier principle,\" The A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp.155–57.",
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"plaintext": "Callen, H.B. (1960/1985). Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, (1st edition 1960) 2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York, .",
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37,428 | 1,107,796,457 | Beirut | [
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"plaintext": "Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.4million, which makes it the third-largest city in the Levant region. The city is situated on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coast. Beirut has been inhabited for more than 5,000 years, and was one of Phoenicia's most prominent city states, making it one of the oldest cities in the world (see Berytus). The first historical mention of Beirut is found in the Amarna letters from the New Kingdom of Egypt, which date to the 14th century BC.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is Lebanon's seat of government and plays a central role in the Lebanese economy, with many banks and corporations based in the city. Beirut is an important seaport for the country and region, and rated a Beta + World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Beirut was severely damaged by the Lebanese Civil War and the massive explosion in the Port of Beirut. Its cultural landscape underwent major reconstruction.",
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"plaintext": "The English name Beirut is an early transcription of the Arabic name (). The same name's transcription into French is , which was sometimes used during Lebanon's French occupation. The Arabic name derives from Phoenician bēʾrūt ( ). This was a modification of the Canaanite and Phoenician word later bēʾrūt, meaning \"wells\", in reference to the site's accessible water table. The name is first attested in the 14thcenturyBC, when it was mentioned in three Akkadian cuneiform tablets of the Amarna letters, letters sent by King Ammunira of Biruta to or of Egypt. Biruta was also mentioned in the Amarna letters from King Rib-Hadda of Byblos.",
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"plaintext": "The Greeks hellenised the name as (), which the Romans latinised as . When it attained the status of a Roman colony, it was notionally refounded and its official name was emended to to include its imperial sponsors.",
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"plaintext": "At the time of the crusades, the city was known in French as Barut or Baruth.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut was settled over 5,000 years ago, and there is evidence that the surrounding area had already been inhabited for tens of thousands of years prior to this. Several prehistoric archaeological sites have been discovered within the urban area of Beirut, revealing flint tools from sequential periods dating from the Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Paleolithic through the Neolithic to the Bronze Age.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutI (Minet el-Hosn) was listed as \"the town of Beirut\" () by Louis Burkhalter and said to be on the beach near the Orient and Bassoul hotels on the Avenue des Français in central Beirut. The site was discovered by Lortet in 1894 and discussed by Godefroy Zumoffen in 1900. The flint industry from the site was described as Mousterian and is held by the Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutII (Umm el-Khatib) was suggested by Burkhalter to have been south of Tarik el Jedideh, where P.E. Gigues discovered a Copper Age flint industry at around above sea level. The site had been built on and destroyed by 1948.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutIII (Furn esh-Shebbak), listed as , was suggested to have been located on the left bank of the Beirut River. Burkhalter suggested that it was west of the Damascus road, although this determination has been criticized by Lorraine Copeland. P. E. Gigues discovered a series of Neolithic flint tools on the surface along with the remains of a structure suggested to be a hut circle. Auguste Bergy discussed polished axes that were also found at this site, which has now completely disappeared as a result of construction and urbanization of the area.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutIV (Furn esh-Shebbak, river banks) was also on the left bank of the river and on either side of the road leading eastwards from the Furn esh Shebbak police station towards the river that marked the city limits. The area was covered in red sand that represented Quaternary river terraces. The site was found by Jesuit Father Dillenseger and published by fellow Jesuits Godefroy Zumoffen, Raoul Describes and Auguste Bergy. Collections from the site were made by Bergy, Describes and another Jesuit, Paul Bovier-Lapierre. Many Middle Paleolithic flint tools were found on the surface and in side gullies that drain into the river. They included around 50 varied bifaces accredited to the Acheulean period, some with a lustrous sheen, now held at the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory. Henri Fleisch also found an Emireh point amongst material from the site, which has now disappeared beneath buildings.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutV (Nahr Beirut, Beirut River) was discovered by Dillenseger and said to be in an orchard of mulberry trees on the left bank of the river, near the river mouth, and to be close to the railway station and bridge to Tripoli. Levallois flints and bones and similar surface material were found amongst brecciated deposits. The area has now been built on.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutVI (Patriarchate) was a site discovered while building on the property of the Lebanese Evangelical School for Girls in the Patriarchate area of Beirut. It was notable for the discovery of a finely styled Canaanean blade javelin suggested to date to the early or middle Neolithic periods of Byblos and which is held in the school library.",
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"plaintext": "BeirutVII, the Rivoli Cinema and Byblos Cinema sites near the Bourj in the Rue el Arz area, are two sites discovered by Lorraine Copeland, Peter Wescombe, and Marina Hayek in 1964 and examined by Diana Kirkbride and Roger Saidah. One site was behind the parking lot of the Byblos Cinema and showed collapsed walls, pits, floors, charcoal, pottery and flints. The other, overlooking a cliff west of the Rivoli Cinema, was composed of three layers resting on limestone bedrock. Fragments of blades and broad flakes were recovered from the first layer of black soil, above which some Bronze Age pottery was recovered in a layer of grey soil. Pieces of Roman pottery and mosaics were found in the upper layer. Middle Bronze Age tombs were found in this area, and the ancient tell of Beirut is thought to be in the Bourj area.",
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"plaintext": "The earliest settlement of Beirut was on an island in the Beirut River, but the channel that separated it from the banks silted up and the island ceased to be. Excavations in the downtown area have unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman remains.",
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"plaintext": "The Phoenician port of Beirut was located between Rue Foch and Rue Allenby on the north coast. The port or harbour was excavated and reported on several years ago and now lies buried under the city. Another suggested port or dry dock was claimed to have been discovered around to the west in 2011 by a team of Lebanese archaeologists from the Directorate General of Antiquities of Lebanese University. Controversy arose on 26 June 2012 when authorization was given by Lebanese Minister of Culture Gaby Layoun for a private company called Venus Towers Real Estate Development Company to destroy the ruins (archaeological site BEY194) in the $500million construction project of three skyscrapers and a garden behind Hotel Monroe in downtown Beirut. Two later reports by an international committee of archaeologists appointed by Layoun, including Hanz Curver, and an expert report by Ralph Pederson, a member of the institute of Nautical Archaeology and now teaching in Marburg, Germany, dismissed the claims that the trenches were a port, on various criteria. The exact function of site BEY194 may never be known, and the issue raised heated emotions and led to increased coverage on the subject of Lebanese heritage in the press.",
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"plaintext": "In 140BC, the Phoenician city was destroyed by Diodotus Tryphon during his conflict with Antiochus VII Sidetes for the throne of the Hellenistic Seleucid monarchy. Laodicea in Phoenicia was built upon the same site on a more conventional Hellenistic plan. Present-day Beirut overlies this ancient one, and little archaeology was carried out until after the civil war in 1991. The salvage excavations after 1993 have yielded new insights into the layout and history of this period of Beirut's history. Public architecture included several areas and buildings.",
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"plaintext": "Mid-1st-century coins from Berytus bear the head of Tyche, goddess of fortune; on the reverse, the city's symbol appears: a dolphin entwines an anchor. This symbol was later taken up by the early printer Aldus Manutius in 15th century Venice. After a state of civil war and decline the Seleucid Empire faced, King Tigranes the Great of the Kingdom of Armenia conquered Beirut and placed it under effective Armenian control. However, after the Battle of Tigranocerta, Armenia forever lost their holdings in Syria and Beirut was conquered by Roman general Pompey.",
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"plaintext": "Laodicea was conquered by Pompey in 64 BC and the name Berytus was restored to it. The city was assimilated into the Roman Empire, soldiers were sent there, and large building projects were undertaken. From the 1st century BC, the Bekaa Valley served as a source of grain for the Roman provinces of the Levant and even for Rome itself. Under Claudius, Berytus expanded to reach the Bekaa Valley and include Heliopolis (Baalbek). The city was settled by Roman colonists who promoted agriculture in the region.",
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"plaintext": "As a result of this settlement, the city quickly became Romanized, and the city became the only mainly Latin-speaking area in the Syria-Phoenicia province. In 14BC, during the reign of Herod the Great, Berytus became a colony, one of four in the Syria-Phoenicia region and the only one with full Italian rights () exempting its citizens from imperial taxation. Beirut was considered the most Roman city in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. Furthermore, the veterans of two Roman legions were established in the city of Berytus by emperor Augustus: the 5th Macedonian and the 3rd Gallic Legions.",
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"plaintext": "Berytus's law school was widely known; two of Rome's most famous jurists, Papinian and Ulpian, were natives of Phoenicia and taught there under the Severan emperors. When Justinian assembled his Pandects in the 6th century, a large part of the corpus of laws was derived from these two jurists, and in AD533 Justinian recognised the school as one of the three official law schools of the empire.",
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"plaintext": "In 551, a major earthquake struck Berytus, causing widespread damage. The earthquake reduced cities along the coast to ruins and killed many, 30,000 in Berytus alone by some measurements. As a result, the students of the law school were transferred to Sidon.",
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"plaintext": "Salvage excavations since 1993 have yielded new insights in the layout and history of Roman Berytus. Public architecture included several bath complexes, Colonnaded Streets, a circus and theatre; residential areas were excavated in the Garden of Forgiveness, Martyrs' Square and the Beirut Souks.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut was conquered by the Muslims in 635. Prince Arslan bin al-Mundhir founded the Principality of Sin el Fil in Beirut in 759. From this principality developed the later Principality of Mount Lebanon, which was the basis for the establishment of Greater Lebanon, today's Lebanon. As a trading center of the eastern Mediterranean, Beirut was overshadowed by Acre (in modern-day Israel) during the Middle Ages. From 1110 to 1291, the town and Lordship of Beirut was part of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city was taken by Saladin in 1187 and recaptured in 1197 by Henry I of Brabant as part of the German Crusade of 1197. John of Ibelin, known as the Old Lord of Beirut, was granted the lordship of the city in 1204. He rebuilt the city after its destruction by the Ayyubids and also built the House of Ibelin palace in Beirut.",
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"plaintext": "Under the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520), the Ottomans conquered Syria including present-day Lebanon. Beirut was controlled by local Druze emirs throughout the Ottoman period. One of them, Fakhr-al-Din II, fortified it early in the 17th century, but the Ottomans reclaimed it in 1763. With the help of Damascus, Beirut successfully broke Acre's monopoly on Syrian maritime trade and for a few years supplanted it as the main trading center in the region. During the succeeding epoch of rebellion against Ottoman hegemony in Acre under Jezzar Pasha and Abdullah Pasha, Beirut declined to a small town with a population of about 10,000 and was an object of contention between the Ottomans, the local Druze, and the Mamluks. After Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt captured Acre in 1832, Beirut began its revival.",
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"plaintext": "By the second half of the nineteenth century, Beirut was developing close commercial and political ties with European imperial powers, particularly France. European interests in Lebanese silk and other export products transformed the city into a major port and commercial center. This boom in cross-regional trade allowed certain groups, such as the Sursock family, to establish trade and manufacturing empires that further strengthened Beirut's position as a key partner in the interests of imperial dynasties. Meanwhile, Ottoman power in the region continued to decline. Sectarian and religious conflicts, power vacuums, and changes in the political dynamics of the region culminated in the 1860 Lebanon conflict. Beirut became a destination for Maronite Christian refugees fleeing from the worst areas of the fighting on Mount Lebanon and in Damascus. This in turn altered the religious composition of Beirut itself, sowing the seeds of future sectarian and religious troubles there and in greater Lebanon. However, Beirut was able to prosper in the meantime. This was again a product of European intervention, and also a general realization amongst the city's residents that commerce, trade, and prosperity depended on domestic stability. After petitions by the local bourgeois, the governor of Syria Vilayet Mehmed Rashid Pasha authorized the establishment of the Beirut Municipal Council, the first municipality established in the Arab provinces of the Empire. The council was elected by an assembly of city notables and played an instrumental role governing the city through the following decades.",
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"plaintext": "In 1888, Beirut was made capital of a vilayet (governorate) in Syria, including the sanjaks (prefectures) Latakia, Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Bekaa. By this time, Beirut had grown into a cosmopolitan city and had close links with Europe and the United States. It also became a centre of missionary activity that spawned educational institutions such as the American University of Beirut. Provided with water from a British company and gas from a French one, silk exports to Europe came to dominate the local economy. After French engineers established a modern harbour in 1894 and a rail link across Lebanon to Damascus and Aleppo in 1907, much of the trade was carried by French ships to Marseille. French influence in the area soon exceeded that of any other European power. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica reported a population consisting of 36,000 Muslims, 77,000 Christians, 2,500 Jews, 400 Druze and 4,100 foreigners. At the start of the 20th century, Salim Ali Salam was one of the most prominent figures in Beirut, holding numerous public positions including deputy from Beirut to the Ottoman parliament and President of the Municipality of Beirut. Given his modern way of life, the emergence of Salim Ali Salam as a public figure constituted a transformation in terms of the social development of the city.",
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"plaintext": "In his 2003 book entitled Beirut and its Seven Families, Dr. Yussef Bin Ahmad Bin Ali Al Husseini says:",
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"plaintext": "After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate. Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, and Beirut became the capital city. The city remained a regional intellectual capital, becoming a major tourist destination and a banking haven, especially for the Persian Gulf oil boom.",
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"plaintext": "This era of relative prosperity ended in 1975 when the Lebanese Civil War broke out throughout the country, During most of the war, Beirut was divided between the Muslim west part and the Christian east. The downtown area, previously the home of much of the city's commercial and cultural activity, became a no man's land known as the Green Line. Many inhabitants fled to other countries. About 60,000 people died in the first two years of the war (1975–1976), and much of the city was devastated. A particularly destructive period was the 1978 Syrian siege of Achrafiyeh, the main Christian district of Beirut. Syrian troops relentlessly shelled the eastern quarter of the city, but Christian militias defeated multiple attempts by Syria's elite forces to capture the strategic area in a three-month campaign later known as the Hundred Days' War.",
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"plaintext": "Another destructive chapter was the 1982 Lebanon War, during which most of West Beirut was under siege by Israeli troops. In 1983, French and US barracks were bombed, killing 241 American servicemen, 58 French servicemen, six civilians and the two suicide bombers.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1989 and 1990 parts on East Beirut were destroyed in fighting between army units loyal to General Aoun and Samir Geagea's Lebanese Forces.",
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"plaintext": "Since the end of the war in 1990, the people of Lebanon have been rebuilding Beirut, whose urban agglomeration was mainly constituted during war time through an anarchic urban development stretching along the littoral corridor and its nearby heights. By the start of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the city had somewhat regained its status as a tourist, cultural and intellectual centre in the Middle East and as a center for commerce, fashion, and media. The reconstruction of downtown Beirut has been largely driven by Solidere, a development company established in 1994 by Prime Minister Rafic Hariri. The city has hosted both the Asian Club Basketball Championship and the Asian Football Cup, and has hosted the Miss Europe pageant nine times: 1960–1964, 1999, 2001–2002, and 2016.",
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"plaintext": "Rafic Hariri was assassinated in 2005 near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut. A month later about one million people gathered for an opposition rally in Beirut. The Cedar Revolution was the largest rally in Lebanon's history at that time. The last Syrian troops withdrew from Beirut on 26 April 2005, and the two countries established diplomatic relations on 15 October 2008.",
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"plaintext": "During the 2006 Lebanon War, Israeli bombardment caused damage in many parts of Beirut, especially the predominantly Shiite southern suburbs of Beirut. On 12 July 2006, the \"Operation Truthful Promise\" carried out by Hezbollah ended with 8 Israeli deaths and 6 injuries. In response, the IDF targeted Hezbollah's main media outlets. There were then artillery raids against targets in southern Lebanon, and the Israeli cabinet held Beirut responsible for the attacks. Then on 13 July 2006 Israel began implementing a naval and air blockade over Lebanon; during this blockade Israel bombed the runways at Beirut International Airport and the major Beirut-Damascus highway in Eastern Lebanon.",
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"plaintext": "In May 2008, after the government decided to disband Hezbollah's communications network (a decision it later rescinded), violent clashes broke out briefly between government allies and opposition forces, before control of the city was handed over to the Lebanese Army. After this a national dialogue conference was held in Doha at the invitation of the Prince of Qatar. The conference agreed to appoint a new president of Lebanon and to establish a new national government involving all the political adversaries. As a result of the Doha Agreement, the opposition's barricades were dismantled and so were the opposition's protest camps in Martyrs' Square. On 19 October 2012, a car bomb killed eight people in the Beirut's neighborhood of Achrafiyeh, including Brigadier General Wissam al-Hassan, chief of the Intelligence Bureau of the Internal Security Forces. In addition, 78 others were wounded in the bombing. It was the largest attack in the capital since 2008. On 27 December 2013, a car bomb exploded in the Central District killing at least five people, including the former Lebanese ambassador to the U.S. Mohamad Chatah, and wounding 71 others.",
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"plaintext": "In the 12 November 2015 Beirut bombings, two suicide bombers detonated explosives outside a mosque and inside a bakery, killing 43 people and injuring 200. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant immediately claimed responsibility for the attacks.",
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"plaintext": "On 4 August 2020, a massive explosion in the Port of Beirut resulted in the death of at least 203 people (with an additional three missing) and the wounding of more than 6,500. Foreigners from at least 22 countries were among the casualties. Furthermore, at least 108 Bangladeshis were injured in the blasts, making them the most affected foreign community. The cause of the blast is believed to be from government-confiscated and stored ammonium nitrate. As many as 300,000 people have been left homeless by the explosion. Protesters in Lebanon called on the government on 8 August 2020 for the end of the alleged negligence that resulted in the 4 August explosion. On 10 August 2020, as a result of the protests, Prime Minister Hassan Diab announced his resignation. Weeks later, a huge fire erupted in an oil and tyre warehouse in the port's duty-free zone, on 10 September 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut sits on a peninsula extending westward into the Mediterranean Sea. It is flanked by the Lebanon Mountains and has taken on a triangular shape, largely influenced by its situation between and atop two hills: Al-Ashrafieh and Al-Musaytibah. The Beirut Governorate occupies , and the city's metropolitan area . The coast is rather diverse, with rocky beaches, sandy shores and cliffs situated beside one another.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) characterized by mild days and nights, as its coastal location allows temperatures to be moderated by the sea. Autumn and spring are warm, but short. Winter is mild and rainy. Summer is prolonged, hot and muggy. The prevailing wind during the afternoon and evening is from the west (onshore, blowing in from the Mediterranean); at night it reverses to offshore, blowing from the land out to sea.",
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"plaintext": "The average annual rainfall is , with the large majority of it falling from October to April. Much of the autumn and spring rain falls in heavy downpours on a limited number of days, but in winter it is spread more evenly over many days. Summer receives very little rainfall, if any. Snow is rare, except in the mountainous eastern suburbs, where snowfall occurs due to the region's high altitudes. Hail (which can often be heavy) occurs a few times per year, mostly during winter.",
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"plaintext": "Lebanon, especially Beirut and its suburbs, suffered a massive garbage crisis, mainly from July 2015 up to March 2016. The issue began when authorities shut down the main landfill site originally used for Beirut's garbage south-east of the city and failed to provide any alternative solutions for months. As a result, garbage mounted in the streets in Greater Beirut and caused protests to erupt, which sometimes invoked police action. This problem was commonly blamed on the country's political situation. This garbage crisis birthed a movement called \"You Stink\" which was directed at the country's politicians. In March 2016, the government finally came up with a so-called temporary solution to establish two new landfills East and South of the city to store the garbage, while several municipalities across the country, in an unprecedented move, began recycling and managing waste more efficiently, building waste-management facilities and relying on themselves rather than the central government. Moreover, Beirut has a lack of green areas with just two main public gardens (sanayeh and horch Beirut). In fact, concrete roofs cover 80% of the capital area.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is divided into 12 quarters ():",
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"plaintext": " Achrafieh",
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"plaintext": " Dar Mreisse ",
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{
"plaintext": " Bachoura",
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{
"plaintext": " Mazraa (with the neighbourhood Badaro)",
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"plaintext": " Medawar (with the neighbourhood Mar Mikhaël)",
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"plaintext": " Minet El Hosn",
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"plaintext": " Moussaitbeh (with Ramlet al-Baida)",
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"plaintext": " Port",
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"plaintext": " Ras Beirut",
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"plaintext": " Remeil",
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{
"plaintext": " Saifi",
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{
"plaintext": " Zuqaq al-Blat",
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"plaintext": "These quarters are divided into 59 sectors ().",
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"plaintext": "Badaro is an edgy, bohemian style neighborhood, within the green district of Beirut () which also include the Beirut Hippodrome and the Beirut Pine Forest and the French ambassador's Pine Residence. It is one of Beirut's favorite hip nightlife destination.",
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"plaintext": "Two of the twelve official Palestinian refugee camps in Lebanon are located in the southern suburbs of Beirut: Bourj el-Barajneh and Shatila. There is also one within its municipal boundaries: Mar Elias.",
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"plaintext": "Southern suburban districts include Chiyah, Ghobeiry (Bir Hassan, Jnah and Ouzai are part of the Ghobeiry municipality), Haret Hreik, Burj al Barajneh, Laylake-Mreijeh, Hay al Sillum and Hadath. Eastern suburbs include Burj Hammoud, Sin el Fil, Dekwane and Mkalles. Hazmiyeh is also considered as an eastern suburb with its close proximity to the capital. Of the 15 unregistered or unofficial refugee camps, Sabra, which lies adjacent to Shatila, is also located in southern Beirut and was the scene of a massacre during the civil war.",
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"plaintext": "People in Lebanon often use different names for the same geographic locations, and few people rely on official, government-provided street numbers. Instead, historic and commercial landmarks are more commonly used.",
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"plaintext": "No population census has been taken in Lebanon since 1932, but estimates of Beirut's population range from as low as 938,940 through 1,303,129 to as high as 2,200,000 as part of Greater Beirut.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is one of the most cosmopolitan and religiously diverse cities of Lebanon and all of the Middle East. The city, which boasts substantial Muslim and Christian communities, hosts eighteen officially recognized religions: three Islamic sects: Shi'a, Sunni, and 'Alawi; one Druze sect; twelve Christian sects: Maronite Catholics, Greek Orthodox, Melkite Catholics, Protestant Evangelicals, and other Christian denominations non-native to Lebanon like Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholics, Assyrians (Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic), Copts (recognized since the civil war); and Jews (very few remain in Lebanon today, but children of Lebanese Jewish parents may register as citizens at Lebanese Embassies).",
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"plaintext": "Christians comprise 35% of Beirut's population, Muslims 63%, Druze 1%, and others 1%.",
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"plaintext": "Family matters such as marriage, divorce and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith (the Ottoman \"millet\" system). Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities, but civil marriages held in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities.",
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"plaintext": "Before the civil war the neighborhoods of Beirut were fairly heterogeneous, but they became largely segregated by religion since the conflict. East Beirut has a mainly Christian population with a small Muslim minority, while West Beirut has a Sunni Muslim majority with small minorities of Shia, Christians and Druze. Since the end of the civil war, East and West Beirut have begun to see an increase in Muslims and Christians moving into each half. The southern suburbs are populated largely by Shia Muslims, while the eastern and northern suburbs are largely Christian.",
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"plaintext": "The city is also home to a small number of Latin Rite Roman Catholics in the form of an apostolic vicariate with Archbishop Paul Dahdah, OCD, as the apostolic vicar.",
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"plaintext": "The Beirut Central District (BCD) or Centre Ville is the name given to Beirut's historical and geographical core by \"Solidere\", the \"vibrant financial, commercial, and administrative hub of the country.\" It is an area thousands of years old, traditionally a focus of business, finance, culture and leisure. Its reconstruction constitutes one of the most ambitious contemporary urban developments. Due to the devastation incurred on the city center from the Lebanese Civil War, the Beirut Central District underwent a thorough reconstruction and development plan that gave it back its cultural and economic position in the region. Ever since, Beirut Central District has evolved into an integrated business and commercial environment and the focus of the financial activity in the region. That evolution was accompanied with the relocation of international organizations, reoccupation of civic and government buildings, expansion of financial activities, and establishment of regional headquarters and global firms in the city center.",
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"plaintext": "Assessment of the demand for build-up space in the BCD has been done in reference to a number of macro-economic, demographic, and urban planning considerations at a time of marked need for new activity poles in the city, such as Souks, financial, cultural and recreational centers. The district's total area is , the majority of which is dedicated to residential space (). The Beirut Central District contains over 60 gardens, squares and open spaces. These spaces comprise landscaped streets, gardens, historical squares, pedestrian areas and sea promenades thus totaling to an area of of open spaces.",
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"plaintext": "The central district is Lebanon's prime location for shopping, entertainment, and dining. There are over 100 cafes, restaurants, pubs and nightclubs open in the Beirut Central District, and over 350 retail outlets distributed along its streets and quarters. Beirut Souks alone are home to over 200 stores and a handful of restaurants and cafes. Beirut Souks are the Central District's old medieval market, recently renovated along with the original Hellenistic street grid that characterized the old souks and the area's historical landmarks along long vaulted shopping alleys and arcades. Solidere, the company responsible for the reconstruction and renovation of the district, organizes music and entertainment events all throughout the year like the Beirut Marathon, Fête de la Musique, Beirut Jazz Festival.",
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"plaintext": "However, the means of urban development in this particular area of the city was subject to much criticism and controversy. Rafic Hariri, who would later become prime minister, was the majority stakeholder of the company, which raises concerns of conflict of interest in the context of a public-private partnership. Many of the expropriations that have made the project possible have been made at undervalued land rates, and partly paid in company share. Strict urbanization laws were put in order to oblige people to sell and not renovate themselves. Today, Solidere acts as a de facto municipality, thus this quarter of the city is effectively privatized. It is for example forbidden to ride bikes on Zeituna Bay, a marina where many restaurants are located, and these laws are enforced by private security guards not national or municipal police.",
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"plaintext": "The project was also criticized for destroying some of the city's architectural and cultural heritage. \"Among the hundreds of destroyed buildings were \"the last Ottoman and medieval remains in Beirut\" wrote American University of Beirut professor Nabil Beyhum in the Journal The Beirut Review in 1992. Much of the damage had been done through unapproved demolitions in the 1980s and early 1990s, bringing down \"some of the capital's most significant buildings and structures,\" wrote UCLA professor Saree Makdisi in the journal, Critical Inquiry, in 1997.\". Moreover, many of the traditional privately owned shops in the Beirut Downtown were replaced by luxury outlets and high-end restaurants that only few people could afford. And most of public spaces promised by Solidere since the start of the reconstruction, such as \"The Garden of Forgiveness\", a central park, and an archaeological museum, remain unfinished until today, putting into question the actual benefit of the project to the population.",
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"plaintext": "Finally, the actual success of the project has recently been in doubt, given that large quarters of the BCD are today empty, due to strong military presence, the Nejmeh Square where the parliament is located is most frequently completely deserted, and the business located there have mostly moved.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut's economy is service-oriented with the main growth sectors being banking and tourism.",
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"plaintext": "In an area dominated by authoritarian or militarist regimes, the Lebanese capital was generally regarded as a haven of libertarianism, though a precarious one. With its seaport and airport—coupled with Lebanon's free economic and foreign exchange system, solid gold-backed currency, banking-secrecy law, and favorable interest rates—Beirut became an established banking center for Arab wealth, much of which was invested in construction, commercial enterprise, and industry (mostly the manufacture of textiles and shoes, food processing, and printing). The economy of Beirut is diverse, including publishing, banking, trade and various industries. During that period, Beirut was the region's financial services center. At the onset of the oil boom starting in the 1960s, Lebanon-based banks were the main recipients of the region's petrodollars.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is the focal point of the Economy of Lebanon. The capital hosts the headquarters of Banque du Liban, Lebanon's central bank, the Beirut Stock Exchange, the head office of Lebanon's flag-carrier Middle East Airlines, the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, the Union of Arab Banks, and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges.",
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"plaintext": "The Banking System is the backbone of the local economy with a balance sheet of $152billion at the end of 2012, nearing 3.5 times the GDP estimated at $43billion by the IMF. Bank deposits also increased in 2012 by 8% to 125billion dollars, 82 percent of the sector's assets. \"Banks are still attracting deposits because the interest rates offered are higher than the ones in Europe and the United States\", says Marwan Mikhael, head of research at BLOM Bank.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut's foreign reserves were still close to an all-time high when they reached $32.5billion in 2011 and analysts say that the Central Bank can cover nearly 80 percent of the Lebanese currency in the market. This means that the Central Bank can easily cope with any unforeseen crisis in the future thanks to the massive foreign currency reserves.",
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"plaintext": "The Lebanese banking system is endowed with several characteristics that promote the role of Beirut as a regional financial center, in terms of ensuring protection for foreign capital and earnings. The Lebanese currency is fully convertible and can be exchanged freely with any other currency. Moreover, no restrictions are put on the free flow of capital and earnings into and out of the Lebanese economy. The passing of the banking secrecy law on 3 September 1956, subjected all banks established in Lebanon as well as foreign banks' branches to the \"secret of the profession\". Both article 16 of law No. 282 dated 30 December 1993 and article 12 of decree No. 5451 dated 26 August 1994, offer exemptions from income tax on all interest and revenues earned on all types of accounts opened in Lebanese banks. On the first of April 1975, decree No. 29 established a free banking zone by granting the Lebanese government the right to exempt non-residents' deposits and liabilities in foreign currency from: the income tax on interest earned, the required reserves imposed by the Banque Du Liban by virtue of article 76 of the Code of Money and Credit, the premium of deposit guarantee imposed on bank deposits to the profit of the National Deposit Guarantee Institution.",
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"plaintext": "The tourism industry in Beirut has been historically important to the local economy and remains to this day to be a major source of revenue for the city, and Lebanon in general. Before the Lebanese Civil War, Beirut was widely regarded as the \"Paris of the Middle East,\" often cited as a financial and business hub where visitors could experience the Levantine Mediterranean culture. Beirut's diverse atmosphere and ancient history make it an important destination which is slowly rebuilding itself after continued turmoil. However, in recent times, certain countries, such as the United States, have frequently placed Lebanon, and Beirut in particular, on their travel warnings lists due to the many car bombings and orchestrated acts of political violence.",
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"plaintext": "According to the 2012 tourist statistics, 34% of the tourists in Beirut came from states within the Arab League, 33% came from European countries (mainly France, Germany, and Britain), and 16% from the Americas (about half of which are from the United States).",
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"plaintext": "The largely pedestrianized Beirut Central District is the core of the Beirut tourism scene. The district is a cluster of stone-façade buildings lining arcaded streets and radial alleyways. The architecture of the area is a mix of French Architecture and Venetian Gothic architecture mixed with Arabesque and Ottoman Architecture. The district contains numerous old mosques and crusader churches, as well as uncovered remnants and ruins of the Roman era. The District contains dozens of restaurants, cafes and pubs, as well as a wide range of shopping stores mainly in Beirut Souks. High-rise hotels and towers line the district's New Waterfront, marina and seaside promenade.",
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"plaintext": "Another popular tourist destination in Beirut is the Corniche Beirut, a pedestrian promenade that encircles the capital's seafront from the Saint George Bay in the north all the way to Avenue de Paris and Avenue General de Gaulle south of the city. The corniche reaches its maximum height above sea level at Raouché, a high-rise residential neighbourhood rising over a giant white limestone cliff and facing the recognisable off-shore Raouché Rocks.",
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"plaintext": "Badaro is one of Beirut's most appealing neighborhoods, a lovely place to stroll during daytime and a destination for going out in the evening. Badaro is within Beirut's green district with a public park (The Beirut Pine forest) and a hippodrome. It is a neighborhood on a very human scale with small groceries around every corner. The neighborhood residents, a mix of old impoverished Christian bourgeoisie, bohemian style people in their 30s and well-established urban professionals, are loyal to local bakery and pastry shops. Because of the blossoming café and bar scene it has become lately a hip destination for Beirut's young and restless but old Beirutis remember that Badaro was already Beirut's version of the Village in the swinging sixties. Groceries and eateries can be found on almost every street of the area. There are dozens of restaurants, pubs and footpath cafés of virtually every style. Badaro \"Village\" thrives on local residents, day-trippers and hipsters from all over Beirut, office employees and many expatriates.",
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"plaintext": "Hamra Street is a long cobblestone street connecting the Beirut Central District with the coastal Raouche area. The street is a large concentration of shopping stores, boutiques, restaurants, banks, street vendors, footpath cafes, newspaper kiosks, and a booming nightlife spurred by students from the neighboring American University of Beirut. The AUB campus is another popular visitor destination, composed of a cluster of 19th century red-roofed buildings dispersed on a wooded hillside overlooking the Mediterranean.",
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"plaintext": "Gemmayzeh is Beirut's artistic bohemian quarter, full of narrow streets and historic buildings from the French era. It is located East of the Beirut Central District, bordering the Saifi Village. The neighborhood is well known for its trendy bars and pubs, cafes, restaurants and lounges; most are directly located on Rue Gouraud, the main thoroughfare that cuts through the middle of the district. Travel + Leisure magazine called Gemmayzeh \"SoHo by the Sea,\" due to its colorful and chic cafés amid 1950s apartment buildings and hole-in-the-wall shops. However, Gemmayzeh received the most damage by the Beirut explosion in 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is a destination for tourists from both the Arab world and West. In Travel + Leisure magazine's World Best Awards 2006, it was ranked the 9th best city in the world. That list was voted upon shortly before the 2006 Lebanon War broke out, but in 2008 The Guardian listed Beirut as one of its top ten cities in the world. The New York Times ranked it at number one on its \"44 places to go\" list of 2009. 2011 MasterCard Index revealed that Beirut had the second-highest visitor spending levels in the Middle East and Africa, totaling $6.5billion. Beirut was chosen in 2012 by Condé Nast Traveller as the best city in the Middle East, beating Tel Aviv and Dubai.",
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"plaintext": "Many of the tourists are returning Lebanese expatriates, but many are from Western countries. Approximately 3million visitors visited in 2010; the previous record was 1.4million in 1974.",
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"plaintext": "Like other forms of tourism, medical tourism in Lebanon is on the rise recently. Although visitors from neighboring Arab nations make up the bulk of medical tourism patients here due to its proximity, Beirut is strongly trying to woo more Southern Europeans, Asians and North Americans to its land. Its Agency for Investment Development in Lebanon reports that growth in the medical tourism industry is growing by up to 30% a year since 2009. The country's tourism ministry is working closely with the medical sector and top-class hotels to create an organized, quality medical destination. Major hotel and spa chains work with local clinics, travel agencies and the tourism ministry to create comprehensive healthcare and recuperation packages for foreign visitors. The government is highly involved in this industry and strives to make the process as easy as possible.",
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"plaintext": "Cosmetic surgery is a major component of medical tourism in Lebanon. Most of the foreign patients come for routine operations like plastic surgery, dental or eye surgery, and Beirut's hospitals are also capable of performing specialized procedures such as internal bypass surgery and other technical treatments. Its top clinics and hospitals like Sahel General are equipped to handle the full range of surgical procedures. Beirut-based Clemenceau Medical Center (CMC), affiliated with Johns Hopkins International, was ranked one of the world's top ten best hospitals for medical tourism in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is the capital of Lebanon and its seat of government. The Lebanese Parliament, all the Ministries and most of the public administrations, embassies and consulates are there. Beirut Governorate is one of eight mohafazat (plural of mohafazah, or governorate).",
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"plaintext": "The city is home to numerous international organizations. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA) is headquartered in downtown Beirut, The Arab Air Carriers Organization (AACO), the Union of Arab Banks and the Union of Arab Stock Exchanges and the World youth alliance are also headquartered in the city. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) both have regional offices in Beirut covering the Arab world.",
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"plaintext": "Higher education throughout Lebanon is provided by universities, colleges and technical and vocational institutes.",
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"plaintext": "The American University of Beirut and Université Saint-Joseph (USJ), are the oldest respectively English medium and French medium universities in the country.",
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"plaintext": "The Lebanese University is the only public institution for higher education in Beirut. Beirut is also home to the Lebanese American University (LAU), which is also, together with many of its programs, accredited by US bodies and considered lately one of the top universities in the Middle East. Beirut is also home to the American University of Science and Technology (AUST), University of Balamand, École Supérieure des Affaires (ESA), Beirut Arab University (BAU), Haigazian University (HU), Lebanese International University (LIU), as well as the Notre Dame University – Louaize (NDU), Université La Sagesse (ULS).",
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"plaintext": "Notre Dame University (NDU)'s degrees are becoming more and more valuable with time. NDU received its accreditation from NIASC in 2015.",
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"plaintext": "The Directorate General of Higher Education is responsible for managing the university colleges, university institutes and universities in Beirut and nationwide.",
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"plaintext": "Among the private secondary schools in Beirut are Lycee Abdel Kader, Grand Lycée Franco-Libanais, Lycée Franco-Libanais Verdun, American Community School, International College, Collège Louise Wegmann, Rawdah High School, Saint Mary's Orthodox College, Collège Notre Dame de Nazareth, Collège du Sacré-Coeur Gemmayzé, Collège Protestant Français, Armenian Evangelical Central High School, German School of Beirut, and the Armenian Hamazkayin Arslanian College.",
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"plaintext": "The city's renovated airport is the Rafic Hariri International Airport, located in the southern suburbs. The Port of Beirut, one of the largest and most commercial in the eastern Mediterranean, is another port of entry. As a final destination, Lebanon can be reached by road from Damascus via the Beqaa valley in the east.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut has frequent bus connections to other cities in Lebanon and major cities in Syria such as Homs and its capital Damascus. There are a number of different companies providing public transport in Lebanon. The publicly owned buses are managed by Office des Chemins de Fer et des Transports en Commun (OCFTC– \"Railway and Public Transportation Authority\"). Buses for northern destinations and Syria leave from Charles Helou Station.",
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"plaintext": "The ministry of transport and public works purchased an extra 250 intra and inter-buses in 2012 to better serve regions outside the capital as well as congestion-choked Beirut, hoping to lessen the use of private cars.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut has also private buses that are provided by the Lebanese Commuting Company.",
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"plaintext": "In 2017, Beirut introduced a bike sharing service in certain areas of the city.",
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"plaintext": "The culture of Beirut has evolved under the influence of many different peoples and civilizations, such as Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Ottoman Turks and French. The law school in downtown Beirut was one of the world's earliest and was considered to be a leading center of legal studies in the Eastern Roman Empire.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut hosted the Francophonie and Arab League summits in 2002, and in 2007 it hosted the ceremony for the Prix Albert Londres, which rewards outstanding francophone journalists every year. The city also hosted the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. In the same year it was proclaimed World Book Capital by UNESCO.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut has also been called the \"party capital of the Arab world\". Rue Monnot has an international reputation among clubbers, and Rue Gouraud in districts such as Gemmayze and Mar Mikhael have emerged as new hotspots for bar patrons and clubbers, as well as \"The Alleyway\" in Hamra Street.",
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"plaintext": "The National Museum of Beirut is the principal museum of archaeology in Lebanon. It has about 1,300 exhibits ranging in date from prehistoric times to the medieval Mamluk period. The Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut is the third oldest museum in the Middle East, exhibiting a wide range of artefacts from Lebanon and neighboring countries. Sursock Museum was built by the illustrious Sursock family at the end of the 19th century as a private villa for Nicolas Sursock, and then donated to the Lebanese state upon his death. It now houses Beirut's most influential and popular art museum. The permanent collection shows a set of Japanese engravings, numerous works of Islamic art and classic Italian paintings, while temporary exhibitions are also shown throughout the year. The Robert Mouawad Private Museum near Beirut's Grand Serail exhibits Henri Pharaon's private collection of archaeology and antiques.",
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"plaintext": "Planet Discovery is a children's science museum with interactive experiments, exhibitions, performances, workshops and awareness competitions. The Saint Joseph University opened the Museum of Lebanese Prehistory in 2000, the first prehistory museum in the Arabic Middle East, displaying bones, stone tools and neolithic pottery collected by Jesuits.",
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"plaintext": "Television stations based in Beirut include Télé Liban, LBC, ÓTV (Orange TV), MTV Lebanon, Tele Lumiere (Catholic TV), Future TV, New TV, NBN, ANB and Saudi TV 1 on 33 UHF and MBC 1, MBC 4, MBC Action, Fox, Al Jazeera, Rotana, OSN First, OSN News, Al Yawm and Arabic Series Channel on 45 UHF.",
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"plaintext": "The Lebanese capital hosted the Mediterranean Games in 1959, FIBA Asia Champions Cup in 1999, 2000, 2012, the AFC Asian Cup in 2000, and the FIBA Asia Cup in 2010. Beirut was the host city for the 6th Annual Games of the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Beirut also hosted the Pan Arab Games in 1957, 1997, and did so again in 2015. In 2017, Beirut also hosted the 2017 FIBA Asia Cup.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut, with Sidon and Tripoli, hosted the 2000 AFC Asian Cup. There are two stadiums in the city, Camille Chamoun Sports City Stadium and Beirut Municipal Stadium.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is also the home for a dynamic street art scene that has developed after the Lebanese Civil War, one of the most notable street artists is Yazan Halwani who is known to produce the largest murals on the walls of Beirut in areas such as Gemmayzeh, Hamra, Verdun and Achrafieh.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is also international artists' concert tour stop city. Artists like Shakira, Mariah Carey, Enrique Iglesias, Andrea Bocelli, Pitbull, Engelbert Humperdinck, Scorpions, and many more have included Beirut on their concert tours.",
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"plaintext": "Beirut is twinned with:",
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| [
"Beirut",
"Capitals_in_Asia",
"Greater_Beirut",
"Populated_places_in_Beirut_Governorate",
"Mediterranean_port_cities_and_towns_in_Lebanon",
"Populated_coastal_places_in_Lebanon",
"Phoenician_cities"
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| 3,820 | 64,755 | 6,926 | 498 | 0 | 0 | Beirut | capital of Lebanon | []
|
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"plaintext": "The quantity of solute that can dissolve in a specific volume of solvent varies with temperature. Major uses of solvents are in paints, paint removers, inks, and dry cleaning. Specific uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene); as paint thinners (toluene, turpentine); as nail polish removers and solvents of glue (acetone, methyl acetate, ethyl acetate); in spot removers (hexane, petrol ether); in detergents (citrus terpenes); and in perfumes (ethanol). Solvents find various applications in chemical, pharmaceutical, oil, and gas industries, including in chemical syntheses and purification processes.",
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"plaintext": "Donor number and donor acceptor scale measures polarity in terms of how a solvent interacts with specific substances, like a strong Lewis acid or a strong Lewis base.",
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"plaintext": "The Hildebrand parameter is the square root of cohesive energy density. It can be used with nonpolar compounds, but cannot accommodate complex chemistry.",
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"plaintext": "Reichardt's dye, a solvatochromic dye that changes color in response to polarity, gives a scale of ET(30) values. ET is the transition energy between the ground state and the lowest excited state in kcal/mol, and (30) identifies the dye. Another, roughly correlated scale (ET(33)) can be defined with Nile red.",
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"plaintext": "The polarity, dipole moment, polarizability and hydrogen bonding of a solvent determines what type of compounds it is able to dissolve and with what other solvents or liquid compounds it is miscible. Generally, polar solvents dissolve polar compounds best and non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar compounds best; hence \"like dissolves like\". Strongly polar compounds like sugars (e.g. sucrose) or ionic compounds, like inorganic salts (e.g. table salt) dissolve only in very polar solvents like water, while strongly non-polar compounds like oils or waxes dissolve only in very non-polar organic solvents like hexane. Similarly, water and hexane (or vinegar and vegetable oil) are not miscible with each other and will quickly separate into two layers even after being shaken well.",
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"plaintext": "Polarity can be separated to different contributions. For example, the Kamlet-Taft parameters are dipolarity/polarizability (π*), hydrogen-bonding acidity (α) and hydrogen-bonding basicity (β). These can be calculated from the wavelength shifts of 3–6 different solvatochromic dyes in the solvent, usually including Reichardt's dye, nitroaniline and diethylnitroaniline. Another option, Hansen's parameters, separate the cohesive energy density into dispersion, polar and hydrogen bonding contributions.",
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"plaintext": "Solvents with a dielectric constant (more accurately, relative static permittivity) greater than 15 (i.e. polar or polarizable) can be further divided into protic and aprotic. Protic solvents solvate anions (negatively charged solutes) strongly via hydrogen bonding. Water is a protic solvent. Aprotic solvents such as acetone or dichloromethane tend to have large dipole moments (separation of partial positive and partial negative charges within the same molecule) and solvate positively charged species via their negative dipole. In chemical reactions the use of polar protic solvents favors the SN1 reaction mechanism, while polar aprotic solvents favor the SN2 reaction mechanism. These polar solvents are capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water to dissolve in water whereas non-polar solvents are not capable of strong hydrogen bonds.",
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"plaintext": "Multicomponent solvents appeared after World War II in the USSR and continue to be used and produced in post-Soviet States. These solvents may have one or more applications, but they are not universal preparations.",
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"plaintext": "The solvents are grouped into nonpolar, polar aprotic, and polar protic solvents, with each group ordered by increasing polarity. The properties of solvents which exceed those of water are bolded.",
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"plaintext": "The ACS Green Chemistry Institute maintains a tool for the selection of solvents based on a principal component analysis of solvent properties.",
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"plaintext": "The Hansen solubility parameter values are based on dispersion bonds (δD), polar bonds (δP) and hydrogen bonds (δH). These contain information about the inter-molecular interactions with other solvents and also with polymers, pigments, nanoparticles, etc. This allows for rational formulations knowing, for example, that there is a good HSP match between a solvent and a polymer. Rational substitutions can also be made for \"good\" solvents (effective at dissolving the solute) that are \"bad\" (expensive or hazardous to health or the environment). The following table shows that the intuitions from \"non-polar\", \"polar aprotic\" and \"polar protic\" are put numerically – the \"polar\" molecules have higher levels of δP and the protic solvents have higher levels of δH. Because numerical values are used, comparisons can be made rationally by comparing numbers. For example, acetonitrile is much more polar than acetone but exhibits slightly less hydrogen bonding.",
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"plaintext": "If, for environmental or other reasons, a solvent or solvent blend is required to replace another of equivalent solvency, the substitution can be made on the basis of the Hansen solubility parameters of each. The values for mixtures are taken as the weighted averages of the values for the neat solvents. This can be calculated by trial-and-error, a spreadsheet of values, or HSP software. A 1:1 mixture of toluene and 1,4 dioxane has δD, δP and δH values of 17.8, 1.6 and 5.5, comparable to those of chloroform at 17.8, 3.1 and 5.7 respectively. Because of the health hazards associated with toluene itself, other mixtures of solvents may be found using a full HSP dataset.",
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"plaintext": "The boiling point is an important property because it determines the speed of evaporation. Small amounts of low-boiling-point solvents like diethyl ether, dichloromethane, or acetone will evaporate in seconds at room temperature, while high-boiling-point solvents like water or dimethyl sulfoxide need higher temperatures, an air flow, or the application of vacuum for fast evaporation.",
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"plaintext": "Low boilers: boiling point below 100°C (boiling point of water)",
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"plaintext": "Medium boilers: between 100°C and 150°C",
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"plaintext": "High boilers: above 150°C",
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"plaintext": "Most organic solvents have a lower density than water, which means they are lighter than and will form a layer on top of water. Important exceptions are most of the halogenated solvents like dichloromethane or chloroform will sink to the bottom of a container, leaving water as the top layer. This is crucial to remember when partitioning compounds between solvents and water in a separatory funnel during chemical syntheses.",
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"plaintext": "Often, specific gravity is cited in place of density. Specific gravity is defined as the density of the solvent divided by the density of water at the same temperature. As such, specific gravity is a unitless value. It readily communicates whether a water-insoluble solvent will float (SG < 1.0) or sink (SG > 1.0) when mixed with water.",
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"plaintext": "Most organic solvents are flammable or highly flammable, depending on their volatility. Exceptions are some chlorinated solvents like dichloromethane and chloroform. Mixtures of solvent vapors and air can explode. Solvent vapors are heavier than air; they will sink to the bottom and can travel large distances nearly undiluted. Solvent vapors can also be found in supposedly empty drums and cans, posing a flash fire hazard; hence empty containers of volatile solvents should be stored open and upside down.",
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"plaintext": "Both diethyl ether and carbon disulfide have exceptionally low autoignition temperatures which increase greatly the fire risk associated with these solvents. The autoignition temperature of carbon disulfide is below 100°C (212°F), so objects such as steam pipes, light bulbs, hotplates, and recently extinguished bunsen burners are able to ignite its vapours.",
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"plaintext": "In addition some solvents, such as methanol, can burn with a very hot flame which can be nearly invisible under some lighting conditions. This can delay or prevent the timely recognition of a dangerous fire, until flames spread to other materials.",
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"plaintext": "Ethers like diethyl ether and tetrahydrofuran (THF) can form highly explosive organic peroxides upon exposure to oxygen and light. THF is normally more likely to form such peroxides than diethyl ether. One of the most susceptible solvents is diisopropyl ether, but all ethers are considered to be potential peroxide sources.",
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"plaintext": "The heteroatom (oxygen) stabilizes the formation of a free radical which is formed by the abstraction of a hydrogen atom by another free radical. The carbon-centred free radical thus formed is able to react with an oxygen molecule to form a peroxide compound. The process of peroxide formation is greatly accelerated by exposure to even low levels of light, but can proceed slowly even in dark conditions.",
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"plaintext": "Unless a desiccant is used which can destroy the peroxides, they will concentrate during distillation, due to their higher boiling point. When sufficient peroxides have formed, they can form a crystalline, shock-sensitive solid precipitate at the mouth of a container or bottle. Minor mechanical disturbances, such as scraping the inside of a vessel or the dislodging of a deposit, merely twisting the cap may provide sufficient energy for the peroxide to explode or detonate. Peroxide formation is not a significant problem when fresh solvents are used up quickly; they are more of a problem in laboratories which may take years to finish a single bottle. Low-volume users should acquire only small amounts of peroxide-prone solvents, and dispose of old solvents on a regular periodic schedule.",
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"plaintext": "To avoid explosive peroxide formation, ethers should be stored in an airtight container, away from light, because both light and air can encourage peroxide formation.",
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"plaintext": "A number of tests can be used to detect the presence of a peroxide in an ether; one is to use a combination of iron(II) sulfate and potassium thiocyanate. The peroxide is able to oxidize the Fe2+ ion to an Fe3+ ion, which then forms a deep-red coordination complex with the thiocyanate.",
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"plaintext": "Peroxides may be removed by washing with acidic iron(II) sulfate, filtering through alumina, or distilling from sodium/benzophenone. Alumina degrades the peroxides but some could remain intact in it, therefore it must be disposed of properly. The advantage of using sodium/benzophenone is that moisture and oxygen are removed as well.",
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"plaintext": "General health hazards associated with solvent exposure include toxicity to the nervous system, reproductive damage, liver and kidney damage, respiratory impairment, cancer, and dermatitis.",
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"plaintext": "Many solvents can lead to a sudden loss of consciousness if inhaled in large amounts. Solvents like diethyl ether and chloroform have been used in medicine as anesthetics, sedatives, and hypnotics for a long time. Ethanol (grain alcohol) is a widely used and abused psychoactive drug. Diethyl ether, chloroform, and many other solvents e.g. from gasoline or glues are abused recreationally in glue sniffing, often with harmful long-term health effects like neurotoxicity or cancer. Fraudulent substitution of 1,5-pentanediol by the psychoactive 1,4-butanediol by a subcontractor caused the Bindeez product recall. If ingested, the so-called toxic alcohols (other than ethanol) such as methanol, propanol, and ethylene glycol metabolize into toxic aldehydes and acids, which cause potentially fatal metabolic acidosis. The commonly available alcohol solvent methanol can cause permanent blindness or death if ingested. The solvent 2-butoxyethanol, used in fracking fluids, can cause hypotension and metabolic acidosis.",
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"plaintext": "Some solvents including chloroform and benzene a common ingredient in gasoline are known to be carcinogenic, while many others are considered by the World Health Organization to be likely carcinogens. Solvents can damage internal organs like the liver, the kidneys, the nervous system, or the brain. The cumulative effects of long-term or repeated exposure to solvents are called chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy (CSE).",
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"plaintext": "Chronic exposure to organic solvents in the work environment can produce a range of adverse neuropsychiatric effects. For example, occupational exposure to organic solvents has been associated with higher numbers of painters suffering from alcoholism. Ethanol has a synergistic effect when taken in combination with many solvents; for instance, a combination of toluene/benzene and ethanol causes greater nausea/vomiting than either substance alone.",
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"plaintext": "Many solvents are known or suspected to be cataractogenic, greatly increasing the risk of developing cataracts in the lens of the eye. Solvent exposure has also been associated with neurotoxic damage causing hearing loss and color vision losses.",
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"plaintext": "A major pathway to induce health effects arises from spills or leaks of solvents that reach the underlying soil. Since solvents readily migrate substantial distances, the creation of widespread soil contamination is not uncommon; this is particularly a health risk if aquifers are affected. Vapor intrusion can occur from sites with extensive subsurface solvent contamination.",
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"plaintext": " Free energy of solvation",
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"plaintext": " Solvents are often refluxed with an appropriate desiccant prior to distillation to remove water. This may be performed prior to a chemical synthesis where water may interfere with the intended reaction",
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"plaintext": " List of water-miscible solvents",
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34350438
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"plaintext": " Lyoluminescence",
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2055346
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"plaintext": " Occupational health",
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"plaintext": " Partition coefficient (log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in two solvents",
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"plaintext": " Solvation",
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"plaintext": " Solvent systems exist outside the realm of ordinary organic solvents: Supercritical fluids, ionic liquids and deep eutectic solvents",
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"plaintext": " Water model",
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"plaintext": " Water pollution",
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"section_name": "See also",
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312266
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"plaintext": "Solvent selection tool ACS Green Chemistry Institute",
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"target_page_ids": [],
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},
{
"plaintext": "\"European Solvents Industry Group - ESIG - ESIG European Solvents Industry Group\" Solvents in Europe.",
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"section_name": "External links",
"target_page_ids": [],
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},
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"plaintext": "Table and text O-Chem Lecture",
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"section_name": "External links",
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},
{
"plaintext": "Tables Properties and toxicities of organic solvents",
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},
{
"plaintext": "CDC – Organic Solvents – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic",
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"plaintext": "EPA – Solvent Contaminated Wipes",
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| 146,505 | 14,359 | 1,576 | 199 | 0 | 0 | solvent | substance that dissolves a solute (a chemically different liquid, solid or gas), resulting in a solution | [
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37,432 | 1,107,321,491 | Westminster | [
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"plaintext": "The name () originated from the informal description of the abbey church and royal peculiar of St Peter's (Westminster Abbey), west of the City of London. (Until the English Reformation there was also an Eastminster, near the Tower of London, in the East End of London.) The abbey's origins date from between the 7th and 10th centuries, but it rose to national prominence when rebuilt by Edward the Confessor in the 11th. Westminster has been the home of England's government since about 1200, and from 1707 the Government of the United Kingdom. In 1539, it became a city.",
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"plaintext": "Thorney Island lay between the arms of the former River Tyburn at its confluence with the Thames, while the western boundary with Chelsea was formed by the similarly lost River Westbourne. The line of the river still forms (with very slight revisions) the boundaries of the modern borough with the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea.",
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"plaintext": "The development of the area began with the establishment of the Abbey on a site then called Thorney Island, the choice of site may in part relate to the natural ford which is thought to have carried Watling Street over the Thames in the vicinity. The wider district became known as Westminster in reference to the church.",
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"plaintext": "The legendary origin is that in the early 7th century, a local fisherman named Edric (or Aldrich), ferried a stranger in tattered foreign clothing over the Thames to Thorney Island. It was a miraculous appearance of St Peter, a fisherman himself, coming to the island to consecrate the newly built church, which would subsequently develop into Westminster Abbey. He rewarded Edric with a bountiful catch when he next dropped his nets. Edric was instructed to present the King and St. Mellitus, Bishop of London with a salmon and various proofs that the consecration had already occurred . Every year on 29 June, St Peters day, the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers presents the Abbey with a salmon in memory of this event.",
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"plaintext": "A charter of 785, possibly a forgery, grants land to the needy people of God in Thorney, in the dreadful spot which is called Westminster. The text suggests a pre-existing monastic community who chose to live in a very challenging location.",
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"plaintext": "The recorded origins of the Abbey (rather than a less important religious site) date to the 960s or early 970s, when Saint Dunstan and King Edgar installed a community of Benedictine monks on the site.",
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"plaintext": "Between 1042 and 1052, King Edward the Confessor began rebuilding St Peter's Abbey to provide himself with a royal burial church. It was the first church in England built in the Romanesque style. The building was completed around 1060 and was consecrated on 28 December 1065, only a week before Edward's death on 5 January 1066. A week later, he was buried in the church; and, nine years later, his wife Edith was buried alongside him. His successor, Harold II, was probably crowned in the abbey, although the first documented coronation is that of William the Conqueror later the same year.",
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"plaintext": "The only extant depiction of Edward's abbey, together with the adjacent Palace of Westminster, is in the Bayeux Tapestry. Some of the lower parts of the monastic dormitory, an extension of the South Transept, survive in the Norman Undercroft of the Great School, including a door said to come from the previous Saxon abbey. Increased endowments supported a community that increased from a dozen monks in Dunstan's original foundation, up to a maximum of about eighty monks.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the parishes of Westminster originated as daughter parishes of St Margaret's parish, in the City and Liberty of Westminster, Middlesex. The exceptions to this were St Clement Danes, St Mary le Strand and possibly some other small areas.",
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"plaintext": "The ancient parish was St Margaret; after 1727 this became the civil parish of 'St Margaret and St John', the latter a new church required for the increasing population. The area around Westminster Abbey formed the extra-parochial Close of the Collegiate Church of St Peter. Like many large parishes, Westminster was divided into smaller units called Hamlets (meaning a territorial sub-division, rather than a small village). These would later become independent daughter parishes.",
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"plaintext": "Until 1900 the local authority was the combined vestry of St Margaret and St John (also known as the Westminster District Board of Works from 1855 to 1887), which was based at Westminster Town Hall in Caxton Street from 1883.",
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"plaintext": "The Liberty of Westminster, governed by the Westminster Court of Burgesses, also included St Martin in the Fields and several other parishes and places. Westminster had its own quarter sessions, but the Middlesex sessions also had jurisdiction.",
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"plaintext": "Under local government reforms in 1889, the area fell within the newly created County of London, and the local government of Westminster was further reformed in 1900, when the court of burgesses and the parish vestries were abolished, and replaced by the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. The borough was given city status at the same time, allowing it to be known as the City of Westminster and its council as Westminster City Council.",
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"plaintext": "The City and Liberty of Westminster and the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster were very similar in extent, covering the parts of the wider modern City of Westminster south of the Oxford Street, and its continuations Hyde Park Place. The exception is that part of Kensington Gardens, south of that road, are part of Paddington.",
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"plaintext": "Westminster merged with St Marylebone and Paddington in 1965, but the combined area was allowed to keep the title City of Westminster.",
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"plaintext": "For a list of street name etymologies for Westminster see Street names of Westminster",
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"plaintext": "The former Thorney Island, the site of Westminster Abbey, formed the historic core of Westminster. The abbey became the traditional venue of the coronations of the kings and queens of England from that of Harold Godwinson (1066) onwards.",
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"plaintext": "From about 1200 the Palace of Westminster, near the abbey, became the principal royal residence, a transition marked by the transfer of royal treasury and financial records to Westminster from Winchester. Later the palace housed the developing Parliament and England's law courts. Thus London developed two focal points: the City of London (financial/economic) and Westminster (political and cultural).",
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"plaintext": "The monarchs moved their principal residence to the Palace of Whitehall (1530–1698), then to St James's Palace in 1698, and eventually to Buckingham Palace and other palaces after 1762. The main law courts moved to the Royal Courts of Justice in the late-19th century.",
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"plaintext": "The settlement grew up around the palace and abbey, as a service area for them. The parish church, St Margaret's Westminster served the wider community of the parish; the servants of the palace and abbey as well as the rural population and those associated with the high status homes developing on the road from the City. The area became larger and in the Georgian period became connected through urban ribbon development with the City along the Strand.",
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"plaintext": "Henry VIII's Reformation in the early 16th century abolished the abbey and established a cathedral – thus the parish ranked as a \"City\", although it was only a fraction of the size of the City of London and the Borough of Southwark at that time.",
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"plaintext": "Charles Booth's poverty map showing Westminster in 1889 recorded the full range of income- and capital-brackets living in adjacent streets within the area; its central western area had become (by 1850) (the) Devil's Acre in the southern flood-channel ravine of the River Tyburn, yet Victoria Street and other small streets and squares had the highest colouring of social class in London: yellow/gold. Westminster has shed the abject poverty with the clearance of this slum and with drainage improvement, but there is a typical Central London property distinction within the area which is very acute, epitomised by grandiose 21st-century developments, architectural high-point listed buildings and nearby social housing (mostly non-council housing) buildings of the Peabody Trust founded by philanthropist George Peabody.",
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"plaintext": "The term \"Westminster Village\", sometimes used in the context of British politics, does not refer to a geographical area at all; employed especially in the phrase \"Westminster Village gossip\", it denotes a supposedly close social circle of members of parliament, political journalists, so-called spin doctors and others connected to events in the Palace of Westminster and Government ministries.",
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"plaintext": "The area has a substantial residential population. By the 20th century Westminster saw rising numbers of residential apartments with wealthy inhabitants. Hotels, large Victorian homes and barracks exist near to Buckingham Palace.",
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"plaintext": "In philosophy, systems theory, science, and art, emergence occurs when an entity is observed to have properties its parts do not have on their own, properties or behaviors that emerge only when the parts interact in a wider whole.",
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"plaintext": "Emergence plays a central role in theories of integrative levels and of complex systems. For instance, the phenomenon of life as studied in biology is an emergent property of chemistry.",
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"plaintext": "Philosophers often understand emergence as a claim about the etiology of a system's properties. An emergent property of a system, in this context, is one that is not a property of any component of that system, but is still a feature of the system as a whole. Nicolai Hartmann (1882-1950), one of the first modern philosophers to write on emergence, termed this a categorial novum (new category).",
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"plaintext": "This concept of emergence dates from at least the time of Aristotle. The many scientists and philosophers",
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"plaintext": "who have written on the concept include John Stuart Mill (Composition of Causes, 1843) and Julian Huxley (1887-1975).",
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"plaintext": "The philosopher G. H. Lewes coined the term \"emergent\", writing in 1875:",
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"plaintext": "Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same – their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference.",
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"plaintext": "In 1999 economist Jeffrey Goldstein provided a current definition of emergence in the journal Emergence. Goldstein initially defined emergence as: \"the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems\".",
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"plaintext": "In 2002 systems scientist Peter Corning described the qualities of Goldstein's definition in more detail:",
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"plaintext": "The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro \"level\" (i.e. there is some property of \"wholeness\"); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is \"ostensive\" (it can be perceived).",
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"plaintext": "Corning suggests a narrower definition, requiring that the components be unlike in kind (following Lewes), and that they involve division of labor between these components. He also says that living systems (comparably to the game of chess), while emergent, cannot be reduced to underlying laws of emergence:",
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"plaintext": "Usage of the notion \"emergence\" may generally be subdivided into two perspectives, that of \"weak emergence\" and \"strong emergence\". One paper discussing this division is Weak Emergence, by philosopher Mark Bedau. In terms of physical systems, weak emergence is a type of emergence in which the emergent property is amenable to computer simulation or similar forms of after-the-fact analysis (for example, the formation of a traffic jam, the structure of a flock of starlings in flight or a school of fish, or the formation of galaxies). Crucial in these simulations is that the interacting members retain their independence. If not, a new entity is formed with new, emergent properties: this is called strong emergence, which it is argued cannot be simulated or analysed.",
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"plaintext": "Some common points between the two notions are that emergence concerns new properties produced as the system grows, which is to say ones which are not shared with its components or prior states. Also, it is assumed that the properties are supervenient rather than metaphysically primitive.",
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"plaintext": "Weak emergence describes new properties arising in systems as a result of the interactions at an elemental level. However, Bedau stipulates that the properties can be determined only by observing or simulating the system, and not by any process of a reductionist analysis. As a consequence the emerging properties are scale dependent: they are only observable if the system is large enough to exhibit the phenomenon. Chaotic, unpredictable behaviour can be seen as an emergent phenomenon, while at a microscopic scale the behaviour of the constituent parts can be fully deterministic.",
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"plaintext": "Bedau notes that weak emergence is not a universal metaphysical solvent, as the hypothesis that consciousness is weakly emergent would not resolve the traditional philosophical questions about the physicality of consciousness. However, Bedau concludes that adopting this view would provide a precise notion that emergence is involved in consciousness, and second, the notion of weak emergence is metaphysically benign. ",
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"plaintext": "Strong emergence describes the direct causal action of a high-level system upon its components; qualities produced this way are irreducible to the system's constituent parts. The whole is other than the sum of its parts. It is argued then that no simulation of the system can exist, for such a simulation would itself constitute a reduction of the system to its constituent parts. Physics lacks well-established examples of strong emergence, unless it is interpreted as the impossibility in practice to explain the whole in terms of the parts. Practical impossibility may be a more useful distinction than one in principle, since it is easier to determine and quantify, and does not imply the use of mysterious forces, but simply reflects the limits of our capability.",
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"plaintext": "However, biologist Peter Corning has asserted that \"the debate about whether or not the whole can be predicted from the properties of the parts misses the point. Wholes produce unique combined effects, but many of these effects may be co-determined by the context and the interactions between the whole and its environment(s)\". In accordance with his Synergism Hypothesis, Corning also stated: \"It is the synergistic effects produced by wholes that are the very cause of the evolution of complexity in nature.\" Novelist Arthur Koestler used the metaphor of Janus (a symbol of the unity underlying complements like open/shut, peace/war) to illustrate how the two perspectives (strong vs. weak or holistic vs. reductionistic) should be treated as non-exclusive, and should work together to address the issues of emergence. Theoretical physicist PW Anderson states it this way:",
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"plaintext": "Some thinkers question the plausibility of strong emergence as contravening our usual understanding of physics. Mark A. Bedau observes:",
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"plaintext": "Strong emergence can be criticized for being causally overdetermined. The canonical example concerns emergent mental states (M and M∗) that supervene on physical states (P and P∗) respectively. Let M and M∗ be emergent properties. Let M∗ supervene on base property P∗. What happens when M causes M∗? Jaegwon Kim says:",
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"plaintext": "If M is the cause of M∗, then M∗ is overdetermined because M∗ can also be thought of as being determined by P. One escape-route that a strong emergentist could take would be to deny downward causation. However, this would remove the proposed reason that emergent mental states must supervene on physical states, which in turn would call physicalism into question, and thus be unpalatable for some philosophers and physicists.",
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"plaintext": "Meanwhile, others have worked towards developing analytical evidence of strong emergence. In 2009, Gu et al. presented a class of infinite physical systems that exhibits non-computable macroscopic properties. More precisely, if one could compute certain macroscopic properties of these systems from the microscopic description of these systems, then one would be able to solve computational problems known to be undecidable in computer science. These results concern infinite systems, finite systems being considered computable. However, macroscopic concepts which only apply in the limit of infinite systems, such as phase transitions and the renormalization group, are important for understanding and modeling real, finite physical systems. Gu et al. concluded that",
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"plaintext": "Emergent structures are patterns that emerge via the collective actions of many individual entities. To explain such patterns, one might conclude, per Aristotle, that emergent structures are other than the sum of their parts on the assumption that the emergent order will not arise if the various parts simply interact independently of one another. However, there are those who disagree. According to this argument, the interaction of each part with its immediate surroundings causes a complex chain of processes that can lead to order in some form. In fact, some systems in nature are observed to exhibit emergence based upon the interactions of autonomous parts, and some others exhibit emergence that at least at present cannot be reduced in this way. In particular renormalization methods in theoretical physics enable scientists to study systems that are not tractable as the combination of their parts.",
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"plaintext": "Defining structure and detecting the emergence of complexity in nature are inherently subjective, though essential, scientific activities. Despite the difficulties, these problems can be analysed in terms of how model-building observers infer from measurements the computational capabilities embedded in non-linear processes. An observer’s notion of what is ordered, what is random, and what is complex in its environment depends directly on its computational resources: the amount of raw measurement data, of memory, and of time available for estimation and inference. The discovery of structure in an environment depends more critically and subtly, though, on how those resources are organized. The descriptive power of the observer’s chosen (or implicit) computational model class, for example, can be an overwhelming determinant in finding regularity in data.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, Peter Corning argues: \"Must the synergies be perceived/observed in order to qualify as emergent effects, as some theorists claim? Most emphatically not. The synergies associated with emergence are real and measurable, even if nobody is there to observe them.\"",
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"plaintext": "In art, emergence is used to explore the origins of novelty, creativity, and authorship. Some art/literary theorists (Wheeler, 2006; Alexander, 2011) have proposed alternatives to postmodern understandings of \"authorship\" using the complexity sciences and emergence theory. They contend that artistic selfhood and meaning are emergent, relatively objective phenomena. Michael J. Pearce has used emergence to describe the experience of works of art in relation to contemporary neuroscience. Practicing artist Leonel Moura, in turn, attributes to his \"artbots\" a real, if nonetheless rudimentary, creativity based on emergent principles. In literature and linguistics, the concept of emergence has been applied in the domain of stylometry to explain the interrelation between the syntactical structures of the text and the author style (Slautina, Marusenko, 2014).",
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"plaintext": "In international development, concepts of emergence have been used within a theory of social change termed SEED-SCALE to show how standard principles interact to bring forward socio-economic development fitted to cultural values, community economics, and natural environment (local solutions emerging from the larger socio-econo-biosphere). These principles can be implemented utilizing a sequence of standardized tasks that self-assemble in individually specific ways utilizing recursive evaluative criteria.",
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"plaintext": "In postcolonial studies, the term \"Emerging Literature\" refers to a contemporary body of texts that is gaining momentum in the global literary landscape (v. esp.: J.M. Grassin, ed. Emerging Literatures, Bern, Berlin, etc. : Peter Lang, 1996). By opposition, \"emergent literature\" is rather a concept used in the theory of literature.",
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"plaintext": "An emergent behavior or emergent property can appear when a number of simple entities (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective. If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales. In other words, there is often a form of top-down feedback in systems with emergent properties. The processes causing emergent properties may occur in either the observed or observing system, and are commonly identifiable by their patterns of accumulating change, generally called 'growth'. Emergent behaviours can occur because of intricate causal relations across different scales and feedback, known as interconnectivity. The emergent property itself may be either very predictable or unpredictable and unprecedented, and represent a new level of the system's evolution. The complex behaviour or properties are not a property of any single such entity, nor can they easily be predicted or deduced from behaviour in the lower-level entities. The shape and behaviour of a flock of birds or school of fish are good examples of emergent properties.",
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"plaintext": "One reason emergent behaviour is hard to predict is that the number of interactions between a system's components increases exponentially with the number of components, thus allowing for many new and subtle types of behaviour to emerge. Emergence is often a product of particular patterns of interaction. Negative feedback introduces constraints that serve to fix structures or behaviours. In contrast, positive feedback promotes change, allowing local variations to grow into global patterns. Another way in which interactions lead to emergent properties is dual-phase evolution. This occurs where interactions are applied intermittently, leading to two phases: one in which patterns form or grow, the other in which they are refined or removed.",
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"plaintext": "On the other hand, merely having a large number of interactions is not enough by itself to guarantee emergent behaviour; many of the interactions may be negligible or irrelevant, or may cancel each other out. In some cases, a large number of interactions can in fact hinder the emergence of interesting behaviour, by creating a lot of \"noise\" to drown out any emerging \"signal\"; the emergent behaviour may need to be temporarily isolated from other interactions before it reaches enough critical mass to self-support. Thus it is not just the sheer number of connections between components which encourages emergence; it is also how these connections are organised. A hierarchical organisation is one example that can generate emergent behaviour (a bureaucracy may behave in a way quite different from the individual departments of that bureaucracy); but emergent behaviour can also arise from more decentralized organisational structures, such as a marketplace. In some cases, the system has to reach a combined threshold of diversity, organisation, and connectivity before emergent behaviour appears.",
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"plaintext": "Unintended consequences and side effects are closely related to emergent properties. Luc Steels writes: \"A component has a particular functionality but this is not recognizable as a subfunction of the global functionality. Instead a component implements a behaviour whose side effect contributes to the global functionality ... Each behaviour has a side effect and the sum of the side effects gives the desired functionality.\" In other words, the global or macroscopic functionality of a system with \"emergent functionality\" is the sum of all \"side effects\", of all emergent properties and functionalities.",
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"plaintext": "Systems with emergent properties or emergent structures may appear to defy entropic principles and the second law of thermodynamics, because they form and increase order despite the lack of command and central control. This is possible because open systems can extract information and order out of the environment.",
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"plaintext": "Emergence helps to explain why the fallacy of division is a fallacy.",
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"plaintext": "Emergent structures can be found in many natural phenomena, from the physical to the biological domain. For example, the shape of weather phenomena such as hurricanes are emergent structures. The development and growth of complex, orderly crystals, as driven by the random motion of water molecules within a conducive natural environment, is another example of an emergent process, where randomness can give rise to complex and deeply attractive, orderly structures.",
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"plaintext": " However, crystalline structure and hurricanes are said to have a self-organizing phase.",
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"plaintext": "It is useful to distinguish three forms of emergent structures. A first-order emergent structure occurs as a result of shape interactions (for example, hydrogen bonds in water molecules lead to surface tension). A second-order emergent structure involves shape interactions played out sequentially over time (for example, changing atmospheric conditions as a snowflake falls to the ground build upon and alter its form). Finally, a third-order emergent structure is a consequence of shape, time, and heritable instructions. For example, an organism's genetic code affects the form of the organism's systems in space and time.",
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"plaintext": "In physics, emergence is used to describe a property, law, or phenomenon which occurs at macroscopic scales (in space or time) but not at microscopic scales, despite the fact that a macroscopic system can be viewed as a very large ensemble of microscopic systems.",
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"plaintext": "An emergent property need not be more complicated than the underlying non-emergent properties which generate it. For instance, the laws of thermodynamics are remarkably simple, even if the laws which govern the interactions between component particles are complex. The term emergence in physics is thus used not to signify complexity, but rather to distinguish which laws and concepts apply to macroscopic scales, and which ones apply to microscopic scales.",
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"plaintext": "However, another, perhaps more broadly applicable way to conceive of the emergent divide does involve a dose of complexity insofar as the computational feasibility of going from the microscopic to the macroscopic property tells the 'strength' of the emergence. This is better understood given the following definition of (weak) emergence that comes from physics:",
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"plaintext": "An emergent behavior of a physical system is a qualitative property that can only occur in the limit that the number of microscopic constituents tends to infinity.",
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"plaintext": "Since there are no actually infinite systems in the real world, there is no obvious naturally occurring notion of a hard separation between the properties of the constituents of a system and those of the emergent whole. As discussed below, classical mechanics is thought to be emergent from quantum mechanics, though in principle, quantum dynamics fully describes everything happening at a classical level. However, it would take a computer larger than the size of the universe with more computing time than life time of the universe to describe the motion of a falling apple in terms of the locations of its electrons ; thus we can take this to be a \"strong\" emergent divide.",
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"plaintext": "In the case of strong emergence, the number of constituents can be much smaller. F.i. the emergent properties of a H2O molecule are very different from its constituent parts oxygen and hydrogen.",
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"plaintext": "Some examples include:",
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"plaintext": "Classical mechanics",
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"plaintext": " The laws of classical mechanics can be said to emerge as a limiting case from the rules of quantum mechanics applied to large enough masses. This is particularly strange since quantum mechanics is generally thought of as more complicated than classical mechanics.",
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"plaintext": "Friction",
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"plaintext": " Forces between elementary particles are conservative. However, friction emerges when considering more complex structures of matter, whose surfaces can convert mechanical energy into heat energy when rubbed against each other. Similar considerations apply to other emergent concepts in continuum mechanics such as viscosity, elasticity, tensile strength, etc.",
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"plaintext": "Patterned ground",
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"plaintext": " the distinct, and often symmetrical geometric shapes formed by ground material in periglacial regions.",
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"plaintext": "Statistical mechanics",
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"plaintext": " initially derived using the concept of a large enough ensemble that fluctuations about the most likely distribution can be all but ignored. However, small clusters do not exhibit sharp first order phase transitions such as melting, and at the boundary it is not possible to completely categorize the cluster as a liquid or solid, since these concepts are (without extra definitions) only applicable to macroscopic systems. Describing a system using statistical mechanics methods is much simpler than using a low-level atomistic approach.",
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"plaintext": "Electrical networks",
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"plaintext": " The bulk conductive response of binary (RC) electrical networks with random arrangements, known as the Universal Dielectric Response (UDR), can be seen as emergent properties of such physical systems. Such arrangements can be used as simple physical prototypes for deriving mathematical formulae for the emergent responses of complex systems.",
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"plaintext": "Weather",
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"plaintext": "Temperature is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour. In classical dynamics, a snapshot of the instantaneous momenta of a large number of particles at equilibrium is sufficient to find the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom which is proportional to the temperature. For a small number of particles the instantaneous momenta at a given time are not statistically sufficient to determine the temperature of the system. However, using the ergodic hypothesis, the temperature can still be obtained to arbitrary precision by further averaging the momenta over a long enough time.",
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"plaintext": "Convection ",
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"plaintext": "in a liquid or gas is another example of emergent macroscopic behaviour that makes sense only when considering differentials of temperature. Convection cells, particularly Bénard cells, are an example of a self-organizing system (more specifically, a dissipative system) whose structure is determined both by the constraints of the system and by random perturbations: the possible realizations of the shape and size of the cells depends on the temperature gradient as well as the nature of the fluid and shape of the container, but which configurations are actually realized is due to random perturbations (thus these systems exhibit a form of symmetry breaking).",
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"plaintext": "In some theories of particle physics, even such basic structures as mass, space, and time are viewed as emergent phenomena, arising from more fundamental concepts such as the Higgs boson or strings. In some interpretations of quantum mechanics, the perception of a deterministic reality, in which all objects have a definite position, momentum, and so forth, is actually an emergent phenomenon, with the true state of matter being described instead by a wavefunction which need not have a single position or momentum.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the laws of physics themselves as we experience them today appear to have emerged during the course of time making emergence the most fundamental principle in the universe and raising the question of what might be the most fundamental law of physics from which all others emerged. Chemistry can in turn be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of physics. Biology (including biological evolution) can be viewed as an emergent property of the laws of chemistry. Similarly, psychology could be understood as an emergent property of neurobiological laws. Finally, some economic theories understand economy as an emergent feature of psychology.",
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"plaintext": "According to Laughlin, for many particle systems, nothing can be calculated exactly from the microscopic equations, and macroscopic systems are characterised by broken symmetry: the symmetry present in the microscopic equations is not present in the macroscopic system, due to phase transitions. As a result, these macroscopic systems are described in their own terminology, and have properties that do not depend on many microscopic details. This does not mean that the microscopic interactions are irrelevant, but simply that you do not see them anymore— you only see a renormalized effect of them. Laughlin is a pragmatic theoretical physicist: if you cannot, possibly ever, calculate the broken symmetry macroscopic properties from the microscopic equations, then what is the point of talking about reducibility?",
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"plaintext": "Life is a major source of complexity, and evolution is the major process behind the varying forms of life. In this view, evolution is the process describing the growth of complexity in the natural world and in speaking of the emergence of complex living beings and life-forms.",
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"plaintext": "Life is thought to have emerged in the early RNA world when RNA chains began to express the basic conditions necessary for natural selection to operate as conceived by Darwin: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. Fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely be a function of adaptive capacities that were intrinsic (in the sense that they were determined by the nucleotide sequence) and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities may have been (1) the capacity to replicate with moderate fidelity (giving rise to both heritability and variation of type); (2) the capacity to avoid decay; and (3) the capacity to acquire and process resources. These capacities would have been determined initially by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators (see \"Ribozyme\") that, in turn, would be encoded in their individual nucleotide sequences. Competitive success among different replicators would have depended on the relative values of these adaptive capacities.",
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"plaintext": "Regarding causality in evolution Peter Corning observes:",
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"plaintext": "Synergistic effects of various kinds have played a major causal role in the evolutionary process generally and in the evolution of cooperation and complexity in particular... Natural selection is often portrayed as a \"mechanism\", or is personified as a causal agency... In reality, the differential \"selection\" of a trait, or an adaptation, is a consequence of the functional effects it produces in relation to the survival and reproductive success of a given organism in a given environment. It is these functional effects that are ultimately responsible for the trans-generational continuities and changes in nature.",
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"plaintext": "Per his CorningDefn, Corning also addresses emergence and evolution:",
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"plaintext": "[In] evolutionary processes, causation is iterative; effects are also causes. And this is equally true of the synergistic effects produced by emergent systems. In other words, emergence itself... has been the underlying cause of the evolution of emergent phenomena in biological evolution; it is the synergies produced by organized systems that are the key",
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"plaintext": "Swarming is a well-known behaviour in many animal species from marching locusts to schooling fish to flocking birds. Emergent structures are a common strategy found in many animal groups: colonies of ants, mounds built by termites, swarms of bees, shoals/schools of fish, flocks of birds, and herds/packs of mammals.",
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"plaintext": "An example to consider in detail is an ant colony. The queen does not give direct orders and does not tell the ants what to do. Instead, each ant reacts to stimuli in the form of chemical scent from larvae, other ants, intruders, food and buildup of waste, and leaves behind a chemical trail, which, in turn, provides a stimulus to other ants. Here each ant is an autonomous unit that reacts depending only on its local environment and the genetically encoded rules for its variety of ant. Despite the lack of centralized decision making, ant colonies exhibit complex behavior and have even demonstrated the ability to solve geometric problems. For example, colonies routinely find the maximum distance from all colony entrances to dispose of dead bodies.",
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"plaintext": "It appears that environmental factors may play a role in influencing emergence. Research suggests induced emergence of the bee species Macrotera portalis. In this species, the bees emerge in a pattern consistent with rainfall. Specifically, the pattern of emergence is consistent with southwestern deserts' late summer rains and lack of activity in the spring.",
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"plaintext": "A broader example of emergent properties in biology is viewed in the biological organisation of life, ranging from the subatomic level to the entire biosphere. For example, individual atoms can be combined to form molecules such as polypeptide chains, which in turn fold and refold to form proteins, which in turn create even more complex structures. These proteins, assuming their functional status from their spatial conformation, interact together and with other molecules to achieve higher biological functions and eventually create an organism. Another example is how cascade phenotype reactions, as detailed in chaos theory, arise from individual genes mutating respective positioning. At the highest level, all the biological communities in the world form the biosphere, where its human participants form societies, and the complex interactions of meta-social systems such as the stock market.",
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"plaintext": "Among the considered phenomena in the evolutionary account of life, as a continuous history, marked by stages at which fundamentally new forms have appeared - the origin of sapiens intelligence. The emergence of mind and its evolution is researched and considered as a separate phenomenon in a special system knowledge called noogenesis.",
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"plaintext": "Groups of human beings, left free to each regulate themselves, tend to produce spontaneous order, rather than the meaningless chaos often feared. This has been observed in society at least since Chuang Tzu in ancient China. Human beings are the basic elements of social systems, which perpetually interact and create, maintain, or untangle mutual social bonds. Social bonds in social systems are perpetually changing in the sense of the ongoing reconfiguration of their structure. A classic traffic roundabout is also a good example, with cars moving in and out with such effective organization that some modern cities have begun replacing stoplights at problem intersections with roundabouts, and getting better results. Open-source software and Wiki projects form an even more compelling illustration.",
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"plaintext": "Emergent processes or behaviors can be seen in many other places, such as cities, cabal and market-dominant minority phenomena in economics, organizational phenomena in computer simulations and cellular automata. Whenever there is a multitude of individuals interacting, an order emerges from disorder; a pattern, a decision, a structure, or a change in direction occurs.",
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"plaintext": "The stock market (or any market for that matter) is an example of emergence on a grand scale. As a whole it precisely regulates the relative security prices of companies across the world, yet it has no leader; when no central planning is in place, there is no one entity which controls the workings of the entire market. Agents, or investors, have knowledge of only a limited number of companies within their portfolio, and must follow the regulatory rules of the market and analyse the transactions individually or in large groupings. Trends and patterns which emerge are studied intensively by technical analysts.",
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"plaintext": "The World Wide Web is a popular example of a decentralized system exhibiting emergent properties. There is no central organization rationing the number of links, yet the number of links pointing to each page follows a power law in which a few pages are linked to many times and most pages are seldom linked to. A related property of the network of links in the World Wide Web is that almost any pair of pages can be connected to each other through a relatively short chain of links. Although relatively well known now, this property was initially unexpected in an unregulated network. It is shared with many other types of networks called small-world networks.",
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"plaintext": "Internet traffic can also exhibit some seemingly emergent properties. In the congestion control mechanism, TCP flows can become globally synchronized at bottlenecks, simultaneously increasing and then decreasing throughput in coordination. Congestion, widely regarded as a nuisance, is possibly an emergent property of the spreading of bottlenecks across a network in high traffic flows which can be considered as a phase transition.",
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"plaintext": "Another important example of emergence in web-based systems is social bookmarking (also called collaborative tagging). In social bookmarking systems, users assign tags to resources shared with other users, which gives rise to a type of information organisation that emerges from this crowdsourcing process. Recent research which analyzes empirically the complex dynamics of such systems has shown that consensus on stable distributions and a simple form of shared vocabularies does indeed emerge, even in the absence of a central controlled vocabulary. Some believe that this could be because users who contribute tags all use the same language, and they share similar semantic structures underlying the choice of words. The convergence in social tags may therefore be interpreted as the emergence of structures as people who have similar semantic interpretation collaboratively index online information, a process called semantic imitation.",
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"plaintext": "Emergent structures appear at many different levels of organization or as spontaneous order. Emergent self-organization appears frequently in cities where no planning or zoning entity predetermines the layout of the city. The interdisciplinary study of emergent behaviors is not generally considered a homogeneous field, but divided across its application or problem domains.",
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"plaintext": "Architects may not design all the pathways of a complex of buildings. Instead they might let usage patterns emerge and then place pavement where pathways have become worn, such as a desire path.",
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"plaintext": "The on-course action and vehicle progression of the 2007 Urban Challenge could possibly be regarded as an example of cybernetic emergence. Patterns of road use, indeterministic obstacle clearance times, etc. will work together to form a complex emergent pattern that can not be deterministically planned in advance.",
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"plaintext": "The architectural school of Christopher Alexander takes a deeper approach to emergence, attempting to rewrite the process of urban growth itself in order to affect form, establishing a new methodology of planning and design tied to traditional practices, an Emergent Urbanism. Urban emergence has also been linked to theories of urban complexity and urban evolution.",
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"plaintext": "Building ecology is a conceptual framework for understanding architecture and the built environment as the interface between the dynamically interdependent elements of buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment. Rather than viewing buildings as inanimate or static objects, building ecologist Hal Levin views them as interfaces or intersecting domains of living and non-living systems. The microbial ecology of the indoor environment is strongly dependent on the building materials, occupants, contents, environmental context and the indoor and outdoor climate. The strong relationship between atmospheric chemistry and indoor air quality and the chemical reactions occurring indoors. The chemicals may be nutrients, neutral or biocides for the microbial organisms. The microbes produce chemicals that affect the building materials and occupant health and well-being. Humans manipulate the ventilation, temperature and humidity to achieve comfort with the concomitant effects on the microbes that populate and evolve.",
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"plaintext": "Eric Bonabeau's attempt to define emergent phenomena is through traffic: \"traffic jams are actually very complicated and mysterious. On an individual level, each driver is trying to get somewhere and is following (or breaking) certain rules, some legal (the speed limit) and others societal or personal (slow down to let another driver change into your lane). But a traffic jam is a separate and distinct entity that emerges from those individual behaviors. Gridlock on a highway, for example, can travel backward for no apparent reason, even as the cars are moving forward.\" He has also likened emergent phenomena to the analysis of market trends and employee behavior.",
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"plaintext": "Some artificially intelligent (AI) computer applications simulate emergent behavior. One example is Boids, which mimics the swarming behavior of birds.",
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"plaintext": "It has been argued that the structure and regularity of language grammar, or at least language change, is an emergent phenomenon.} While each speaker merely tries to reach their own communicative goals, they use language in a particular way. If enough speakers behave in that way, language is changed. In a wider sense, the norms of a language, i.e. the linguistic conventions of its speech society, can be seen as a system emerging from long-time participation in communicative problem-solving in various social circumstances.",
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"plaintext": "Within the field of group facilitation and organization development, there have been a number of new group processes that are designed to maximize emergence and self-organization, by offering a minimal set of effective initial conditions. Examples of these processes include SEED-SCALE, appreciative inquiry, Future Search, the world cafe or knowledge cafe, Open Space Technology, and others (Holman, 2010).",
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"plaintext": " Bejan, Adrian; Zane, J. P. (2012). Design in Nature: How the Constructal Law Governs Evolution in Biology, Physics, Technology, and Social Organizations. Doubleday. ",
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"plaintext": " Alexander, V. N. (2011). The Biologist’s Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.",
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"plaintext": " Chalmers, David J. (2002). \"Strong and Weak Emergence\" Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) The Re-Emergence of Emergence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
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"plaintext": " Philip Clayton & Paul Davies (eds.) (2006). The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion Oxford: Oxford University Press.",
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"plaintext": " Felipe Cucker and Stephen Smale (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, The Mathematics of Emergence",
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"plaintext": " Hoffmann, Peter M. \"Life's Ratchet: How Molecular Machines Extract Order from Chaos\" (2012), Basic Books.",
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"plaintext": " Ignazio Licata & Ammar Sakaji (eds) (2008). Physics of Emergence and Organization, , World Scientific and Imperial College Press.",
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"plaintext": " Solé, Ricard and Goodwin, Brian (2000) Signs of life: how complexity pervades biology, Basic Books, New York",
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"plaintext": " Jakub Tkac & Jiri Kroc (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence (Software) \"Video - Simulation of DRX\"",
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"plaintext": " The Emergent Universe: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.",
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"plaintext": " Exploring Emergence: An introduction to emergence using CA and Conway's Game of Life from the MIT Media Lab",
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"plaintext": " ISCE group: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.",
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"plaintext": " Towards modeling of emergence: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology",
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"plaintext": " Biomimetic Architecture – Emergence applied to building and construction",
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"plaintext": " Studies in Emergent Order: Studies in Emergent Order (SIEO) is an open-access journal",
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"plaintext": " Emergence",
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"plaintext": " Emergence – How Stupid Things Become Smart Together – YouTube video by Kurzgesagt – In a Nutshell",
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"plaintext": " DIEP: Dutch Institute for Emergent Phenomena",
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"Emergence",
"Chaos_theory",
"Complex_systems_theory",
"Concepts_in_epistemology",
"Concepts_in_metaphysics",
"Consciousness–matter_dualism",
"Metaphysics_of_mind",
"Metaphysics_of_science",
"Pattern_formation"
]
| 215,772 | 15,069 | 523 | 202 | 0 | 0 | emergence | phenomenon whereby larger entities arise through interactions among smaller/simpler entities such that the larger entities exhibit properties the smaller/simpler entities don't exhibit | []
|
37,438 | 1,106,795,325 | Complex_system | [
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"plaintext": "A complex system is a system composed of many components which may interact with each other. Examples of complex systems are Earth's global climate, organisms, the human brain, infrastructure such as power grid, transportation or communication systems, complex software and electronic systems, social and economic organizations (like cities), an ecosystem, a living cell, and ultimately the entire universe.",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems are systems whose behavior is intrinsically difficult to model due to the dependencies, competitions, relationships, or other types of interactions between their parts or between a given system and its environment. Systems that are \"complex\" have distinct properties that arise from these relationships, such as nonlinearity, emergence, spontaneous order, adaptation, and feedback loops, among others. Because such systems appear in a wide variety of fields, the commonalities among them have become the topic of their independent area of research. In many cases, it is useful to represent such a system as a network where the nodes represent the components and links to their interactions.",
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"plaintext": "The term complex systems often refers to the study of complex systems, which is an approach to science that investigates how relationships between a system's parts give rise to its collective behaviors and how the system interacts and forms relationships with its environment. The study of complex systems regards collective, or system-wide, behaviors as the fundamental object of study; for this reason, complex systems can be understood as an alternative paradigm to reductionism, which attempts to explain systems in terms of their constituent parts and the individual interactions between them.",
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"plaintext": "As an interdisciplinary domain, complex systems draws contributions from many different fields, such as the study of self-organization and critical phenomena from physics, that of spontaneous order from the social sciences, chaos from mathematics, adaptation from biology, and many others. Complex systems is therefore often used as a broad term encompassing a research approach to problems in many diverse disciplines, including statistical physics, information theory, nonlinear dynamics, anthropology, computer science, meteorology, sociology, economics, psychology, and biology.",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems are chiefly concerned with the behaviors and properties of systems. A system, broadly defined, is a set of entities that, through their interactions, relationships, or dependencies, form a unified whole. It is always defined in terms of its boundary, which determines the entities that are or are not part of the system. Entities lying outside the system then become part of the system's environment.",
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"plaintext": "A system can exhibit properties that produce behaviors which are distinct from the properties and behaviors of its parts; these system-wide or global properties and behaviors are characteristics of how the system interacts with or appears to its environment, or of how its parts behave (say, in response to external stimuli) by virtue of being within the system. The notion of behavior implies that the study of systems is also concerned with processes that take place over time (or, in mathematics, some other phase space parameterization). Because of their broad, interdisciplinary applicability, systems concepts play a central role in complex systems.",
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"plaintext": "As a field of study, complex systems is a subset of systems theory. General systems theory focuses similarly on the collective behaviors of interacting entities, but it studies a much broader class of systems, including non-complex systems where traditional reductionist approaches may remain viable. Indeed, systems theory seeks to explore and describe all classes of systems, and the invention of categories that are useful to researchers across widely varying fields is one of the systems theory's main objectives.",
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"plaintext": "As it relates to complex systems, systems theory contributes an emphasis on the way relationships and dependencies between a system's parts can determine system-wide properties. It also contributes to the interdisciplinary perspective of the study of complex systems: the notion that shared properties link systems across disciplines, justifying the pursuit of modeling approaches applicable to complex systems wherever they appear. Specific concepts important to complex systems, such as emergence, feedback loops, and adaptation, also originate in systems theory.",
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"plaintext": "For a system to exhibit complexity means that the systems' behaviors cannot be easily inferred from its properties. Any modeling approach that ignores such difficulties or characterizes them as noise will necessarily produce models that are neither accurate nor useful. As yet no fully general theory of complex systems has emerged for addressing these problems, so researchers must solve them in domain-specific contexts. Researchers in complex systems address these problems by viewing the chief task of modeling to be capturing, rather than reducing, the complexity of their respective systems of interest.",
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"plaintext": "While no generally accepted exact definition of complexity exists yet, there are many archetypal examples of complexity. Systems can be complex if, for instance, they have chaotic behavior (behavior that exhibits extreme sensitivity to initial conditions, among other properties), or if they have emergent properties (properties that are not apparent from their components in isolation but which result from the relationships and dependencies they form when placed together in a system), or if they are computationally intractable to model (if they depend on a number of parameters that grows too rapidly with respect to the size of the system).",
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"plaintext": "The interacting components of a complex system form a network, which is a collection of discrete objects and relationships between them, usually depicted as a graph of vertices connected by edges. Networks can describe the relationships between individuals within an organization, between logic gates in a circuit, between genes in gene regulatory networks, or between any other set of related entities.",
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"plaintext": "Networks often describe the sources of complexity in complex systems. Studying complex systems as networks, therefore, enables many useful applications of graph theory and network science. Many complex systems, for example, are also complex networks, which have properties such as phase transitions and power-law degree distributions that readily lend themselves to emergent or chaotic behavior. The fact that the number of edges in a complete graph grows quadratically in the number of vertices sheds additional light on the source of complexity in large networks: as a network grows, the number of relationships between entities quickly dwarfs the number of entities in the network.",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems often have nonlinear behavior, meaning they may respond in different ways to the same input depending on their state or context. In mathematics and physics, nonlinearity describes systems in which a change in the size of the input does not produce a proportional change in the size of the output. For a given change in input, such systems may yield significantly greater than or less than proportional changes in output, or even no output at all, depending on the current state of the system or its parameter values.",
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"plaintext": "Of particular interest to complex systems are nonlinear dynamical systems, which are systems of differential equations that have one or more nonlinear terms. Some nonlinear dynamical systems, such as the Lorenz system, can produce a mathematical phenomenon known as chaos. Chaos, as it applies to complex systems, refers to the sensitive dependence on initial conditions, or \"butterfly effect\", that a complex system can exhibit. In such a system, small changes to initial conditions can lead to dramatically different outcomes. Chaotic behavior can, therefore, be extremely hard to model numerically, because small rounding errors at an intermediate stage of computation can cause the model to generate completely inaccurate output. Furthermore, if a complex system returns to a state similar to one it held previously, it may behave completely differently in response to the same stimuli, so chaos also poses challenges for extrapolating from experience.",
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"plaintext": "Another common feature of complex systems is the presence of emergent behaviors and properties: these are traits of a system that are not apparent from its components in isolation but which result from the interactions, dependencies, or relationships they form when placed together in a system. Emergence broadly describes the appearance of such behaviors and properties, and has applications to systems studied in both the social and physical sciences. While emergence is often used to refer only to the appearance of unplanned organized behavior in a complex system, emergence can also refer to the breakdown of an organization; it describes any phenomena which are difficult or even impossible to predict from the smaller entities that make up the system.",
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"plaintext": "One example of a complex system whose emergent properties have been studied extensively is cellular automata. In a cellular automaton, a grid of cells, each having one of the finitely many states, evolves according to a simple set of rules. These rules guide the \"interactions\" of each cell with its neighbors. Although the rules are only defined locally, they have been shown capable of producing globally interesting behavior, for example in Conway's Game of Life.",
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"plaintext": "When emergence describes the appearance of unplanned order, it is spontaneous order (in the social sciences) or self-organization (in physical sciences). Spontaneous order can be seen in herd behavior, whereby a group of individuals coordinates their actions without centralized planning. Self-organization can be seen in the global symmetry of certain crystals, for instance the apparent radial symmetry of snowflakes, which arises from purely local attractive and repulsive forces both between water molecules and their surrounding environment.",
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"plaintext": "Complex adaptive systems are special cases of complex systems that are adaptive in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. Examples of complex adaptive systems include the stock market, social insect and ant colonies, the biosphere and the ecosystem, the brain and the immune system, the cell and the developing embryo, the cities, manufacturing businesses and any human social group-based endeavor in a cultural and social system such as political parties or communities.",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems may have the following features:",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems may be open",
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"plaintext": " Complex systems are usually open systems — that is, they exist in a thermodynamic gradient and dissipate energy. In other words, complex systems are frequently far from energetic equilibrium: but despite this flux, there may be pattern stability, see synergetics.",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems may exhibit critical transitions",
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"plaintext": "Critical transitions are abrupt shifts in the state of ecosystems, the climate, financial systems or other complex systems that may occur when changing conditions pass a critical or bifurcation point. The 'direction of critical slowing down' in a system's state space may be indicative of a system's future state after such transitions when delayed negative feedbacks leading to oscillatory or other complex dynamics are weak.",
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"plaintext": "The components of a complex system may themselves be complex systems. For example, an economy is made up of organisations, which are made up of people, which are made up of cells - all of which are complex systems. The arrangement of interactions within complex bipartite networks may be nested as well. More specifically, bipartite ecological and organisational networks of mutually beneficial interactions were found to have a nested structure. This structure promotes indirect facilitation and a system's capacity to persist under increasingly harsh circumstances as well as the potential for large-scale systemic regime shifts.",
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"plaintext": "As well as coupling rules, the dynamic network of a complex system is important. Small-world or scale-free networks which have many local interactions and a smaller number of inter-area connections are often employed. Natural complex systems often exhibit such topologies. In the human cortex for example, we see dense local connectivity and a few very long axon projections between regions inside the cortex and to other brain regions.",
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"plaintext": " May produce emergent phenomena",
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"plaintext": "Complex systems may exhibit behaviors that are emergent, which is to say that while the results may be sufficiently determined by the activity of the systems' basic constituents, they may have properties that can only be studied at a higher level. For example, the termites in a mound have physiology, biochemistry and biological development that are at one level of analysis, but their social behavior and mound building is a property that emerges from the collection of termites and needs to be analyzed at a different level.",
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"plaintext": " Relationships are non-linear",
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"plaintext": " In practical terms, this means a small perturbation may cause a large effect (see butterfly effect), a proportional effect, or even no effect at all. In linear systems, the effect is always directly proportional to cause. See nonlinearity.",
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"plaintext": " Relationships contain feedback loops",
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"plaintext": "Both negative (damping) and positive (amplifying) feedback are always found in complex systems. The effects of an element's behavior are fed back in such a way that the element itself is altered.",
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"plaintext": "Although arguably, humans have been studying complex systems for thousands of years, the modern scientific study of complex systems is relatively young in comparison to established fields of science such as physics and chemistry. The history of the scientific study of these systems follows several different research trends.",
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"plaintext": "In the area of mathematics, arguably the largest contribution to the study of complex systems was the discovery of chaos in deterministic systems, a feature of certain dynamical systems that is strongly related to nonlinearity. The study of neural networks was also integral in advancing the mathematics needed to study complex systems.",
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"plaintext": "The notion of self-organizing systems is tied with work in nonequilibrium thermodynamics, including that pioneered by chemist and Nobel laureate Ilya Prigogine in his study of dissipative structures. Even older is the work by Hartree-Fock on the quantum chemistry equations and later calculations of the structure of molecules which can be regarded as one of the earliest examples of emergence and emergent wholes in science.",
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"plaintext": "One complex system containing humans is the classical political economy of the Scottish Enlightenment, later developed by the Austrian school of economics, which argues that order in market systems is spontaneous (or emergent) in that it is the result of human action, but not the execution of any human design.",
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"plaintext": "Upon this, the Austrian school developed from the 19th to the early 20th century the economic calculation problem, along with the concept of dispersed knowledge, which were to fuel debates against the then-dominant Keynesian economics. This debate would notably lead economists, politicians, and other parties to explore the question of computational complexity.",
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"plaintext": "A pioneer in the field, and inspired by Karl Popper's and Warren Weaver's works, Nobel prize economist and philosopher Friedrich Hayek dedicated much of his work, from early to the late 20th century, to the study of complex phenomena, not constraining his work to human economies but venturing into other fields such as psychology, biology and cybernetics. Cybernetician Gregory Bateson played a key role in establishing the connection between anthropology and systems theory; he recognized that the interactive parts of cultures function much like ecosystems.",
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"plaintext": "While the explicit study of complex systems dates at least to the 1970s, the first research institute focused on complex systems, the Santa Fe Institute, was founded in 1984. Early Santa Fe Institute participants included physics Nobel laureates Murray Gell-Mann and Philip Anderson, economics Nobel laureate Kenneth Arrow, and Manhattan Project scientists George Cowan and Herb Anderson. Today, there are over 50 institutes and research centers focusing on complex systems.",
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"plaintext": "Since the late 1990s, the interest of mathematical physicists in researching economic phenomena has been on the rise. The proliferation of cross-disciplinary research with the application of solutions originated from the physics epistemology has entailed a gradual paradigm shift in the theoretical articulations and methodological approaches in economics, primarily in financial economics. The development has resulted in the emergence of a new branch of discipline, namely “econophysics,” which is broadly defined as a cross-discipline that applies statistical physics methodologies which are mostly based on the complex systems theory and the chaos theory for economics analysis.",
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"plaintext": "The 2021 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann, and Giorgio Parisi for their work to understand complex systems. Their work was used to create more accurate computer models of the effect of global warming on the Earth's climate.",
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"plaintext": "The traditional approach to dealing with complexity is to reduce or constrain it. Typically, this involves compartmentalization: dividing a large system into separate parts. Organizations, for instance, divide their work into departments that each deal with separate issues. Engineering systems are often designed using modular components. However, modular designs become susceptible to failure when issues arise that bridge the divisions.",
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"plaintext": "As projects and acquisitions become increasingly complex, companies and governments are challenged to find effective ways to manage mega-acquisitions such as the Army Future Combat Systems. Acquisitions such as the FCS rely on a web of interrelated parts which interact unpredictably. As acquisitions become more network-centric and complex, businesses will be forced to find ways to manage complexity while governments will be challenged to provide effective governance to ensure flexibility and resiliency.",
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"plaintext": "Over the last decades, within the emerging field of complexity economics, new predictive tools have been developed to explain economic growth. Such is the case with the models built by the Santa Fe Institute in 1989 and the more recent economic complexity index (ECI), introduced by the MIT physicist Cesar A. Hidalgo and the Harvard economist Ricardo Hausmann. Based on the ECI, Hausmann, Hidalgo and their team of The Observatory of Economic Complexity have produced GDP forecasts for the year 2020.",
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"plaintext": "Recurrence quantification analysis has been employed to detect the characteristic of business cycles and economic development. To this end, Orlando et al. developed the so-called recurrence quantification correlation index (RQCI) to test correlations of RQA on a sample signal and then investigated the application to business time series. The said index has been proven to detect hidden changes in time series. Further, Orlando et al., over an extensive dataset, shown that recurrence quantification analysis may help in anticipating transitions from laminar (i.e. regular) to turbulent (i.e. chaotic) phases such as USA GDP in 1949, 1953, etc. Last but not least, it has been demonstrated that recurrence quantification analysis can detect differences between macroeconomic variables and highlight hidden features of economic dynamics.",
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"plaintext": "Focusing on issues of student persistence with their studies, Forsman, Moll and Linder explore the \"viability of using complexity science as a frame to extend methodological applications for physics education research\", finding that \"framing a social network analysis within a complexity science perspective offers a new and powerful applicability across a broad range of PER topics\".",
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"plaintext": "Complexity science has been applied to living organisms, and in particular to biological systems. Within the emerging field of fractal physiology, bodily signals, such as heart rate or brain activity, are characterized using entropy or fractal indices. The goal is often to assess the state and the health of the underlying system, and diagnose potential disorders and illnesses.",
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"plaintext": "One of Friedrich Hayek's main contributions to early complexity theory is his distinction between the human capacity to predict the behavior of simple systems and its capacity to predict the behavior of complex systems through modeling. He believed that economics and the sciences of complex phenomena in general, which in his view included biology, psychology, and so on, could not be modeled after the sciences that deal with essentially simple phenomena like physics. Hayek would notably explain that complex phenomena, through modeling, can only allow pattern predictions, compared with the precise predictions that can be made out of non-complex phenomena.",
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"plaintext": "Complexity theory is rooted in chaos theory, which in turn has its origins more than a century ago in the work of the French mathematician Henri Poincaré. Chaos is sometimes viewed as extremely complicated information, rather than as an absence of order. Chaotic systems remain deterministic, though their long-term behavior can be difficult to predict with any accuracy. With perfect knowledge of the initial conditions and the relevant equations describing the chaotic system's behavior, one can theoretically make perfectly accurate predictions of the system, though in practice this is impossible to do with arbitrary accuracy. Ilya Prigogine argued that complexity is non-deterministic and gives no way whatsoever to precisely predict the future.",
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"plaintext": "The emergence of complexity theory shows a domain between deterministic order and randomness which is complex. This is referred to as the \"edge of chaos\".",
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"plaintext": "When one analyzes complex systems, sensitivity to initial conditions, for example, is not an issue as important as it is within chaos theory, in which it prevails. As stated by Colander, the study of complexity is the opposite of the study of chaos. Complexity is about how a huge number of extremely complicated and dynamic sets of relationships can generate some simple behavioral patterns, whereas chaotic behavior, in the sense of deterministic chaos, is the result of a relatively small number of non-linear interactions.",
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"plaintext": "Therefore, the main difference between chaotic systems and complex systems is their history. Chaotic systems do not rely on their history as complex ones do. Chaotic behavior pushes a system in equilibrium into chaotic order, which means, in other words, out of what we traditionally define as 'order'. On the other hand, complex systems evolve far from equilibrium at the edge of chaos. They evolve at a critical state built up by a history of irreversible and unexpected events, which physicist Murray Gell-Mann called \"an accumulation of frozen accidents\". In a sense chaotic systems can be regarded as a subset of complex systems distinguished precisely by this absence of historical dependence. Many real complex systems are, in practice and over long but finite periods, robust. However, they do possess the potential for radical qualitative change of kind whilst retaining systemic integrity. Metamorphosis serves as perhaps more than a metaphor for such transformations.",
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"plaintext": "A complex system is usually composed of many components and their interactions. Such a system can be represented by a network where nodes represent the components and links represent their interactions. For example, the Internet can be represented as a network composed of nodes (computers) and links (direct connections between computers). Other examples of complex networks include social networks, financial institution interdependencies, airline networks, and biological networks.",
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"plaintext": " Complexity Explained.",
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"plaintext": " L.A.N. Amaral and J.M. Ottino, Complex networks — augmenting the framework for the study of complex system, 2004.",
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"plaintext": " Walter Clemens, Jr., Complexity Science and World Affairs, SUNY Press, 2013.",
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"plaintext": " A. Gogolin, A. Nersesyan and A. Tsvelik, Theory of strongly correlated systems, Cambridge University Press, 1999.",
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"plaintext": " Nigel Goldenfeld and Leo P. Kadanoff, Simple Lessons from Complexity, 1999",
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"plaintext": " Kelly, K. (1995). Out of Control, Perseus Books Group.",
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"plaintext": " Syed M. Mehmud (2011), A Healthcare Exchange Complexity Model",
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"plaintext": " Preiser-Kapeller, Johannes, \"Calculating Byzantium. Social Network Analysis and Complexity Sciences as tools for the exploration of medieval social dynamics\". August 2010",
"section_idx": 8,
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"plaintext": " Stefan Thurner, Peter Klimek, Rudolf Hanel: Introduction to the Theory of Complex Systems, Oxford University Press, 2018, ",
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"plaintext": " SFI @30, Foundations & Frontiers (2014).",
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"plaintext": " (Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems)",
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"plaintext": " Complex systems in scholarpedia.",
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"plaintext": " Complex Systems Society",
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"plaintext": " (Australian) Complex systems research network.",
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"plaintext": " Complex Systems Modeling based on Luis M. Rocha, 1999.",
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"plaintext": " The Center for Complex Systems Research, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign",
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| [
"Complex_dynamics",
"Complex_systems_theory",
"Cybernetics",
"Emergence",
"Systems_theory",
"Systems_science",
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| 854,457 | 10,800 | 637 | 175 | 0 | 0 | complex system | system composed of many interacting components | []
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37,439 | 1,107,732,210 | AAI_RQ-7_Shadow | [
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"plaintext": "The AAI RQ-7 Shadow is an American unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) used by the United States Army, Australian Army, Swedish Army, Turkish Air Force and Italian Army for reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition and battle damage assessment. Launched from a trailer-mounted pneumatic catapult, it is recovered with the aid of arresting gear similar to jets on an aircraft carrier. Its gimbal-mounted, digitally stabilized, liquid nitrogen-cooled electro-optical/infrared (EO/IR) camera relays video in real time via a C-band line-of-sight data link to the ground control station (GCS).",
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"plaintext": "The US Army's 2nd Battalion, 13th Aviation Regiment at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, trains soldiers, Marines, and civilians in the operation and maintenance of the Shadow UAS. The Shadow is operated in the U.S. Army at brigade-level.",
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"plaintext": "The RQ-7 Shadow is the result of a continued US Army search for an effective battlefield UAS after the cancellation of the Alliant RQ-6 Outrider aircraft. AAI Corporation followed up their RQ-2 Pioneer with the Shadow 200, a similar, more refined UAS. In late 1999, the army selected the Shadow 200 to fill the tactical UAS requirement, redesignating it the RQ-7. Army requirements specified a UAS that used an aviation gasoline engine, could carry an electro-optic/infrared imaging sensor turret, and had a maximum range of 31 miles (50 kilometers) with four-hour, on-station endurance. The Shadow 200 offered at least twice that range. The specifications also dictated that UAS would be able to land in an athletic field.",
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"plaintext": "The RQ-7 Shadow 200 unmanned aircraft system is of a high-wing, constant chord pusher configuration with a twin-tailboom empennage and an inverted v-tail. The aircraft is powered by a AR741-1101 Wankel engine designed and manufactured by UAV Engines Ltd in the United Kingdom. Onboard electrical systems are powered by a GEC/Plessey 28 volt, direct current, 2kW generator.",
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"plaintext": "Currently, the primary load of the aircraft is the Israeli Aircraft Industries POP300 Plug-in Optical Payload which consists of a forward-looking infrared camera, a daytime TV camera with a selectable near-infrared filter and a laser pointer. The aircraft has fixed tricycle landing gear. Takeoffs are assisted by a trailer-mounted pneumatic launcher which can accelerate the 170kg (375 pound) aircraft to in .",
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"plaintext": "Landings are guided by a Tactical Automatic Landing System, developed by the Sierra Nevada Corporation, which consists of a ground-based micro-millimeter wavelength radar and a transponder carried on the aircraft. Once on the ground, a tailhook mounted on the aircraft catches an arresting wire connected to two disk brake drums which can stop the aircraft in less than .",
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"plaintext": "The aircraft is part of a larger system which currently uses the M1152-series of Humvees for ground transport of all ground and air equipment. A Shadow 200 system consists of four aircraft, three of which are transported in the Air Vehicle Transporter (AVT). The fourth is transported in a specially designed storage container to be used as a spare. The AVT also tows the launcher.",
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"plaintext": "The AVT Support Vehicle and trailer contain extra equipment to launch and recover the aircraft, such as the Tactical Automatic Landing System. Maintenance equipment for the aircraft is stored in the Maintenance Section Multifunctional (MSM) vehicle and trailer as well as the M1165 MSM Support Vehicle and its associated trailer.",
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"plaintext": "Two Humvee-mounted Ground Control Stations (GCS), also part of the Shadow 200 system, control the aircraft in flight. Each station has an associated Ground Data Terminal (GDT), which takes commands generated by the GCS and modulates them into radio waves received by the aircraft in flight. The GDT receives video imagery from the payload, as well as telemetry from the aircraft, and sends this information to the GCS.",
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"plaintext": "A trailer, towed by the M1165 GCS support vehicle, carries the GDT and houses a 10kW Tactical Quiet Generator to provide power for its associated GCS. The Shadow 200 system also includes a Portable Ground Control Station (PGCS) and Portable Ground Data Terminal (PGDT), which are stripped-down versions of the GCS and GDT designed as a backup to the two GCSs.",
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"plaintext": "A fielded Shadow 200 system requires 22 soldiers to operate it. Army modelling indicates that crew workload is highest at takeoff, and second-highest at landing.",
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"plaintext": "The Shadow is restricted from operating in bad weather conditions, not being meant to fly through rain and with sensors that cannot see through clouds.",
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"plaintext": "By July 2007, the Shadow platform accumulated 200,000 flight hours, doubling its previous record of 100,000 hours in 13 months. The system then surpassed 300,000 flight hours in April 2008, and by May 2010, the Shadow system had accumulated over 500,000 flight hours. As of 2011, the Shadow had logged over 709,000 hours. The Shadow platform has flown over 37,000 sorties in support of operations in Iraq and Afghanistan by US Army and Army National Guard units.",
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"plaintext": "On 6 August 2012, AAI announced that the Shadow had achieved 750,000 flight hours during more than 173,000 missions. More than 900,000 flight hours had been logged by Shadow UAVs by the end of June 2014.",
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"plaintext": "The Shadow did not see service in the Afghanistan campaign of 2001–2002, but it did fly operational missions in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The operating conditions in Iraq proved hard on the UAVs, with heat and sand leading to engine failures, resulting in a high-priority effort to find fixes with changes in system technology and operating procedures. Shadow UAS have since flown more than 600,000 combat hours in support of the Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.",
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"plaintext": "In 2007, the United States Marine Corps began to transition from the RQ-2 Pioneer to the RQ-7 Shadow. VMU-1, VMU-2 completed their transition from the RQ-2 to the RQ-7 and ScanEagle while VMU-3 and VMU-4 were activated as Shadow and ScanEagle elements. VMU-3 was activated on 12 September 2008 and VMU-4 conducted its inaugural flight on 28 September 2010 in Yuma, Arizona. In October 2007, VMU-1 became the first Marine Corps squadron to see combat in Iraq. VMU-2 deployed a Shadow detachment to Afghanistan in 2009, with VMU-3 following in January 2010.",
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"plaintext": "The Navy provided personnel for four Shadow platoons in support of army brigades deployed in Iraq. The first two platoons returned from 6-month tours in Iraq in January and February 2008. The Navy personnel went through the Army's training program at Fort Huachuca, Arizona.",
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"plaintext": "The U.S. Army is implementing a plan to reform its aerial scout capabilities by scrapping its fleet of OH-58 Kiowa helicopters from 2015 to 2019 and replacing them with AH-64 Apache attack helicopters teamed with Shadow and MQ-1C Gray Eagle UAVs. Using unmanned assets to scout ahead would put the pilots of manned aircraft out of reach of potential harm. Reformed combat aviation brigades (CAB) would consist of a battalion of 24 Apaches for attack missions and an armed reconnaissance squadron of another 24 Apaches teamed with three Shadow platoons totaling 12 RQ-7s overall; it would also include a Gray Eagle company. The manned-unmanned teaming of Apaches and Unmanned Aircraft (UA) can meet 80 percent of aerial scout requirements.",
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"plaintext": "On 16 March 2015, the 1st Battalion, 501st Aviation Regiment was reflagged the 3rd Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment, making it the first of 10 Apache battalions to be converted to a heavy attack reconnaissance squadron by eliminating the Kiowa scout helicopter and having three RQ-7 Shadow platoons organically assigned; the attack battalions will also be aligned with an MQ-1C Gray Eagle company assigned to each division. Moving Shadows from brigade combat team level to the battalions themselves reduces lines of communication, distance issues, and allows operators and pilots to better train and work together.",
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"plaintext": "In early July 2014, the U.S. Army sent RQ-7 Shadows to Baghdad as part of efforts to protect embassy personnel against Islamic State militant attacks, along with Apache attack helicopters which could use them through manned and unmanned teaming to share information and designate targets.",
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"plaintext": "On 29 July 2018, the U.S. Marine conducted its final launch of the RQ-7B during RIMPAC exercises before retiring it. Since first deploying with Marines to Iraq in October 2007, the aircraft eventually equipped four tactical UAS squadrons, flying some 39,000 hours during 11 operational deployments. The Shadow was replaced by the RQ-21 Blackjack, which was first deployed in 2014.",
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"plaintext": "In March 2019, the U.S. Army selected Martin UAV and AAI Corporation to \"provide unmanned aircraft systems for platoons to try out as candidates to replace the Shadow tactical UAS.\" The Army seeks better acoustics and runway independence as compared to the old Shadow, as well as lower equipment requirements. Shortly after the selection of the first teams, L3Harris Technologies and Arcturus-UAV (later under AeroVironment) were also picked to submit candidates. The four aircraft were used to evaluate requirements and assess new capabilities, and in August 2021 the Army decided to proceed with a competition for the Future Tactical Unmanned Aircraft System (FTUAS); a fielding decision is planned for 2025. The Army chose the AeroVironment Jump 20 in August 2022. The procurement will inform requirements for a second program increment, which will rely on a separate competitive acquisition.",
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"plaintext": "The RQ-7A was the initial version of the Shadow 200 UAS developed by AAI. The first low-rate initial-production systems were delivered to the US Army in 2002 with the first full-scale production systems being delivered in September 2003. The RQ-7A was long and had a wingspan of with a max takeoff weight. The aircraft's endurance ranged between 4 and 5.5 hours depending on mission. The \"A\" model aircraft also had the AR741-1100 engine which could use either 87 octane automotive gasoline or 100LL aviation fuel. The \"A\" model also featured IAI's POP200 payload.",
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"plaintext": "Production of Shadow aircraft shifted to a generally improved RQ-7B variant in the summer of 2004. The RQ-7B features new wings increased in length to . The new wings are not only more aerodynamically efficient, they are \"wet\" to increase fuel storage up to 44 liters for an endurance of up to 6 hours. The payload capability has been increased to .",
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"plaintext": "After reports from Iraq that engines were failing, in 2005, the Army's UAV project manager called for the use of 100LL, an aviation fuel, rather than the conventional 87 octane mogas. Avionics systems have been generally improved, and the new wing is designed to accommodate a communications relay package, which allows the aircraft to act as a relay station. This allows commanders or even the aircraft operators themselves to communicate via radio to the troops on ground in locations that would otherwise be \"dead\" to radio traffic.",
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"plaintext": "The Shadow can operate up to from its brigade tactical operations center, and recognize tactical vehicles up to above the ground at more than slant range.",
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"plaintext": "Other incremental improvements to the system include replacing the AR741-1100 engine with the AR741-1101 which increases reliability through the use of dual spark plugs as well as limiting the fuel to 100LL. Also, the older POP200 payload was replaced with the newer POP300 system. In February 2010, AAI began a fleet update program to improve the Shadow system. The improvements include installing the wiring harnesses and software updates for IAI's POP300D payload which includes a designator for guiding laser-guided bombs.",
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"plaintext": "Other improvements in the program will include an electronic fuel injection engine and fuel system to replace the AR741-1101's carburetted engine. The most visible improvement to the system will be a wider wing of in span which is designed to increase fuel capacity and allow for mission endurance of almost 9 hours. The new wings will also include hardpoints for external munitions.",
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"plaintext": "A joint Army-Marine program is testing IED jamming on a Shadow at MCAS Yuma. Another joint effort is to view a ground area from 3,650 m (12,000 feet).",
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"plaintext": "The Army is now proposing the upgraded Shadow 152A, which includes Soldier Radio Waveform software, which allows both the command post and their troops to see the images that the UAV is projecting, as long as they are on the same frequency. It also increases the distance and area of communication.",
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"plaintext": "Preliminary TCDL testing conducted at Dugway Proving Ground was a success. This led to an estimated fielding date of May 2010 for TCDL. In March 2015, the first Shadow unit was equipped with the upgraded RQ-7BV2 Shadow version. New capabilities for the BV2 include the TCDL, encryption of video and control data-links, software that allows interoperability between other UAS platforms, integration of a common control station and control terminal for all Army UAS platforms, an electronic fuel-injection engine, and increased endurance to nine hours through a lengthened wingspan of , with weight increased to . Shadow systems are being upgraded at a rate of 2-3 per month, with all Army Shadows planned to become BV2s by 2019.",
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"plaintext": "In 2020, the Army introduced the Shadow Block III. The configuration allows the Shadow to fly in rainy conditions of up to two inches per hour, a four-fold increase over previous versions, carries the L3 Wescam MX-10 EO/IR camera with enhanced image collection, has a Joint Tactical Radio System to enable communications relay, and uses a more reliable and powerful engine configuration with reduced noise.",
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"plaintext": "On 19 April 2010 the Army issued a \"solicitation for sources sought\" from defense contractors for a munition for the Shadow system with a deadline for proposals due no later than 10 May 2010. Although no specific munition has been chosen yet, some possible munitions include the Raytheon Pyros bomb, the General Dynamics 81mm 4.5kg (10-pound) air-dropped guided mortar, as well as the QuickMEDS system for delivering medical supplies to remote and stranded troops.",
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"plaintext": "The Army subsequently slowed work, and the Marine Corps then took the lead on arming the RQ-7 Shadow. Raytheon has conducted successful flight tests with the Small Tactical Munition, and Lockheed Martin has tested the Shadow Hawk glide weapon from an RQ-7. On 1 November 2012, General Dynamics successfully demonstrated their guided 81mm Air Dropped Mortar, with three launches at hitting within seven meters of the target grid.",
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"plaintext": "As of August 2011, the Marine Corps has received official clearance to experiment with armed RQ-7s, and requires AAI to select a precision munition ready for deployment. AAI was awarded $10 million for this in December 2011, and claims a weapon has already been fielded by the Shadow. In 2014, Textron launched the Fury precision weapon from a Shadow 200.",
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"plaintext": "By May 2015, the Marine Corps had run out of funding for weaponizing the RQ-7, and the Army had shown little interest in continuing the effort. The Army's stance is that the Shadow's primary capability is persistent surveillance, while there are many other ways to drop bombs on targets and adding that to the Shadow would add weight and decrease endurance.",
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"plaintext": "A test version called STTB flew in summer 2011. AAI is developing a bigger version called M2 with a blended wing to include a 3-cylinder Lycoming heavy fuel engine, and began flight testing in August 2012. The Shadow M2 has a conformal blended body that reduces drag, wingspan increased to , and is heavier. It can fly for 16 hours at altitudes up to . Its endurance and service ceiling are comparable to Group 4 UASs like the MQ-1 Predator, so the company is pitching the M2 as a budget-conscious alternative to larger unmanned aircraft.",
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"plaintext": "It has a greater payload to carry synthetic aperture radar (SAR), wide-area surveillance, navigation, signals intelligence, and electronic warfare packages. It also has the ability to be controlled beyond line-of-sight through a SATCOM link. Although the M2 uses the same internal components as the RQ-7B Shadow 200 and is compatible with existing support equipment and ground infrastructure, its greater weight necessitates changes to the existing launcher. The Shadow M2 uses 80-85 percent of the components of the Shadow V2, while allowing for an additional of capability with total airframe weight increased to .",
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"plaintext": "In June 2017, Textron introduced the Nightwarden TUAS as a production-ready model of the developmental Shadow M2, the change in name due to significant improvements and enhancements to the system such as greater flexibility and combat capability, SATCOM features, and enhanced command-and-control. The aircraft has a range of , maximum speed of , endurance of 15 hours, can fly at an altitude of , and has a maximum takeoff weight of with a dual-payload bay with a capacity of .",
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"plaintext": "AAI has also built a scaled-up Pioneer derivative known as the \"Shadow 600\". It also resembles a Pioneer, except that the outer panels of the wings are distinctively swept back, and it has a stronger Wankel engine, the UAV EL 801, with . A number of Shadow 600s are in service in several nations, including Romania.",
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"plaintext": "AAI, in conjunction with Textron sister company Bell Helicopter, intends to modify two Shadows with a Carter rotor on top for vertical take-off and landing, eliminating the need for the recovery and pneumatic launcher systems, while increasing payload and endurance. , it is expected to fly in 2012. AAI also expected to use the SR/C technology for the Shadow Knight, a powered-rotor two-propeller surveillance aircraft for the US Navy MRMUAS program; however, the MRMUAS program was cancelled in 2012.",
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"plaintext": "Australian Army: The Australian Government has bought 18 aircraft and has replaced ScanEagle, and began using them in Afghanistan in May 2012.",
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"plaintext": " Italian Army: In July 2010, the Italian army ordered four Shadow 200 systems.",
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"plaintext": " Romanian Air Force: The Romanian Air Force has purchased 11 Shadow 600s, a larger, fuel injected Shadow variant.",
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"plaintext": " Swedish Army: 8 aircraft (2 systems) were delivered early in 2011. These systems were then modified by SAAB to be more suited for Swedish use, named UAV03 Örnen. Set to be replaced.",
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"plaintext": " Turkish Air Force: Turkish Air Force; The Turkish Air Force also operates 9 RQ-7 Shadow 600s.",
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"plaintext": " United States Army: 450 RQ-7Bs, 20 more on order plus additional 68 ordered",
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"plaintext": "Doug Lasley",
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"plaintext": "United States Marine Corps",
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"plaintext": "On 15 August 2011, a US Air Force C-130 cargo plane collided with a RQ-7 while on approach to FOB Sharana in Paktika Province, Afghanistan. The C-130 made an emergency landing with damage to two engines and one wing, while the RQ-7 was destroyed completely. The collision caused the cargo aircraft to be grounded for several months while being fixed, while the RQ-7 wreckage was never recovered. Early reports indicating that the mishap occurred when the C-130 took off without clearance were incorrect. The investigating board determined that the mishap was largely due to poor local air traffic control training and supervision.",
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"plaintext": "On 3 April 2014, a Pennsylvania Army National Guard RQ-7 participating in training exercises at Fort Indiantown Gap crashed near an elementary school in Pennsylvania and was then hit by a civilian vehicle destroying the drone. No injuries were reported.",
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"plaintext": "On 10 July 2019, an Army RQ-7 operated by the 25th Infantry Division (United States) crashed in the Waianae mountains near Schofield Barracks.",
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"plaintext": "On 17 July 2019, a Wisconsin National Guard RQ-7 lost its link to its operator at Volk Field during a training exercise. The drone went down into trees south of Interstate 90/94 between Oakdale and Camp Douglas. No injuries or damage were reported. The drone suffered \"significant\" damage.",
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"plaintext": "Note: When outfitted with IE (Increased Endurance) Wings, the CRP (Communications Relay Package) and the 1102 engine, endurance time is increased to 9 hours, wing span is increased to approx. , and the service ceiling is 5,500m (18,000ft) (only with authorization).",
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"section_name": "Specifications (200 Family)",
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"plaintext": " This article contains material that originally came from the web article Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by Greg Goebel, which exists in the Public Domain.",
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"plaintext": " RQ-7 Shadow 200 Tactical UAV",
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"section_name": "External links",
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"plaintext": " Shadow TUAV update",
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},
{
"plaintext": " UAV payloads",
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},
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"plaintext": " Iran Protests U.S. Aerial Drones (RQ-7 crashes in Iran), The Washington Post, 8 November 2005",
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|
37,441 | 1,107,912,901 | Nitrous_oxide | [
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide (dinitrogen oxide or dinitrogen monoxide), commonly known as laughing gas, nitrous, or nos, is a chemical compound, an oxide of nitrogen with the formula . At room temperature, it is a colourless non-flammable gas, and has a slightly sweet scent and taste. At elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidiser similar to molecular oxygen.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide has significant medical uses, especially in surgery and dentistry, for its anaesthetic and pain reducing effects. Its colloquial name, \"laughing gas\", coined by Humphry Davy, is due to the euphoric effects upon inhaling it, a property that has led to its recreational use as a dissociative anaesthetic. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is also used as an oxidiser in rocket propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide's atmospheric concentration reached 333parts per billion (ppb) in 2020, increasing at a rate of about 1ppb annually. It is a major scavenger of stratospheric ozone, with an impact comparable to that of CFCs. Global accounting of sources and sinks over the decade ending 2016 indicates that about 40% of the average 17TgN/yr (Teragrams of Nitrogen per year) of emissions originated from human activity, and shows that emissions growth chiefly came from expanding agriculture and industry sources within emerging economies. Being the third most important long-lived greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide also substantially contributes to global warming.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is used as a propellant, and has a variety of applications from rocketry to making whipped cream. It is abused as a recreational drug for its potential to induce a brief \"high\"; recreational users are often unaware of its neurotoxicity and potential to cause neurological damage.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide may be used as an oxidiser in a rocket motor. It has advantages over other oxidisers in that it is much less toxic, and because of its stability at room temperature it is also easier to store and relatively safe to carry on a flight. As a secondary benefit, it may be decomposed readily to form breathing air. Its high density and low storage pressure (when maintained at low temperature) enable it to be highly competitive with stored high-pressure gas systems.",
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"plaintext": "In a 1914 patent, American rocket pioneer Robert Goddard suggested nitrous oxide and gasoline as possible propellants for a liquid-fuelled rocket. Nitrous oxide has been the oxidiser of choice in several hybrid rocket designs (using solid fuel with a liquid or gaseous oxidiser). The combination of nitrous oxide with hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene fuel has been used by SpaceShipOne and others. It also is notably used in amateur and high power rocketry with various plastics as the fuel.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide also may be used in a monopropellant rocket. In the presence of a heated catalyst, will decompose exothermically into nitrogen and oxygen, at a temperature of approximately . Because of the large heat release, the catalytic action rapidly becomes secondary, as thermal autodecomposition becomes dominant. In a vacuum thruster, this may provide a monopropellant specific impulse (I) of as much as 180 s. While noticeably less than the I available from hydrazine thrusters (monopropellant or bipropellant with dinitrogen tetroxide), the decreased toxicity makes nitrous oxide an option worth investigating.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is said to deflagrate at approximately at a pressure of 309psi (21atmospheres). At 600, for example, the required ignition energy is only 6joules, whereas at 130psi a 2,500-joule ignition energy input is insufficient.",
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"plaintext": "In vehicle racing, nitrous oxide (often referred to as just \"nitrous\") allows the engine to burn more fuel by providing more oxygen during combustion. The increase in oxygen allows for an increase in the injection of fuel, allowing the engine to produce more engine power. The gas is not flammable at a low pressure/temperature, but it delivers more oxygen than atmospheric air by breaking down at elevated temperatures, about 570 degrees F (~300C). Therefore, it often is mixed with another fuel that is easier to deflagrate. Nitrous oxide is a strong oxidising agent, roughly equivalent to hydrogen peroxide, and much stronger than oxygen gas.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is stored as a compressed liquid; the evaporation and expansion of liquid nitrous oxide in the intake manifold causes a large drop in intake charge temperature, resulting in a denser charge, further allowing more air/fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. Sometimes nitrous oxide is injected into (or prior to) the intake manifold, whereas other systems directly inject, right before the cylinder (direct port injection) to increase power.",
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"plaintext": "The technique was used during World War II by Luftwaffe aircraft with the GM-1 system to boost the power output of aircraft engines. Originally meant to provide the Luftwaffe standard aircraft with superior high-altitude performance, technological considerations limited its use to extremely high altitudes. Accordingly, it was only used by specialised planes such as high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft, high-speed bombers and high-altitude interceptor aircraft. It sometimes could be found on Luftwaffe aircraft also fitted with another engine-boost system, MW 50, a form of water injection for aviation engines that used methanol for its boost capabilities.",
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"plaintext": "One of the major problems of using nitrous oxide in a reciprocating engine is that it can produce enough power to damage or destroy the engine. Very large power increases are possible, and if the mechanical structure of the engine is not properly reinforced, the engine may be severely damaged, or destroyed, during this kind of operation. It is very important with nitrous oxide augmentation of petrol engines to maintain proper operating temperatures and fuel levels to prevent \"pre-ignition\", or \"detonation\" (sometimes referred to as \"knock\"). Most problems that are associated with nitrous oxide do not come from mechanical failure due to the power increases. Since nitrous oxide allows a much denser charge into the cylinder, it dramatically increases cylinder pressures. The increased pressure and temperature can cause problems such as melting the piston or valves. It also may crack or warp the piston or head and cause pre-ignition due to uneven heating.",
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"plaintext": "Automotive-grade liquid nitrous oxide differs slightly from medical-grade nitrous oxide. A small amount of sulfur dioxide () is added to prevent substance abuse. Multiple washes through a base (such as sodium hydroxide) can remove this, decreasing the corrosive properties observed when is further oxidised during combustion into sulfuric acid, making emissions cleaner.",
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"plaintext": "The gas is approved for use as a food additive (E number: E942), specifically as an aerosol spray propellant. Its most common uses in this context are in aerosol whipped cream canisters and cooking sprays.",
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"plaintext": "The gas is extremely soluble in fatty compounds. In aerosol whipped cream, it is dissolved in the fatty cream until it leaves the can, when it becomes gaseous and thus creates foam. Used in this way, it produces whipped cream which is four times the volume of the liquid, whereas whipping air into cream only produces twice the volume. If air were used as a propellant, oxygen would accelerate rancidification of the butterfat, but nitrous oxide inhibits such degradation. Carbon dioxide cannot be used for whipped cream because it is acidic in water, which would curdle the cream and give it a seltzer-like \"sparkling\" sensation.",
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"plaintext": "The whipped cream produced with nitrous oxide is unstable, however, and will return to a more liquid state within half an hour to one hour. Thus, the method is not suitable for decorating food that will not be served immediately.",
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"plaintext": "During December 2016, some manufacturers reported a shortage of aerosol whipped creams in the United States due to an explosion at the Air Liquide nitrous oxide facility in Florida in late August. With a major facility offline, the disruption caused a shortage resulting in the company diverting the supply of nitrous oxide to medical clients rather than to food manufacturing. The shortage came during the Christmas and holiday season when canned whipped cream use is normally at its highest.",
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"plaintext": "Similarly, cooking spray, which is made from various types of oils combined with lecithin (an emulsifier), may use nitrous oxide as a propellant. Other propellants used in cooking spray include food-grade alcohol and propane.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide has been used in dentistry and surgery, as an anaesthetic and analgesic, since 1844. In the early days, the gas was administered through simple inhalers consisting of a breathing bag made of rubber cloth. Today, the gas is administered in hospitals by means of an automated relative analgesia machine, with an anaesthetic vaporiser and a medical ventilator, that delivers a precisely dosed and breath-actuated flow of nitrous oxide mixed with oxygen in a 2:1 ratio.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is a weak general anaesthetic, and so is generally not used alone in general anaesthesia, but used as a carrier gas (mixed with oxygen) for more powerful general anaesthetic drugs such as sevoflurane or desflurane. It has a minimum alveolar concentration of 105% and a blood/gas partition coefficient of 0.46. The use of nitrous oxide in anaesthesia, however, can increase the risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting.",
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"plaintext": "Dentists use a simpler machine which only delivers an / mixture for the patient to inhale while conscious. The patient is kept conscious throughout the procedure, and retains adequate mental faculties to respond to questions and instructions from the dentist.",
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"plaintext": "Inhalation of nitrous oxide is used frequently to relieve pain associated with childbirth, trauma, oral surgery and acute coronary syndrome (includes heart attacks). Its use during labour has been shown to be a safe and effective aid for birthing women. Its use for acute coronary syndrome is of unknown benefit.",
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"plaintext": "In Britain and Canada, Entonox and Nitronox are used commonly by ambulance crews (including unregistered practitioners) as rapid and highly effective analgesic gas.",
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"plaintext": "Fifty percent nitrous oxide can be considered for use by trained non-professional first aid responders in prehospital settings, given the relative ease and safety of administering 50% nitrous oxide as an analgesic. The rapid reversibility of its effect would also prevent it from precluding diagnosis.",
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"plaintext": "Recreational inhalation of nitrous oxide, with the purpose of causing euphoria and/or slight hallucinations, began as a phenomenon for the British upper class in 1799, known as \"laughing gas parties\".",
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"plaintext": "Starting in the nineteenth century, widespread availability of the gas for medical and culinary purposes allowed the recreational use to expand greatly throughout the world. In the United Kingdom, as of 2014, nitrous oxide was estimated to be used by almost half a million young people at nightspots, festivals and parties.",
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"plaintext": "Widespread recreational use of the drug throughout the UK was featured in the 2017 Vice documentary Inside The Laughing Gas Black Market, in which journalist Matt Shea met with dealers of the drug who stole it from hospitals.",
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"plaintext": "A significant issue cited in London's press is the effect of nitrous oxide canister littering, which is highly visible and causes significant complaint from communities.",
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"plaintext": "Recreational users often falsely perceive nitrous oxide as a route to a \"safe high\", and are unaware of its potential for causing neurological damage. In Australia, recreation use became a public health concern following a rise in reported cases of neurotoxicity and a rise in emergency room admissions, and in Southern Australia legislation was passed in 2020 to restrict canister sale.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is a significant occupational hazard for surgeons, dentists and nurses. Because nitrous oxide is minimally metabolised in humans (with a rate of 0.004%), it retains its potency when exhaled into the room by the patient, and can pose an intoxicating and prolonged exposure hazard to the clinic staff if the room is poorly ventilated. Where nitrous oxide is administered, a continuous-flow fresh-air ventilation system or scavenger system is used to prevent a waste-gas buildup.",
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"plaintext": "The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health recommends that workers' exposure to nitrous oxide should be controlled during the administration of anaesthetic gas in medical, dental and veterinary operators. It set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 25 ppm (46mg/m3) to escaped anaesthetic.",
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"plaintext": "Exposure to nitrous oxide causes short-term decreases in mental performance, audiovisual ability and manual dexterity. These effects coupled with the induced spatial and temporal disorientation could result in physical harm to the user from environmental hazards.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is neurotoxic and long-term or habitual use can cause severe neurological damage.",
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"plaintext": "Like other NMDA receptor antagonists, it has been suggested that produces neurotoxicity in the form of Olney's lesions in rodents upon prolonged (several hour) exposure. New research has arisen suggesting that Olney's lesions do not occur in humans, however, and similar drugs such as ketamine are now believed not to be acutely neurotoxic. It has been argued that, because is rapidly expelled from the body under normal circumstances, it is less likely to be neurotoxic than other NMDAR antagonists. Indeed, in rodents, short-term exposure results in only mild injury that is rapidly reversible, and neuronal death occurs only after constant and sustained exposure. Nitrous oxide also may cause neurotoxicity after extended exposure because of hypoxia. This is especially true of non-medical formulations such as whipped-cream chargers (also known as \"whippets\" or \"nangs\"), which never contain oxygen, since oxygen makes cream rancid.",
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"plaintext": "In heavy (≥400 g or ≥200 L of gas in one session) or frequent (regular, e.g. daily or weekly) users reported to poison control centers, signs of peripheral neuropathy have been noted: the presence of ataxia (gait abnormalities) or paresthesia (perception of abnormal sensations, e.g. tingling, numbness, prickling, mostly in the extremities). These are considered an early sign of neurological damage and indicates chronic toxicity.",
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"plaintext": "Additionally, nitrous oxide depletes vitamin B levels. This can cause serious neurotoxicity if the user has preexisting vitamin B deficiency.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide at 75% by volume reduces ischemia-induced neuronal death induced by occlusion of the middle cerebral artery in rodents, and decreases NMDA-induced Ca2+ influx in neuronal cell cultures, a critical event involved in excitotoxicity.",
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"plaintext": "Occupational exposure to ambient nitrous oxide has been associated with DNA damage, due to interruptions in DNA synthesis. This correlation is dose-dependent and does not appear to extend to casual recreational use; however, further research is needed to confirm the duration and quantity of exposure needed to cause damage.",
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"plaintext": "If pure nitrous oxide is inhaled without oxygen mixed in, this can eventually lead to oxygen deprivation resulting in loss of blood pressure, fainting and even heart attacks. This can occur if the user inhales large quantities continuously, as with a strap-on mask connected to a gas canister. It can also happen if the user engages in excessive breath-holding or uses any other inhalation system that cuts off a supply of fresh air. A further risk is that symptoms of frostbite can occur on the lips, larynx and bronchi if the gas is inhaled directly from the gas container. Therefore, nitrous oxide is often inhaled from condoms or balloons.",
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"plaintext": "Long-term exposure to nitrous oxide may cause vitamin B deficiency. It inactivates the cobalamin form of vitamin B by oxidation. Symptoms of vitamin B deficiency, including sensory neuropathy, myelopathy and encephalopathy, may occur within days or weeks of exposure to nitrous oxide anaesthesia in people with subclinical vitamin B deficiency.",
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"plaintext": "Symptoms are treated with high doses of vitamin B, but recovery can be slow and incomplete.",
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"plaintext": "People with normal vitamin B levels have stores to make the effects of nitrous oxide insignificant, unless exposure is repeated and prolonged (nitrous oxide abuse). Vitamin B levels should be checked in people with risk factors for vitamin B deficiency prior to using nitrous oxide anaesthesia.",
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"plaintext": "Several experimental studies in rats indicate that chronic exposure of pregnant females to nitrous oxide may have adverse effects on the developing fetus.",
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"plaintext": "At room temperature () the saturated vapour pressure is 50.525 bar, rising up to 72.45bar at —the critical temperature. The pressure curve is thus unusually sensitive to temperature.",
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"plaintext": "As with many strong oxidisers, contamination of parts with fuels have been implicated in rocketry accidents, where small quantities of nitrous/fuel mixtures explode due to \"water hammer\"-like effects (sometimes called \"dieseling\"—heating due to adiabatic compression of gases can reach decomposition temperatures). Some common building materials such as stainless steel and aluminium can act as fuels with strong oxidisers such as nitrous oxide, as can contaminants that may ignite due to adiabatic compression.",
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"plaintext": "There also have been incidents where nitrous oxide decomposition in plumbing has led to the explosion of large tanks.",
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"plaintext": "The pharmacological mechanism of action of in medicine is not fully known. However, it has been shown to directly modulate a broad range of ligand-gated ion channels, and this likely plays a major role in many of its effects. It moderately blocks NMDAR and β-subunit-containing nACh channels, weakly inhibits AMPA, kainate, GABA and 5-HT receptors, and slightly potentiates GABA and glycine receptors. It also has been shown to activate two-pore-domain channels. While affects quite a few ion channels, its anaesthetic, hallucinogenic and euphoriant effects are likely caused predominantly, or fully, via inhibition of NMDA receptor-mediated currents. In addition to its effects on ion channels, may act to imitate nitric oxide (NO) in the central nervous system, and this may be related to its analgesic and anxiolytic properties. Nitrous oxide is 30 to 40 times more soluble than nitrogen.",
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"plaintext": "The effects of inhaling sub-anaesthetic doses of nitrous oxide have been known to vary, based on several factors, including settings and individual differences; however, from his discussion, Jay (2008) suggests that it has been reliably known to induce the following states and sensations:",
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"plaintext": " Intoxication",
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"plaintext": " Euphoria/dysphoria",
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"plaintext": " Spatial disorientation",
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"plaintext": " Reduced pain sensitivity",
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"plaintext": "A minority of users also will present with uncontrolled vocalisations and muscular spasms. These effects generally disappear minutes after removal of the nitrous oxide source.",
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"plaintext": "In rats, stimulates the mesolimbic reward pathway by inducing dopamine release and activating dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens, presumably through antagonisation of NMDA receptors localised in the system. This action has been implicated in its euphoric effects and, notably, appears to augment its analgesic properties as well.",
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"plaintext": "It is remarkable, however, that in mice, blocks amphetamine-induced carrier-mediated dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and behavioural sensitisation, abolishes the conditioned place preference (CPP) of cocaine and morphine, and does not produce reinforcing (or aversive) effects of its own. Effects of CPP of in rats are mixed, consisting of reinforcement, aversion and no change. In contrast, it is a positive reinforcer in squirrel monkeys, and is well known as a drug of abuse in humans. These discrepancies in response to may reflect species variation or methodological differences. In human clinical studies, was found to produce mixed responses, similarly to rats, reflecting high subjective individual variability.",
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"plaintext": "In behavioural tests of anxiety, a low dose of is an effective anxiolytic, and this anti-anxiety effect is associated with enhanced activity of GABA receptors, as it is partially reversed by benzodiazepine receptor antagonists. Mirroring this, animals that have developed tolerance to the anxiolytic effects of benzodiazepines are partially tolerant to . Indeed, in humans given 30% , benzodiazepine receptor antagonists reduced the subjective reports of feeling \"high\", but did not alter psychomotor performance, in human clinical studies.",
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"plaintext": "The analgesic effects of are linked to the interaction between the endogenous opioid system and the descending noradrenergic system. When animals are given morphine chronically, they develop tolerance to its pain-killing effects, and this also renders the animals tolerant to the analgesic effects of . Administration of antibodies that bind and block the activity of some endogenous opioids (not β-endorphin) also block the antinociceptive effects of . Drugs that inhibit the breakdown of endogenous opioids also potentiate the antinociceptive effects of . Several experiments have shown that opioid receptor antagonists applied directly to the brain block the antinociceptive effects of , but these drugs have no effect when injected into the spinal cord.",
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"plaintext": "Apart from an indirect action, nitrous oxide, like morphine also interacts directly with the endogenous opioid system by binding at opioid receptor binding sites.",
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"plaintext": "Conversely, α-adrenoceptor antagonists block the pain-reducing effects of when given directly to the spinal cord, but not when applied directly to the brain. Indeed, α-adrenoceptor knockout mice or animals depleted in norepinephrine are nearly completely resistant to the antinociceptive effects of . Apparently -induced release of endogenous opioids causes disinhibition of brainstem noradrenergic neurons, which release norepinephrine into the spinal cord and inhibit pain signalling. Exactly how causes the release of endogenous opioid peptides remains uncertain.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is a colourless, non-toxic gas with a faint, sweet odour.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide supports combustion by releasing the dipolar bonded oxygen radical, and can thus relight a glowing splint.",
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"plaintext": " is inert at room temperature and has few reactions. At elevated temperatures, its reactivity increases. For example, nitrous oxide reacts with at to give :",
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"plaintext": " 2 + → + NaOH + ",
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"plaintext": "The above reaction is the route adopted by the commercial chemical industry to produce azide salts, which are used as detonators.",
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"plaintext": "The gas was first synthesised in 1772 by English natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley who called it dephlogisticated nitrous air (see phlogiston theory) or inflammable nitrous air. Priestley published his discovery in the book Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1775), where he described how to produce the preparation of \"nitrous air diminished\", by heating iron filings dampened with nitric acid.",
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"plaintext": "The first important use of nitrous oxide was made possible by Thomas Beddoes and James Watt, who worked together to publish the book Considerations on the Medical Use and on the Production of Factitious Airs (1794). This book was important for two reasons. First, James Watt had invented a novel machine to produce \"factitious airs\" (including nitrous oxide) and a novel \"breathing apparatus\" to inhale the gas. Second, the book also presented the new medical theories by Thomas Beddoes, that tuberculosis and other lung diseases could be treated by inhalation of \"Factitious Airs\".",
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"plaintext": "The machine to produce \"Factitious Airs\" had three parts: a furnace to burn the needed material, a vessel with water where the produced gas passed through in a spiral pipe (for impurities to be \"washed off\"), and finally the gas cylinder with a gasometer where the gas produced, \"air\", could be tapped into portable air bags (made of airtight oily silk). The breathing apparatus consisted of one of the portable air bags connected with a tube to a mouthpiece. With this new equipment being engineered and produced by 1794, the way was paved for clinical trials, which began in 1798 when Thomas Beddoes established the \"Pneumatic Institution for Relieving Diseases by Medical Airs\" in Hotwells (Bristol). In the basement of the building, a large-scale machine was producing the gases under the supervision of a young Humphry Davy, who was encouraged to experiment with new gases for patients to inhale. The first important work of Davy was examination of the nitrous oxide, and the publication of his results in the book: Researches, Chemical and Philosophical (1800). In that publication, Davy notes the analgesic effect of nitrous oxide at page 465 and its potential to be used for surgical operations at page 556. Davy coined the name \"laughing gas\" for nitrous oxide.",
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"plaintext": "Despite Davy's discovery that inhalation of nitrous oxide could relieve a conscious person from pain, another 44 years elapsed before doctors attempted to use it for anaesthesia. The use of nitrous oxide as a recreational drug at \"laughing gas parties\", primarily arranged for the British upper class, became an immediate success beginning in 1799. While the effects of the gas generally make the user appear stuporous, dreamy and sedated, some people also \"get the giggles\" in a state of euphoria, and frequently erupt in laughter.",
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"plaintext": "One of the earliest commercial producers in the U.S. was George Poe, cousin of the poet Edgar Allan Poe, who also was the first to liquefy the gas.",
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"plaintext": "The first time nitrous oxide was used as an anaesthetic drug in the treatment of a patient was when dentist Horace Wells, with assistance by Gardner Quincy Colton and John Mankey Riggs, demonstrated insensitivity to pain from a dental extraction on 11 December 1844. In the following weeks, Wells treated the first 12 to 15 patients with nitrous oxide in Hartford, Connecticut, and, according to his own record, only failed in two cases. In spite of these convincing results having been reported by Wells to the medical society in Boston in December 1844, this new method was not immediately adopted by other dentists. The reason for this was most likely that Wells, in January 1845 at his first public demonstration to the medical faculty in Boston, had been partly unsuccessful, leaving his colleagues doubtful regarding its efficacy and safety. The method did not come into general use until 1863, when Gardner Quincy Colton successfully started to use it in all his \"Colton Dental Association\" clinics, that he had just established in New Haven and New York City. Over the following three years, Colton and his associates successfully administered nitrous oxide to more than 25,000 patients. Today, nitrous oxide is used in dentistry as an anxiolytic, as an adjunct to local anaesthetic.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide was not found to be a strong enough anaesthetic for use in major surgery in hospital settings, however. Instead, diethyl ether, being a stronger and more potent anaesthetic, was demonstrated and accepted for use in October 1846, along with chloroform in 1847. When Joseph Thomas Clover invented the \"gas-ether inhaler\" in 1876, however, it became a common practice at hospitals to initiate all anaesthetic treatments with a mild flow of nitrous oxide, and then gradually increase the anaesthesia with the stronger ether or chloroform. Clover's gas-ether inhaler was designed to supply the patient with nitrous oxide and ether at the same time, with the exact mixture being controlled by the operator of the device. It remained in use by many hospitals until the 1930s. Although hospitals today use a more advanced anaesthetic machine, these machines still use the same principle launched with Clover's gas-ether inhaler, to initiate the anaesthesia with nitrous oxide, before the administration of a more powerful anaesthetic.",
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"plaintext": "Colton's popularisation of nitrous oxide led to its adoption by a number of less than reputable quacksalvers, who touted it as a cure for consumption, scrofula, catarrh and other diseases of the blood, throat and lungs. Nitrous oxide treatment was administered and licensed as a patent medicine by the likes of C. L. Blood and Jerome Harris in Boston and Charles E. Barney of Chicago.",
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"plaintext": "Reviewing various methods of producing nitrous oxide is published.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is prepared on an industrial scale by careful heating of ammonium nitrate at about 250°C, which decomposes into nitrous oxide and water vapour.",
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"plaintext": " → 2 + ",
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"plaintext": "The addition of various phosphate salts favours formation of a purer gas at slightly lower temperatures. This reaction may be difficult to control, resulting in detonation.",
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"plaintext": "The decomposition of ammonium nitrate is also a common laboratory method for preparing the gas. Equivalently, it can be obtained by heating a mixture of sodium nitrate and ammonium sulfate:",
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"plaintext": "2 + () → + 2 + 4 ",
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"plaintext": "Another method involves the reaction of urea, nitric acid and sulfuric acid:",
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"plaintext": "2 (NH)CO + 2 + → 2 + 2 + (NH)SO + 2 ",
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"plaintext": "Direct oxidation of ammonia with a manganese dioxide-bismuth oxide catalyst has been reported: cf. Ostwald process.",
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"plaintext": "2 + 2 → + 3 ",
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"plaintext": "Hydroxylammonium chloride reacts with sodium nitrite to give nitrous oxide. If the nitrite is added to the hydroxylamine solution, the only remaining by-product is salt water. If the hydroxylamine solution is added to the nitrite solution (nitrite is in excess), however, then toxic higher oxides of nitrogen also are formed:",
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"plaintext": " + → + NaCl + 2 ",
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"plaintext": "Treating with and HCl also has been demonstrated:",
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"plaintext": "2 + 8 HCl + 4 → 5 + 4 + ",
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"plaintext": "Hyponitrous acid decomposes to NO and water with a half-life of 16 days at 25°C at pH 1–3.",
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"plaintext": "HNO→ HO + NO",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is a minor component of Earth's atmosphere and is an active part of the planetary nitrogen cycle. Based on analysis of air samples gathered from sites around the world, its concentration surpassed 330ppb in 2017. The growth rate of about 1ppb per year has also accelerated during recent decades. Nitrous oxide's atmospheric abundance has grown more than 20% from a base level of about 270ppb in year 1750.",
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"plaintext": "Important atmospheric properties of are summarized in the following table:",
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"plaintext": "In October 2020 scientists published a comprehensive quantification of global sources and sinks. They report that human-induced emissions increased by 30% over the past four decades and are the main cause of the increase in atmospheric concentration. The recent growth has exceeded some of the highest projected emission scenarios.",
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"plaintext": "As of 2010, it was estimated that about 29.5million tonnes of (containing 18.8million tonnes of nitrogen) were entering the atmosphere each year; of which 64% were natural, and 36% due to human activity.",
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"plaintext": "Most of the emitted into the atmosphere, from natural and anthropogenic sources, is produced by microorganisms such as denitrifying bacteria and fungi in soils and oceans. Soils under natural vegetation are an important source of nitrous oxide, accounting for 60% of all naturally produced emissions. Other natural sources include the oceans (35%) and atmospheric chemical reactions (5%).",
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"plaintext": "A 2019 study showed that emissions from thawing permafrost are 12 times higher than previously assumed.",
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"plaintext": "The main components of anthropogenic emissions are fertilised agricultural soils and livestock manure (42%), runoff and leaching of fertilisers (25%), biomass burning (10%), fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes (10%), biological degradation of other nitrogen-containing atmospheric emissions (9%) and human sewage (5%). Agriculture enhances nitrous oxide production through soil cultivation, the use of nitrogen fertilisers and animal waste handling. These activities stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to produce more nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide emissions from soil can be challenging to measure as they vary markedly over time and space, and the majority of a year's emissions may occur when conditions are favorable during \"hot moments\" and/or at favorable locations known as \"hotspots\".",
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"plaintext": "Among industrial emissions, the production of nitric acid and adipic acid are the largest sources of nitrous oxide emissions. The adipic acid emissions specifically arise from the degradation of the nitrolic acid intermediate derived from nitration of cyclohexanone.",
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"plaintext": "Natural processes that generate nitrous oxide may be classified as nitrification and denitrification. Specifically, they include:",
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"plaintext": " aerobic autotrophic nitrification, the stepwise oxidation of ammonia () to nitrite () and to nitrate ()",
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"plaintext": " anaerobic heterotrophic denitrification, the stepwise reduction of to , nitric oxide (NO), and ultimately , where facultative anaerobe bacteria use as an electron acceptor in the respiration of organic material in the condition of insufficient oxygen ()",
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"plaintext": " nitrifier denitrification, which is carried out by autotrophic -oxidising bacteria and the pathway whereby ammonia () is oxidised to nitrite (), followed by the reduction of to nitric oxide (NO), and molecular nitrogen ()",
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"plaintext": " heterotrophic nitrification",
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"plaintext": " aerobic denitrification by the same heterotrophic nitrifiers",
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"plaintext": " fungal denitrification",
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"plaintext": " non-biological chemodenitrification",
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"plaintext": "These processes are affected by soil chemical and physical properties such as the availability of mineral nitrogen and organic matter, acidity and soil type, as well as climate-related factors such as soil temperature and water content. ",
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"plaintext": "The emission of the gas to the atmosphere is limited greatly by its consumption inside the cells, by a process catalysed by the enzyme nitrous oxide reductase.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide has significant global warming potential as a greenhouse gas. On a per-molecule basis, considered over a 100-year period, nitrous oxide has 265 times the atmospheric heat-trapping ability of carbon dioxide (). However, because of its low concentration (less than 1/1,000 of that of ), its contribution to the greenhouse effect is less than one third that of carbon dioxide, and also less than water vapour and methane. On the other hand, since 38% or more of the entering the atmosphere is the result of human activity, control of nitrous oxide is considered part of efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions.",
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"plaintext": "A 2008 study by Nobel Laureate Paul Crutzen suggests that the amount of nitrous oxide release attributable to agricultural nitrate fertilisers has been seriously underestimated, most of which presumably, would come under soil and oceanic release in the Environmental Protection Agency data. Nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere through agriculture, when farmers add nitrogen-based fertilizers onto the fields, through the breakdown of animal manure. Approximately 79 percent of all nitrous oxide released in the United States came from nitrogen fertilization. Reduction of emissions can be a hot topic in the politics of climate change.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide is also released as a by-product of burning fossil fuel, though the amount released depends on which fuel was used. It is also emitted through the manufacture of nitric acid, which is used in the synthesis of nitrogen fertilizers. The production of adipic acid, a precursor to nylon and other synthetic clothing fibres, also releases nitrous oxide. The total amount of nitrous oxide released that is of human origins is about 40 percent.",
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"plaintext": "Nitrous oxide has also been implicated in thinning the ozone layer. A 2009 study suggested that emission was the single most important ozone-depleting emission and it was expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century.",
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"plaintext": "In the United States, possession of nitrous oxide is legal under federal law and is not subject to DEA purview. It is, however, regulated by the Food and Drug Administration under the Food Drug and Cosmetics Act; prosecution is possible under its \"misbranding\" clauses, prohibiting the sale or distribution of nitrous oxide for the purpose of human consumption. Many states have laws regulating the possession, sale and distribution of nitrous oxide. Such laws usually ban distribution to minors or limit the amount of nitrous oxide that may be sold without special license. For example, in the state of California, possession for recreational use is prohibited and qualifies as a misdemeanor.",
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"plaintext": "In August 2015, the Council of the London Borough of Lambeth (UK) banned the use of the drug for recreational purposes, making offenders liable to an on-the-spot fine of up to £1,000.",
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"plaintext": "In New Zealand, the Ministry of Health has warned that nitrous oxide is a prescription medicine, and its sale or possession without a prescription is an offense under the Medicines Act. This statement would seemingly prohibit all non-medicinal uses of nitrous oxide, although it is implied that only recreational use will be targeted legally.",
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"plaintext": "In India, transfer of nitrous oxide from bulk cylinders to smaller, more transportable E-type, 1,590-litre-capacity tanks is legal when the intended use of the gas is for medical anaesthesia.",
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"plaintext": " DayCent",
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"plaintext": " Nitrous oxide fuel blend",
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"plaintext": " Paul Crutzen Interview Freeview video of Paul Crutzen Nobel Laureate for his work on decomposition of ozone talking to Harry Kroto Nobel Laureate by the Vega Science Trust.",
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"plaintext": " National Pollutant Inventory – Oxide of nitrogen fact sheet",
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"plaintext": " National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Nitrous Oxide",
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"plaintext": " CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Nitrous Oxide",
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"plaintext": " Nitrous Oxide FAQ",
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"plaintext": " Erowid article on Nitrous Oxide",
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"plaintext": " Nitrous oxide fingered as monster ozone slayer, Science News",
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"plaintext": " Dental Fear Central article on the use of nitrous oxide in dentistry",
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"Dissociative_drugs",
"E-number_additives",
"Euphoriants",
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"Nicotinic_antagonists",
"Nitrogen_cycle",
"NMDA_receptor_antagonists",
"Rocket_oxidizers",
"World_Health_Organization_essential_medicines"
]
| 905,750 | 64,857 | 898 | 274 | 0 | 0 | nitrous oxide | chemical compound | [
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"diazyne 1-oxide",
"factitious air",
"nitrogen protoxide",
"E942",
"R-744A",
"nitrious oxide",
"hippie crack"
]
|
37,442 | 1,106,914,257 | Alliant_RQ-6_Outrider | [
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"plaintext": "The \"R\" is the Department of Defense designation for reconnaissance; \"Q\" means unmanned aircraft system. The \"6\" refers to its being the sixth of a series of purpose-built unmanned aircraft systems.",
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"plaintext": "RQ-6 listing in Directory of U.S. Military Rockets and Missiles",
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| [
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"Unmanned_aerial_vehicles_of_the_United_States",
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| 1,377,202 | 296 | 6 | 7 | 0 | 0 | Alliant RQ-6 Outrider | remote controlled reconnaissance UAV | [
"RQ-6 Outrider",
"RQ6 Outrider",
"Outrider drone"
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|
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